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RELIGIOUS   ENCYCLOPAEDIA: 


OR 


DICTIONARY 


OF 


BIBLICAL,  UISTORICAL,  DOCTRINAL,  AND  PRACTICAL  THEOLOGY. 

BASED  ON  THE  REAL-ENGYKLOPADIE  OF  HERZOG,  PUTT   AND  HAUCK. 


EDITED    BY 

PHILIP  SCHAFF,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

Professor  in  the  Union  Tlieological  Seminary,  Neio  York. 

ASSOCIATE   EDITORS  : 

REV.  SAMUEL  M.  JACKSON  and  REV.  D.  S.  SCHAFF, 


TOGETHKIl    WITH    AN 

EICYCLOPiEDlA  OF  LIVING  DIVINES 

AND 

CHRISTIAN  WORKERS 

OF  ALL  DENOMINATIONS  IN  EUROPE  AND  AMERICA. 

EDITED   BY 

REV.  PHILIP  SCHAFF,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

AND 

REV.  SAMUEL  MACAULEY  JACKSON,  M.A. 


THIRD  EDITION      REVISED  AND  ENLARGED. 
Vol.  I. 


FUNK    &   WAGNALLS    COMPANY, 

Toronto.  ^^^^'  London. 

New  YoiiK. 


CoPYitiGiiT,  18S2,  uY  Funk  &  Wagnalls. 


V. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  THIRD  EDITION. 


r  I  "'HE  third  edition  of  tliis  Encyclopajdia  is  at  the  same  time  a  second  revision,  and 
differs  from  the  previous  editions  in  the  following  particulars : 

1.  A  number  of  errors  in  the  minor  biographical  articles,  which  had  been  derived 
from  other  books  of  reference,  have  been  corrected  by  the  use  of  either  the  original 
biographies  or  Leslie  Stephen's  monumental  Dictionary  of  National  Biofjraphy. 

2.  The  EncyclopoBdia  of  Living  Divines  and  Christian  Workers,  edited  by  me 
in  conjunction  with  the  Kev.  Samuel  M.  Jackson,  which  was  formerly  published  sepa- 
rately, has  been  incorporated  with  the  main  work,  so  that  it  now  embraces  four  volumes 
instead  of  three. 

3.  A  large  addition  has  been  made  to  the  appended  portion,  forming  a  second 
appendix,  by  noting  in  alphabetical  and  chronological  order  all  important  changes  in 
the  lives  of  the  respective  subjects  and  additions  to  their  publications  from  188G  down 
to  the  end  of   December,  1890. 

My  recent  protracted  stay  in  Europe  has  given  me  rare  facilities  for  acquiring  au- 
thentic information  concerning  the  latest  as  well  as  prospective  literary  enterprises, 
and  various  items  of  personal  interest.  The  junior  editor  has  utilized  all  the  biblio- 
graphical data  published  down  to  date. 

This  resume  of  the  most  recent  biography  and  bibliography  will  be  welcomed 
by  all  who  have  already  learned  to  prize  the  rich  fund  of  knowledge  about  living 
divines  contained  in  the  incorporated  work  and  obtainable  nowhere  else.  It  greatly 
increases  the  value  of  the  main  Encyclopaedia,  which  has  been  so  favorably  received 
by  scholars  of  all  denominations  in  Europe  and  America,  and  has  taken  its  place 
among  the  reference   books  of  a  theological  library. 

Philip  ScnAFF. 
New  York,  March,  1891. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  REVISED  EDITION. 


AN  encyclopsedia  must  be  reproduced,  and  adapted  to  the  latest  stage  of 
knowledge  and  literature,  at  least  every  ten  years.  Thanks  to  a  kind  public, 
I  am  able  to  issue  this  Encyclopcedia  two  years  after  its  completion,  in  a  revised 
and  improved  form. 

I  sent  to  nearly  all  the  foreign  contributors  copies  of  their  articles  (besides 
honorarium.,  and  forty-three  complete  sets  of  the  Encyclopedia  free  of  charge),  with 
the  request  to  revise  them  and  to  bring  them  down  to  the  present  date.  In  most 
cases  this  was  done  satisfactorily.^ 

The  original  American  articles  have  also  undergone  many  improvements,  with- 
out materially  increasing  the  size  of  the  work. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  new  edition  of  Herzog  has  been  nearly  completed ;  the 
seventeenth  volume  (beginning  with  Westphal)  is  now  in  press. 

At  the  close  of  the  first  volume  will  be  found  a  condensed  translation  of 
Harnack's  important  article  upon  the  DidacliS,  which  appears  in  the  appendix  to 
Herzog,  together  with  statistics  and  errata  for  vols.  ii.  and  iii.,  which  came  too  late 
to  be  used  in  this  edition. 

It  is  to  me  a  matter  of  special  satisfaction,  that  the  American  condensation  has 
not  injured,  but  rather  enlarged,  the  circulation  of  the  German  work,  so  that  my 
friend,  the  publisher  in  Leipzig,  had  to  issue  recently  a  new  impression  of  twenty-five 
hundred  copies,  and  was  enabled  to  send  additional  honorarium  to  the  contributors. 

Simultaneously  with  this  revised  edition  appears  a  Dictionary  of  Contemporary 
Divines,  as  an  independent  sujiplement,  which  contains  reliable  information  on 
living  theological  writers  and  Christian  workers  of  Europe  and  America,  kindly 
furnished  by  themselves. 

May  the  revised  edition  of  this  Encyclopa;dia,  with  the  supplementary  volume, 
be  received  with  the  same  favor  as  the  first,  and  prolong  its  usefulness  until  it  is 
superseded  by  a  better  work. 

Philip  Schaff- 

Nkw  York,  November,  188G. 

>  Of  the  numerous  letters  of  approval  and  encouragement  received  from  German  scholars  and 
contributors  to  Herzog,  I  may  be  permitted  to  quote  one  from  the  octogenarian  Nestor  of  biblical  science 
in  Germany  and  France,  —Professor  Reuss,  D.D.,  of  Strassburg. 

Stbabsbubo,  Feb.  13, 1S35. 

Much  esteemed  Professor,  — I  rpccntly  received  from  the  Hinrichs'  publishing  house  the  set  of  your  Eucyclopadia 
which  you  were  so  liind  as  to  send  me.  Accept  my  warmest  thanl<s  for  this  worlj,  so  rich  in  contents  and  so  beautifully  gotten 
np.  It  is  especially  welcome  lo  me  on  account  of  its  literary  enrichments.  My  few  suggestions  touching  the  revision  of  my 
own  articles  must  have  reached  you  some  time  ago :  I  sent  them  off  Dec.  27. 

I  can  only  repeat  that  I  am  more  and  more  amazed  at  the  literary  activity  of  the  English  and  Anglo-Americans,  whici 
not  only  pursues  independent  paths  of  investigation  in  the  department  of  theology,  but  allows  not  even  the  least  thing  to  eii? 
rhat  is  done  in  Germany.  We  must  confess,  with  a  blush,  that  in  this  latter  particular  we  are  far  behind  you  ;  and  our  only 
eicnse  is  that  English  books  are  for  the  mo.?t  part  inaccessible  to  us  on  the  Continent,  on  account  of  the  price. 

To  wish  your  EnnjclopaJla  merited  success,  were  superfluous.  It  will  without  fail  lind  its  own  paths,  and  the  first 
edition  will  certainly  not  be  suflicient.  For  my  part,  I  must  content  myself  with  the  wish  ;  for  I  shall  see  little  more  of 
wbut  takes  place  ou  earth. 

Accept  ray  l^indest  regards.    I  remain  with  sincere  and  immutable  esteem. 

Very  cordially  yours,  EDWARD  REC8S. 


<ii 


PREFACE  TO  FIRST  EDITION 


'T^HE  object  of  the  Religious  Encyclopedia  is  to  give,  in  alphabetical  order, 
a  summary  of  the  most  important  information  on  all  branches  and  topics  of 
theological  learning,  —  exegetical,  historical,  biographical,  doctrinal,  and  practical, 
—  for  the  use  of  ministers,  students,  and  intelligent  laymen  of  all  denominations. 
It  will  be  completed  in  three  volumes. 

The  Encyclopedia  was  suggested  by  the  Real-Unci/Hopadie  fiir  protestanfische 
Theologie  und  Kirche,  edited  by  Drs.  J.  J.  HePvZOG,  G.  L.  Putt,  and  A.  Hauck 
(Leipzig,  1877  sqq.).  This  work,  with  which  I  have  been  familiar  from  its  start,  as 
one  of  the  contributors,  is  universally  acknowledged  to  be  an  invaluable  thesaurus 
of  solid  information  in  all  departments  of  biblical  and  ecclesiastical  learning,  under 
the  responsible  names  of  a  large  number  of  eminent  German  and  other  European 
scholars.  The  first  edition,  edited  by  Dr.  Herzog  alone,  was  begun  in  1854,  and 
completed  in  1868,  in  twenty-two  volumes.  The  second  edition,  thoroughly  re- 
vised and  partly  rewritten,  is  now  in  course  of  publication,  and  will  be  completed 
in  not  less  than  fifteen  volumes.  A  mere  translation  of  this  ojnis  magnum  would 
not  answer  the  wants  of  the  English  and  American  reader.*  While  many  articles 
are  very  long,  and  of  comparatively  little  interest  outside  of  German}',  the  depart- 
ment of  English  and  American  church  history  and  biography  is,  naturally,  too 
limited.  For  instance,  the  art.  Brilder  des  gemeinsamen  Lebens  has  82  pages ; 
JSherecJit,  35  ;  Gnosis,  43  ;  Jerusalem,  37  ;  Liturgie,  36 ;  Luther,  36  ;  Mandiier,  17  ; 
Mani,  36  ;  Melanchthon,  54.  These  articles  are  all  very  good ;  but  a  proportionate 
treatment  of  important  English  and  American  topics  which  are  barely  mentioned 
or  altogether  omitted,  would  require  a  much  more  voluminous  encyclopaedia  than 
the  original.  In  the  present  work  few  articles  exceed  four  pages ;  but  the  reader 
is  throughout  referred  to  books  where  fuller  information  can  be  obtained. 

My  esteemed  friend  Dr.  Herzog,  and  his  editorial  colleagues,  —  the  late  Di-. 
Plitt,  who  died  Sept.  10,  1880,  and  Professor  A.  Hauck,  who  has  taken  his  place, 
as  also  the  publisher,  Mr.  H.  Rost,  who  issued  the  German  edition  of  my  Church 
History  —  have  kindly  given  me  full  liberty  to  make  such  use  of  their  work  in 
English  as  I  may  deem  best.     It  is  needless  to  say  that  I  would  not  have  under- 

*  a  condensed  translation  of  the  first  edition  was  begun  in  18G0,  in  Philadelpliia,  but  given  up  with 
the  publication  of  the  second  volume,  and  is  now  superseded  by  the  reconstrnctiou  of  the  original. 


viii  PREFACE. 


taken   the   task  without   a   previous  honorable   understanding  with    the    German 
editors  and  publislier. 

This  ExcrcLOPiEDiA,  therefore,  is  not  a  translation,  but  a  condensed  repro- 
duction and  adaptation  of  all  the  important  German  articles,  with  necessary  addi- 
tions, especially  in  the  literature,  and  with  a  large  number  of  new  articles  by  the 
editors  and  special  contributors.  IMore  than  one-tliird  of  the  work  is  original. 
Every  article  is  credited  to  its  author,  except  the  majority  of  editorial  articles, 
which  are  unsigned.  An  apology  may  be  due  the  German  authors  for  abridging 
their  contributions,  but  we  have  studied  to  give  all  the  essential  facts.  Dissent- 
ing opinions,  or  material  additions,  are  included  in  brackets.  The  bibliography 
has  been  largely  increased  throughout,  especially  by  English  and  American  works. 
Living  celebrities  are  excluded.  Denominational  articles  have  been  assigned  to 
scholars  who  represent  their  denomination  in  a  liberal  Christian  spirit.  On  im- 
portant topics  of  controversy  both  sides  are  given  a  hearing.  It  has  been  the 
desire  of  the  editors  to  allow  a  wide  latitude  of  opinion  within  the  limits  of 
evangelical  Christianity. 

All  important  encyclopaedias  besides  that  of  Dr.  Herzog,  and  a  large  number 
of  books  in  different  languages,  have  been  carefully  consulted,  but  never  used 
without  due  acknowledgment.  Tlie  assistant  editors  have  devoted  their  whole 
time  and  strength  to  the  work,  in  my  libraiy,  and  under  my  direction. 

I  have  been  fortunate  in  securing  the  hearty  co-operation  of  a  number  of 
eminent  American  and  English  scholars  of  different  denominations  and  schools 
of  thought,  who  can  speak  with  authority  on  the  topics  assigned  them,  and  will 
largely  increase  the  original  value  of  this  Encyclopedia. 

Philip  Sciiafi'-. 

New  Youk,  September,  1882. 


AUTHORIZATIOK. 

AVE   tlie  undersigned,  Editors  .iml   Publisher  of   tlie   "  Rcal-Encyklopiidio   fiir  Prot.   Tlicologie 

iind   Kirche,"   hereby  authorize  the  Rev.  Dr.  Schaff  of  New  York  to  make  free  use  of  tliis  work 

for  the  preparation  and   publication,  in  the  United  States  and  in  England,   of  a  similar  allhougli 

much  sliorter  work,  under  the  title  "A  Religious  Eucyclopa;dia,  based  on  the  Real-Eucyklopiidie  of 

Ilorzog,  Plilt,  and  Ilauck. 

(Signed) 


Kid  SN'iKN  und   I,K.ii'/.i(i,  DcceiiilifT,  1881. 


CONTENTS, 


VOLUME  I. 

rAOEfl. 

LrsT  OP  Wkiters, , XI.-XVL 

Index  to  the  Four  Voldmes, XVII. -XLI. 

Index  to  Encyclopaedia  of  Living  Divines, XLIII.-XLVIII. 

A  to  D 9-G79 

The  DiDACHfi Following  67!) 

VOLUME  II. 
E  TO  L, 680-1378 

VOLUME  III. 
M  TO  R,         .  • 1379-208C 

VOLUME  IV. 

S  TO  Z 20S7-2580 

Appendix  to  Rbliqious  Encyclopaedia 3581-2610 

Analysis 2611-2623 

Pbonouncing  Vocabolary, 262.V2629 

Enctclop/Edia  of  Living  Divines: 

Explanatory  Note, VIL 

A  to  Z, 1-250 

First  Appendix, 251-271 

Second  Appendix 373-296 


LIST    OF    WRITERS. 


The  special  contributors  to  the  American  edition  of  this  work  are  distinguished  by  a  star. 


•ABBOT,  Ezra,  D.D.,  LL.D,,  Professor  in  the  Di- 
vinity School  of  Harvard  University,  Cambridge, 
Mass.     (D.  1.S84.) 

ACQUOY,  J.  G.  R.,  D.D.,  Profe.s.sor  in  Leyden. 

•ALEXANDER,  Archibald,  Ph.D.,  Professor  in 
Columbia  College,  New-York  City. 

ALT,  Heinrich,  D.D.,  Pastor  in  Berlin. 

•APPLE,  Thomas  Gilmoke,  D.D.,  President  of 
Franklin  and  Marshall  College,  Lancaster,  Penn. 

ARCHINARD,  Andre,  Pastor  in  Geneva. 

ARNOLD,  Friedrich  August,  D.D.,  Professor  in 
Halle.     (D.  18(J'J.) 

•ATTERBURY,  William  Wallace,  D.D.,  Secre- 
tary of  the  Sabbath  Committee,  New-York  City. 

AUBERLEN,  Carl  August,  D.D.,  Professor  of  The- 
ology in  Basel.     (D.  1804.) 

•AVERY,  Giles  B.,  Mount  Lebanon,  Columbia 
County,  N.Y. 

•AYRES,  Anne,  Miss,  St.  Johnsland,  N.Y. 

BACHMANN,  Johann,  D.D..  Professor  in  Rostock. 

•BAIRD,  Henry  Maktyn,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor 
in  tlie  University  of  the  City  of  New  York. 

BALOGH,  Franz,  D.D.,  Professor  in  Debreczin. 

BARDE,  Edward,  Pastor  in  Vandoeuvre. 

BAUDISSIN,  Count  Wolf  Wilhelm  Friedrich, 
D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in  Marburg. 

BAUR,  Wilhelm,  Gen.  Superintendent,  Coblenz. 

BAXMANN,  Rudolf,  Inspector  at  Bonn. 

BECK,  Carl,  Pralat  in  Schwiibisch  Hall. 

BECK,  Hermann,  Pastor  in  Osternohe. 

•BEDELL,  Gregory  Thurston,  D.D.,  Bishop  of 
the  Protestant-Episcopal  Diocese  of  Ohio,  Cleve- 
land. 

•BEECHER,  Edward,  D.D.,  Brooklyn,  N.Y. 

•BEECHER,  Willis  Jodson,  D.D.,  Professor  of  He- 
brew, Theological  Seminary,  Auburn,  N.Y. 

BENBATH,  Carl,  Ph.D.,  Professor  iu  Bonn. 

•BERGER,  Daniel,  D.D.,  Dayton,  O. 

BERTHEAU,  Carl,  D.D.,  Pastor  in  Hamburg. 

BERTHEAU,  Ernst,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Oriental 
Pl)ilology  in  Gijttingen. 

•BEVAN,  Llewelyn  D.,  D.D.,  Pastor  in  Melbourne, 
Australia. 

BEYER,  JoHANN  Heinrich  Franz,  Pastor  in  Ned- 
demin. 

BEYSCHLAG,  Willibald,  D.D.,  Professor  of  The- 
ology in  Halle. 

•BIRD,  Frederic  Mayer,  Rev.,  Professor  in  Lehigh 
University,  South  Bethlehem,  Penn. 

•BJERRING,  Nicholas,  Rev.,  New-York  City. 

•BLAIKIE,  William  Garden,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Profes- 
sor in  New  College,  Edinburgh. 

•BLAIR,  William,  D.D.,  Dunblane,  Scotland. 

•BLISS,  George  Ripley,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of 
Biblical  Exegesis,  Crozer  Theological  Seminary, 
Chester,  Penn. 

BOEHMEB,  Eduard,  Ph.D.,  Professor  in  Strass- 
burg. 


»B0MBERGER,  J.  H.  a.,  D.D.,  Presideotof  Ursinns 

College,  Freeland,  Penn. 
BONNET,  L.,  Ph.D.,  Pa.stor  in  Frankfurt-am-M. 
•BRIGGS,  Charles  Augustus,  D.D.,  Professor  of 

Hebrew  in  the  Union   Theological    Seminary, 

New- York  City. 
•BROADUS,  John  Albert,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor 

of  Theology  in  the  Soutliern  Baptist  Theological 

Seminary,  Louisville,  Ky. 
BROCKHAUS,  Carl,  Leipzig. 
*BROWN,  Francis,  D.D.,  Professor  in  the  Union 

Tlieological  Seminary,  New- York  City. 
•BROWNE,  John,  Rev.,  Wrentham,  Suffolk,  Eng. 
BUCHRUCKER,  Dekan  in  Munich. 
BUCHSENSCHUTZ,  Georg,  Pastor  in  St.  Denis. 
BUNZ,  Georu,  Ph.D.,  Pastor  in  Ohmenhausen. 
BURGER,  C.  H.  A.  von,  D.D.,  Oberlioiisistorialrath 

in  Munich.     (D.  18»i.) 
BURGER,  Karl,  Pastor  in  Kempten. 
BUBK,  Carl,  Pastor  in  Stuttgart,  Wiirttemberg. 

*CAIRNS,  John,  D.D.,  Principal  of  the  United  Pres- 
liyterian  College,  Edinburgh. 

CALAMINUS,  Pastor  in  Elberfeld. 

*CALDERWOOD,  Henry,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor 
of  Moral  Philosophy,  University  of  Edinburgh. 

•CALDWELL,  Samuel  Lunt,  D.D.,  Ex-President 
of  Vassar  College,  Pouglikeepsie,  N.Y. 

•CAPEN,  Elmer  Hewitt,  D.D.,  President  of  Tufts 
College,  College  Hill,  Mass. 

*CARROLL,  Henry  King,  LL.D.,  New-York  City. 

CARSTENS,  Propst  in  Tondern. 

CASSEL,  Paulus,  D.D.,  Professor  in  Berlin. 

•CATTELL,  J.  P.,  Miss,  Philadelpliia. 

•CATTELL,  William  Cassiday,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Ex- 
President  of  Lafayette  College,  Easton,  Penn. 

•CHAMBERS,  Talbot  Wilson,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Col- 
legiate Reformed  Dutch  Church,  New-York  City. 

•CHASE,  Thomas,  LL.D.,  President  of  Haverford 
College,  Montgomery  Co.,  Penn. 

CHRISTLIEB,  Theodor,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Prac- 
tical Theology  in  Bonn. 

•CLIFFORD,  John,  D.D.,  London. 

•COIT,  Thomas  Winthrop,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Profes.sor 
in  the  Berkeley  Divinity  School,  Connecticut. 
(D.  1885.) 

COMBA,  Emilio,  D.D.,  Professor  in  Florence. 

•COOK,  Albert  S.,  Professor  in  the  University  of 
California. 

•CORNING,  J.  Leonard,  Morristown,  N.J. 

•COXE,  Arthur  Cleveland,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Bishop 
of  Western  New  York,  Buffalo,  N.Y. 

•CREIGHTON,  Mandell,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Church 
History,  University  of  Camljridge,  Eng. 

CREMER,  Hermann,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology 
in  Greifswald. 

•CROOKS,  George  R.,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of 
Church  History  in  Drew  Theological  Seminary, 
Madison,  N.J. 


LIST  OF  WRITERS. 


CUNITZ,  E.,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in  Strass- 

burK.     (D.  1S86.) 
•CURTISS,  Samltel  Ives,  Ph.D.,  D.D.,  Professor  of 

Old-Testament  Literature,  Theological  (Congre- 

gatioual)  Seminary,  Chicago,  111. 

•DABXEY,  Robert  Lewis,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor 
of  Philosophy,  University  of  Texas,  Austin. 

•DALE,  J.iMEs  WiLKi.ssoN,  D.D.,  Media,  Penn. 
(D.  18S1.) 

•DALES,  John  Bl.\kely,  D.D.,  Philadelphia. 

•DE  COSTA,  Be-njajiI-S  Franklin,  D.D.,  New-York 
City. 

•DEE.MS,  C.  F.,D.D.,  LL.D.,  New-York  City. 

DE  HOOP  SCHEFFER,  J.  G.,  D.D.,  Professor  in 
Amsterdam. 

DELITZSCH,  Franz,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology 
in  Leipzig. 

DELITZSCH.  Feiedrich,  Ph.D.,  Professor  in  Leipzig 

•DEMAREST,  David  D.,  D.D.,  Professor  in  the 
Theological  Seminary,  New  Brunswick,  N.J. 

•DE  SCHWEINITZ,  Euuard,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  the 
Moravian  Church,  Bethlehem,  Penn. 

•DEXTER,  Hknry  Martyn,  D.D.,  Editor  of  The 
Conrjreijalionalist,  Boston. 

DIBELIUS,  FuANZ,  D.D.,  Konsistorialrath  in  Dres- 
den. 

DIESTEL,  LuDwio,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in 
Tubingen.     (D.  1879.) 

DILL.MANN,  Christian  Fkiedeich  Ausust,  D.D., 
Professor  of  Theology  in  Berlin. 

DILTHEY,  Wilhel3!,D.D.,  Professor  of  Philosophy 
in  Berlin. 

DORNER,  August,  Ph.D.,  Professor  in  the  Theo- 
logical Seminary  at  Wittenberg. 

DORNER,  Isaac  .Vuoust,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theol- 
ogy in  Berlin.    (D.  1884.) 

DOfiSCHLAG.  Oeoiu;,  Pa.stor  in  Velgast. 

DORTEXRACH,  F.,  Ileidenheim.     (D.  186.5.) 

DRYANDER,  Hermann,  Superintendent  in  Halle. 

•DUBBS,  Josei'H  Hknkv,  D.D.,  Professor  in  Frank- 
lin and  Marshall  College,  Lancaster,  Penu. 

DUCHEMIN,  Pastor  in  Lyons. 

•DUFF,  Robert  S.,  M.A.,  P.istor  in  Glasgow. 

•DUFFIELD,  Samuel  \f.,  Pastor  of  the  Westmin- 
ster Presbyterian  Church,  Bloomfield,  N.J. 

DU.STERDIECK,  Franz,  D.D.,  Oberkonsistorial- 
rath  in  Uanover. 

•E.\STON,  Pktkii  Zaccheus,  Missionary  in  Persia. 
EBERT,  Adolpii,  I'h.D.,  Professor  of  Philology  in 

Ijclpz.lg. 
EIiR.\RI),  .ToiiANN  Ilt-iNRirii  August,  D.D.,  Pastor 

and  Konsistorialrath  in  Erlangen. 
KIBACH,  R.,  Pastor  In  Neuteroth. 
ENOELHARDT,  J.  O.  v.,  D.D.,  Professor  of  The- 
ology in  Erlangen.    (D.  18.W.) 
ERBKAM,  Hkinrk'ii  Wii.iiKLM,  D.D.,  Profe.«or  of 

Theology  in  Kiiiilgsberg.     (D.  Jan.  !),  1884.) 
ERDMANN,   CiiiiisiiAN   Frikorich    David,   D.D., 

General  Superintendent  of  the  Province  of  Silc- 

Hia  in  Tiresjau. 
EUCKEN,  II.,   Ph.D.,   Professor  of    Philosophy  in 

.lena. 
EULEB,  Carl,  Ph.D.,  Berlin. 


•FISHER,  George  Paek,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of 
Church  History  in  Yale  Theological  Seminary, 
New  Haven,  Conn. 

•FLEMING,  D.  Hat,  Aberdeen. 

•FLICHTNER,  George  Frederick,  Rev.,  Secre- 
tary for  Domestic  Missions  (Protestant-Episcopal 
Church),  New-York  City. 

FLIEDNER,  Fritz,  Missionary  in  Madrid. 

•FLINT,  Robert,  D.D  ,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  The- 
ology in  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 

FLOTO,  Hartwiq,  D.D.,  Berlin. 

•FOSTER,  Robert  Verrell,  Professor  in  the  Theo- 
logical School,  Cumberland  University,  Lebanon, 
Teun. 

•FOX,  Norman,  Rev.,  New-York  City. 

FR.ANK,  Franz  Hermann  Reinhold,  D.D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Theology  in  Erlangen. 

FRANK,  Gustav  Wilhelm,  D.D.,  Professor  of  The- 
ology in  Vienna. 

FREYBE,  Albert,  Ph.D.,  Gymnasium  Upper-class 
Teacher  in  Parchim. 

FRIEDBERG,  Emil,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Canon  Law 
in  Leipzig. 

FRITZSCHE,  Otto  Fridolin,  D.D.,  Profes.sor  of 
Theology  in  Ziirich. 

FRONMULLER,  P.  F.  C,  Pastor  in  Reutlingen. 
(D.  1877.) 

•FROTHINGHAM,  Octavius Brooks,  Rev.,  Boston, 
Mass. 

GALIFFE,  Eduard,  D.D.,  Professor  in  Geneva. 
GASS,  Wilhelm,  D.D.,   Professor  of  Theology  in 

Heidelberg. 
•G.'VST,   Frederick   Augustus,  D.D.,  Professor  in 

the  Theological  Seminary,  Lancaster,  Penn. 
GEBH.A.RDT,  Oskar  von,   D.D.,    Librarian  of  the 

Royal  Library,  Berlin. 
GEFFCKEN,  Johann,  Ph.D.,  Pastor  in  Hamburg. 

(D.  -.) 
GELPKE,  E.  T.,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in  Bern. 
•GERHART,  Emanuel  Vooel,  D.D.,  Professor  in 

the  Theological  Seminary,  Lancaster,  Penn. 
GERM.ANN,    WiLHELM,   Pli.D.,   Pastor    in   Winds- 

heim. 
GERTH  VAN  WIJK,  J.  A.,  Pastor  at  The  Hague. 
•GILES,  Chauncey,  Rev.,  Philadelphia. 
•GILFILLAN,  Joseph  A.,  Rev.,  Protestant-Episco- 

p.al  Missionary  to  the  Indians,  Minnesota. 
GILLET,  J.  F.  A.,  D.D.,  Court-Preacher  in  Breslau. 
•OILMAN,  Arthur,  M.A.,  Cambriilgc,  Mass. 
•OILMAN,  Daniel  Coit,  LL.D.,  President  of  Johns 

Hopkins  University,  Baltimore,  Md. 
•OILMAN,  Edward  Whitino,  D.D.,  Secretary  of 

the  American  Bible  Society,  New-York  City. 
•GOEBEL,  Julius,  Ph.D.,  New-York  City. 
GOEBEL,  Karl,  Ph.D.,  Konsistorialrath  in  Posen. 

(D.  1881.) 
GOEBEL,  Maximilian.    (D.  — .) 
•G()1>ET,  FRfcofeuic,  D.D.,  I'rofcssor  of  Theology  In 

Neuchfttel. 
GOLTZ,   von    deb,   Heinricii,   D.D.,   I'rofessor   of 

Theology  in  Berlin. 
•GOOD,  Jeremiah  Haak,  D.D.,  Professor  in  Heidel- 
berg Thcologii'al  ScMuiiiary,  Tiliin,  O. 
•GOODSPKED,  Thomas  Wakkkikld,  D.D.,  Secre- 
tary of  Ba|itisl  Theological  Union,  Chicago,  III. 


LIST  OF  WRITERS. 


xm 


•GOODWIN,  Daniel  Raynks,  D.D.,  LI,.D.,  Proffis- 
sor  in  tlin  Tlieological  Seminary  (Episcopal)  in 
PIiilaclel|iliia. 

GOSCHE,  K.  A.,  I'li.D.,  Professor  of  Oriental  Lan- 
guages in  Halle. 

GOSCHEL,  Karl  Fhiehuich,  Ph.D.,  President  of 
the  Consistory  of  Magdeburg.     (D.  18(J1.) 

•GRAHAM,  William,  D  D.,  Professor  of  Church 
History  in  the  English  I'resbyteriau  Theological 
College,  London. 

•GRAY,  Gi'.oitGE  Zabriskie,  D.D.,  Professor  in  the 
Episcopal  Theological  School,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

•GREEN,  Samiel  Gosnei.l,  D.D.,  Secretary  of  Re- 
ligious Tract  Society,  London. 

•GREEN,  William  Henry,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor 
of  Hebrew,  Theological  Seminary,  Princetou, 
N.J. 

GREGORY,  Caspar  Rene,  Ph.D.,  Leipzig. 

•GRIFFIS,  William  Elliot,  D.D.,  Boston,  Mass. 

GRUNDEMANN,  Ueinhold,  Ph.D.,  D.D.,  Pastor  in 
Mijrz,  Prussia. 

GRUNEISEN,  Carl  von,  D.  D.,  Chief  Court- 
Preacher  in  Stuttgart.    (D.  1878.) 

GUDER,  Eduard,  D.D.,  Pastor  in  Bern.     (D.  1882.) 

GUNDERT,  Hermann,  Ph.D.,  in  Calw. 

•GUNTHER,  Martin,  Professor  in  the  Concordia 
Theological  Seminary,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

GUTHE,  Heinrich,  Ph.D.,  Professor  iu  Leipzig. 

HACKENSCHMIDT,  Karl,  Pastor  in  Jiigerthal 
(Elsass). 

HAENCHEN,  PniLipr  E.,  Pastor  in  Erlangen. 

HAGENBACH,  Karl  Ridolph,  D.D.,  Professor  of 
Theology  in  Basel.     (D.  1874.) 

HAHN,  Heinrich  Augi'st,  D.D.     (D.  — .) 

•HALL,  Isaac  Hollister,  Ph.D.,  New-York  City. 

•HALL,  .John,  D.D.,  Pastor  of  the  Fifth  Avenue 
Presbyterian  Cliurch,  New-York  City. 

•HALL,  Robert  W.,  New- York  City. 

HAMBERGER,  Julius,  Ph.D.     (D.  1885.) 

HARNACK,  Adolk,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in 
Marburg. 

•HARPER,  Jai\ies,  D.D.,  Xenia,  O. 

•HARRIS,  J.  Renuel,  Professor  in  Haverford  Col- 
lege, Montgomery  County,  Penn. 

•HARSHA,  W.  W.,  D.D.,  Bellevue,  Neb. 

•HASTINGS,  Thomas  Samuel,  D.D.,  Professor  of 
Sacred  Rhetoric,  Union  Theological  Seminary, 
New- York  City. 

•HATFIELD,  Edwin  Francis,  D.D.,  New-York 
City.     (D.  18S:!.) 

HAUCK,  Albert,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in 
Erlangen. 

HEER,  Justus,  Pastor  in  Erlenbach,  Canton  Ziirich. 

HELLER,  LuDwiG,  Pastor  in  Travemiinde.    (D.  — .) 

HEMAN,  C.  F.,  Ph.D.,  Missions  In.spector,  Basel. 

HENKE,  Ernst  Ludwig  Tiieodor,  D.D.,  Professor 
of  Theology  in  Marburg.     (D.  1872.) 

HEPPE,  Heinrich  Ludwig  Julius,  D.D.,  Professor 
of  Theology  in  Marburg.    (D.  1879.) 

HEROLD,  Max,  Pastor  in  Schwabach. 

HERRLTNGER,  Diakonus  in  Niirtingen. 

HERZOG,  JoHANN  Jakob,  D.D.,  Professor  of  The- 
ology in  Erlangen.     (D.  1882.) 

HEYD,  Wilhelm,  Ph.D.,  Chief  Librarian  iu  Stutt- 
gart. 


HEYDER,  Karl  Ludwig  Wilhelm,  Pli.D.,  Profes- 
sor of  Philosophy  in  Erlangen. 

HINSCHIUS,  Paul,  Ph.D.,  Profe.s.sor  of  Canon  Law 
in  Berlin. 

•HITCHCOCK,  RoswELL  Dwight,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
President,  and  Professor  of  Church  History,  in 
the  Union  Tlieological  Seminary,  New-York  City. 

HOCHHUTH,  C.  W.  H.,  Ph.D.,  in  Cassel. 

•HODGE,  Archibald  Ale.xander,  D.  D.,  LL.D., 
Professor  of  Theology,  Theological  Seminary, 
Princeton,  N.J.    (D.  1880.) 

•HOFFMAN,  Eugene  Augustus,  D.D.,  Dean  of  the 
General  (Episcopal)  Theological  Seminary,  New- 
York  City. 

HOFFMANN,  J.  A.  G.,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology 
in  Jena.    (D.  18G4.) 

HOFMANN,  Rudolf,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology 
in  Leipzig. 

•HOGE,  MosES  D.,  D.D.,  Rielnnond,  Va. 

•HOLLAND,  Henry  Scott,  M.A..  Senior  Student, 
Christ  Church,  O.xford  Universitj'. 

HOLLENBERG,  W.  A.,  Ph.D.,  Director  of  the  Gym- 
nasium in  Saarbriicken. 

HOLTZMANN,  Hei.nrich,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Tlie- 
ology  in  Strassburg. 

HOPE,  Georg  Wilhelm,  Ph.D.,  Rector  in  Nurem- 
berg. 

•HOPKINS,  E.  W.,  Professor  iu  Columbia  College, 
New-York  City. 

•HOPKINS,  Samuel  Miles,  D.D.,  Professor  of 
Church  History  in  Auburn  Theological  Semi- 
nary, Auburn,  N.Y. 

•HOVEY,  Alvah,  D.D.,  President  of  Newton  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  Massachusetts. 

HUNDESHAGEN,  Carl  Bernhard,  D.D.,  Profes- 
sor of  Tlieology  in  Heidelberg.    (D.  1873.) 

HUPFELD,  David,  Ph.D.,  Superintendent  in  Schleu- 
singen. 

•JACKSON,  George  Thomas,  M.D.,  New-York  City. 

•JACKSON,  Samuel  Macauley,  Rev.,  New-York 
City. 

JACOBI,  Justus  Ludwig,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Tlie- 
ology in  Halle. 

•JACOBS,  Henry  Eyster,  D.D.,  Professor  in  the 
Lutheran  Theological  Seminary,  Philadelphia. 

JACOBSON,  Heinrich  Franz,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Law  in  Kijuigsberg.    (D.  — .) 

"JESSUP,  Henry  Harris,  D.D.,  Missionary  of  the 
Presbyterian  Board  in  Syria. 

JUNDT,  A.,  Gymnasium-Professor  in  Stra-ssburg. 

KAHLER,  Martin,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in 

Halle. 
KAHNIS,  Karl  Friedrich  August,  D.D.,  Professor 

of  Theology  in  Leipzig. 
KAMPHAUSEN,    Adolph    Hermann   Heinrich, 

D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in  Bonn. 
KAUTZSCH,  Emil  Friedrich,  D.D.,  Professor  of 

Theology  in  Tiibingen.  . 
KEIM,  Carl  Theodor,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology 

in  G  lessen.    (D.  1870.) 
•KELLOGG,   Samuel  Henry,   D.D.,   Presbyterian 

Pastor  in  Toronto,  Ontario,  Canada. 
KESSLER,  K.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  in  Greifswald. 
•KINGSLEY,  William  L.,  New  Haven,  Conn. 


XIT 


LIST  OF  WRITERS. 


KIRCHHOFER,  G.,  Professor  in  Scbaffhausen. 

KLAIBER,  Karl  Friedrich,  Ph.D.,  Goppingen. 

KLEIN ERT,  IIiGO  WiLHELM  Paul,  D.D.,  Professor 
of  Theology  in  Berlin. 

KLING,  CHRISTU.N  Friedkich,  D.D.,  Dekan  in  Mar 
bach.    (D.  1861.) 

KLIPPEL,  Geokg  Heixeich,  Ph.D.,  Rector  of  the 
Gymnasium  in  Verden. 

KLOSE,  Caul  Rudolph  Wilhelm,  Ph.D.,  Librarian, 
Hamburg. 

KLOSTERMANN,  August,  D.D.,  Professor  of  The- 
ology in  Kiel. 

KLUCKHOHN,  August,  Ph.D.,  Professor  and  Di- 
rector of  Polyteclinic  Institute  in  Munich. 

KLiJPFEL,  Kaisl  Ph.D.,  Librarian  in  Tiibingen. 
»  KNAPP,  Joseph,  Diakonus  in  Stuttgart. 

KOGEL,  Rudolf,  D.D.,  Court-Preacher  in  Berlin. 

KOHLER,  August,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in 
Erlangen. 

KOHLER,   Karl,    D.D.,    Professor   in   Friedberg, 
Hesse. 

KOLBE,  Alexander,  Ph.D.,  Professor  in  Gymna- 
sium at  Stettin. 

KONIG,   Friedrich   Eduard,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Theology  in  Leipzig. 

KOSTER,   Adolph,    Ph.D.,    Pastor    in   Erlangen. 
(D.-.) 

KOSTLIN,  Julius,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in 
Halle. 

KRAFFT,  C,  Pastor  in  Elberfeld. 

KRAFFT,   Wilhelm    Ludwig,   D.D.,   Professor  of 
Church  Historj'  in  Bonn. 

KRAMER.    Ph.D.,    Professor     and     Director     of 
Francke's  Institution  in  Halle. 

KiJBEL,  RoBKRT  Be.njamln,  D.D.,  Professor  of  The- 
ology in  Tiibingen. 

LANDERER,  Max  Albert  von,  D.D.,  Professor  of 

Theology  in  Tiibingen.     (D.  1ST8.) 
LAJNGE,  Johaxn  Peter,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology 

in  Bonn.    (D.  1884.) 
LAUBM.VXN,  G.,  Ph.D.,  Director  of  the  City  Li- 
brary, Munich. 
L.\UXM.-\.NN,  Stitt-sdiakonus  in  Stuttgart. 
LECHLER,  GoTTLou  Viktor,   D.D.,   Professor  of 

Theology  in  Leipzig. 
•LEE,  Willia.m,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical 

Hi-story,  University  of  Glasgow.    (D.  1886.) 
LEIMBACH,  C.  L.,  Ph.D.,  Director  in  Goslar. 
LEPSUT.S,  Karl  Richard,  Ph.D.    (D.  1884.) 
LEYRER,  E.,  Pastor  at  Plochingen  in  Wiirttem- 

berg. 
LIST,  Fra.vz,  Ph.D.,  Professor  in  Munich. 
•LIVER.MORE,  Adiel  Abbot,   Rev.,  President  of 

the  Tlicologlcal  School,  Meadville,  Penn. 
•LOYD,  H.  S.,  Rev.,  Secret.ary  of  the  Theological 

Seminary,  Hamilton,  N.Y. 
LiJIIRS,  Fii. 
LUTII.VRDT,  CniiisTopii  EnxsT,  D.D.,  Professor  of 

Theology  In  Leipzig. 
LiJTTICE.  .MoRiTZ,  1'a.stor  in  Schkeudltz. 
M.\IJ.,ET,  Hermann,  Pastor  in  Bremen. 
MANtJOLD,  Wii.iiKLM  Julius,  D.D.,  Professor  of 

Tlii^ology  In  Bonn. 
•MANN",  William  .Titliuh,  D.D.,  Professor  in  the 

Lutheran  Thcol.  Seminary,  Philadelphia,  Penn. 


•MARLING,  Francis  H.,  Rev.,  New- York  City. 

»MATHEWS,  George  D.,  D.D.,  Quebec,  Can. 

M.iTTER,  Jacques,  Professor  in  Paris.    (D.  18fi4.) 

•MAXSON,  D.iRwiN  E.,  D.D.,  Alfred  Centre,  N.Y. 

*McCOSH,  James,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  President  of  the  Col- 
lege of  New  Jersey,  Princeton,  N.J. 

•McFARLAND,  Henry  Horace,  Rev.,  New-York 
City. 

*McKm,  Randolph  H.,  D.D.,  New- York  City. 

MEJER,  Otto,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Canon  Law  in 
Gottingen. 

MERKEL,  Paul  Johannes,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Law 
in  Halle.    (D.  1861.) 

MERZ,  Heinkich  von,  D.D.,  Priilat  in  Stuttgart. 

MEURER,  MoRiTZ,  Licentiate,  Pastor  in  Callenberg, 
Saxony. 

MEYER  V.  KNONAU,  Ph.D.,  Professor  in  Zurich. 

5IICHAEL,  Superintendent  in  Chemnitz. 

MICHELSEN,  Alexander,  Pastor  in  Liibec.  (D.1885.) 

♦MITCHELL,  Alexander  F.,  D.D.,  Professor  in 
the  University  of  St.  Andrews,  Scotland. 

MOLLER,  Wilhelm  Ernst,  D.D.,  Professor  of  The- 
ology in  Kiel. 

*MOMBERT,  Jacob  Isidor,  D.D.,  Paterson,  N.J. 

•MOORE,  DuNLOP,  D.D.,  New  Brighton,  Penn. 

•MORRIS,  Edward  Dafydd,  D.D.,  Professor  of 
Theology,  Lane  Seminary,  Cincinnati,  O. 

•MORSE,  Richard  C,  Rev.,  Secretary  of  the  Inter- 
national Committee  of  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  New- York 
City. 

MULLER,  Carl,  Ph.D.,  Professor  in  H.ane. 

SliJLLER,  Iwan,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Philology  in 
Erlangen. 

MULLEE,  Johann  Georg,  D.D.,  Professor  of  The- 
ology in  Basel.    (D.  — .) 

NAGELSBACH,  Eduard,  D.D.,  Pastor  in  Bayreuth. 

NESTLE,  Eberhard,  Ph.D.,  Professor  at  Ulm. 

NEUDECKER,  Christian  G.,  D.D.,  Schuldirector 
in  Gotha.    (D.  1866.) 

NEY,  Pastor  in  Speier. 

•NINDE,  William  Xavier,  President  of  the  Gar- 
rett Biblical  Institute,  Evanston,  111. 

NITZSCH,  Fkif.drich  August  Bertuold,  D.D., 
Professor  of  Theology  in  Kiel. 

•NOTT,  Henry  J.,  Rev.,  Bowmanville,  Ontario. 

•NUTTING,  Mary  O.,  Miss,  Librariau  of  Mount 
Holyoke  Female  Seminary. 

OEHLER,  Gustav  Friedrich,  D.D.,  Professor  of 
Theology  in  Tubingen.    (D.  1876.) 

OLDEN BKRG,  F.,  Berlin. 

OOSTEUZEE,  Jan  Jakob  van,  D.D.,  Professor  of 
Tlicology  in  Utrecht.    (D.  1882.) 

ORELLI,  Carl  von.  Professor  of  Theology  in  Basel. 

•ORMISTON,  William,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Collegiate  Re- 
formed Dutch  t;imrch.  New- York  City. 
OSGOOD,  Howard,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  He- 
brew, Theological  Seminary,  Rochester,  N.Y. 

OSI.VNDER,  Ernst,  Ph.D.,  Diakonus  in  Goppingen. 

OVERBEtMC,  Joseph,  Ph.D.,  Profes.sor  of  German 
ill  the  ISritish  Military  Collcgi-,  Sandhurst. 

•PACKARD,  JoHi'.i-ii,  D.D.,  Professor  in  Theological 
SeTiiiuary  of  Episco|ial  Church,  Alexandria,  Va. 

PALMER,  Christian  von,  D. I),  Professor  of  The- 
ology in  Tubingen.     (I).  ISTB.) 


LIST  OF  WRITERS. 


XV 


PARET,  Heinrich,  Diakonus  in  Brackenheiin. 
(D.-.) 

'PARK,  Edwards  Amasa,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor 
of  Theology,  Theological  Seminary,  Andover, 
Mass. 

•PATTERSON,  R.  M.,  D.D.,  Philadelphia. 

•PATTON,  Francis  Landey,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor 
in  the  Theological  Seminary,  Princeton,  N.J. 

*PEAI50DY,  Andrew  Preston,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass. 

PEIP,  Albert,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Philosophy  in 
Giittingen. 

PELT,  A.  F.  L.  A.,  Ph.D.,  Superintendent  in  Kem- 
nitz.     (D.  186L) 

PENTZ,  A.,  Jabel. 

PESTALOZZI,  Karl,  Pastor  in  Zurich. 

PETERM.VNN,  Juliis  Heinrich,  Ph.D.,  Professor 
in  Berlin.     (D.  1876.) 

•PETERSEN,  Clemens,  M.A.,  New- York  City. 

PFENDER,  Carl,  Pastor  in  Paris. 

PFLEIDERER,  J.  G.,  Ph.D.,  Bern. 

•PICK,  Bernhard,  Rev.,  Ph.D.,  Allegheny,  Penn. 

PIPER,  KarlWii.helm  Ferdinand,  D.D.,  Professor 
of  Theology  in  Berlin. 

PLITT,  Gustav  Leopold,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theol- 
ogy in  Erlangen.     (D.  1880.) 

PLITT,  Theodor.  D.D.,  Pastor  at  Dossenheim  in 
Baden. 

POHLMANN,  R.,  Ph.D.,  Decent  in  Erlangen. 

POLENZ,  Gottlob  von,  in  Halle. 

»POOR,  Dauiel  AVarren,  D.D.,  Secretary  of  the 
Presbyterian  Board  of  Education,  Philadelphia. 

*POPOFF,  P.  J.,  Ph.D.,  New-York  City. 

•POWER,  Frederick  Dunglison,  Pastor  of  the 
"Christian"  Church,  Washington,  D.C. 

PREGER,  Wilhelm,  D.D.,  Professor  at  the  Gymna- 
sium in  Munich. 

•PRENTISS,  George  Lewis,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Pas- 
toral Theology  in  the  Union  Theological  Semi- 
nary, New-York  City. 

PRESSEL,  Theodor,  Ph.D.,  Archdeacon  in  Tubing- 
en.   (D.— .) 

PRESSEL,  Wilhelm,  Pastor  near  Tubingen. 

•RAND,  William  Wilberforce,  D.D.,  Secretary 

American  Tract  Society,  New- York  City. 
RANKE,   Ernst,   D.D.,   Professor  of    Theology  in 

Marburg. 
•RAYMOND,     Rossiter     Worthington,      Ph.D., 

Brooklyn,  N.Y. 
REUCHLIN,     Hermann,     Ph.D.,     in     Stuttgart. 

(D.  1873.) 
REUSS,  Eduard  Wilhelm  Eugen,  D.D.,  Professor 

of  Theology  in  Strassburg. 
REUTER,  Hermann   Ferdinand,  D.D.,  Professor 

of  Theology  in  Gottingen. 
REVECZ,  E.merich,  Pastor  in  Debreczin,  Hungary. 
•RICE,  Edwin  Wilbur,  D.D.,  Editor  of  the  Ameri- 
can Sunday  School  Union,  Philadelphia. 
•RIDDLE,    Matthew  Brown,   D.D.,  Professor  of 

New-Testament  Exegesis,  Theological  Seminary, 

Hartford,  Conn. 
RIGGENBACH,   Bernhard,    Pastor    in    Arisdorf, 

Canton  Baselland. 
RITSCHL,  Albrecht,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology 

in  Gottingen. 


•ROBERTS,  Wn.LiA.M  Henrv,  D.D.,  Professor  in 
Lane  Tlieological  Seminary,  Cincinnati,  O. 

RODIGER,  Emil,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Oriental  Lan- 
guages in  Berlin.    (D.  1874.) 

RONNEKE,  K.,  German  Chaplain,  Rome. 

RiJETSCUI,  Rudolf,  D.D.,  Professor  in  Bern. 

•SABINE,  William  T.,  Rev.,  New-York  City. 

SACK,  Karl  Heinrich,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology 
in  Bonn.     (D.  1875.) 

•SAVAGE,  George  S.  F.,  D.D.,  Secretary  of  the 
Chicago  Congregational  Theological  Seminary. 

SCHAARSCHMIDT,  Carl,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Philosophy  in  Bonn. 

•SCHAFF,  David  Schley,  Rev.,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

SCH.\FF,  Philip,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  in  the 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  New- York  City. 

SCHERER,  Edmond,  Ph.D.,  Professor  in  Paris. 

SCHEURL,  C.  T.  Gottlob,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Canon  Law  in  Erlangen. 

SCHMID,  Heinrich,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in 
Erlangen.     (D.  1883.) 

SCHMIDT,  Carl  Wilhelm  Adolf,  D.D.,  Professor 
of  Theology  in  Strassburg. 

SCHMIDT,  Hermann,  Professor  of  Theology  in 
Breslau. 

SCHMIDT,  J.,  Frauenfeld. 

SCHMIDT,  Karl,  Privatdocent  of  Theology  in 
Erlangen. 

SCHMIDT,  Oswald  Gottlob,  D.D.,  Superintendent 
in  Wenlau.     (D.  1882.) 

SCHMIDT,  WOLDEMAR  Gottlob,  D.D.,  Professor  of 
Theology  in  Leipzig. 

SCHMIEDER,  H.  E.,  D.D.,  Professor  and  Director 
in  Wittenberg. 

SCHNEIDER,  J.,  Pastor  in  Finkenbach(Rheinpfalz). 

SCHOBERLEIN,  Ludwig,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theol- 
ogy in  Gottingen.    (D.  1881.) 

•SCHODDE,  George  H.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Greek, 
Capital  University,  Columbus,  O. 

SCHOELL,  Carl,  Ph.D.,  Pastor  of  Savoy  Church  in 
London. 

SCHOTT,  Theodor,  Librarian  in  Stuttgart. 

SCHULTZ,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  D.D.,  Professor  of 
Theology  in  Breslau. 

SCHURER,  Emil,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in 
Giessen. 

SCHWARZ,  JOHANN  Karl  Eduard,  D.D.,  Professor 
of  Theology  in  Jena.    (D.  1870.) 

SCHWEIZER,  Alexander,  D.D.,  Professor  of  The- 
ology in  Zurich. 

•SCOVEL,  Sylvester  Fithian,  Rev.,  President  of 
Wooster  University,  Wooster,  O. 

SEMISCH,  Carl  .Enotheus,  D.D.,  Professor  of  The- 
ology in  Berlin. 

•SHEA,  John  Gilmary,  LL.D.,  Elizabeth,  N.J. 

•SHEDD,  William  Gree.vough  Thayer,  D.D., 
LL.D.,  Professor  of  Systematic  Theology  in  the 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  New-York  City. 

•SHIELDS,  Charles  Woodruff,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Philosophy  in  the  College  of  New  Jer- 
sey, Princeton,  N.J. 

SIEFFERT,  Friedrich  Ludwig,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of 
Theology  in  Erlangen. 

SIGWART,  Christian,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Philosa 
phy  in  Tiibingen. 


XVI 


LIST   OF    WllITERS. 


•SLOANE,  J.  R.  W.,  D.D.,  Professor  o(  Theology, 
Pittsburgh,  Penn.    (D.  1886.) 

•SMYTH,  Egbkut  Coffin,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Cliureh 
History,  Theological  Seminary,  Anilover,  Mass. 

•SMYTH,  Newman,  D.D.,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

SPIEGEL,  Friedrich,  Ph.D.,  Frankfiirt-am-Main. 

•SPR.A.GUE,  Edward  E.,  New-York  City. 

STAHELIN,  Ernst,  D.D.,  Pastor  in  Ba-sel. 

STAHELIN,  Rudolf,  D.D.,  Professor  in  Basel. 

STAHLIN,  Adolf,  D.D.,  President  of  the  Upper 
Consistory,  Munich. 

•STEARNS,  Lewis  Fkench,  D.D.,  Professor  of 
Theology,  Theological  Seminary,  Bangor,  Me. 

•STEELE,  David,  D.D.,  Philadelphia. 

STEITZ,  Georg  Edi!ard,  D.D.,  Konsistorialrath  at 
Frankfurt-am-Main.    (D.  1879.) 

•STEVENS,  WiLLi.\M  Bacon,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Bishop 
of  P.  E.  Diocese  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia. 

•STILLE,  Charles  Janewav,  LL.D.,  Philadelphia. 

•STOUGHTON,  John,  D.D.,  London. 

STR.\CK,  Hermann  Lebrecht,  D.D.,  Professor  of 
Theology  in  Berlin. 

•STRIEBY,  MiCH.\EL  E.,  D.D.,  Corresponding  Sec- 
retary of  the  American  Missionary  Association, 
New- York  City. 

•STRONG,  James,  S.  T.  D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  He- 
brew, Drew  Theological  Seminary,  Madison,  N.J. 

SUDHOFF,  Carl,  Pastor  in  Frankfurt-am-Main. 
(D.  1865.) 

•TAYI^OR,  William  Mackekgo,D.D.,  LL.D.,  Minis- 
ter of  the  Broadway  Tabernacle,  New- York  City. 

THELE.MANN,  Karl  Otto,  Konsistorialrath  in 
Detmold. 

THIERSCH,  Heinrich,  D.D.,  in  Basel.    (D.  1885.) 

THOLUCK,  FuiEDUiCH  August  Gotttrec,  D.D., 
Professor  of  Theology  in  Halle.     (D.  1877.) 

•THO.MSON,  William  McClurk,  D.D.,  Author  of 
The  Land  and  the  Hook,  New-York  City. 

•TILLETT,  Wilbur  Fisk,  A.M.,  Rev.,  Professor  of 
Systematic  Theology  in  Vanderbilt  University, 
Nashville,  Term. 

TISCHENDORF,  Lobeoott  Friedrich  Constan- 
TIN,  VON,  D.D.,  etc..  Professor  of  Bil)lii;al  Pale- 
ography in  Leipzig.     (D.  1874.) 

•TOY,  CuAWFOKD  Howell,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor 
of  Hebrew  in  Harvard  University. 

TRECHSEL,  Friedrich,  Pastor  in  Bern.    (D.  1885.) 

•TRUE,  Benjamin  Os(!ood,  D.D.,  Professor  in  the 
Theological  Seminary,  Rochester,  N-Y. 

•TRU.MAN,  JosKfii  M.,  Jun.,  Philadelphia. 

•TRUMBULI.,,  Henry  Clay,  D.D.,  Editor  of  the 
Sundai/S'hool  Times,  Philadelphia. 

TSCHACKERT,  Paul  Mokitz  Roiiert,  D.n.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Theology  in  Kijnigsberg. 

•TUTTLE,  Daniel  Sylvester,  D.D.,  Bishop  pf 
MisHouri. 

•TYI>KR,  William  Seymour,  D.D.,  Professor  in 
Amherst  College,  MaHHachusetta. 

TZSCIIUINER,  P.  >!.,  Ph.D.,  Leipzig. 

(;ifT,lIORN,    .loHANN    Oeiiiiard    Wiliielm,   D.D., 

ObirknnsiHtorialnith  in  Hanover. 
ULLMANN,  Carl,  I), I).,  Karlsruhe.     (D.  IHWi.) 
VLHWA,  Hermann,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  Philosophy 

in  Halle.    (D.  1884.) 


VAIHINGER,  J.  G.,  Pastor  in  Wurttemherg. 
(D.  1879.) 

•VANDYKE,  Henry  J.\CKsoN,  Jun.,  D.D.,  Pastor  of 
the  Brick  (Presbyterian)  Church,  New- York  City. 

•VINCENT,  J.  H.,  D.D.,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

•VINCENT,  Marvin  Richardson,  D.D.,  Pastor  of 
the  Church  of  the  Covenant  (Presbyterian), 
New- York  City. 

VOGEL,  Carl  Albrecht,  D.D.,  Professor  of  The- 
ology in  Vienna. 

VOIGT,  G.,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  History  in  Leipzig. 

VOLCK,  Wilhelm,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in 
Dorpat. 

WACKERNAGEL,  K.  H.  Wilhelm,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fessor in  Basel.    (D.  1869.) 

WAGENMANN,  Julius  August,  D.D.,  Professor  of 
Theology  in  Giittingen. 

WANGEMANN,  Ph.D.,  Missionsdirector  in  Berlin. 

•WARD,  William  Hayes,  D.D.,  Editor  of  The  In- 
dependent, New-York  City. 

•WARFIELD,  Benjamin  Breckinridge,  D.D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  New-Testament  Exegesis  in  the  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  Allegheny,  Penn. 

WARNECK,  G.,  Ph.D.,  Pastor  in  Rotheuschirmbach. 

•WARREN,  William  Fairfield,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
President  of  Boston  University,  Boston,  Mass. 

•WASHBURN,  George,  D.D.,  President  of  Robert 
College,  Constantinople,  Turkey. 

WASSERSCHLEBEN,  F.  W.  H.  von,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Jurisprudence  in  Giessen. 

WEINGARTEN,  Hermann,  D.D.,  Professor  of  The- 
ology in  Breslau. 

WEIZSACKER,  Carl  Heinrich,  D.D.,  Professor  of 
Theology  in  Tubingen. 

WEIZSACKER,  Julius,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  His- 
tory in  Gottingen. 

WERNER,  August,  Pastor  in  Guben. 

•WHIPPLE,  Hknuy  Benjamin,  D.D.,  Bishop  of 
P.  E.  Diocese  of  Minnesota,  Faribault,  Minn. 

•WHITFIELD,  Edward  E.,  M.A.,  O.\ford. 

WIESELER,  Karl,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in 
Greifswald.     (D.  1881!.) 

WILCKEN,  Ph.D.,  Stralsund. 

•WILLIAMS,  Samuel  Wki.ls,  LL.D.,  Professor  of 
Chinese,  Yale  Coll.,  New  Haven,  Conn.  (D.  1884.) 

•WILSON,  JosEi-H  R.,  D.D.,  Wilmington,  N.C. 

•WILSON,  Samuel  Jennings,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Church  History,  Theological  Seminary, 
Allegheny,  Penn.    (D.  18S:i.) 

•WOLF,  Edmund  Jacob,  D.D.,  Professor  in  the 
Theological  Seminary,  Gettysburg,  Penn. 

WOLFFLIN,  Eduaki),  I'll. I).,  Professor  in  Erlangen. 

•WOOLSEY,  Theodore  Dwioiit,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Ex- 
Presidcnt  of  Yale  College,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

•WRIGHT,  George  Frederick,  Ph.D.,  Professor  ia 
the  Theological  Seminary,  Oberlin,  O. 

ZAHN,  Theodou,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in 
Erlangen. 

ZEZSCHWITZ,  Gerhard  von,  D.D.,  Professor  of 
Theology  in  Erlangen.     (D.  1886.) 

ZIMMERMANN,  Karl,  D.D.,  Priilat  in  Darmstadt. 

Z01;KLER,  Oiro,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in 
Greifswald. 

ZOPFFKL,  UiciiARD  Otto,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  The- 
ology iu  Strussburg. 


I  isr  D  E  X 


VOLUME  I. 


A. 

A  and  Q,  0. 

Aaron,  9. 

Anroii  ben-Asbcr,  9. 

Abaddon,  ID. 

Abnna  and  Phurpar,  10. 

Abarbanei.     Sec  Abrabancl. 

Abarim,  10. 

Abaiizit,  10. 

Abba,  10. 

Abbadie,  10. 

Abbesa,  10. 

Abbey,  10. 

»^bbo,  10. 

Abbot,  10. 

Abbot,  Georgt>,  11. 

Abbot,  Robert,  U. 

Abbot,  Robert,  H. 

Abbott,  .T.icob,  11. 

Abbreviators,  VZ. 

Abbuna,  12. 

Abdias,  12. 

Abdon,  12. 

Abcjccdarian  llj'rane,  12. 

Abecl,  David,  12. 

Abel,  12. 

Abel  (1-5),  12. 

AbeUrd,  12. 

AbelUes,  or  AbelonianH,  14. 

Abelii,  Louis,  14. 

Abcn-Ezra,  14. 

Abercrombie,  .Tohn,  14. 

Abernethy,  John,  14. 

Abgarus,  14. 

Abiathar,  14. 

Abijah,  14. 

Abilene,  14. 

Abimelech,  15. 

Abinhag,  15. 

Abiahai,  15. 

Ablon,  Id. 

Abner,  15. 

Abrabanel,  15. 

Abraham,  15. 

Abraham's  Bosom,  16. 

Abraham-a-Sanctta-Clara,  16. 

Abrahacniten,  Itt. 

Abraxiia,  16. 

Absalom,  17. 

Ab.'salon,  17. 

-Vbsoiulion,  17. 

Abstinence,  17. 

Abukara.    See  Theodorus  Abukara. 

Abulfaraj,  17. 

Abyssinian  Church,  17- 

AcaciU8,  19. 

Acceplanta,  20. 
— AccesH,  20. 

Accoiti,  Peter,  20. 
-  Accommodation,  20. 

Acephali,  20. 

Achery,  Jean  Liic  d',  20. 

Achterfeldt,  Johanu  Ileinrlcb,  21. 

Acocnu-tae,  21. 

Acolyths,  21. 

Acueta,  Uriel.  21. 

Acta  Martyrum  .ind  Acta  Sanctorum, 

Act;*  of  the  Apostles,  22. 

Adalbert  (1,2),  :il. 

Adalt;ar,  24. 

Adalbard,  24. 

Adam,  24. 

Adam,  Melchior,  55. 

Adam  of  Bremen,  25. 

Adam  of  8t.  Victor,  25. 

Adamannus,  25. 

Adamites,  25. 


Adams,  Thomas,  25. 

AdatHH,  William,  26. 

AdamsoHi  Patrick,  26. 

Addai,  2G. 

Addison,  Joseph,  26, 

Adelbert.  26. 

Adeodatus,  26. 

Adiaphora,  26. 

Ado,  27. 

Adonai,  27. 

Adonijah,  27. 

Adoption,  2S. 

Adoptionisra,  28. 

Adramnielech,  29. 

Adrian  (popes),  29. 

Adullam,  30. 

Adultery,  31. 

Advent,  31. 

Adventisis,  32. 

Advocate  of  ihe  Church,  ^ 

Advocatus  Dei,  Diaboli,  32. 

jE'4\d\m,  Z-2. 

^■Elfric,  32. 

yEneas  (1,2),  32. 

j^ipinus,  32. 

Aeriue,  33. 

Aeliua,  33. 
■-:.'\ffection8,  33. 

Affre,  Denis  Auffuttte,  33. 

Africa,  Church  of.  33. 

African  M.  E.  Church.    8ee  Methodism. 

Africanufi,  33. 

Aifape,  34. 

A^apetus  (1,  2),  34. 

Aitalha,35. 

A|L(athiae,  35. 

A^atho.  35. 

-Age  (ecclesiastical),  35. 

A^ellius,  35. 

Agenda,  35. 

Agier,  Pierre  Jean,  36. 

Agnee.^O. 

Agnoelae,  36. 
-^Agnosticism,  36. 

Agnus  Dei,  39. 

Agobard,  39. 

Agreda,  Maria  de,  39. 

Agricola,  Johann,  39. 
-Agriculture,  39. 

Agrippa,  Herod  (1,2),  41. 

Agrip|)a,  Heinrich  Cornelius,  41. 

Aguiire,  Joseph  Saenz  d',  41. 

Agur.    See  Solomon,  Proverbs. 

Ahab,  41. 

Ahasuerus,  42. 

Ahaz,  42. 

Ahaziah.  42. 

Abimelech,  43. 

Ahithophel,  43. 

Aidan,43. 

AigraduSf  43. 

Aiili.  Pierre  d',  43. 

Ailredus,  44. 

Aimoin,  44. 

Ainsworih,  TTenrv,  44. 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  44. 

Akiba,  44. 

Akoinicloi.    See  AcseraetiE. 

A'Lasco.     See  Lasco. 

Alaims,  45. 

Alb,  45. 

Alban,  St.,  45. 

Albanenses,  45. 

Alber,  P^rasmus,  45. 

Alber.  Matlba?us,  45. 

Albert  of  liiL'a,  46. 

Albert  the  tlreat,  46. 

Albert!  (1,2),  40. 


Albertlni,  Johami  Baptist  von,  46. 

AlberluH  Magnus.    See  Albert  the  Great. 

Albigenses,  46. 

Albizzi  (1,2).  48. 

Albo,  Joseph,  48. 

Albright,  Jacob,  48. 

Albright  Brethren.    See  Evangelical  A*- 

Bociation. 
Alcantara,  Order  of,  4S. 
Alcimus,  49. 
Alcuin,  49. 
AI<lfrilh,49. 
Aidhelm,49. 
Aleander,  50. 
Alegambe,  50. 
Alemarmi,  50, 
Alesius,  Alexander,  50. 
Alexander  (popes,  1-8),  50. 
Alexander  of  Alexandria,  53. 
Alexander,  Archibald,  53. 
Alexander,  J.  A.,  53. 
Alexander,  J.  W.,  .53. 
Alexander  Balas,  54. 
Alexander  Jannffius,  54. 
Alexander  Nevski,  ^. 
Alexander  of  Hales,  54. 
Alexander  the  Great,  54. 
Alexandria,  55. 
Alexians,  56. 
Alford,  Henry,  56. 
Alfred  the  Great.  57. 
Alger  of  Liege,  57. 
Allan,  William,  57. 

Allegorical  Interpretation  of  the  BiMc,  68. 
Allegory,  59. 
Allegri,  Gregoria,  59. 
Allen,  Dsivid  Oliver,  59. 
Allen,  John,  59. 
Allen,  John,  59. 
Allen,  Willi.im,  59. 
Allenites,  59. 
Alley,  William.  60. 
Alliance,  Evangelical,  60. 
Alliance  of  Reformed  Churches,  63. 
Alliance,  the  Holy,  64. 
Allix,  Peter.  64. 
Allocution,  64. 
All-Saints'  Day,  64. 
All-Souls'  Day.  64. 
Almain,  Jacques,  64. 
Almeida,  Emmanuel,  64. 
Almericians.    Sec  Amalric. 
Almoner,  G-l. 
'  -JVIms,  65. 
Alogi.  65. 
Alombradofl,  65. 
Aloysius  of  Gonzaga,  65. 
Alphonsua   Maria  de   Liguori.      Seo    Li 

guori. 
Alsted,  Johann  Heinrich,  65. 
-Altar,  66. 

Althamer,  Andreas,  67. 
Alting  (1,2),  67. 
Alypius,  67. 

Alzog,  Johann  Baptist,  68. 
AmalariuH,  6S. 
Amalek,  6S. 
Amalekites,  6S. 
Amalric  of  Bena,  69. 
Amandus,  69. 
Amasa,  69. 
Aroaziah,  69. 
Ambo,  69. 

Ambrose  of  Alexandiia,  70. 
Ambrose  of  Milan,  70. 
Ambrose  the  Canialdulc,  71. 
Ambrose,  Isaac.  71. 
"Ambrosian  Music,  71. 


XTlll 


INDEX. 


Ambrosiftstcr,  '1. 

-  Anieii,  71. 
Anuricau  and  Foreign  Christi:in  Union, 

72. 

American  and  Foi-eign  Biblv  Society. 
Se«  Bible  SocicUea. 

American  ISibio  Union.  See  Bible  Socie- 
iie»,  An*'-'rican. 

American  Bible  Society.  See  Bible  Soci- 
etied. 

American  Baptist  Missionary  Union.  Sec 
Missiuni ,  Baptist. 

American  Baptist  Publication  Society. 
See  Baptists. 

American  Board  of  Commissioners  for 
Foreign  JJissions.  See  Missions  (A. 
B.  C.  F.  M.). 

American  Home  Missionary  Society.  See 
Missions,  American  Home  Socicly. 

American  Reform  Tract  and  Boob,  Soci- 
ety.    See  Tract  Societies. 

American  Siniday-Scbool  Union,  See 
Sunday  ScboolB. 

American  Tract  Society.  See  Tract  So- 
cieties. 

Ames,  William,  72. 

Araling.  Woir^ansr,  72. 

Ammianus  Maicellinne,  72. 

Ammon,  Christof  Friedricb  von,  73. 

Ammonites,  73. 

Aramonius,  73. 

Ammonius,  Saccas,  73. 

Amolo,  73. 

Amon,  74. 

Amorites,  74. 

Amortization.    See  Mortmain. 

Am 08,  74. 

Ampbibaliim,  74. 

Ampbilocliius,  75. 

Amsdorf,  Xikolaus  von,  75. 

Amulets,  7o. 

Amyot,  joeejih,  76. 

Amyniut,  Moise,  76. 

Anabaptixts,  76. 

AnaclioriteH.    Sec  Anchorites. 

Anaclelus  (popes),  77. 

Aiiaf^nott.     See  Lector. 

-  Analogy  of  Fiiitb.    See  Faitb,  Hcrmcneu- 

tics. 
Anammelcch,  77. 
Anar.iae,  7S. 
Anaphora,  78. 
Ananiasiuit,  73. 
AnaMtJistuii  Sinnita,  7S. 
AnaMtasiua  (popes),  78. 
Anantai^tns  of  Laodicca,  70. 
An:i«tai*iuH  of  Antioch,  79. 
AnaHtJUtiiiH  of  Constantinople,  79. 
Aniiftasius  of  l^me,  79. 
Anatliemii,  79. 
Anatoliuit,  79. 
Anatollus,  79. 
Anchieia,  .Ioi«6  de,  80. 
Anchorites.  8U. 
Anclllon,  David,  80. 
Ancillon.  (;barleH,  80. 
Anclllon,  Jean  Tierrc  FrWCric,  80. 
Anderiton,  Ijirn,  HO. 
Anderson,  Uiifu**,  81. 
Andover  Seminary,  81. 
Andrada,  Antonio  d\  82. 
Andrnda,  S2. 
Andrea*,  dakob,  82. 
Andrcio,  .Toharin  Valentin,  63. 
AndreOJ,  Abraham,  83. 
AndreaN  CreieiiKin,  83. 
j\ndreaii  of  (^^ipsjirea,  83. 
Andrean  of  Crain,  83. 
AndreweH,  I/mcelot,  S3. 
Anuarifc.     S<>e  Kanls. 
Aiiif<-la  M<-ricl.S3. 
Anifol  of  the  Chnrch,  8&. 
AnKellcOnU-r,  M. 
Anif«-lkii,  (Itrolnmu,  84. 
Amk.-U,  81. 
Aiiift'U  and  Archangels  In  ChrUtlao  Art, 

S.'i. 
Ancllhrrt,  St..  8.V 
Atifrilnini.  HS. 
Aniflo-Haxuni),  their ConTemioo  to  Chris* 

tintiily.  Hty 
Atntium,  Thnmoi,  84. 
Aiil'i-itm,  H7, 
AnImniN,  87. 
Anna.  8H. 
AnnaM,  88. 

AniiiitA.    Soc  Taxch,  Bcclcilullcal. 
AnnilitlallonUm,  80. 


Anniversariua  (sc.  dies),  89. 

Anni  Cleri,  S9. 

AnnuiuR  flscatorius,  89. 

Annunciade,  S9. 

Annunciation,  Feast  of,  89. 

Annus  Carcntise,  89. 

Annus  Claustralis,  89. 

Annus  Decrelorius,  89. 

Annus  Deservitus,  or  Annus  Gratis,  89. 

Annus  Luctus,  89. 

Ansegis,  89. 

Ansefm  of  Canterbury,  90. 

Anselrn  of  Havelbeig,  M). 

Anselm,  St.,  90. 

Anselm  of  I^ou,  90. 

Ansgar,  90. 

Anso,  91. 

Anterus,  91. 

Anthoiogiura,  91. 

Anthony,  St.,  91. 

Anthony,  Order  of  St.,  91. 

Anthony  de  Dominis,  91. 

Antlioiiy  of  Padua,  92. 

Anthony  of  Lebrija,  92. 
.  -Anthropology.    See  Tbeologj-. 

Antbropomolphism,    AnthropopathiBm, 
92. 

Anthroporaorphites.    See  Audians. 

Anticlirist,  92. 

Antidicoraarianites,  92. 

Anlilegoinena.     See  Canon. 

Antimensjum,  93. 

Antinoraianism,  93. 

Antioch,  93. 

Antioch,  School  of,  94. 

Antiochus  (Kings  of  Syria),  95. 

Aniiochus  IV.,  King  of  Comniagene,  96. 

Antiochus,  96. 
-'Antiphon,  96. 

Antipope,  97. 

Aniiiaclffl.    See  Gnosticism. 

Anlitrinitarianism,  97. 

Anton,  97. 

Anlonelli,  Giacomo,  97. 

Antonians,  98. 

Anloniium  Pius,  9S. 

Antoninus,  St.,  93. 

Antonio  de  Dominis.    See  Anthony  de 
Duininis. 

Aphursites.  98. 

Apharsiithcbites,  98. 

Aplieli,  9S. 

Aphihariodocetffi.    See  Monophysites. 

Aphraatcs,  99. 

.■\pion,  99. 

Apis,  99. 

Apocalypse.    See  Revelation,  Book  of. 

ApncaU'isiasia.     ;?ee  -Vpokatastasia. 

Apocrisiarius,  99. 

Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament,  99. 

Apc)ci  vi)lia  of  the  New  Testament,  105. 

Apuk:iiastasi8,  107. 

Apoliiiiiiis,  109. 

Aiiollinarianism,  109. 

Apollonia.  St.,  100. 

ApolloniuM  of  Tyann,  109. 

ApolloniUH,  110, 

ApolloH,  110. 

ApoloireticM,  110. 

A[)i>NtaHy,  114. 

ApoMtle,  114. 

Apustk'd'Crccd,  115. 

ApoKtolic  BroihcTH,  116. 

Apostolical  Canons,  116. 

ApoHtollcal  Churcli  Directory,  116. 

AtM'Ntolieal  ConsiitutionH,  116. 

ApoKlulic  Council  al  Jerusalem,  117. 

ApoMtolii:  Kalhers,  119. 

Aj)OHtuIlc  King,  120. 

Apotaclici,  120. 

Appeals,  120. 

AppetlanlH,  120. 

AppU-ton,  JeHMe,  120. 

Approbuilon  of  Bookn,  120. 

Apse,  120. 

AonnvlvH,  ClnndluH,  121. 

Aqttllaand  PrUcllta,  121. 

Aqulla,  121. 

Arpilla,  Johannes  Kanpar,  121. 

Aqnilela.  121. 

ArJulnaN.     See  ThoroaH  AquinaH. 

Arabia.  122. 

ArahianA,  124. 

Antd,  124. 

Aram,  124. 

Ararat,  125. 

Aratiir,  12.'i. 

Arcant  Dleclpllna,  125. 


Archaeology,  Biblical,  126. 

Archaeology,  Ecclesiiisiical,  127. 

Archbishop.     See  Bishoi). 

Archdeacons  and  Arcbpresbyters,  127. 

Archelaus,  128. 

Archevites,  128. 

Archicapellanus,  128. 

Archiraandiite,  129. 

Architecture,  Hebrew,  129. 

Architecture,  Christian,  130. 

Arcbonlici.  133. 

Archprcsbyter.    Sec  Archdeacons. 

Arciraboldi,  Giovanni  Angelo,  133. 

Arcosoliiim,  133. 

Aretas,  133. 

Aretius,  Bonedictua,  133. 

Argentine  Republic,  133. 

Arianism,  134. 

Arias  Montanus,  Bonedictua,  137. 

Ariniathoa,  137. 

Aristarclnis,  137. 

Aristeas,  138. 

Aristides,  138. 

Arisiobulue,  138. 

Aristobulus,  138. 

Aristotle,  138. 

Arius,  139. 

Ark  of  the  Covenant,  139. 

Arkile,  140. 

Armenia,  140. 

Arminianism,  Historical,  143. 

Arminianisra,  Five  .'\rlicles  of,  144. 

Arminianiem,  Wesleyan,  14j. 

Army,  146.  , 

Arnaud,  Henri,  147. 

Arnauld,  Angelique,  147. 

Arnauld.  Antoiiie,  147. 

Arnauld.  Henri.  148. 

Arnauld,  Jacqueline  Mario,  148. 

Arnauld  d'Andllly,  Robert,  148. 

Arndt,  Jolianu,  148. 

Arno,  148. 

Arnobius,  148. 

Arnobius  the  Younger,  148. 

Arnold  of  Brescia,  149. 

Arnohl.  Gottfried,  149. 

Arnohi,  Nicolaus,  149. 

Arnold,  Thomas.  150. 

Arnold),  Barlholemaeus,  150. 

Arnoldists,  150. 

Arnon,  1:)0. 

Arnot,  William,  150. 

Arnulph.  160. 

Arnidphus,  St.,  150. 

Arphaxad,  151. 

Ariowfiiiiith,  .lohn,  151. 

Areenius  of  Konio,  151. 

Arsenius  of  Nicxa,  151. 

Artaxerxes,  151. 

Artcrnon,  151. 

Articles  of  Failh,  152. 

Articles  of  Religion,  Thirty-Nine,  152. 

Articles  of  Religion,  Irish,  153. 

Articles  of  Religion,  I.anibelb,  153. 

Arundel,  Tliomas,  153. 

Asa,  153. 

Asapb,  154. 

Asbury,  Francis,  154. 

Asceticism.  154. 

Ascidas.     See  Theodore  At>cldaa. 

Asluiod.  154. 

Asher.  Ben.    See  Aaron  ben  Asher. 

Asherah.     Sec  Astaile. 

Anhima,  155. 

Ashkelon,  155. 

Ashloreth.    See  Aslarto. 

ANh-Wednesday,  156. 

AHiiiarli,  155. 

Asniodeus,  155. 

Ass,  155. 

Ahs,  Feast  of  the,  156. 

Assehurg,  Rosaniunde  Jullane  von,  156. 

Asseniani,  156. 

An«enibly,  General,  157. 

Aufcmbly  of  Divines.    See  Westminstei' 

AnHyria,  157. 

Astarte  and  .Asherab,  159. 

Asteriurt.  159. 

Astrology,  160, 

Astronomy,  100. 

.\t.truc,.I«"an,  100. 

Asylum,  100. 

Aiargails.  161, 

AthanasiuH,  161. 

Atbaniisian  Creed,  lUS. 

Atheism,  163. 

AlbeniigoraH.  163, 

Albeuit.    See  Gruoo«. 


INDEX. 


XIX 


Athos.  164. 

Atonement,  165. 

Atonemt'iit,  Day  of,  166. 

Atrimii,  168. 

Attf  rbury.  Francis,  168. 

Atticus,  168. 

Atlo,  169. 

Attritio.    Spc  Penance. 

Aiibcrien,K.  A.,  169. 

Aubertin,  Edme,  169. 

Aubign^.  Theodore-Agrippa  d',  169. 

Auburn  Serainaiy,  169. 

Auburn  Declaratiun,  170. 

Audianr*.  171. 

Audentia  Episcopnlie,  171. 

Audin,  Vincent,  171. 

Auger,  Edmond,  171. 

Augsburg,  ConlVseion  of,  172. 

Augsburg  Confession,  Apology  (»f,  172. 

Augsburg.  Interim  of,  172. 

Augsburg,  Peace  of,  172. 

Augusti,  Johann  Christian  Wilhelm,  172. 

Augustine,  St.,  172. 

Augustine,  Sister,  173. 

Augusiiiiian  Monks  and  Xuns,  17S. 

Augustinus,  174. 

Aurelian,  177. 

Aurelius,  Marcus.    See  Marcus  Aurcliue. 

Auricular  Confession,  177. 

Aurifaber,  Juhanii,  177. 

Austin,  St.,  177. 

Australasia,  177. 

Austria,  ISO, 
/  Autbert.    See  Ansgar. 

Authorized  Versiou.    See  Engheh  Bible 
Versions. 
-  Auto-da-fe,  182. 

Autpertus,  Ambroaius,  1S2. 

Ave  Maria,  1S2. 

Avignon,  1S2. 

Avis,  the  Order  of,  182. 

Avitus,  Alcimus  Ecdidius,  182. 

Awakening.  183. 

Aylmer,  John,  183. 

Azazel,  183. 

Azymitcs,  133. 


B. 

Baader,  Frantz  Xavier,  1S4. 

Baal  and  Bel,  184. 

Baalbek,  18.i. 

Baanites.    See  Paulicians. 

Baasha,  186. 

Baba.    See  Mishna. 

Babylon,  186. 

Babylonia,  187. 

Baccalaureus,  189. 

Baccanarists,  189. 

Bach,  Johann  Sebastian,  189. 

Bacon,  Roger,  189. 

Bacon,  Francis.  190. 

Bacon,  Leonard,  191. 

Bader,  Johannes,  191 

Badgers'  Skins,  191. 

Bagnolensea.     See  Cathari. 

Bahrdt,  Karl  Fricdricb;  191. 

Baillct,  Adrian,  192. 

Baillie,  Robert.  192. 

Baird,  Robert,  192. 

Bajus,  Michel,  192. 

Baker,  Daniel,  193. 

Baking,  Bread,  193. 

Baalam,  193. 

Baladan .    See  Merodach-Baladau . 

Balde,  Jacob,  193. 

Baldwin,  Thomas,  194. 

Bale,  John,  194. 

Ball,  John,  194. 

Ballanche,  Pierre  Simon,  T94. 

Balle,  Nicolai  Edinger,  194. 

Balierini,  194. 

Biillou,  Hosea,  19o. 

Balm,  19;'). 

Balmes,  Jaime  T.ncio,  195. 

Balsamon,  Theodore,  19-i. 

Baltue,  Jean  Francois,  195. 

Baluze,  Etienne.  19-5. 

Bambas,  Neophytos,  196, 

Bampton  Lectures,  196. 

Ban,  196. 

Bancroft,  Richard,  196. 

Bangorian  Controversy.     See  Hoadley. 

Bannez,  Domiuioo,  196. 

Banns,  196. 

Banquet.    See  MeaU. 

Bapbomet,  196. 


Baptism,  I'edobaptist  view,  196. 

Baptism,  Ha|»tiMt  view,  198. 

liapiism.  General  article,  199. 

r.;.ptism  of  Infants,  209. 

llaptisteries,  210. 

Baj. lists,  210. 

Barabbas,  212. 

Baraga,  Friedrich,  212. 

Barak.  212. 

Barbara,  St.,  212. 

Barbarian,  212. 

Barbauld,  Anna  LetJtIa,  212. 

Barbeyrac,  Jean,  212. 

Barbier,  Jo8u6,  213. 

Harckhausen  Controversy,  213. 

Barclay,  Alexander,  213. 

Itarclay,  Robert,  213. 

Bar-cocheba,  213. 

Pardesanes,  214. 

Barlaam,  214. 

Barletta,  214. 

Barnabas,  214. 

Barnabites,  215. 

Barnard,  John,  215. 

Barnes,  Albert,  215 

Barneveld.    See  Arminlanism. 

Bare,  or  Baron,  Pierre,  216. 

Baronius,  Cajsar,  216. 

Barrow,  I»*aac,  216. 

Barrowe,  Henry,  216. 

Barruel,  Augustin,  216. 

Barsumas  (archimandrite),  217. 

Barsumas,  Bishop  of  Nisibis,  217. 

Barth,  Christian  Gottlob,  217. 

BartholomEBUs,  217. 

Bartholmess,  217. 

Bartholomew,  217. 

Bartholomew,  Massacre  of  St.,  217. 

Bartholomites,  21S. 

Barloli,  Daniel,  218. 

Barton,  Elizabeth,  218. 

Baruch,  218. 

Baruch,  Apocalj-psis  of.    See  Pseudepi- 

graphs  of  the  O.  T. 
Baruch,  Book  of.    See  Apocrypha  of  the 

O.  T. 
Barzillai,218. 

Bascom,  Henry  Bidleman,  218. 
Basedow,  Johannes  Bernbard,  218 
Basel,  Confession  of,  218. 
BafeU  Council  of,  219. 
Bashan,  220. 
Basil,  a  physician,  220. 
Basil.  Bishop,  220. 
Basil  the  Great,  221. 
Basilians,  221. 
Basilica.    See  Architecture. 
Basilides,  222. 
Basnage,  222. 
Bastbolm.  Christian,  222. 
Bates,  AVilliara,  222. 
Bath,  222. 
Bath-Kol.  223. 

Baumgarten,  Siegniund  Jacob,  223. 
Bauragarten-Crusins,  224. 
Baur,  Ferdinand  Christian,  224. 
Bausset,  Louis  Francois  de,  224. 
Bautain,  Louis,  22o. 
Bavaria,  22.i. 
Baxter.  Richard,  225. 
Baxlerians.     See  above. 
Bayle,  Pierre,  227. 
Bay  ley,  James  Roosevelt,  228. 
Bayly,  Lewis,  228. 
Bdellium,  228. 
Beard,  228. 
Beard,  Richard,  228. 
-Beatific  Vision,  228. 
Beatification.  229. 
Beaton,  David,  229. 
Beattie,  James,  229. 
Beausobre,  Isaac  de,  229. 
Behcnburg,  Lupoid,  229. 
Bee,  Abbey  of,  229. 
Becan,  Martin,  229. 
Beecarelli.    See  Quietiste. 
Beccus.    See  John  X.  of  Constantinople. 
Beck,  Johann  Tobias,  229. 
Becket,  Thomas,  230. 
B.de,  232. 

R.-dell.  William.  232. 
Beecher,  Lyman,  233. 
Bee-culture  among  the  Hebrewe,  233. 
Beelzebub,  233. 
Beer,  234. 
Beeroth,  234. 
Beersheba,  234. 
Begbards  and  Boguince,  234. 


Bekker,  Balthnsar,  234. 

Bel.     See  Baal. 

Bel  and  Dragon.    See  Apocryplia. 

Belgic  ConfeHsion,  234. 

Belgium,  235. 

Belial,  236.  ' 

Belknap,  Jeremy,  236. 

Bellamy,  Joseph,  236. 

Bellarmine.  R.  F.  K.,  237. 

Bellows,  Henry.    Sec  Appendix. 

Bells.  237. 

Belsham,  Thomas,  238. 

BeUhazzar,  238. 

Bema,  238. 

Benaiah,  238. 

Benedicite,  238. 

Benedict  (popes),  239. 

Benedict  of  Nursia,  240. 

Benedict  of  i\mane,  241. 

Benedictine    Editors,    Editiona    of    the 

Fathers,  241. 
Benedictines,  242. 
Benediction,  242. 
Benehce,  242. 

Benefit  of  Clergy.  See  Clergy,  Benefit  of. 
Benevolence,  243. 
Benczet,  243. 

Bengel,  Johann  Albrecht,  243. 
Ben-hadad,  244. 
Benjamin  of  Tudela,  244. 
Bennett,  James,  244. 
Benno,  St.,  244. 
Benoit,  Rene,  244. 
Benoit,  Elie,  24.5. 
Bentham,  Thomas,  245. 
Bentley,  Richard,  245. 
Beowulf,  245. 
Berceans.  245. 
Berengarius,  245. 
Bergier,  Nicolas  Sylvestrc,  246. 
Bergius,  Johannes,  246. 
Berkeley.  George,  246. 
Berleburg  Bible,  247. 
Born,  Disputatiun  of,  248. 
Bern,  Synod  of,  248. 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  248. 
Bernard  of  Mentone,  249. 
Bernard  of  Toledo,  249. 
Bernard  de  Botono,  249. 
Bernard,  Claude,  250. 
Bernard  of  Cluny,  250. 
Bernardin,  250. 
Bernice,  250. 
Berno,  251. 

Berno,  Abbot.    See  Clugny. 
Berquin,  Louis  de,  251. 
Berruyer,  Joseph  Isaac,  251. 
Berlhier,  Guillaume  P'raiKjois,  261. 
Berthold  the  Franciscan,  251. 
Berthold  of  Chiemsee.  251. 
Berthold,  Leonhard,  251. 
Berthold  of  Livonia,  252. 
Berthold,    Founder  of   the   Carmelit^^n. 

See  Carmelites, 
Berthold,    Archbishop   of  Mainz.     Pee 

Mainz. 
BeruUe,  Pierre  de,  252. 
Beryllus,  252. 
Beschitzi,  Elijah,  252. 
Bessarion,  252. 
Beeeel,  Gottfried,  252, 
Bethabara.  252. 
Bethany,  252. 
Bethel,  253. 
Betbesda,  253. 
Beth-boron,  253. 
Bethlehem,  253. 
Belhlehemites,  254. 
Bethphage,  254. 
Betliphaiiy,  254. 
Bethsaida,  254, 
Beth-shean,  254. 
Beth-sheraesh,  255. 
Bethulia,  255. 

Bethune,  George  "Washington,  2.^&. 
Beth-zur,  255. 
Betkius,  Joachim,  205. 
Beveridge,  William,  255. 
Beza,  Theodore,  255. 
Bibles,  257. 
Bible  Christians,  257. 
Bibles,  Pictured,  257. 
Bible-reading  in  Latin  and  Greek  Ch. ,25a 
Bible  SocieliVs,  259. 
Bible  Text,  O.  T.,  2(M. 
Bible  Text,  N.  T.,  268. 
Bible  Versions,  or -Translations  of  the 

Bible, 


2  —  1 


INDEX. 


BlblLinder,  WO. 

Boyse,  John,  316. 

■Burial,  341. 

Uiblla  Fanperiim,  290. 

Bradford,  John,  316. 

Buridau,  Jean,  343. 

Biblical  Aichawloi;}-.    Bcc  Archfflolog}-, 

Braiishaw,  William,  315. 

Burkitt,  William,  344. 

BiUlical. 

Bradwardine,  Thomas,  316. 

Burmah,  344. 

Biblicil  Canon.    Si-e  Canon,  0.  and  N.T. 

Brady,  Xicholae,  316. 

Burmann,  Franz,  344. 

Biblical  Hei-racneutic**.    fcite  Hcimeueu- 

Brahma.    See  Brabmanism. 

Burn,  Richard,  344. 

Ura. 

Brahmanism,  316. 

Burnet,  Gilbert,  344. 

Biblical  History.    Sl-o  Liraol. 

Brahmo  Soraaj,  319. 

Burnet,  Thomas,  344. 

Bibli'jal  l'l)ilolo^'j-.  -*<>■ 

Brainerd,  David,  320. 

Burnett  I'rizes,  345. 

Biblical  Theology;  •£111. 

Braincrd,  John,  321. 

Burns,  W.  C,  345. 

BibliciKU.  2^*2. 

Br.ainerd,  Thomas,  321. 

Burns,  J.  D.,  34.i. 

Bibliography,  292. 
Bibliumancy,  2D5. 
BickL-U,  Johann  Williclm,  2ei. 

Bramhall,  John,  321. 

Burnt  Offerings.    See  Saerifiees. 

Brandenbui-g.     See  Prussia. 

Burritt,  Elihu^  .345. 

Brandt,  Gerard,  321. 

Burroughes,  Jeremiah,  3J6. 

BicktTaleth,  Edward,  i-Jb. 

Brant,  Sebastian,  321. 

Burroughs,  George,  346. 

Bidding-I'i-aycri*,  'iJi. 

Bray,  Thomas,  321. 

Burton,  ,\sa,  346. 

Biddlf,  John,2«>. 

Brazil,  321. 

Burton,  Edward,  346. 

Biel.  (iabliel,  2«6. 

Bread.    See  Baking. 

Burton,  Robert,  346. 

Billican,  Theobald,  203. 

Breckenridge,  John,  322. 

Busch,  Johannes,  347. 

bilney,  Thomas,  2,!  i. 
Bilsou,  Thomas,  •-•VO. 

Breckenridge,  Koberl  J.,  322. 

Busenbaum,  Hcrmuiin,  :i47. 

Bi-eekling,  Friedricb,  322. 

Bush,  George,  347. 

Bingham,  Joseph,  2'i6. 

Breithaupt,  Joachim  Justus,  322. 

Bushnell,  Horace,  347. 

Binnoy,  Thoina**,  2J6. 

Breitinger,  Johann  Jacob,  322. 

Butler,  Joseph,  348. 

Birch,  Thomas.  2;i7. 

Bremen.  323. 

Butler,  ."ilban,  350. 

BirRilla,  Si.,  297. 

Brenz.  Johann,  323. 

Butler,  Charles,  360. 

Birgittineu,  Oidir  of,  «37. 

Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,  323. 

Butler,  W.  A.,  360. 

Bishop,  297. 
BUhopric,  MO. 

Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit,  324. 

Buttlar,  Eva  von,  350. 

Brethren,    riymoutb.       See    Plymouth 

Butzer,  Martin,  360. 

Bi.-.h[)ps'  Book,  tho,  •■500. 

Brethren. 

Buxtorf,  351. 

Bi-!hop.  Nalhan,3W. 

Brethren,  United.    See  United  Brethren. 

Byblus,  351. 

Bithynia,  .■»!. 

Brethren,  United,  in  Cbi-ist.    See  United 

Byfield,  Nicholas,  351. 

Blatlifnara,  501. 

Brethren  in  Christ. 

Bylield,  Adonl.nm,  351. 

Blair,  iIu!;h,3U1. 

Bretschneider,  Karl  Gottlieb,  324. 

BynasuB,  Anthony,  352. 

BliUr,  James,  3U1. 

Breviary,  324. 

Bbiir,  liobert,  301. 

Brewster,  William,  325. 

Blair,  Samuel,  301. 

Bri<;onnet,  Guillaume,  325, 

c. 

BiandraUi,  Oeorj,  301. 

Bridaine,  .Jacques,  325. 

Bi^wphi-my,  302. 

Bridge,  William,  325. 

Cah,  353. 

Bla^tJirea,  MatthaUB,  302. 

Bridget,  St.,  325. 

Cabala,  353. 

Blaiircr,  ,\nibro.siU8,  302, 

Bridgcwatcr  Treatises,  326. 

Cab.'isilas,  Nilus,  555. 

Blaynev,  Benjamin,  302. 

Briefs  and  Bulls,  Papal,  326. 

Cabaslhis,  Nicol.-uis,  355. 

Bleek,  t~riedrich,  302. 

Brigham,  Charles  Henry,  326. 

Cabral,  Frangois,  366. 

Blenimydes,  or  Blemmlda,  302. 

Brigittinos.    See  Birgiliines.                 ^^ 

Caecilia,  St.,  356. 

Bloiiitield,  CharleH  Jaine»,  303. 

Brightman,  Thomas,  326. 

Cascilianus.    Sec  Donatista. 

Bloiidel,  David,  303. 

Brill,  Jacob,  327. 

Cffidmon,  356. 

Blood,  Revenger  of,  303. 

Brittinians,  327. 

ClBiularius,  UicbacI,  356. 

Bloody-Marriage.     See  Coligny. 

Brochmand.  Jesper  Itasraussen,  327. 

Cajsarea,  357. 

Bloody.Bweat,  303. 

Bromley,  Thomas,  327. 

Ca;s:iriiis  of  Aries,  357. 

Blount,  Charles,  303. 

Brooks,  Elbridge  Gerry,  327. 

Caesarius  of  Heisterbach,  357. 

Blumhardt,  Christian  Ootlllcb,  304. 

Brorson,  Hans  Adolf.  327. 

Caiaphas.  357. 

Blunt,  John  .James.  304. 

Broughton,  Hugh,  327. 

Cain  and  the  Calnitcs,  358. 

Boardinnn.  Henry  .-Vu^uslus,  804. 

BrouMson,  Clamle,  32S. 

Caius,  358. 

Bochart,  8arauel,  304. 

Brown,  John,  328. 

Cnjetan,358. 

Bockhold,  Johann.  .304. 

Brown,  .John,  328. 

Calamou.    See  Sycainina. 
Calamy,  Edmund,  S.SO. 

Bodenstein.    Bee  Carlsladt. 

Brown,  J.  N.,  328. 

Body,  Natural,  Spiritual,  and  Myutical, 

Browne,  Robert,  328. 

Calainy,  Benjamin,  359. 

304. 

Browne,  Sir  Thomas,  330. 

Calamy,  Edmund,  369. 

Boehme,  Jacob,  305. 

Brownists.    See  Browne. 

CaloB,  Jean,  359. 

Boiithius,  :iOj. 

Jirownlee,  William  C,  3.30. 

Calatrava,  the  Knights  of,  360. 

Bopitiky,  Karl  Ilclnrlch  von,  306. 

Brownsoii,  Orestes  Augustus,  .330. 

Calrterwood,  David,  380. 

Bogcrraiinn,  Jan,  30(3. 

Bruegglers,  330. 

Caleb,  300. 

BoKomllce,  306. 

Bruis,   Pierre  dc.    Sec  Peter  of  Bniys 

Calendai-,  360. 

BoEorla.    Bee  Cyril  and  Methodius. 
Bohemlii,  306. 

and  Petrobrusslans. 

(Jalendar  Brethicil,  302. 

Brully,  Pierre,  331. 

Calf,  362. 

Bohenilan  BrelhrcD,  303. 

Bruno,  331. 

Calhoun,  S.  H.,  303. 

Bolivia,  309. 

Bruno,  Apostle  of  the  Prussiiins,  331. 

Calixtlnes,  363. 

Bollandinlii,  309. 

Bruno,  Giordano,  331. 

Culixtus  1.,  363. 

BoUec,  Jeromi*  FTermc*.  309. 

Brunswick,  331. 

Calixtus  (popes),  363. 

Bulzano,  Bernlmrd,  309. 

Bruys,  I'eter.    See  Peter  of  Bruys  and 

Calixtus,  Georg,  3(M. 

Bona,  Giovanni,  310. 

Petrohrusslans. 

Callenberg.  Johann  Hcini'ich,  364. 

Bonald,  L.  (}.  A.,  Vlcomtc  dc,  310. 

Bryan,  Rev.  W.    Sec  Bible  Christians. 

Calling,  3(14. 

Bonarentura,  310, 

Bryant,  Jacob,  332. 

Ctilniet,  .\ugusllne,  365. 

Boniface  (popes),  310. 
H.HiUace,  Winfild,  311. 

Bucer.    See  Bulzer. 

Calogerl.    See  .\tIios. 

Buchanan,  Clauillus.  332, 

Calovius,  Abraham,  365. 

Moiinlvard.  312. 

Buchanan,  George,  332. 

Caloyers,  365. 

Bonner,  Kdmund,  312. 

Buck,  Charles.  332. 

Calvarlsts,  365. 

Bunosus,  312. 

BuckmitiHter,  .Josepit,  332. 

Calvary    See  Holy  Sepulchre. 

Boos,  Manln,313. 

Huckmlnsler,  J.  8..  332. 

(Calvin,  John,  365." 

B.i()uln.  nerre.313. 

Bnddeus,  .Johann  Frnnz,  332. 

Calvinism,  3IV.1. 

Bora,  Oiitharin,.  von,  313. 

Buddha.  Buddhism,  333. 

Camiildilles,  373. 

Horborltes,  313. 

Bude,  <}ulllannle,  ;J35. 

Canibriilge  Plntforni.    Sec  Congregation 

Rordas-Demoulln,  .Tenn  Baptlsto,  313. 

Budlngton,  William  Ives,  331>. 

alism. 

Bordclominn  Heel,  313. 

Bugenhngen,  Johann,  335. 

Camel,  374. 

Borel,  Ailnin,  313. 

Bulgaria,  :i.35. 

Cainerarlus,  .Jonchlm,  374. 

Bornla.    Men  A  lexnnder  VI.,  Jcnulta. 

Bulgarls,  Engine,  ."136. 

Cainero,  or  Camei'on,  John,  375. 

Borrhnus.    H<-e  Cellnrius. 

Bull,  George,  336. 

(Cameron,  Andrew,  375. 

Bomimco,  (Jarlo,  31:1. 

Bull,  Papal.    Sec  Briefs  nnd  Bulhl, 

Canicninlans,  376. 

Borrow,  Oeorue,  314. 

Bulllnger,  Hilnrleh,  337. 

Camisnrds,  375. 

BoMllrl,  .Incflilen  BenlKTIO,  314. 

Bungener,  l''elix,  337. 

<.:aiiipaliella,  Thomas,  ,176. 

Bust,  I'aill  Ami  Isaac  David,  314. 

Bunsen,  ChrlKllan  Knrl  Joslui,  337. 

Campanus.  Jcdiannes,  .377. 

B<Mitott,  Thoinits,  Ml',. 

Bunting,  Jahez,  :UK. 

Caiupbell,  .Mcxander.  .377. 

KuiidlMot,  Klliia,  31,'i. 

Bunyan,  John,  ,'138. 

Camiibell,  Ge<irge,  377. 

I^Mirdnlolie,  fjiuls,  316. 

Bnrges,  Cornelius,  340. 

Campbell.  J.  .MM,eod,.378. 

Butirigiioii,  Anlulnrltj',  SlTj. 

Burgess,  Anthony,  :i4l. 

Ciimpe,  Joac  lilm  Heln|-loh,  S78. 

l«<iw.  r,  .Vrchlbald, .".!.'.. 

Burgess,  l)anlil,34I. 

(Jamjieglils,  37S. 

UowrhiK.  HIr  John,  316. 

Burgess,  George,  341. 

(^iiniphin,  I'Minund,  378. 

HorBl.bop,  316. 

Bnrgher-Heceder.    8co  Scccdcra. 

(^amp-meetings,  378. 

Uoylf<,  Boyle  U^nroa,  Sl!>. 

Burguudluns,  341. 

Cunius,  Jean  Pierre,  379. 

INDEX. 


XXI 


Cnna,  379. 

Cattle-raisinir  among  the  Hebrews,  423. 

Chrlsto  Sacrum,  467. 

Canaan,  379. 

Caussln,  Nicholas,  424. 

Chrodegang,  407. 

Canada,  Uurainion  of,  380. 

Cavalier,  .lean.     See  Camisards. 

Chromatins,  468. 

Oandacc-,  38U. 

Cave,  William,  424. 

Chronicles,  Books  of,  468. 

CaniliilUB,  3S3. 

Cawdrey,  Daniel,  424. 

Chronology.    Bee  Kl-a. 

CanillLiDHB,  383. 

Cayet,  424. 

ChrysologuB,  468. 

CandlcH,  383. 

Cazalla,  Augnstln,  424. 

Chrysoston),  469. 

OndliBtick,  tlie  Golden,  883. 

Cecil,  Klcbard,  424. 

Chubb,  Thomas,  470. 

Canrtlish,  Hubert  Smith,  aS4. 

Ceillier,  Uemi.  425. 

Church,  470. 

(iinisiuB,  IVlcr,  381. 

CV'lestine  (popes),  425. 

Church. Diet.    See  Kiicbentag. 

Cannon,  James  Spencer,  386. 

Celestiues,  the,  425. 

Church-Property,  475. 

Canon,  385. 

('elibacy,  425. 

-Church-ltate,  476. 

Canon,  O.  T.,  3S5. 

Ccllarius.    See  Chapter. 

-Church- llegisters,  476. 

Ciwion  of  the  N.  T.,  389. 

Cellarius,  Martin,  426. 

-Church-Wardens,  476. 

Canon  Tjaw,  392. 

Cellitai.     See  Alexians. 

-Churching  of  Women,  476. 

<..\inonlcal  HuurB,  395. 

Olnius,  Olaus,  426. 

-Church  and  State,  477. 

Cinonlzation,  396. 

Celsus,  426. 

•Church  Discipline.    See  Discipline. 

<JanunB,  Regular.  .396. 

Celtic  Church.    See  Keltic  Church. 

Church  Government.    See  Polity. 

CnnHU'in,  Karl  Uildebrand,  396. 

Cenchrea),  426. 

Church  lllstory,  480. 

Canterbury,  396. 

-Censer,  426. 

Church  Jurisdiction.    Bee  Jurisdiction, 

Canlhnrus,  396. 

Censer,  in  lioman-Catholic  Worship.   See 

Ecclesiafctical. 

Cantielcs,  397. 

Thurible. 

Church  Polity.    See  Polity. 

CanU)r,  399. 

Censorship  of  Books,  428. 

Church,  States  of  the,  483. 

Canus,  Melchlor,  399. 

Census, 427. 

Churton,  Ualph,  485. 

C-apernaum,  399. 

Central  .\merica,  427. 

ChytrasuB,  David,  485. 

Caphtor,  400. 

Centurioe  Magdeburgenses,  427. 

Ciboriuni,  486. 

Capislranna,  400. 

Centurion,  428. 

Cilicia,  486. 

Capito,  WolfK.mg,  400. 

Ceolfrfd,428. 

Circumceliianfl.    Bee  Donatists. 

C-apitularies,  4U0. 

Cerdo,  423. 

Circumcision,  486. 

Cappadueia,  400. 

Cerinthus,  428. 

Circumcision.  Feast  of.    See  Octave. 

Cappel,  Jacques,  401. 

CcKtius  (jallus,  428, 

Cistercians,  487. 

Cappel,  Louis,  401. 

<'hadcrton,  Laurence,  428, 

Cities,  488. 

Captive.    Hee  War. 

Cliiildaians,  428. 

Cities  of  Refuge,  48*. 

Captivity  of  the  Jewe,  401. 

Cllalcedon,  428. 

Citizenship,  488. 

Capuchina,  402. 

Chalmers,  Thomas,  428. 

Clap,  Thomas,  488. 

Caputiati.  402. 

Chamier,  Daniel,  430. 

Clarendon,  Constitutions  of,  489. 

'Jaraccioii,  Oaleazzo,  402. 

Chandieu,  430. 

Clare,  St.,  Nuns  of,  489. 

<Iaranza.    Bee  C'arranza. 

Chandler,  Edward,  430. 

Clarke,  Adam,  489. 

Car.avanflerai.    Bee  Kbau. 

Chandler,  Samuel,  430. 

Clarke,  .John,  489. 

Carc;is8,  4(J3. 

Charming,  William  Ellery,  430. 

Clarke,  Samuel,  489. 

C.-trcliemi^li,  403. 

Chapel,  432. 

Clarke,  Samuel,  490. 

Carilinal.  403. 

Chapin,  E.  II.,  432. 

Clarkson,  Thomas,  400. 

Cai-ev,  William,  404. 

Chaplain,  432. 

Class-Meetings,  490. 

Cnrgill,  Donald,  404. 

Chapters,  432. 

Claude,  Jean,  490. 

Carlatadt,  A.  K.  Bodenstciu,  404. 

Chapters  and  Verses,  433. 

Claudianus,  491. 

Oarlyle,  Tliomas,  405. 

Chapters,  the  Three.     See  Three  Chap- 

Claudius (emperor),  491. 

Carmel,  Mount,  406. 

ters. 

Claudius  of  'i'urin,  491. 

CarmelileB,  407. 

Chariots,  435. 

Cliiudius,  Matthias,  491. 

Carnahan,  .James,  407. 

CharismaU.    See  Gifts,  Spiritual. 

Clean  and  Unclean,  492. 

Carnival,  407. 

Charity,  Brothers  of,  435. 

Clemanges,  Nicolas  de,  492. 

Caroline  Books,  407. 

Charity,  Sisters  of,  435. 

Clemens  Roraanus,  492, 

Carpenter,  Ijuit,  40S. 

Charlemagne,  436. 

Clemens,  Titus  Flavins,  494. 

iiirpenter.  Wary,  408. 

Charles  V.,  437. 

Clement  (popes),  494. 

Carpocratians,  408. 

Charnock,  Stephen,  438. 

Clementines,  497. 

Carpzov,  408. 

Charron,  Pierre,  438. 

Clericns,  498. 

<l.*arranza,  Bartolom6  de,  408. 

Chase,  Irah,  438. 

Clergy,  Benefit  of,  498. 

Carrasco,  .Antonio,  409. 

Chassidim,  433. 

Clergy,  Biblical,  498. 

Carroll,  John,  409. 

Chastity,  439. 

Clerk,  500. 

Oirtfon,  Alexander,  409. 

Chasuble,  439. 

Cletus,  600. 

Carstaree,  William,  409. 

Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  440. 

Clinic  Baptism,  600. 

Carthaaie,  410. 

Chauncy,  Charles.  440. 

Cloister,  600. 

Carthusians,  410. 

Chaur.cy,  Isaac,  440. 

Clothing  and  Ornaments  of  the  Hebrews, 

Cartwright,  Thomas,  410. 

Chauncy,  Charles,  440. 

600. 

Cartwrinht,  Peter,  412. 

Chautauqua,  441. 

Clothing  and  Insignia  of  the  Chri«U.aii 

Cary,  Henry  Francis,  412. 

Cheke,  Sir  John,  441. 

Clergy.    See  Vestments. 

Caryl,  Joseph,  412. 

Chemnitz,  Martin,  442. 

Clovis,  601. 

Casaw,  Bartolemeo  de  las,  412. 

(^^lieniosh,  442. 

Clugnv,  601. 

Casanbon,  Isaac,  412. 

(Mierub,  Cherubim,  442. 

Coadjutor,  602. 

Caselius,  Jobann,  412. 

Cheyuell,  Francis,  443. 

Cobb,  Sylvanus,  602. 

Oassimder,  Georg,  413. 

CliiUlermas  Day.    See  Innocents'  Day. 

Cobham,  Lord,  602. 

Cassel,  Conf-rence  of,  413. 

Chili,  443. 

Cocceius,  603. 

Cassiauuw,  .Toh.muefi,  413. 

Chiliasm.    See  Millenariauisra. 

Cochljeus,  Johannes,  504. 

CassiaiiiiB.  ,luliua,413. 

Cliilliugworth,  William,  +43. 

Ccelestius,  504. 

CassiodnliiN,  Maj^mis  Aurelius,  413. 

<;liina.  Christian  Missions  in,  444. 

Cielesvria,  604. 

CasU-ll,  Edmund,  414. 

Choir,  447. 

Ccelicolae,  605. 

Castellio,  or  Castalio,  Sebastian,  414. 

Chorazin,  447. 

Ctenobites.    See  Monasticisra. 

Casuistry,  414. 

Chorcpiscopi,  448. 

Coffin.    See  Burial. 

Casus  Ri-servati,  415. 

(•hrism,  448. 

Coffin,  Charles,  605. 

Catacombs,  415. 

Chrismal,  448. 

Cularbasians.    See  Gnosticism. 

Catafalco,  417. 

ChriBom,  448. 

Coke,  Thomas,  605. 

CaUlduB,  St.,  417. 

<  'hrist  .lesus.     See  Jesus  Christ. 

Coleridge,  Samuel  Taylor,  605. 

Catechetics,  Catechisms,  ct^.,  417. 

Christ,  Monogram  of,  448. 

Coleridge,  Hartley,  507. 

Catena,  419. 

Christ,   Offices   of.      See   Jesns    Christ, 

Coleridge,  Sara,  608. 

Cathari,  420. 

Offices  of 

Coleridge,  Sir  John  Taylor,  508. 

Calharina,  St.,  421. 

Christ,  Sinlessness  of.     See  Christology. 

Colet,  John,  608. 

Catharina  of  Bologna,  421. 

Christ,  the  Order  of,  448. 

Coligny,  Gaspard  de,  608. 

Catharina  of  (Jenoa,  421. 

Christ,  Pictures  of,  448. 

Collation,  509. 

Catharina  of  Sienna,  421. 

<'liriHtian,  Oiigin  of  the  Name,  449. 

Collect,  509. 

Catharina  of  Sweden,  422. 

Christian  Commission,  IJ.  S.,  449. 

College,  609. 

Cmharina  Kieci.422. 

Christian  Connection.  449. 

Collegia  Natlonalln,  611. 

Catharinus,  Anibrosius,  422. 

Christian  Union  Churches  of  the  West, 

Collegial  or  Collegiate  Churches,  611. 

<?alhedra  and  Cathedral,  422. 

460. 

Collegialism,  612. 

Catholic,  422. 

Christians  of  St.  .Tohn,  450. 

Collegiants,  512. 

Catholic  Apostolic  Charch,  422. 

Christians  of  St.  Thomas,  450. 

Collier,  Jeremy,  S12. 

Catholic  Emancip.ation,  423. 

Christmas,  4.'j0. 

Collins,  Anthony,  612. 

Catholic  Epistles,  423. 

ChristoloKy,  451. 

Colin,  Daniel  Georg  Conrad  von,  514. 

(tatholic  or  United  CopU,  423. 

Christopher,  St.,  467. 

Collyridi.ms,  513. 

Catholieus,  423. 

Christophorus,  467. 

Colman,  613. 

JCSU 


Cclman,  Benjaroin,  613. 

Cologne,  513. 

Oolombift,  United  States  of,  517. 

Colors  ill  the  Bible,  614. 

Cbloss®.  515. 

Colossians,  Epistle  to.    See  Paul. 

Columha,  St.,  •''lo. 

Columbiinus,  517. 

Combefi3,  Fiangoia,  617. 

Coinenius,  517. 

Ooniniciida,  51S. 

Oomraerce  among  the  Hebrews,  518. 

—  (Tonimination  Ser\'ice,  518. 
Oommoiiianus,  518. 
ComnioduH,  51S. 

Common  Lift*.  Brelhreti  of.    See  Breth- 

ren  of  the  Common  Life. 
Common  Pnij-er.    See  Liturgies. 
Comraunicatio  Idiomatura,  519. 
Gbmmuniun.    See  Lord's  Supper. 

—  Communion    of  the  Dead.     See  Dead, 

Communion  of. 
— l^mraunion  of  Saints,  519. 
—Communism,  519. 
Competcntcs.    Sec  Catecbetics. 
Compline,  519. 
Compoatella,  Order  of,  619. 
Compton.  Henry,  520. 
Oomte,  Aiignste,  5*20. 
Conception,  FeaHt  of,  521. 
(inception  of  our  Lady,  Nuns  of  the 

Order  of,  521. 
Conceptualism,  621. 
Conclave,  521. 
Concomilaiiee,  521, 
Concord,  Fonnulu  of,  621. 
Concordance.  522. 
Concordat,  526. 
Concubinage  amon^  the  Hebrews.    See 

Marriage  among  the  Hebrews. 
Coiicubiiiftg".',  527. 
Conrursua  Divinus,  528. 
Condignity  and  Consruity,  523. 
Cone,  Spencer  Houglitou,  528. 
Conference,  52S. 

OunfeHSiion  of  Faith.    Sec  Creed. 
Confei*(>ioii  of  tiiiw,  530. 
Contirniation,  530. 
Contlict  of  Duties.    See  Duties,  ConlUel 

of. 
Confucius,  531. 
Congregatio  de  AuxIllU  Divince  Gratise, 

532. 
Congregation,  533. 

Congregationalism,  English,  534. 
CotigregatioiiaUnia  in  the  United  States, 
63.-*. 

('onnexa,  541. 

C'jtinotiita,  541. 

<'-oiion,  512. 
Coiioniles,  542. 

Conrad    of   Marburg.      See    Konrad    of 
Marburs- 

Conring,  Hermann,  642. 

Cbnitalvi,  Krcole,  542. 

ConHcienwf,  542. 

Cbnsclenliarli,  543. 
■^  Connecratiun,  543. 

ConaenHus  Genevensls,  644. 

CunnenflUH  Tignrlnus.  544. 

CoHHllia  Kvimgidica,  644. 

Con-Utente«.    Sec  Penitents. 

Contittlory,  54.'i 

0>nNlaiice,  (^Hlllcil  of,  516. 

Contitantine  (popcn),  516. 

Conntantlne  the  Great  and  his  Sons,  646. 

Cunnliintinopli?,  547. 

Connlantinople,  Mudcrn,  548. 

ConntaniinopolitAii  Creed.     8co  Nlccnc 
Creed. 
'    GonMubHlAntlatlon,  619. 

CbnlArinl,  Ganparo,  610. 

Convent,  5-'>0. 

Oonvcnilcic,  550. 
..Convcnlielu  Act,  650. 

Convorfiion,  bM. 

Convorathtn,  551. 

CunvulfilonlNlM.  551. 

Conylnare.  Wimam  I>fin1cl,  652. 

Ojnvbfarr,  William  John,  553. 

CortK,  <rhftrle<»,  5.'>2. 

Ciok,  Kmlln  K..  0.2. 

Oioke,  Henry,  5'i2. 

Cooltman,  (|/-or((n  ftrlmston,  663. 

OKiktnnn,  Alfred,  653. 

Cop*-,  r.vt. 

Coplmton,  Kdwnr<1,6&S. 

Cvppitig,  jubn,  653. 


IXDEX. 


Copts  and  the  Coptic  Church,  553. 

Coquerel,  Athanase,  555. 

Coquerel,  Albanaae  Jusue,  555. 

Coran.    See  Koran. 

Corban,  555. 

Corbinian,  555. 

Cordeliers,  555. 

Cordova,  555. 

Codnlh,  556. 

Corinthians,  Epistles  to  the.    See  PauL 

Cornelius,  556. 

Cornelins  k  Lapide,  556. 

Coronati  Quatuor,  556. 

Corporal,  556. 

Corpus  Catholicorum,  656. 

Corpus  Christ! ,  556. 

Corpus  Doctrinae,  557. 

Corpus  Evangelicorum,  557. 

Correspondences.      See  Swedenborgian- 

ism. 
Corrodi,  Heinrich,  557. 
Corvey,  557. 

Corvinufl,  Antonius,  558. 
Cosin,  John,  55S. 
Cosmas  and  Damianus,  558. 
Cosmas  Indicopleueics,  558. 
Cossit,  Franceway  Ranna,  558. 
Costume.    See  Clothing  among  the  He- 
brews, Dress  ainong  the  Early  Chris- 
tians, Vestments  of  the  Clergy. 
Cotelerius,  Jean  Baptii^te,  559. 
Cotton,  George  Edward  Lynch,  559 
Cotton,  John,  559. 
Council,  559. 

Courayer,  Pierre  Francois  Le,  561. 
Courcelles,  Etienne  de,  561. 
Court  among  the  Hebrews,  661. 
Court,  Antoiue,  561. 
Cousin,  Victor,  562. 
Covenant,  562. 
Covenanters,  563. 
Coverdale,  Miles,  564. 
Cowl,  565. 
Cowles,  Henry,  565. 
Cowper,  William,  565. 
Cox,  Samuel  Hanson,  566. 
Crabbe,  George,  566. 
Cradock,  Samuel,  566. 
Craig,  John,  566. 
Craig,  John,  566. 
Crakenlliorpe,  Richard,  566. 
Cramer,  Joliann  Andreas,  566. 
Cranmer,  Thomae,  567. 
Crashaw,  Richard,  567. 

Crato  von  (-raffiheiin,  567. 

Crawford,  Thomas  J.,  568. 

Creation,  568. 

Creationiein,  569. 

Credence  Table,  570. 

Crediier,  Karl  August,  570. 

Creed.  570. 

C'respin.  Jean,  571. 

Criminal,  Hebrew.      See  Court   among 
Hebrews. 

Crifp,  Tobias,  571. 

OIwpinuB,  571. 

CriticlSacri,  572. 

Criticism,  Textual.    See  Bible  Text. 

Crocius,  Johann,  572. 

Cromwell,  Gliver,  672. 

Crosier,  573. 

Cross,  573. 

Crueiger,  Kaspar,  575. 

('ruden,  Alexander,  576. 

Crusades.  578. 

CrusluH,  CliriHtian  August,  578. 

Crypt,  578. 

Crvplo-Calvlnism,  578. 

Cudworth,  Ralph,  670. 

Culdees,  579. 

Cullen.  Paul,  581. 

Cimiberland  Presbyterian  Church,  581, 

Cumming,  John,  5K2. 

Cummiim,  George  David,  582. 

Cuneiform  Insnrintlons,  583. 

Cnnidnifham,  William,  585. 

Ciir'^ellajus,  Stephanus.    Sec  Courcelles. 

Curate,  586. 

Ciirnie,  Perpetual.    See  Curate. 

Ciirelon,  William.  586. 

('urouB,  Joacldm,  580. 

Curhi  Koinanii,  586, 

Cnrlo,  CfplltiM  HecunduB,  687. 

CurttuH,  Videiilln,  588. 

CuRannx,  Nlcolaus,  688. 

Cush,  5H9. 

Culhbert,  St.,  500. 

Culty-Btool,  691. 


Cyaxarcs.    See  Darius. 

Cycle.     See  Era. 

Cyelopiedias.    See  Dictionaries. 

Cyprian,  Ernst  Salomon,  591. 

Cyprianus,  Tbascius  CEecilius,  591. 

Cyprus,  593. 

Cyrene,  593. 

Cyrenius.    See  Quirinius. 

Cyriacus,  593. 

Cyril  of  Alexandria,  594. 

Cyril  Lucar,  594. 

Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  595. 

Cyrillus  and  Methodius,  595. 

Cyrus  the  Great,  597. 


Dach,  Simon,  599. 
D'Achery.    See  Achery,  D*. 
Da  Costa,  Isaak,  599. 
Daggett,  Oliver  Ellsworth,  599. 
Dagon,  599. 

DafUe,  Jean,  599. 

D'Alli,  or  D'Ailly.    See  AIIH. 
Dalberg,  Karl  Tlu-odor.  599. 

Dale,  James  Wilkinson,  600. 

Dalmatia,  600. 

Dalmatio*  6(J0. 

Damascus,  600. 

Damasus  (popes),  601. 

Damianus,  Peter,  601. 

Damianus,  St.    See  Cosmas  and  Damia- 
nus. 

Damianus  of  Alexandria,  601. 

Dan.     See  Tribes  of  Israel. 

Danaeus,  Lambert,  6ul. 

Dance  among  the  Hebrews,  601. 

Dancers,  602. 

Daniel,  602. 

Daniel,  Book  of,  602. 

Daniel,  Apocryphal  Additions  to,  606. 

Dannhauer,  Konrad,  606. 

Dante,  607. 

Danz,  Johann  Andreas,  609. 

Danz,  Johann  Traugotl  Leberecht,  609. 

Darboy,  Georges,  609. 

Darbyites.    See  Plymouth  Brethren. 

Daric.    See  Money. 

Darius,  609. 

Datarius.    See  Curia. 

Dathe,  Johann  August,  609. 

Daub,  Karl,  610. 

D'Aubigne.    See  Merle  D'Aubigo6. 

Daunt,  Achilles,  610. 

Davenant,  Jolin.  610. 

Davenport,  Christoplier,  610. 

Davenport,  John,  010. 

David,  611, 

David.  St.,  612. 

David,  Christian.    See  Moravians. 

David-ha-Cohen,  612. 

David  George.    See  Joris. 

I>avid  Xicetas.    See  Nicetaa. 

Davidistft.    See  Joris. 

David  of  Dinanto.  612. 

Davies,  David,  612. 

Davies.  Samuel.  612. 

Day,  013. 

Day,  Jeremiah,  613. 

Deacon,  613. 

l^eaconcss,  015. 

I>eaconc9seH,  Institution  of,  616. 

Dead,  Communion  of,  617. 

Dead,  Prayers  for  the.    See  Purgatory. 

Dean,  617. 

Death,  017. 

Death,  Dance  of,  619. 

Deborah,  619. 

Decalogue,  619. 

Decapolis.  620. 

Decius,  620. 

Decree,  Decretal,  620. 

Decretals,  pHeudo-Inidorian.  See  Pseudo- 
Iwldorlan  Decretals. 

Decretum,  Gratiani.     See  Canon  Law. 

Dedication,  Feast  of,  020. 

De  Dieu.     See  Dicu,  de. 

I)e  I)omlnift.    See  Anthony  de  Domiidr*. 

DefectUB  Sacramenll,  021. 

l^efender  of  the  Fallh,  021. 

Defensor  Matrimonii,  621. 

Degradation.  021. 

Degrees,  Sonift*  of.    See  I'^salmA. 

Di-giH'ert,  Academic,  021. 

Del  Gratia,  021. 

DelMrn,02l. 

Do  Koven,  JumciH,  6*28. 


INDEX. 


XXlll 


Deliig^e.    See  Noah. 

Deraetrius,  623. 

DenieLiius  of  Alexandria,  623. 

Dunictiius  OydoiiiuB,  &2'i. 

Deniirtsioi),  Gli3. 

Demiurge.    See  Gnoflticism. 

Demmu,  Chiirk'S  Uialolph,  623. 

Demon,  6;i3. 

Demoniacs,  624. 

Dempster,  Julin,  625. 

DemjistLM',  Thonms,  625. 

Deimrius.    St-e  Money. 

Denck,  Joh:iiin,  \J2o. 

Deni8,  .St.,  62">. 

Denmark,  626. 

Dens,  IV'ter,  627. 

DeniMiciatio  Evangelica,  627, 

Depositiuii,  627. 

Depriviition,  627. 

Deput.iUis.  627. 

DercHtT,  Thiuidiiiis  Anton,  627. 

Derhiim,  Willium,  628. 

Dervish,  628. 

De  Hacy.  See  Sncy,  de. 

De  BaU's.    Si-e  ISiiltiB,  de. 

Descartes,  628. 

Deefit,  629. 

Deseit,  Church  of  the.    See  Camieards, 

IlubTiienols. 
Des  Maryts,  Samuel,  629. 
Destnarcts  de  Saint-Sorlin,  629. 
Desservunt,  629. 
DcBubas,  6*29. 
Determinism,  629. 
Deurhoff,  William,  630. 
Deusdedit,  630. 
Deusing,  Herman,  630. 
DeutiMo-Canonical.    See  Apocrypha. 
Deuti'ronomy.    Sec  Pentateuch. 
Deuisch.  Emanuel  O.  M.,  630. 
DeutHchmann,  Johann,  630. 
D6viiy,  Milly^B  Bird,  630. 
DeveUipment,  Thuoiogical,  631. 
Development,  Scientilic.    See  Evolution. 
Devil.  631. 
Devotion,  633. 
Dewid,  St.    See  David,  St. 
De  Wette.     See  Wette,  de. 
De  Witt,  Thomas,  633. 
Diabolus.    See  Devil. 
Diaconicum,  633. 
Diana  of  the  Ephesiane,  633. 
Diaspora,  633. 

Diatee.saron,  633.  -^ 

Diaz,  Francisco,  634. 
Diaz,  Juan,  634. 
Dibon,  634. 
Dick,  John,  634. 
Dick,  Thomas,  634. 
Dickinson.  Jonathan,  634. 
Dickson,  David,  635. 
Dictates  of  I*ope  Gregory,  635. 
Dictionaries  and  Cyclopiedias,  635. 
Diderot,  Denye,  637. 
Didymus  of  Alexandria,  637. 
Didymus,  Gabriel,  637. 
Diepenbrock,  Melchior,  63S. 
■  Dies  Irae,  638. 
Diestel.  Ludwig  von,  63S. 
Diet,  638. 

Dietrich,  Veit,  638. 
Dietrich  of  Niem,  639. 
Dieu,  Louis  de  (Lodewyk),  639. 
Digby,  Sir  Kent* Im,  639. 
Diman,  Jeremiali  Lewis,  639. 
DimiHsory  Letters,  639. 
Dimo^rites,  639. 


Pinter,  (Justav  Frledrich,  C39. 

DiofCHe.  639. 

Diocletian,  or  Diocletianus,  640. 

Diodati,  Giovanni,  640. 

Diodorus,  6iO. 

Diognetus,  lipirtlle  to,  641. 

DIonysius  Areopaglla,  641. 

Dionyt^ius  of  Alexandria,  042. 

IMonysius  of  Corinth,  643. 

DionyeluB  of  Kome,  C43. 

Dioiiysiiis  Exigutis,  643. 

I)ioiiy(*iu8  the  Carthusian,  643. 

Dioscuros,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  643. 

Dippel,  Johann  Konrad,  643. 

Diptychs,  643. 

Directory  of  Worship.    See  Worship. 

Discalceati,  643. 

Disciples  of  Christ,  644. 

Uisciplina  Arcani.  See  Arcani Dtscipliiia. 

Discipline,  645. 

Discipline,  Book  of,  647. 

Discipline,  Kirst  and  Second  Books  of, 

647. 
Disease.    Sec  Medicine. 
Dismes,  647. 
Dispensation,  647. 

Dispersed.    See  Diaspora,  Captivity. 
Dissenter,  647. 
Distaff's  Day,  St.,  647. 
^pistinctio  Kaiioiiis  Uatiocinantis,  647. 
'  1)ivination.    See  Magic. 
J>ivorce.  647. 
Dixon,  James,  6.')0. 
Doane.  George  Washington,  650. 
Dobritzhofter,  Martin,  650. 
Docetism.    See  Doketism. 
Doctor.  650. 
Doctrinaires.  651. 
Doctrines,  HiMory  of,  651. 
Dod,  Albert  Baldwin,  652. 
Dod.  John,  652. 
Dodanim,  652. 
Doddridije.  Tliilip.  652, 
Dodwell,  Henry,  652. 
Doederlein,  J.  C,  652. 
Doeg,  652. 
Dogma,  653. 
Dogmatics,  653. 
Dogs,  656. 
Doketism,  655. 
Dolcino,  657. 

Domicella.    See  Chapter. 
Dominic,  St.,  and  the  Dominicans,  657. 
Dominical  Letter,  663. 
Dominica  in  Albis,  658. 
Doniincale,  658. 

DomitneusLoricatus.  See  Damiani, Peter. 
Dominis,  de.  Marc  Anthony.    See  An- 
thony de  Dominis. 
Domiiian,  658. 
Domitilla,  659. 
Domnus.     See  Donus. 
Donaldson,  John  William,  659. 
Donati.     See  Monasticism. 
Donation  of  Constantine,  659. 
Donatiets,  659. 
Donative,  661. 
Donatus  Vesontiensis,  661. 
Donatus  of  Casae  Nigras.    See  Donatietfl. 
Donctus  the  Great.    See  Donatista. 
Donne,  John,  661. 
Donnell,  Robert,  661. 
Donnellan  Lecture,  661. 
Donoso-Cortes,  Juan,  661. 
DoiuiB  L,  661. 
Doolittle,  Justus,  661. 
Doolittle,  Thomas,  662. 


Dinant,  or  Dinanto,  David  of.    See  Davidl  Doorkeepers.    See  Ustiarii. 
of  Dinanto.  [  Dora,  Sister,  662. 


DorcnB,  662. 

Dorumus,  Mrs.  T.  C.    8ee  Appendix. 

Dorothea,  662. 

Dorotheus,  662. 

Dort,  Synod  of,  662. 

Dositheus,  663. 

Douar,  or  Douay,  663. 

Dove,  6(14. 

Dow,  Lorenzo,  664. 

Dowling,  John,  664. 

Doxology,  664. 

D'Gyly,  George,  664. 

DrabiciuB,  Nicol,  665. 

Drachm,  Dr.Tchma.    See  Money. 

Draconites,  Johannes,  665. 

Dracontius.  665. 

DrjEseke,  Joliann  Heinrich    Bernhardt. 

665. 
■Dragon,  665. 
Dram.    Bee  Money. 
Dreams,  665. 
Drelincourt,  Charles,  666. 
l>reHden  Council,     See  rinlippista. 
Dri-Hs  of  the  Hebrews.     See  Clothing  and 

Ornaments  among  the  Hebrews. 
Dress  of  the  Early  Christians.  666. 
DresB  of  the  Clergy.    See  Vestments. 
Drew  Tiieological  Seminary,  667, 
Drey,  Johann  Sebastian,  667. 
Drontheim.  667. 
Droste  zu  Vischering,  667. 
Drnz.  Framjois  Xavier  Joseph,  667. 
Druidism,  667. 
Druses,  668. 
Drusilla,  669. 
Drnsius,  Johannes,  669. 
Druthmar,  Christian,  669. 
I^rvander.     See  Enzinas,  Francisco  de. 
DuRlism,  669. 

Du  Bartas,  Guillaume  Sallustc,  669. 
DuboBc,  Pierre,  670. 
Dubourg,  Anne,  670. 
Du  Cange,  Charles  da  Fresne,  670. 
Dnchobortzi,  671. 

J^uchowny  Christiany.    See  Molokans. 
Dudiih,  Andreas,  671. 
Dutf,  Alexander,  671. 
Dufresne.    See  Du  Cange. 
Duguet,  Jacques  Joseph,  672, 
Du  Halde,  672. 
Dnicinists.    Se    Dolcino. 
Duli;t,  672. 

Du  Moulin,  Charles,  672. 
Du  Moulin,  Pierre,  672. 
Duncan,  John,  673. 
Dungal,  673. 
Dunin,  Martin  von,  673. 
Dtmkers.     See  Tunkers. 
Duns  Scotus,  Johannes,  674. 
Dunstan.  St..  674. 
Dunster,  Henry,  675. 
Dupanioup,  Felix  A.  P.,  675. 
Duperron,  Jacques  Davy,  676. 
Du  I*in,  Louis  Eliies,  675. 
Du  Plessis-Mornay,  675. 
Dupreau,  Gabriel,  676. 
Durand  of  St.  I'ourgain.  676. 
Durand,  Guillaume,  677. 
Durbin,  John  Price,  677. 
Dury,  John,  677. 

Dutch.    See  Holland;  Reformed  Church, 
Duties,  Contlict  of.  678. 
Dutoit,  or  Dutoit-Membrini,  678. 
Duty.     See  Etliics. 
Duveil,  Charles  Maria,  678. 
Duveigier,  Jean  de  Hauranne,  678. 
Dwitrht,  Timothy,  678. 
Dwigbt,  Sereno  Edwards,  679, 


VOLUME  IL 


E. 

Eachni-d,  John,  680. 

Kadfrid,  r.80. 

Eadio,  Jolin,  680. 

Eadrac-r,  8S1. 

Eadmuiid.  King,  681. 

E.ldniund,  St.,  681. 

Jlildw.ird,  681. 

Ear-rins:.    See  Clothing  and  Ornnmcnta 

amoiit;  tlie  Hebrewe. 
KiiBt,  681. 
■  Kaet,  pruvin*;  towards  the,  681. 


Easter,  681. 

Eastern  Church,  682. 

Katon,  George  W.,  682. 

Elial,  682. 

Ebbo,  682. 

Ebed  .Tesu,  683. 

Ebel,  .lohannes  Wilhelm,  683. 

Eber,  Paul,  684. 

Eberiin,  Johann,  684. 

Ehionites,  684. 

Ebiaiii  ot'  Bclhune,  685. 

Ecbalana.  68-5. 

Ecee  Homo,  68-5. 


Eccheltensifl,  Abraham,  685. 

Ecclesia.    8ee  Clmrch. 

Ecclesiastes,  6S.i. 

Ecciesiastical  History.    SeeChnreh  ni» 

tory. 
Ecclesiastical  Polity.    See  Polity. 
Eeclesiaslicua.     See  .Apocrypha. 
Erhmiedzin.     See  Etsbmiudzin. 
Eck,  Johann,  687. 
Eclihart,  688. 
Eclecticism,  689. 
Kctliesis.     See  Monothclitr*. 
Ecu.ador,  the  Kepulilic  of,  689. 


XX17 


INDEX. 


Kdclmnnn,  Jutiujin  Christian,  689. 

Kden,  6S9. 

KUen  (a  people),  €92. 

Kdict,  693. 

Kdictof  Naniee.  See  HugmonoU,  Nantes. 

K»lict  of  Worms.    Bee  Luther,  Worms. 

Kdifiauion.  69G. 

Kdmiind  (I)  and  (2).    See  Eadraund. 

K4lom,  Kdomile,  Idumsea,  Jdumteau,  693. 

Kdrci,  694. 
— Kducatioj:  among  the  Hebrews,  694. 
— -Kducation,  Ministerial,  695. 

Edwards,  Bcia  Bates,  697. 

Kdwarda,  John,  697. 

Kdwardp,  Jonathan,  the  Elder,  697. 

fidwardp,  Jonathan,  the  Younger,  699. 

Kdwards,  Justin,  701. 

Kdzardi,  Ezra,  7U1. 

Kdzardi,  Sebastian,  701.  -^ 

Ktleciual  (Jailing.     See  Call.  — 

Egbert,  St.,  7U1. 

Kgbert,  Arcbbisbop,  702. 

Egedc,  Hans,  702, 

Eginbard,  or  Einhard,  703. 

Kglinus.  Raphael,  703. 

Eglon,  703. 

Kgjpt,  703. 

KK}-ptian  Chrletiane.  See  Coptic  Church. 

Egyptian  Versiuiii?.     See  Bible  VersiutiH. 

Ebrenfeuchier,  Fricdrich  Aug.  Edu.,  710. 

Kicbhorn,  Johaim  Gottfried,  711. 

Eichhorn,  Karl  Friedrich,  711. 

Kinhard.     See  Kginimrd. 

KInsiedeln.  711. 

EiMeumcnger,  Johann  Andreas,  711. 

Kkkt»hard;7n. 

Klagabftlus.    Sec  Hcliogabalus. 
Elam,  712. 

Klath,  orEloth,  712. 

Elcesailefi.    Hie  Elkesailes. 
Elder.    See  rrcMbyter. 
KIders  among  the  Hebrews,  712. 
Elect,  Election.    See  PrudeelinaUoD. 
Elements,  712. 
Eleulheropolis,  712. 
KIcuihernt-  (river),  713. 
Kleutherus  (biHhop),  713. 
-    Elevation  of  the  Host.    Sec  Mass. 
EH,  713. 

Elias  r>cvlta,  713. 
Ellgiiis,  713. 
Elijah,  714. 
Kltm,  716. 
Eliot,  John,  715. 
Klisreus,  716. 
Klinba,  716. 
Kli;£abetb,  Queen 

of. 
Klizabclh,  St.,  of  TTungary 
Kllzabi^^th  Alberliue,  717. 
ElkeKalte»,  717. 
Kllcr,  EllaM,  718. 
Elliott,  Charl.t*.  718. 
KIlia,  William.  718. 
Ellwood,  Thomas,  71S. 
Kluhlm,  718. 
Elulh.     See  RIath. 
Elvira,  Council  of,  719. 
Kly,7I9. 
Emanation,  710. 
Kmbiiliniiig,  719. 
Ember  Uayn,  719. 
Embury,  I'hlllp,  719. 
Kmernon,  Uulph,  720. 
Emmauh,  720. 
Kmmerain,  or  Ilalmarem 
EmmonH,  Naibanael,  72'>. 
Emory,  John,  7Jl. 
Kmory,  Kobeit,  721. 
Em*er,  IfleronymnH,  722. 
Km«,  ( 'onffreMMor,  722. 
KncnititCH.  72:1. 


See  England,  Church 


716. 


720. 


Kncyetlral  Ix'ttrrn,  72.1. 
Kncyclupndla  of  Theolosr)',  723. 
KncyclohscdlaM,  Tliuological.     See  Dlc- 

UonarM-N. 
KneyclotHMllnlii,  724. 
Enditr,  Witch  of.    8€o  Haul. 
F.n<Tgument,  724. 
ICngedl,  7Z'>. 
Kngelbrecht,  Ilnnn,  72.V 
Kn({vlhardt,  JfJmnn  Hvnrfc  Veil,  725. 
KiiglaiMl,  Chiirrh  <pf,  725. 
Kiivllnh  lllble  Virm\nt}m,  731. 
ICnnodlitN,  Miigtiu*  Kellx,  739. 

Knoch,  739.  ^^...,„.,^.„ 

)Cnoeh.  llr»ok  of.    Sec  I'»ondepIgrii|ths  of  I  Kn^ehiiM  of  Vercel'll7773^ 

lh€  O.  T.  I  ICuMtuehlus,  773. 


—  -Enthusiasm,  740. 

Enzinas,  Francisco  de,  740. 
Enzinas,  Jaques  do.  740. 
Eon,  or  Eudo  de  Stella,  740. 
Eon.     See  Era,  Gnosticism. 
Ep.ion,  the  Council  of,  741. 

Eparchy,  741. 

Ephesians,  Epistle  to  the.    See  Paul. 

Ephesus,  741. 

Ephesus,  Councils  of,  741. 

Ephesus,  the  Seven  Sleepers  of,  742. 
Ephod.    See  High  Priest. 

Ephraem,  742. 

Epliraim.    See  Tribes  of  Israel, 

Kpictetus,  743. 
Bplcureanism,  743. 

Epiphnnius  of  Constantla,  74o. 

Epiphanius  of  Pavia,  744. 

Epiphanius  Scholaslicus,  744. 

Epiphany,  744. 

Episcopacy,  744. 

Episcopal  Church,  Protestant,  746. 

Episcopal  Church,  Ueformed,  74Ji. 

EpiscopiuB,  750. 

Episcopus  in  Partibus,  750. 

Epistles,  the,  751. 

EpiPtolffi  Obscurorum  Virorum,  751. 

Equitius,  752. 

Era,  752. 

Erasmns,  St.,  753. 

Erasmus,  Desiderius,  753. 

Eiastianism.    See  Erastue. 

Erastus,  Thomas,  755. 

Ercmile.    See  Anchorites. 
I  Erncsti,  Johann  August,  755. 

Erpenius,  Thomas,  T'.ie. 

Erskinc,  Ebenezer,  760.  — 

Rrskine.  John,  756. 

Krskine,  lijilph,  757. 

Erskine,  Thomas,  757. 

Esarhaddon,  758. 

Esau.    See  Edora,  Jacob. 

Escbatology,  758. 

Escobar  y  Meiidoza,  Antonio,  759. 

Eacorial,  or  Escurial,  759. 

Esdras.     See  Apocryplia. 

Esdraelon.     See  Jezrecl. 

Esnik,  760. 

Espen,  Zeger  Bernhard  van,  760. 
Ess,  van,  Karl,  760. 
Ess,  van  Leander,  760. 

Essence,  7rt0. 

Essenes,  760. 
Esther,  762. 

Eatius,  Gullelmufl,  763. 
Eternal  I.ife.     See  Immortality. 
Eternal   I'uuishment.    See  i'uuisbment. 
Future. 
i  Elhelbert.  763. 
Kthehliedn,  St.,  7C3. 
Etheridge.  John  Wesley,  763. 
1  Ethics,  764. 
Ethiopia.    See  Abypslnia.  Egj-pt. 
Ethiopic  Version.    See  Bible   Versions, 

Vll. 
Ethnarch,  767. 

Etshmiadzin,  or  Echroicdzin,  767, 
Ettwein,  .John,  767. 
Euchartus,  767. 
Euchelalon,  767. 
Eucherius,  St.,  767. 
Euchites.    Bee  Messalia 
Euchologlon,  767. 

KudLomonism.    Sec  Epicureanism. 
Kudes,  Jean.  767. 
Eudoela,  7G8. 
Kudoxia,  768. 
KudoxluH,  768. 
EugeniuH  (popes),  768, 
KnglppiiiH,  768. 
Kuhcmi-ruK,  768. 
Kiilalius,  769. 
Kulogin,  im. 

EulogluH  of  Cordova,  769. 
Eunnmlus  and  the  Kunoniians,  760. 
Eunuch,  j6it. 
Euphriiten,  770. 
EuMcblus  (bl«liop),770. 
EusebluH  of  Alexandria,  771. 
EuKebltiH,  Bruno,  771. 
KuiieblUH  of  CojMnrea,  771. 
Eitseblun  of  Doiylmum,  772 
KuNehluH  of  Emenn,  772. 
KufchliiN  of  Laofllcea,  772. 
Eu»<ebhm  of  Nitomedia,  772. 
KuHebluN  of  Hnmosaln,  773. 
Enneblun  of  Thenmitonlca,  773. 


Eustathlus  of  Antioch,  TT^J. 

Eustathius  of  Scbaste,  773. 

EustathiuB  of  Thessalonica,  773. 

Eusiochium,  773. 

Euthalius,  774. 

Eutliymius  Zigndenun,  774. 

Eulychcs  and  Eutychianism,  774. 

Eutycliiaiius,  775. 

Eulyehius  of  Alexandria,  775. 

Eutychiue  of  Constantinople,  775. 

Evagrius  Ponlicus,  775. 

Evagrius  Scholasticus,  776. 

Evangelical    Alliance.        See    Allianee, 

Evangelical. 
Evangelical  Association.  776. 
Evangelical    Church    Conference.      Seo 

Kirchentag. 
Evangelical     Counsels.      See     Consilia 

Evangelica. 
Evangelical  Society  of  Geneva.     See  So- 

ciet6  Evangelique  de  Geuev*. 
Evangelical  Union,  776. 
Evangelist,  776. 
Evangelistary.  776. 
Evangeliuni  vEltrnum,  777. 
Evans,  Chvisim.i8,  777, 
Evans,  John,  777. 
Evans,  John,  777. 
Evanson,  Edwaid,  777, 
Eve,  777. 

Evelyn,  John,  778. 
Everlasting    Gospel.      See    Evangelium 

./Eteinuni. 
Eves.     See  Vigils. 

Evidences,  Christian.    See  Apologetics. 
Evilnurodach,  778. 
Evolution  and  Development,  779. 
Ewald.  Georg  Heiniich  August,  781. 
Ewing,  Alexander,  782. 
Ewine,  Finis,  782. 
Exactions.  Exactioues,  TaUlae,  782, 
Exarch,  7S2. 
Exclusiva,  782. 
Excommunication,  782. 
Exegesis,  78.?. 
Exemption,  786. 
Exercises,  Spiritual,  786. 
I'lxeter,  786. 
Exile.     See  Cnplivity. 
Exodus,  Book  nf.    See  Pentatonch. 
Exodus  of  tiie  Children  of  Israel,  786. 
Exorcimn,  788. 
Expectancy,  788. 
Expiation.    See  Atonement. 
Ex|)iation,  Feast   of.      See  Atonement, 

U.iy  of. 
Exsuperins,  788. 
ICxtreuie  Unction,  789. 
Eylert,  Kuhlcuiauu  Frledrlch,  789. 
Ezekiel,  7tiO. 
Ezekiel,  Book  of,  700. 
Ezion-gaber,  or  geber,  791. 
I'^zra,  7«1. 
Ezra,  Book  of,  792, 


Faber,  nnsllius,  793, 

Faber,  Felix,  7V»3. 

Faber,  Frederick  W.,  703. 

Faber,  George  Stanley,  793. 

Faber,  Johnnnes,  793. 

Faber,  Pierre  l''?an5olM,  794. 

Faber  HtnpulenHiH,  Jaeolms.  794. 

Faber   Tanaquil.     See   Lefebvre   Taon^ 

Fabian,  794. 

Fabrica  Ecrlesiw,  794. 

[''nbricius,  Johann,  794. 

FabriciuH.  Johannes  Albert,  794. 

Faculty,  705. 

Facinidus,  705. 

[''agluH,  I'aul,  705, 

Fagniini,  Pi"0(4per,  7!15. 

Faiibairn,  Patrick,  795. 

Faith,  79.'i. 

I'"nith,  Pule  of.     See  Begula  Fidel. 

Fakir,  7Hrt. 

Falashns,  796. 

FalU  I-awH,  707. 

Fall  of  Man.    Hee  Sin. 

Familiar  SplrltH,  797. 

Fmnillares,  797. 

Fumlllars  of  the  InqnlMllion,  797. 

iMinilllHtH,  797. 

Fatiatlelfm,  798. 

Fiiril,  Guiilaume,  798. 

Farfn,  798. 


INDEX. 


XXV 


I'Viiindon.  Anlliony,  798. 

FiirincT»  lIuL'li,  798. 

^'iirnoviuB,  IMiK 

Farthing.    St-e  Money. 

KiiHtidiuB,  799. 

FitHling,  ittnonR  the  Hebrews.  708. 
"^^'^isting,  in  the-  Cbristiaii  C'Luich,  789. 
•^  KatiiliBm.  KOO. 

F:iUiera  of  the  Church,  800. 

F;iuchet,  Cliivjde.  SOO. 

Fiiiicheur,  Michel  le,  800. 

FmistinuH.  800. 

Fjuistns  Rcjcnuis,  or  Reelf^nfiie,  801. 

FiiiiHtui"  tile  Manichaean,  801. 

Fawkes,  Guy.    Set-  Gunpowder  Plot. 

Ftjaat  of  Asses.     See  Asses,  Feast  of. 

Feast  of  Fools,  801. 

I'Vasts.     Hec  Festivals. 

I'Vathers'  Tavern  Association,  801. 

Featly,  Daniel,  801. 

Federal  Theolotry.     See  Coccelus. 

Fehm  Court.    See  Velim  Court. 

Felitenhiiuer,  Paul,  801.  - 

Felicissiinue,  802. 

Felicitos  (saint),  802. 

Felieitas  (martyr),  802. 

Felix  and  Feetus,  802. 

I'-elix  the  ManichEcan,  802. 

Felix  the  Maitvr,  802. 

Felix  of  Nola,  802. 

Felix  of  Urgel.    See  Adoptlonlsm. 

Felix  (popes),  802. 

Fell,  John,  803. 

It'eller,  Francois  Xnvier  de,  803. 

FelLhrini,  Owen,  803.  * 

T^VIton,  Henry,  803. 

Fenced  Cities.    See  Fortifications. 
"^Kencius;  the  T.ables,  803. 

Fenelon,  Francois  d.  S.  d.  la  Motbc,  803. 

Fergueeon,  David,  80.*). 

Fenuentarians.    See  Azymites,  806. 

Ferrar,  Nicholas.  806. 

Furr.ir,  Robert,  806. 

yerrara-Florence,  Council  of,  806. 

Kerrara,  Renata,  807. 

Ferrer,  Vinceiitius,  807. 

I'Y'rricr,  Jeiemie,  807. 

F'uiris,  Isaac,  807. 

Ferry,  Paul,  807. 

Ferry  Law,  the,  807. 

Fe*.ch,  .Jose[.ii,807. 

F'estivals  of  the  Jews,  808. 

Festus.    See  Felix  aiid  Festua. 

Fetichism,  808. 

Feuerbach,  Ludwig  Andreas,  808. 

Feuillants,  the,  808. 

F'ew,  Ignatius  A.,  809. 

F'iacre,  St..  809. 

F'ichte,  Johann  Gottlieb,  809. 

FicIUe,  Immanue)  Hermann,  809. 

Ficinus,  Marsilius,  810. 

Fuldes,  Richard,  810. 

Fidelis.  St..  810. 

Field,  Richard,  810. 

Fifth-Monarchy  Men,  810, 

Fiji  Islands,  HIO. 
— Filioque  Controversy,  811. 

Fillan,  St.,  812. 

Finland,  the  Chriatianization  of,  812. 

Finley,  James  Bradley,  813. 

Finley,  Robert,  813. 

Finley,  Samuel,  813. 

Finnan,  813. 

Finney,  Charles  G.,  813. 

Kintan,  814. 

Fire,  Pillar  of.    See  Pillar  of  Cloud  and 
Fire. 

Fire,  Baptism  of.    See  Martyrs. 

Fire-worehip.     See  Parseeisra. 

Mrkowitsch,  Abraham,  814. 

Firmilian,  814. 

First-born,  814. 

First-fruits,  814. 
-—  Fiist-fruits,  Ecclesiastical.     See  Taxes. 
^  Fisch,  George.  815. 

Fish,  Henry  C,  815. 

Fish  (emblem).     See  Ichthus. 

Fisher's  Ring.    See  Anuutus  Piscatorius. 

Fisher,  John,  815. 

Fisk,  Pliny,  816. 

Fisk.  Wilbur,  816. 

Five-Mile  Act,  816. 

Five  Points  of  Calvinism,  816. 

Flacius,  Matthias,  810. 

Flagellants,  817. 

Flnvel,  John,  818. 
Flavianus  of  Antioch,  813. 

PtavianuB  of  ConstauLiaupIe,  818. 


FI<5chior,  Eepiit,  818. 

Fleetwood,. tnhn,  818. 

Fleetwood,  William,  818. 

Flesh,  818. 

Fletcher,  Giles,  819. 

Fletcher,  John  William,  819. 

Fletcher,  Joseph,  820. 

Fleury,  Abbey  of,  820. 

Fleury,  Claude,  820. 

Fliedner,  Thendor,  820. 

Flodoard  of  Uheims,  821. 

Flood.    See  Noah. 

Flore,  Order  of.  821. 

Florence,  Council  of.  See  Fcrrara-FIor- 
cnce.  Council  of. 

Florian,  821. 

Florus,  821. 

Florus,  Oessius,  822. 

Fliie,  Niklaufl  von,  822. 

Fonseca,  Pedro  da,  822. 

Font,  822. 

Fontevraud,  Order  of,  822. 

Foot-washing,  823. 

Forbes,  Alexander  Penrose,  823, 

Forbes,  John,  823. 

Forbes,  Patrick,  823. 

Forbes,  William,  823. 

Foreiro,  Francisco,  823. 

Formosufl,  823. 

Forster,  Johann,  824. 

Fortilicalions  among  the  Hebrews,  824. 

Kortunatus,  824. 

FuBcarari,  824. 

Foster,  James,  824. 

Foster,  John,  824. 

Foundling  Hospitals.    See  Infanticide. 

Fox,  George,  825. 

Fox  (or  Foxe),  .Tobu,  826. 

Fox,  Richard,  826. 

Fragments,  Wolfenbuttel.  See  Wolfcn- 
blittel  Fragments. 

France,  Eecfcsiaetical  Statitstics  of,  826. 

France,  Protestantism  iu,  828. 

Fiancifl  of  Assisi,  830. 

Francis  of  Paula,  830. 

Francis  of  Sales,  831. 

Francis  Xavier,  831. 

Francis,  Convers,  831. 

Franciscans,  8.S1. 

Franck,  Sebastian.  832. 

Francke,  August  Heimann,  832. 

Frank,  Jacob  Joseph,  833. 

Frankenberg,  Juhann  Heinrich,  833. 

Frankfurt  Concordat.     See  Concordat. 

Frankfurt,  Council  of,  833. 

Fiankincense,  833. 

Franks,  the,  833. 

Fraternities,  834. 

Fratricelli,  Fralicelli,  R34, 

Frayssinous,  Denys,  834. 

Frederick  III.,  the  Wise,  !34. 

Frederick  III.,  the  Pious,  835. 

Free  Church  of  Scotland.  See  Scotland, 
Free  Church  of. 

Free  Congregations,  835. 

Free  Religious  Association,  SS.'J. 

Free  Spirit.  See  Brethren  of  the  Free 
Spirit. 

Fi"eeman,  James,  836, 

Freethinkers,  836. 

Freewill  Baptists,  836. 

Frelinghuysen,  Hon.  Theodore,  S36, 

French  Confession  of  Faith.  See  Galil- 
ean Confession. 

French  Prophets,  837. 

French  Prolestautism.  See  France,  Prot- 
estantism in. 

French  Versions  of  the  Bible.  See  Bible 
Versions,  p.  288. 

Fresenius,  Johann  Philipp,  837. 

Fresne,  l)u.    See  Du  Cange. 

Freylinghauscn,  Johuun  Auastasius,  837 

Fridolin,  837. 

Friendly  Islands,  838. 

Fi-iends,  Society  of.  838. 

Friends  of  God,  841. 

Friends  of  Light.  See  Free  Congrega- 
tions. 

Frisians,  the,  841. 

Frith,  John.  841. 

Fritzsche,  Karl  Friedrich  August,  841. 

Froment,  Antoine,  842. 

Fronton  le  Due,  842. 

Frossard.  Benjimiin  Sigismond,  842. 

Fronde,  Richard  Hurrcll,  842. 

Frucluosus,  842. 

Frumentius.    See  Abj-esinian  Church. 

Frv.  Kiizabeth,  842. 


Fulbert  of  Chart  res,  843, 

Fulcher  of  Clmrtres,  843, 

Fulcu,  843. 

Fulda,  the  Monastery  of,  843, 

Fulgentius  Feirandus.  844. 

Fulgentin.s  of  Kuspe,  844. 

Fiilke,  William,  844. 

Fuller,  Andrew,  S44. 

Fuller,  Richard.  844. 

Fuller,  Thf.mjw,  845. 

Funck,  Johann,  845. 

Fundamental  Doctrines  of  Chrletinnlt^ 

845. 
Funeral.    See  Burial. 
Furseufl,  847. 
Flirst,  Julius,  847. 

Future  Pumshment.    Sec  Punishmeol. 
Future  Suite.    See  Eschatology. 


Gabbatha,  849. 

Gabler,  Joliann  Philipp,  849. 

Gabriel,  849. 

Cabricl  Sionita.  849. 

Gad,  849. 

Gad.    See  Tribes  of  Israel, 

Gadara,  849. 

Galatia,  850. 

Galatians,  Epistle  to  the.    See  Paul. 

Galhanum,  S5t). 

Gale,  Thcophilus,  850. 

Gale,  Thomas,  850. 

Galfrid  of  Monmouth.    See  Geoffrey  of 

Monmouth. 
Galilee.     See  Palestine. 
Gall,  St.,  the  Monastery  of,  850. 
Galland,  .Vndrea,  850. 
Gallaudct,  Thomas  Hopkins,  851, 
GulUiudet,  Thomas,  851. 
Gallaudct,  Edward  Miner,  851. 
Galilean  Confession,  851. 
Gallicanism,  851. 
Gallienus,  Publiua  Licinius,  852. 
Gallio,  852. 

Gallitzin,  Demetrius  Augustine,  852. 
Gallus,  C.  Vibius  Trebonianus,  852. 
Gamaliel,  853. 
Gamaliel  of  Jabneh,  853. 
Games  among  the  Hebrews,  853. 
Gangra,  853. 
Garaese,  Francois,  853. 
Gardiner.  Col.  James,  853. 
Gardiner.  Stephen,  853. 
Garissoles,  Antoine,  853. 
Garnet,  Henry  Highland,  854. 
Garnicr,  Jean,  S54. 
Garnier.  Julien,  854. 
Garve,  Karl  Bcruhard,  8M. 
Gasparin,  Agenor,  Cumte  de,  854- 
Gabparin,  Madame,  854. 
Gataker,  Thomas,  854. 
Gauden,  John,  855. 
Gaudenlius,  855. 
Gaul-  855. , 

Gaussen,  Etienne,  855. 
Gaussen,  Fran9oi;a  Samuel  Robert  Louis, 

855, 
Gautama.     See  Buddhism. 
Gaza,  856. 
Gebhard  II.,  856. 
Geddes,  Alexander,  856. 
Geddes,  Janet,  or  Jenny,  856. 
Gehenna,  856. 
Geibel,  Johannes,  857. 
Geiger,  Abraham.  857. 
Geiger,  Franz  Tiburtius,  857. 
Geilcr,  Johann,  857. 
Gelasius  (popes),  857. 
GelasiuB  of  Cyzicus.  853. 
Gellcrt,  Christian  FUrchtcgott,  858, 
Gem.    See  Precious  Stones. 
Gemara.     Sec  Talmud. 
Genealogy,  853. 
Genesis.     See  Pentateuch. 
Gene^ius,  800. 
Geneva,  860. 
Genevieve,  St.,  861. 
Genevieve,  Canons  of  St.,  861. 
Gennadius  Massilicnsis,  861. 
Gennadius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 

861. 
Gennesaret,  862. 
Genonde,  Engine  do,  862. 
Gentilis,  Giovanni  Viilentino,  862. 
Gentiliet,  lunucenc,  862, 


IXDEX. 


Gontilly.  Council  of.  862. 

Gc'iiuflcctcntcs.    Sl-c  C'atechctics. 

Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  862. 

George,  St.,  8G2. 

George  III.,  S63. 

George,  Margrave  of  Brandeziburg-Aiis- 
bach,  S63. 

George  of  Polentz.  863. 

George,  Duke  of  Saxony,  S63. 

George  of  Trebizond,  863. 

George  of  Cappadocia,  863. 

George  the  Pisidian,  863. 

Georgian  Versions.    Sec  Bible  Vorslona. 

Georgius,  8G3. 

Georgius  Svncellua,  864. 

Gerberou.  Gabriel,  864. 

Ocrbcrt,  Martin,  864. 

Gerdes,  Daniel,  864. 

Gergesa.    See  Gadara. 

Gerhard,  Johann,  864. 

Gerhard,  St..  864. 

Gcrbardt,  Paul,  864. 

Gerhoch,  865. 

Gerizini,  8G5. 

Gcrlacb,  Otto  von,  865. 

Ucrlc,  Christoplie  Antoine,  865. 

Germain  d'Auxcrre,  St.,  865. 

Germain  de  Paris,  St.,  865. 

German  Catholics,  865. 

German    Reformed    Church.      See   Re- 
formed Church,  German. 

German  Translations  of  the  Bible,  866. 

Germany,  868. 

Gcrson,  John  Charlier,  868. 

Gertrude  (saints),  869. 

Oencaijsc,  Francois  Armand,  869, 

Gervaeius  and  ProtasiuB,  869. 

Gcsenius,  Jutitus,  870. 

Gcaenius,  Wilhelm,  870. 

Gesta  Ilomanorum,  870. 

GcthHcniane,  870. 

Gfrocrcr,  August  Friedrich,  870. 

Gbibc-tlines.    See  Guelphu. 

Giants,  371. 

Gibbon,  Edward,  871. 

Giberti,  Giovanni  Matteo,  871. 

Gibson,  Edmund.  STl. 

(tichtel,  Johuiin  Georg,  872. 

(iideon,  872. 

Gieseler,  Johann  Karl  Ludwig,  872. 
^Gifts.  Spiritual,  872. 

Giathi-il.  Ludwig  Friedrich,  873. 

Gihon.     See  Kdcn,  Jerubalcm. 

Gilbert  de  la  Porree,  873. 

Gilbert  of  Sempringham,  873. 

Gilboa,  873. 

Gildas,  873. 

Giicad.    See  Palestine. 

Giles,  St.,  873. 

Gillill.an,  George,  874. 

Gill.  John,  874. 

Gillespie,  George,  874. 

Gillespie.  Tlionms,  874. 

Oilk'tl,  Ezra  Hall,  874. 

Gilpin,  Bernard.  875. 

Gir:ildu8  Cambrintiis,  875. 

Girdle,  among  the  Hebrews,  875. 

Glanvil,  Josepli,  875. 

(}]nHH,  John,  876. 

GlnKsiuB,  Satomo,  876. 

Glebe.  876. 

<Jlorla  in  Kxcelnis.    Sec  Doxology. 

Gloria  Patrl.    S»to  Doxology. 

Glory.    Sett  NimbuH. 

GloHnes.  BIblieiil.  876. 

GloRscH  and  (Moptsatorcs,  876. 

Gloucester,  877. 

Gniipbo^UH,  Wilhelmus,  877. 

GnoHtlclsini  877. 

Goar,  St..  881. 

Gobat,  Samuel,  881. 

God),  Jolianru-H,  8H2. 
Mlod  (German  aiiicle),882. 
^Ood  (editorial  arilcle),  884. 

Godunu,  Antoine,  880. 

Oodebard,  St.,  880. 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  880. 

Godwin,  I'rrinelK.  887. 

Godwin,  'l"Iioinii»,  8H7. 

Goepp,  Jejui  Jacques,  887. 

Gocrrns,  Joluiim  J<»fteph,  887. 

Gorsrhcl,  Karl  Krledrkh,  887. 

Goezf',  Johann  Melcblur,  867. 

Gog  and  Mngog.  888. 

Gogerly,  Daniel  Jr>hn,  888. 

Golden  <'nir.     See  Calf. 

Golden  Jx;Kend,88H. 

Gotdun  Number,  688. 


Goiaen  Rose.  £S5. 

Golgotha.    See  Holy  Sepulchre. 

Gomarus,  Francis,  888. 

Gomcr,  SS8. 

Gomorrah.     See  Sodom. 

Gondulf,  889. 

Gouesius,  Pctrus,  889. 

Good  Friday,  889. 

Goodcll,  William,  8S9. 

Goodwin,  Charles  Wycliffo,  890. 

Goodwin,  John,  8i!0. 

Goodwin,  Thomas,  890. 

Gorbam  Case,  890. 

Goriun,  890. 

Gorton,  Samuel.  890. 

Goshen.     See  Egyjit. 

Gospel  and  Gospels,  691. 

Gospeller,  892. 

Gossner,  Johannes  Evangclisto,  892. 

Golama.    See  Buddhism. 

Gothic  Architecture.    See  Architecture 

Gothic  Versions.     See  Bible  Versions. 

Goths,  the,  893. 

Gotlsclialk  (monk),  894. 

Gottschalk,  894. 

Goudimel,  Claude,  894. 

Gouge,  Thomas,  894. 

Gouge,  William,  S94. 

Goulart,  Simon.  895. 

Govinda.    See  Sikhs. 

Gozan,  895. 

Graal,  the  Holy,  895. 

Grabe,  Johann"  Ernst,  895. 

Grace,  896. 

Gradual,  896. 

Graham,  Isabella,  896. 

Graharae,  James,  8i)7. 

Grandmont,  or  Griuumont,  Order  of,  897 

Grant,  Aeahel,  897. 

Gratian  (emperor),  S97. 

Gratian,  897. 

Gratry,  Father,  897. 

Graul,  Karl,  898. 

Graven  Images.    Pec  Idolatry. 

Graves,  Richai-d,  898. 

Greece,  the  Kingdom  of,  898. 

Greek  Church,  the.  899. 

Greek  Versiuns.    See  Bible  Versions. 

Green,  Ashbel,  905. 

Green.  Joseph  Henry,  905. 

Greenlield,  William,  905. 

Greenhill.  William,  905, 

Gregir,  John.  906. 

Gregoire,  Henri,  905. 

Gregttr  von  Heimburg,  905. 

Gregorian  Chant.     See  Music. 

Gregorius  Agrigentmus,  906. 

Grcgorius  Auiiochensis,  906. 

Gregorius  is'eu-Csosarensis   Thauroatur- 

gus,  906. 
Gregory  the  Iljumlnator.    See  Armenia. 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  9U6. 
Gregory  of  Nys-sa,  907. 
Gregory  of  Tours,  908. 
Gregory  of  Utrecht,  908. 
Gregory  (popes),  908. 
Gregory,  Ulinthus  Gilbert,  912. 
Grellet,  Stephen,  913. 
Greswell,  Edward,  913. 
Gretser,  Jaliob,  Ul3. 
Griesbach.  Johann  Jakob,  913, 
Griflin,  Edward  Dorr,  913. 
Grindal,  Edmund,  914. 
Groen  van  Prinsierer,  tiuillaume,  914. 
Grout,  (ieert.    See  Brethren  of  tlie  Com- 
mon Elfe. 
Groppi-r,  Johann,  914. 
GroB»eU-ste,  Hubert,  914. 
Groiius.  Hugo,  916. 
GrovtH  and  Ti  ees,  .Sacred,  916. 
Grundivlg,    Nicolal    Fredcrik    Soverln, 

917. 
OrynflDus,  Simon,  917. 
Orynojus,  Juhaini  Jacob,  917. 
Gualberl,  (iiovannl,  917. 
(iudiile,  St..  918. 
Guelf  and  Ghibelline.  918. 
Gutin<ju,  Antoine,  918. 
Guerieke,    lleiuricli    Krnsl    Ferdinand, 

918. 
Gulbertoi  Nogent,  918. 
Gulberl  of  Parma,  918. 
Guldo  of  Arezzo,918. 
Guldode  Brew,  919. 

(jullberl  of  Sempringham.    8co  Gilbert. 
GulldH,9l9. 

Gulllou,  Mario  Nicolas  Sylveiilrc,  919. 
Gulnu,  ihu  UuuHU  uf,  919. 


Guizot,  Fran9ois  l*ierre  Guillaume,  920. 

Gundulph,  920. 

Gunpowder  Plot,  920. 

Guntlier,  Anton,  921. 

Gurnall,  William,  921. 

Guiney,  Joseph  John,  921. 

Gury,  Joseph  Pierre,  921. 

Gustavus  Adolphus.     See  Thirtv-Year»' 

War. 
GuslaTus-Adolphus-Association,  921. 
Guthlac,  St.,  921. 
Guthrie,  Thomas.  922. 
Giitzlafl",  Karl  Friedrich  August,  922. 
Guy  on,   Jeanne    Marie    Bouvier    de    la 

Mothe,  922. 
Guyse,  John,  924. 
Gyrovagi,  924. 

H. 

Haa^  AssociaUon,  925. 

Habakkuk,  'J2i. 

Habuikorn,  Peter,  925. 

HabcTt,  Isaac,  926. 

Hacki't,  John,  926. 

UaokuU,  lloiatio  Balcb,92a. 

Hailaii,  926. 

Hadad-Itlinmon,  926. 

Haddan,  .-Vrlhur  M'est,  926. 

Hades,  928. 

Hadrach,  928. 

Hadrian,  P.  ^liue,  92S. 

Hadrian  (popes).    See  .Adrian, 

Haeretico  Conibureiido,  928. 

Haelzer,  Ludwi«,  928. 

Hafenreffer,  Maubias,  923. 

Hagar,  928. 

Hagarites,  or  Ilagarencs,  920. 

Hageiiau,  Conference  of,  929. 

Hagenbach,  Karl  Rudolf,  929. 

llagt;adah.  929. 

Ilaagai,  929. 

Hasioglaplia,  930. 

Hahu,  August,  930. 

Hahu,  .]oliann  Miehael,  930. 

Ilaiino,  931). 

Hair,  among  the  Hebrews,  930. 

llalacbab.yai). 

IlaM.i'ie,  James  Alexander,  93(1 

Ilaldatie,  Uoberl,  9oU. 

Hale,  Matthew,  Sir,  931. 

Hales,  John,  931. 

Hales,  Wim.im,931. 

Half-Communion,  931. 

Half-way  Covenant,  931, 

Hall,  (iordon,  931. 

Hall,  John  Vine,  931: 

Hall,  Joseph,  931. 

Hall,  liobert,  932. 

-Hallel,  933. 

Hallelujah,  933. 

llaller,  Albrecht  von,  033. 

Ilaller,  Berthold,  933. 

Halley,  Kubert,  9;B. 

Halloek,  William  .\llen,  933. 

Halsey,  Luther,  933. 

Halyburton,  Thoinas,  934. 

Ham.    See  Noah  and  his  8on». 

Hatnan  the  Agagite.     See  Ksther. 

llainann,  Johutni  Georg,  934. 

Hamath,  934. 

Hamburg,  934. 

Hamel.     See  Ui^ns. 

Hamelmann,  Hermann,  934. 

llitmllton,  .lames,  934. 

Hamilton,  Patriek,935. 

Hamilton.  ,Sir  William,  938. 

Hammond,  Henry,  938. 

Hampden,  Hciin  l)ieksun,  038. 

llamon,  Jean,  93S. 

Hiindel,  Ueoi-g  Krledrlch,  038. 

Handicrafts  among  the  Hebrews,  039. 

Hands,  Laying  on  of.    See  Intposltiun  of 

Hands. 
Hanging.    See  I'unlabments  among  the 

Hebrews. 
Hannah,  030. 
Ilannuver.    See  Pruasla. 
Haiislz,  Markus,  039. 
Ilaphurah,  939. 
Halan,  039. 

Harbaiigh,  Henry,  9,W. 
Harding,  Blenhen,  939. 
Hurdwiek,  (;lijirleM,  939. 
Har<]ouin,  .lean,  940. 
Uardt,  Herman))  v.  d.  8co  Horinann  v.  d. 

llardt. 
Hardy,  Itobert  Spenee,  040. 


Hare,  Augustas  William,  940. 

Hate,  Julius  C'lmrles,  lt-10. 

lluiiuy,  Fiaii^oiH  de,  1141. 

Ilanncr,  Tliornas,  941. 

llarmoriists.    Kt-t^  UiippiHts. 

Harmony  of  tlio  Goepcln,  041. 

JtiirmB,  Claus,  943. 

Harms,  Georg  Ludwig  Detlev  Theodor, 

944. 
Harp.    See  Music  among  tbe  Hubrcws. 

Harris,  Howel,  945. 

Harris,  John,  U45. 
Harris,  Samuel,  945. 

Harvard,  John.   Hee  Harvard  University. 

Harvard  Univfrsity,  945. 

Harvest  amonLf  the  Hebrews,  Q40. 
Hascnkatnp,  Jiilmnn  Gerhard,  947, 

Hasenliamp,  Friediiob  Arnold,  947. 

Hasenkamp,  Johann  Heinrich,  947. 

ilasse,  Friedricli  Kudolf,  947. 

jllatteniiPts,  947. 

Tlalto  (hi^liop),  947. 

Hattu  {aicliliisli()p),947. 

Haui;,  Martin,  947. 

Haugc,  Hans  Nielsen,  948, 

Hauran.    See  Bashan. 

Hausmann,  Xicolaus,  94S. 

Havelock,  Henry,  Sir,  943. 

Haven,  P^rawtus  Otis,  048. 

Haven,  Gilbert,  94S, 

Havergal,  Frances  Ridley,  948. 

Havernick,  Heinrich  Andreas  Christoph, 
943. 

Havilah.    See  Eden. 

Hawaiian  Islands.      Sec  Sandwich  Isl- 
ands. 

Hawes,  Joel,  949. 

Hawker,  Robert,  949. 

Hawker,  Robert  Stephen,  949. 

Hawks,  Francis  Lister,  949. 

Hawley,  Gideon,  949. 

Haydn,  Joseph,  949. 

Haymo.     See  Hainio. 

Hazael,949. 

Heart  of  Jesus,  Society  of.    See  Jesus* 
Heart,  Society  of. 

Heave-Ofterings.    See  Offerings. 
• — Heaven,  949. 

Heber.  Reginald,  950. 

Hel>rew  Language,  the,  951. 

Hebrew  Toetry,  963. 

Hebrews,  Name  and  History.    See  Is- 
rael. 

Hebrews,  Epistle  to  the,  955. 

Hebrews,  Gospel  according  to  the.    See 
Apocrypha. 

Hebron,  957. 

Heckewelder,  John   Gottlieb  Ernestus, 
957. 

Hedio,  Kaspar,  957. 

Hedwig,  St.,  907. 

Heerbrand,  Jakob,  957. 

Heerraann,  Johann,  958. 

Hegel,  Georg  Wilhelm  Friedrich,  O'lB. 

Hegesippus,  959. 

Hegira,  959. 

Heidanus,  Abraham,  959. 

Heidegger,  Johann  Heinrich,  959. 

Heidelberg.     See  Universities,  German. 

Heidelberg  Catechism.  959. 

Heimburg.    See  Gregor  von  Heimburg. 

Heincccius,  Johann  Michael,  960. 

Helding,  Mioliael.    See  Sidonius. 

Helena,  St.,  960. 

Heliand,  961. 

Heliodorns,  961. 

Heliodorus  (bishop),  961. 

Heliogabalus,  961. 
— Hell,  961. 
—  Hell,  Descent  into,  the,  962. 

Hell,  Punishments  of. 

Hcllenititic  Idiom,  963. 

Helk-ni-^ts,  965. 

Hehetic  Confessions,  966. 

Helvetic  Consensus,  967. 

Helvetius,  Claude  Adrien,  967. 

Helvicus,  Clnistoph,  968. 

Hdvidius,  968. 

Helyot,  Pierre,  968. 

Henian.     See  I'salras. 

Hemtnerlin,  Felix,  9G8. 

Henuningsen,  Niels,  968. 

Henderson,  Alexander,  968. 

Henderson,  Ebene2er,  '.'To. 

Hcngstcnberg,  Ernst  Wilhelm,  070. 

HenhiJfer,  Aloye,  971. 

Henke,  Heinrich  Pliilijjp  Ivonrad,971. 

Heukc,  Ernst  Ludwig  Theodor,  972. 


INDEX. 


Henotikon,  the,  972. 

Henry  of  CIngny.    See  Henry  of  Lau- 
sanne. 

Henry  of  Ghent,  072. 

Henry  of  Goreuni,  972. 

Henry  of  Hnnlingdon,  972. 

Henry  of  Keltenbaeh.    See  Ketleiibach. 

Henry  of  Laiigensleln,  972. 

Henry  of  Lanbaune,  972. 

Henry    of    NUrdlingen.       See    John    of 
Rut  berg. 

Henry  of  ZUlpben.    See  MoIIcr. 

Henry  IV..  972. 

lleniy  VHL  of  Enf,dand.     See  England, 
Church  of. 

Henry,  Matthew,  973. 

Henry,  Paul  Emile,  973. 

Henry,  Philip,  973. 

Henscben,  Gottfried,  973. 

Heppe,  Heinrich  Ludwig  Julius,  974. 

Heraclas,  974. 

Heracleon.    See  Gnosticism. 

Herberger,  Valeiius,  974. 

Herbelot,  Barllielemy  d',  974. 

Herbert,  Edward.     See  Deism. 

Herbert,  George,  974. 

Herder,  JohauQ  Gottfried,  974. 

Hereford,  975. 
-^-Heresy,  975. 

Heretical    Baptism.     See    Baptism    by 
Heretics. 

Heriger,  976. 

Herimann  Contractus.    See  Hermann. 

Herle,  Charles,  976.  .^ 

Herman,  Nicolaus,  976. 

Hermann  Contractus,  977. 

Hermarm  of  Frilzlar,  977. 

Hermann  von  der  Hardt,  977. 

Hermann  von  Wied,  977. 

Hernias,  977.  ^ 

HermeneuiicH,  Biblical,  978. 

Hermes  and  the  Ilerniesians,  980. 

Hermias,  9a0. 

Hermogenes,  980. 

Hermon,  980. 

Herod,  980. 

Herodians,  983. 

Herodias,  983. 

Herrnliut,  9S3. 

Hervseus,  9S:',. 

Hervacus,  Natalie,  983. 

Hervey,  James,  983. 

Hess,  Johann  Jakob,  983. 

Hesse,  983. 

Hesslmsen,  Tilemann,  9S4. 

Hesychasts.  liie,  9S4. 

Heayehius,  084. 

HeticrisB,  9s;j. 

Hctherini,'tori,  William  M.,  985. 

Heuniann,  ('hristoph  August,  985. 

HeussLT,  Mrs.  Meta,  985. 

Hewit,  Natlianiel,  985.    ' 

Heylyn,  Peter.  085. 

Hcynlin  de  Lapidc,  Johannes,  986. 

Hezekiah,  9SG. 

Hicks,  Elias,  9S7. 

Hicksites.     See  Hicka  and  Friends. 

Hiddekcl.    See  Tigris. 

Hierapolis,  037. 

Hierarchy,  937. 

Hieracas,  or  Hierax,  987. 

Hieruclos,  9S7. 

Hieroglyphics,  987. 

Hieronyniites,  9S7. 

Hiernnymus.    See  Jerome. 

High  Church,  9SS. 

High  Places,  988. 

High  Priest,  991. 

Hilarion,  St.,  901. 

Hilary  of  Aries,  St.,  991. 
See  PunishmeoL  \  Hilary  the  Deacon,  991. 

Hilary,  Bishop  of  Rome,  992. 

Hilary,  Bisliop  of  Poitiers,  992. 

Hilda,  St.,  993. 

Hildebert,  993. 

Hildogarde,  St.,  993. 

Hill,  Rowland,  993. 

Hillel,  993. 

Hiller,  Philipp  Friedrich,  994. 

Himyarites.     See  Arabia. 

Hin.     See  Weiglits  and  Measures. 

Illncks,  Edward,  994. 

Ilincniar  of  Laon,  994. 

Hineniar  of  Rheims,  094. 

Hinds,  Samuel,  094. 

Hinton,  John  Howard,  995. 

Hlnton,  Jaujes,  005. 

Hippi>,  995. 


xxvu 


Hippolytus,  905. 
Hirschau,  or  Hirs-au,  996. 
Hirscher,  Johann  Bapti-^t,  995. 

Hitchcock,  Edward,  09G. 

Hittites,  the,  900. 

Hitzig,  Ferdinand,  997. 

Hivite.     See  ('anaan. 

Hoadly,  Benjamin,  998. 

Hubart,  Jolni  Henry,  093. 

Hobbes,  Thoman,  0'-)9. 

Ihu-limann,  Erniit  Christof,  099. 

Hi.chstratetj.     See  Hoogrttraten. 

Hudge,  Charles,  990. 

Hody,  HnMiphr--y,  IDOO. 

Hoe  von  Iloheni'iji;,  1  ;()i). 

Hofacker,  Ludwig,  JOIJO. 

Hofacker,  Wilhelm  G.,  1000. 

Hofl'maun,  Andreas  GoUlieb,  1000. 

Holfmann,  Daniel,  1001. 

HoU'niann,  Ludwig  Friedrich    Wilhelm, 
lOOI. 

Hull'mann,  Melcbolr,  1001. 

Hiilling,     Juhaun     Wilhelm     Friedrich, 
1001. 

Hofinann,  Johann  Chr.  Karl,  1001. 
j  Hofmeister,  Sebastian,  10J2. 
j  Ho<(e,  Moses,  1002. 

j  Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingwrurfit. 
j  Alexander  Leopold  Franz  Enierich, 
!      Prince  of,  1002. 

Holliach,  Paul  Heinrich  Dietrich,  Baron 
d',  1003. 

Holiness.    See  Sanctification. 

Holiness  of  Gud,  1003. 

Holland,  1003. 

Holiaz,  David,  1007. 

Holmes,  Robert,  1007. 

Holofernes.    See  Judith. 

Holste.  or  Holstenlus,  Lucas,  1008. 

Holy  Fire,  lOOS. 

Holy  League.  1008. 

Holy  Sepulcln-e,  the,  1008. 

Holy  Spirit,  1009. 

Holy  Water,  the  Use  of,  1010. 

Holy  Week,  1010. 

Holzhauser.    See  Barlholomitee. 

Homer,  William  Bradford,  1010. 

Homiletics  (from  the   German  point  of 

view),  1011. 
Homiletics    (from    the  Anglo- American 

point  of  view),  1014. 
Homiliarum,  1016. 

Homily.     See  H*imi)eties. 
Homologounienannd  Ant  ilf'gomena,  1016. 

Homoiousian  and  Homoousian,  1016. 

Hone,  William,  1016. 

Honey.      See    Bee-Culture    among    the 

Hebrews. 
Honorius  (emperor),  1016. 
Honoiius  (popes),  1016. 
Honter,  Joliaun,  1017. 
Hontbeim,  Johann  Nicolaus  von,  1017. 
Hooght,  Eberhard  van  der,  1017- 
Hooijstraten,  Jacob  van,  1017. 
Hook,  Walter  Farquhar,  1017. 
Hooker,  Richard,  1017. 
Hooper,  John,  lOlS. 
Hnomheek.  Joiiaiinoa,  1019. 
Hopital,  Mich'.-l  de  1',  1019. 
Hopkins,  Albert,  1019. 
Hopkins,  John  Henry,  1019. 
Hopkins,  Samuel,  1020. 
Hnjikinsianism,  1021. 
Hor,  Mount,  1022. 
Horh'f',  Johann  Heinrich,  1022. 
Hnrcbe,  Heinrich,  1022. 
Hnreb.     See  Sinai. 
Ilnrniisdas,  1022. 
Home,  George,  1022. 
Home,  Thomas  Hartwell,  1022. 
Horney,  or  Hornejus,  Conrad,  1023. 
Horologium,  1023. 
Horsley,  Samuel,  1023. 
Hosea,  1023. 
Ho.^hea.  1024. 
Hosius,  1024. 
Hosiu8,  Stanislaus,  1024. 
Hospinian,  Rudolph,  1024. 
Hospitality  among  tbe  Hebrpws,  1025. 
Hospitallers,  or  HospiuU  Brethren,  1025. 
Hospital,  Michel  de  1'.     See  Hopital. 
Hospitals,  1025. 

Hosjiital  Sisters.    See  Hospitallers. 
lloMsbach,  Peter  Wilhelm,  1025. 
Host.    See  Mass. 
Hottentots,    Christian    Missions    among 

the,  1026. 
Hottinger,  Johann  Heinrich,  1026. 


INDEX. 


nottinerer,  Johaiin  Jacob  (1,2).  1026. 
Iloubi^ant,  Charles  Francois,  1026. 


Jlluminati,  1061. 
J"lmai:e  of  God,  lOGl. 


— llourfi,  Canonical.    See  Canonical  Hours. ^-imai;c*-Worfiliip,  1062. 


See   Ar 


House  among   the   Hebrewe, 
chitecture,  Hebrew. 

llouse-Coniinunion,  or  Frivatc  Commu- 
nion, 1023. 

Howard,  John,  1025. 

Howe,  John,  1027.  ^ 

Howie.  John,  10-28. 

Hoyle,  Joshua,  1028. 

Hrabanu*.     See  liabanus. 

Hroswitha,  1028. 

Huber,  .lohattnee  Xcpomuk,  1028. 

Iluber,  Samuel,  1028. 

lluberinus.  Caspar,  1028, 

Hubert,  St.,  1028. 

HLibmaiur,  1029.  .^ 

Hue,  Evariste  It^^is,  1029, 

Hucariuii.    See  Canon  Lixw. 

Hucbald,  1029. 

Hue(,  Francois,  1029. 

Iluet,  Pierre  Baniel,  1029. 

Hug,  Jolianu  Leonard,  1029. 

Hughes,  John,  1020. 

HujjheB,  JoBcph,  1030. 

Hu;^o  of  Aiuient^,  1030. 

Hugo  of  Lincohi,  10;i0. 

Hugo  of  St.  Cher,  1030.  ^^ 

Hugo  of  St.  Victor.  1030. 

Huguenote,  1031. 

Huinscau,  Isaac  d',  1037.  ■ 

Hulse,  Johti,  1037. 

HuUcan  Lectures.    See  Hulee,  John. 

HiiUemann,  Johaun,  1037. 

Humanist,  1037. 

HumaniUirians,  1038. 

Home,  David,  1038. 

Humcrale.    See  Vestments. 

Hnniiliali,  1040. 

Humiliation  of  Christ.    Sec  Chrietology. 
-  Humility,  1040. 

Humphrey,  Hcraan,  1040, 

Humphrey,  Zenhnniah  Moore,  1040. 

IIundefih;igen,  Karl  Bcrnhard,  1040. 

Hungary,  the  Kingdom  of,  1041. 

Hutinius,  ^f^i^idius,  1012. 

HunniuH,  Nicolaus,  1042. 

Huntini;  among  tlie  Hebrews,  1042. 

Huntingdon,  Selina,  Countess  of,  1042. 

Hnpfeld,  Hermann,  1042. 

Hurd,  Richard.  1043. 

Hiirter,  Fri<;dnch  Emanuel  von,  1043. 

Hu»*,  John,  1043. 

HuKNiU'N,  1045. 

Hutchinson,  Anne,  1040. 

Huictiinson,  John,  1046. 

Jlulten,  IJhicli  von,  1046. 

Hutter,  Klias,  KMT. 

Hutter.  l^'onhard,  1047. 

Hy<I;isne8.     See  HysUispes, 

Hyde,  Thomiis,  1U47. 

Hyginuw,  1047. 

Ilyle,  1047. 

Ilylozoihm,  1047. 
'Ilymnology,  1047.  ' 

Hymnology,    Knglibli     and    Amerlcafl^-i 
1052.  * ' 

Hypatin,  10.'»5. 

HyperluH,  AndrcaB  Gerhard,  1055, 

llypoHtasirt,  lO&.'i. 

HypBiHtarians,  10.'»5. 
IlyrcjuiUH  I.,  John,  105.1. 
HyramuH  II.,  1055. 
HyvUutpeH.  1056. 


I. 

Ibaii,  1057. 

Ibn  E7.rn.    See  Aben  BziiL  — 

Iceland,  10.'t7. 

Ichlhyft,  1057. 

Ironiuin,  1057. 

IconochiMt,  1U57. 

IctmoHiiiHlii,  1U57. 

Idol  and  Idolatry,  1057. 

Iiliimioa.     Hec  iCdoni. 

Ipmitlan  £pl«tlefi.    See  Ignnllus  of  An* 

tloch. 
iKnnlhjH  of  Anlloch,  lO.'iS. 
Igniitiud,    I'ulriarch    of  CunittAntlnoplo. 

IO*v>, 
Itfnatliifi  I^iyoln.  1060. 
IgnorantlneH,  1001. 
I.  II.  H.,  1061. 
llderonNUH.  St.,  1061. 
lHK«n,Chn6llaii  Friedrich,  10«:. 


Imam,  1064. 

immaculate   Conception    of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  1064. 
j: -^mra.nnuel.  1065. 

Immersion.    See  Baptifcra. 
.Immortality,  IOCS. 
Immunity,  1006. 
Impanatio,  1007. 
Imposition  of  Hands,  1067. 
Impostoribus,  Da  Tribus,  1067. 
Imputafion    of   Sin    and  of   RIghtcouB- 

nese,  106S. 
Inability,  1069. 
Incapacity,  1069. 
Incarnation,  1069. 
Incenee,  1070. 
Incest,  1070. 

Incbofer,  Melchior,  1070. 
In  Coena  Domini,  1070. 
Incorporatiuu,  luTl. 

Independents.    See  Congregationalism. 
Index  IJbrorum  Prohibitorum,  1071. 
India,    Religions   of,     y^-e    Brahmanism, 

Brahmo  Somaj,  Buddhism. 
India,  1071. 
Induction,  1076. 
Indulgences,  1076. 

Infallibilist.  1077.  — 

Infallibility  of  the  Pope,  1077. 
Infant    Baptism.      See    Baptism   of   In- 
fants. 
Infant  Communion,  107S. 
Infant  Jesus,  the  Congregation   of  the 

Daughters  of  the,  1079. 
Inf.mt  Salvation,  1079. 
Infanticide,  1081. 
Infidelity,  1081. 

Infralajjsarians.    See  Sublapsarians. 
Infula,  1057. 
InL'athering,  Feast  of.    See  TabernacleB, 

Feast  of. 
Ingham.  Benjamin,  10S8. 
Inglis,  David.  1068. 
Ingulphus,  or  Ingulf,  30S8. 
Inheritance  among  the  Hebrews,  1088. 
Inner  Mission,  the,  1089. 
Innocent  I.,  10.50. 
Innocent  IT.,  1090. 
Innocent  III.,  1091. 
Innocent  in.  (Lothajr),  1091. 
Innocent  IV.,  1005. 
Innocent  V.,  1096. 

InnocentXn. ,  1096.  — 

Innocent  VII.,  1096. 
'nnocent  VIII.,  1097. 
Innocent  IX.,  1097. 
Innocent  X.,  1097. 
Innocent  XI.,  1098. 
Innocent  XII.,  1098. 
Innocent  XIII.,  1098. 
Innocents'  Day,  1099. 
Imis  among  the  Hebrews,  1099. 
Inquisition,  1099. 
'nspiration,  1101. 
Inspired,  the,  1106. 
Inslallalion,  1106. 
Itibiitiition,  imo. 

tercension,  1106.  — 

IliterdieL,  1107. 

Interim,  I1U7. 

Interpretation.      See   Exegeste,  Hurinc- 

neullcs. 
Interstitia  Temporum,  1107. 
Inlinction,  1107. 
ntonation,  1107. 
Iiitroducih>n,  1107. 
Iniruit,  1110. 

Invention  of  the  Cross.     See  Crosfl. 
Investiture,  1110 
Invocation  of  Saints.    Sec  Image-Wor- 

shi]),  Intercession. 
Io[ia,  nil. 

helaiid,  1112. 
Iiehmd,  Juhn,  1116. 
IrentcuH,  Bisliop  of  Lyonn.  1116. 
IrenajUH  of  Tyre,  1118. 
Iretiiius,  Christoph,  1118. 
Irene,  1118. 

Irenical  Theology,  1118. 
Irrcgularitlert,  1119. 
living,  Edward,  UIO. 
Irvlngltes.       See     Catholic      ApostoHo 
Church. 
(laac,  1120. 
Ibuuc  uf  Aiitiocb,  1120. 


Isaac  lyivita,  1120." 

Isaiah,  1120. 

Ishboshetb,  1122. 

Ishmael,  1123. 

Isidore  Mereator,  1123. 

Isidore  of  Moscow,  1123. 

Isidore  of  Pehisium,  1123. 

Isidore  of  Seville,  1123. 

Islam.     See  Mohammedanism. 

Israel,  Biblical  History  of,  1124. 

Israel,  Post-Biblic;il  History  of,  1128. 

Issacbar.     See  Tribes  of  Israel. 

Italic  Version.     See  Bible  Versions. 

Italy,  Ecclesiastical  Statistics  of,  1130. 

Itjily,  Protestantism  iu,  1131. 

Itinerancy,  1133. 

Ituiasa,  ll:i:3, 

Jves,  Rt.  Rev.  Levi  Silliman,  1133. 

ivo  of  Cbartres,  1133. 


Jabbok,  1134. 

Jablonwki.  Daniel  Enist,  1134, 

Jackson,  Arthur,  1134. 

Jackson,  John,  1134. 

Jackson,  'i'hoinas,  1134. 

Jackson,  Thomas  (Methodist),  1134. 

Jacob,  1134. 

Jacob's  Well,  1135. 

Jacob  Bnrndaens,  1135. 

Jacob  of  Edessa,  1135. 

Jacob  of  Jiiterbogk,  1136. 

Jacob  of  Mar  Maitai.    See  Aphraates. 

Jacob  of  Misa,  1136. 

Jacob  of  Nisibis,  1136. 

Jacob  of  Sarilg,  1136. 

Jacob  of  Vitry,  1136. 

Jacobi,  Friedrich  Heinrich,  1136. 

Jacobites,  1137. 

Jacobus  de  Voragine,  1137. 

Jacobus,  Melanctiion  Williams,  1138. 

Jacorab,  Thomas,  1138. 

Jacopone  da  Todi,  1138. 

Jael,  1138. 

Jafle,  Philipp,  1139. 

Jabn.  Johann.  1139. 

Jains,  1139. 

James,  1139. 

James,  the  Epistle  of,  1141. 

James,  John  Antrell,  1142. 

Jameson  (Anna  Murphy),  Mrs.,  1142. 

Janes,  Edmund  Storer,  1142. 

Juni;way,  Jacob  Jones,  1143. 

Jannes  and  Jauibres,  1143. 

Janow,  MaWhbis  von,  1143. 

Janneu,  <.'ornelius,  1143. 

Jansenism,  1144. 

Januarius,  St.,  1145. 

Japan,  Christianity  In,  1145. 

Jacfiuelot,  If;uie,  1148. 

Jarclii.     See  It;ihhi. 

Jarvis,  Samuel  Farmer,  1149, 

Jaslier,  Book  of,  1149. 

Jason  (1-0,  1149. 

Jaulfiet,  tjaapard  Jean  Audrd  Joseph, 

1149. 
Jftvan.  1149. 
Jay,  William,  1150. 
■Jealousy,  the  Trial  of,  1150, 
Jeanne  d'Albret,  1150. 
Jehb,  John,  1151. 
Jebus  and  jebusitcs,  1161, 
Jehoiachin,  1151. 
Jehoiada,  1151. 
Jrliniiikim,  1151. 
Jrliuram,  or  Joram,  1151, 
JehoHhaphat.  1152. 
Jehovah,  1152. 
Jehu,  1153. 

Jehudnh  (Ha-Ievi)  Bon  Sumuol,  UW. 
Jenks,  Benjamin,  1154. 
Jenks,  VVilliani,  1154. 
Jenkyn,  William.  1154. 
.N'liiiingM,  David,  1154. 
Jephthidi,  1154. 
•lereniiah,  1155. 
Jeremiah,  Kplsilo  of.      See  Apocrypha, 

Old  Testament. 
Jeremiah,  Eameiitallons  of.    See  I>iimen- 

tatioiis. 
Jeremiah  II.,  ll.'.e. 
Jericho,  tln!  Clly  of,  1157. 
Jeroboam,  1157. 
Jerome  (llicronymus)    SophronlUM   Ku. 

Htdilun,  1 157. 
Jerome  uf  Pra{[uc,  1158. 


INDEX. 


JcrUBalcm,  1150. 

.Judges  of  Israel,  1208. 

Kiss  of  Peace,  the,  1252. 

Jerusalfm,    tliu    Episcopal   See   of    St. 

Judg.-s,  Book  of,  1209. 

Kilto,  .John,  1252. 

Jiimt'B  ill,  lltU. 

Ju<U'nient,  the  Divine,  1210. 

Klarenbach,  Adolf,  1254. 

Jeruaiileni,  tlie  I'atriarchate  of,  1165. 

Judith.    Bee  Ajioeryplia,  Old  Testament. 
Judson,  Ado:iirani,  1211. 

Klee,  Heinrich,  1254. 

Jerusalem,  Synotl  of,  1165. 

Kleuker,  Johann  Fricdrlch,  1254. 

Jerusalem,  Juluuin  Fricdrlch  Wilheim, 

Juggernaut,  1212. 

Kling,  Christian  Friedrieti.  1254. 

1166. 

Julian,  1212. 

Klopstock,  Friedrieli  Gottlieb,  12 

.4. 

Jerusalem  Chamber,  1166. 

Julian  CsBsarint,  or  Cesaiinl,  1213. 

Kliipfel,  Kngelbert,  1255. 

Jesuits,  1166. 

.lulius  (popes),  1213. 

Knapp,  Albert,  1255. 

-.Tesus  Christ,  1170. 

Juli:is  Afrieanus,  Sextus,  1214. 

Knapp,  Ueorg  Christian,  1256. 

Jesus  Christ,  Three  Offices  of,  1170. 

Jumpers,  1214. 

Knatclibull,  Sir  Norton,  1256. 

Jesus,  Society  of  the  tiacred  Heart  of, 

Junilius,  1215. 

Kneeland,  Abncr,  1256. 

1177. 

Junius,  Frunciscns,  1215. 

Kneeling,  1256. 

.Tctcr,  Jeremiah  U.,  1177. 

Junkin,  George,  1215. 

Knipperdoiling,  Bernard.    Sec  MUtister. 

Jethro.     See  Moses. 

Jurieu,  Pierre,  1215. 

Knijislro,  Johann,  1256. 

Jew,  the  Wandering,  1177. 

Jurisdiction,  Eecleoiaatical,  121.5. 

Knobel,  Karl  August,  1256. 

Jewel,  John,  1178. 

Jlistitiealion,  1217. 

Knollys,  Hanserd,  1256. 

-Jewish  Christians,  1179. 

Justin  Martyr,  1219. 

Known. Men,  1257. 

Jews.     See  Israel. 

Justinian  I.,  1220. 

Knox,  John,  1257. 

Jews,  Missions  amongst  the,  1179. 

Juvencus,  Cajus  Veltlus  AqulUus,  1221. 

Knox,  Vicesimus,  1259. 

Jezebel,  1182. 

Kohath,  1260. 

Jezreel,  the  City  of,  1182. 

Kohlbriiggc,  Hermann  Fricdrlch, 

1230. 

Jimenes,  Cartlinal.    See  Xlmcncs. 

K. 

Kohier,  (;hristian  and  Ilieronymus,  lilM. 

Joab,  1182. 

Kollenbusch,  Samuel,  1260. 

Joachim  of  Floris,  1183. 

Knaba,  1222. 

Kol  Nidre,  1290. 

Joan,  Tope,  11S3. 

K.adesh,  1222.                                                    , 

Komander,  Johann,  1261. 

Joan  of  Arc,  11^3. 

K.adi,  1223. 

Kiinig,  Johann  Friedrieli,  1261. 

Job,  1185. 

KallV.ari.i,  122.3. 

Kiinig,  Samuel,  1201. 

Jobson,  FredericlE  Jaracs,  1187. 

Kaldi.  Oeorg,  122.3. 

Konrad  of  M"arhurg,  1261. 

Joel,  1187. 

Kalleisen,  Heinrich,  1223. 

Koolhaas,  Kaspar,  1262. 

Jolin  the  Apostle  and  his  Writings,  1188. 

Kunt.  Immanuel,  1223. 

Koppe,  Johann  Benjamin,  1262. 

John  the  Baptist,  ll'Jl. 

Kapff,  Sixt  Karl,  1225.                               — 

-Korah,  1262. 

John  (popes),  1192. 

Karaite  Jews.  1225. 

Korahites,  1262. 

John,  l*opess.    See  Joan,  Pope, 

Karens,  1226. 

Koran.     See  Mohammed. 

John  IV.,  Jeiunator,  1193. 

Karg,  George,  1226, 

Kornthal,  1262. 

John  X.,  1193. 

K.'iterkami),  Joiiann  Tlieodor  Ilerraanii 

Kortholt,  Christian,  1263. 

John  of  Antioeh.  1193. 

1227. 

Krafft,  Joliaim  .  Christian   Gottio 

b  Lud- 

John  of  .\vila,  1193. 

Kautz,  Jakob,  1227. 

wig,  1263. 
Kraliz,  1263. 

John  of  Chur,  1193. 

Kaye,  John,  1227. 

John  of  Damascus,  1193. 

Keaeh,  Benjamin,  1227. 

Krantz,  Albert,  1263. 

John,  Bishop  of  Epliesus,  1194. 

Kehle,  John,  1227. 

Krasinski,  Count  Valerian,  1263. 

John  of  Monte  Coivino,  1194. 

Keckermann,  Bartholomaus,  1223. 

Krauth,  Ciiarlcs  Philip,  1263. 

John  of  Salisbury,  119.i. 

Kedron,  or  Kidron,  122S. 

Kiebs,.Jolin  Micliael,  1204. 

John,  Patriarch  of  Tlieasalonioa,  1195. 

Keil,  Karl  August  Gottlieb,  1228. 

Krell,  or  Crell,  Nikolans,  1264. 

John  (Eleemosynarius),  1195. 

Keim,  Carl  Theodor.  VsiH. 

Kriidener,    Barbara    Juliane,    B 

aronesa 

John  rrederick,  119.5. 

Keith,  Alexander,  1229. 

von,  1264. 

John  (Lackland),  1195. 

Keith,  George,  1230. 

Krug,  Wilheim  Traugott,  1264. 

John  Nepomuk,  1195. 

Kells,  the  Synod  of,  1230. 

Krummncher,  Fricdrlch  .Vdolf,  12 

64. 

John  Philoponus,  1196. 

Kelly,  Thomas,  12::0. 

Krummacher,  Friedrieli  Wilheim 

,  1263. 

John  Scholasticus,  1196. 

Keltic  Church.  1230. 

Kriiminacher,  Gottfried  lianicl,  1 

285. 

John  the  Constant,  1196. 

Keinpis,  Thomas  a.  1237. 

Kuinol,  Christian,  1266. 

John  the  Little,  1196. 

Ken,  Thomas,  1239. 

Kuiize,  John  Cliristoplier,  1266. 

John  the  Presbyter,  1197. 

Kenites,  the,  1239. 

Kurtz,  .John  N'icholas,  1266. 

John,  St.,  Eve  of,  1197. 

Kennet,  White,  1239. 

Kurtz,  John  Daniel,  1266. 

John,    Knight    of    St.      See    Military 

Kennieott,  Benjamin,  1239^ 
Kenosis,    See  Ohristologv. 

Kurtz,  Benjamin,  1266. 

Orders. 

Kyrie  Elcyson,  1260. 

Johnson,  Samuel  (Cong.),  1197. 

Kenrick,  Francis  Patrick,  1240. 

Jolinson,  Samuel  (Unitarian),  1197. 

Kentigern,  St.,  1240. 

Jol;tan,  1197. 

Kerckhaven,  Jan  van  den,  1240. 

L. 

Jonah,  1197. 

Keri  and  Ketldbh,  1240. 

Jonas,  119S. 

Kero,  1240. 

Labadle,  Jean  dc,  1267. 

Jon-as,  Justus,  1198. 

Kessler,  .Johannes,  1240. 

Labadisls.    See  Labadie. 

Joncourt,  Pierre  de,  1198. 

Ketteler,  Wilheim  Emanuel,  Baron  von, 

Labarum,  1267. 

Jones,  Jeremiah,  1198. 

1241. 

Labat,  Jean  Baptiste,  1267. 

Joppa,  1198. 

Ketlenbach,  Heinrich  von,  1241. 

Labbc,  Philippe,  1208. 

Jordan,  the,  1199. 

Keys,  the  Power  of  tlic,  1241. 

La  Chaise,  F'ranqois  de,  1268. 

Joris,  Johann  David,  1199. 

Klian.     See  Inn. 

Lachish,  1268. 

Jortin,  John,  1199. 

KhIesI,  Mclchoir,  1243. 

Lachmann,  Karl,  1268. 

Joseelin,  1199. 

Kidroii.    See  Kedron. 

Lacordaire,  Jean  Baptiste  Henri, 

1263. 

Joseph,  1199. 

Kief,  1244. 

Lacroix,  John  Power,  1268. 

Joseph  II.,  1209. 

Kierkegaard,  Siiren  Aaby,  1244. 

Lactantius  Firmianiis,  1269. 

Joseph  of  Ariniathffia,  1201. 

Kilham,  Alexander,  1244. 

Lacticinia,  1269. 

Joaepliinism.     Sec  Joseph  II. 

Kilian,  St.,  1244. 

Laelare  Sunday,  1209. 

Josephus,  Flavins,  1291. 

Kimehi,  1244. 

Laliteau,  Joseph  Francjois,  7269. 

Joshua,  1202. 

King,  John,  1245. 

Laidlie,  Archibald,  1209. 

Joeliua,  Book  of,  1203. 

King,  Jonas,  1245. 

Lainez,  lago,  1269. 

Joshua,  Spurious  Bool:  of,  120X 

King,  Thora.as  Starr,  1245. 

Laity,  1270. 

Josiah,  12U3. 

King,  William,  1245. 

Lamaism,  1270. 

Jost,  Isaac  Marcus,  1204. 

Kingdom  of  God,  the,  1246. 

Lamb  of  God.    See  Agnus  Dei. 

Jotham,  1204. 

Kingly    Office    of    Christ.      See    Jesus 

Lambert  of  Hersfeid,  1270. 

Jovianus,  B'lavius  Cl.audlus,  1204. 

Christ,  Three  Offices  of. 

Lambert,  FraiiQois,  1271. 

Joviiiian,  1204. 

Kingo,  Thom.as,  1247. 

Lambetli  Articles.    See  Arliclce 

,  I-jim- 

Jubilee,  Year  of,  among  the  Hebrews. 

Kings  of  Israel,  the,  1247. 

betli. 

See  Sabbatical  Year. 

Kings,  First  and  Second  Book  of,  1249. 

Lambrnschini,  Lnigi,  1271. 

Jubilee,  or  Jubilee  Year,  1205. 

King's  Evil,  1250. 

Lainech.     See  Cain. 

Jubilees,  Book  of.    Bee  Pseudepigraphs, 

Kingsley,  Calvin,  12.50. 

Lamennais,  Ungues  F^licitu  Itobert  dc. 

Old  Testament. 

Kingsley,  Charles,  1250. 

1271. 

Jud,  1205. 

Kippis,  -Vndrew,  1251. 

Lamentations,  1271. 

Judaja,  1205. 

Kir.  1251. 

L;inii,  Bernard,  1272. 

Jlnlah,  1206. 

Kirchentag.  1251. 

Lammas. Day,  or  Lammas-Tide,  1 

272. 

Judah,  Kingdom  of.    See  Israel. 

Kircher,  Athanasius,  1251. 

Lampe,  Fricdrlch  Adolf,  1272. 

fludah,  Ti-ibe  of.     See  Tribes  of  Israel. 

Kirchhofer,  Mclchior,  1251. 

Lampetians.     See  Mcssalians. 

Judaizers.    See  Jewish  Christians. 

Kirk.  Edward  Norris,  1252. 

Lance,  the  Holy,  1272. 

Judas,  1206. 

Kirkland,  Samuel,  1252. 

I-auccIotl,  Joannes  Paulus,  1273. 

Judas  Iscariot,  1206. 

Kii  khiiul,  John  Thoruton,  12.52. 

Landcrer,  Maximilian  Albert  von 

12T3- 

Judas  of  Oalilee,  1207. 

Kirk-Se.<sion,  1252. 

Lando,  1273. 

Judas  Maccabieus.    See  Maccabee. 

Ivirwan,  Walter  Blake,  12-52. 

Lane  Theological  Seminary,  1273 

Jude,  the  Kpiotle  of,  1207. 

Kishon,  1252. 

Lanfranc,  1274. 

XXX 


INDEX. 


Lanfr,  Heinricli,  1275. 

J^iiig,  John  Dunmore,  1275. 

Langf,  JuJichiin,  1275, 

Ijinit,Mn,  John,  1276. 

Langrt'B,  Synod  of,  1276. 

Langton,  6if|>ln;n,  1276. 

Languct,  Hubert,  1276. 

Laodicea,  1277. 

Laodict-a,  ibu  Kpietle  from,  1277. 

L-ios,  1277. 

Lao-i6ze,  1277. 

I*-iplace,  Josue  de.    See  Placeeus.  ^ 

Lapland.  See  Sweden,  Thomas  of  Wcs- 
ten. 

Lapse,  127S. 

Lapsed, Ihe, 1278. 

Lardner,  Nathaniel.  1279. 

La  Salle,  Jean  Baptiste  de,  1279. 

La  Sauesaye,  Duniul  Chantepic  de,  1279. 

Jjiia  Catas.     See  Casas. 

X^asitius,  Johannes,  1279. 

Lasco,  Johannes  a,  1279. 

Latemn  Church  and  Councils,  12S0. 

I^lhrop,  Joseph.  12S0. 

Latimer.  Ihmh,  12S0. 

Latin  Lani:uagc,  Use  of  the,  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  12S1. 

Latin  Verf^iuns.    See  Bible  Vertsions. 

Latitudinarians,  1282. 

LalomuB,  Jacobus,  1282. 

LatonuKu,  Barlholomaeus,  12S2. 

Latter-TJav  Saints.    See  Mormons, 

Laud.  William.  1282. 

J>aunay,  I'icrre  de,  1286. 

Liiunoi,  Jean  de,  1286. 

Iniura,  I2S6. 

Uiurentius,  St.,  12S6. 

I>aurentiu8  (antipope),  128G. 

1-iurentius  Valla,  12S6. 

Kivaier,  Juhann  Kaspar,  1287. 

l--iver.  12H8. 

l«a\v  of  Mosee.    See  Moses,  Thorah. 

Iaiw,  Niitural.    See  Natural  Law. 

l^iw,  William,  1288. 

Ijiy  Abbots.    See  Abbots. 

Ijjiy  Kaptirtin.     Pee  Baptism. 

]*ay  Brothers.    Sec  Mouasticism. 

l*iy  (Communion,  1288. 

J.^iy  rreachini?,  1288. 

l^-iy  Ilepresentation,  1289. 

l^yinti  on  uf  Hands.    See  Imposition. 
Hands. 

I<nzaritit8,  1290. 

]x.'Hdc,  Jane,  1290. 

Leaders,  and  Leaders'  and  Stewards' 
MeetinKs,  1290. 

l^ander,  St.,  1290. 

Leander  van  Ess.     See  Eas,  van. 

Iveavcn,  1290. 

lA-aviil,  Joshua,  1291. 

I-ebanon,  1291. 

lA-hliajus.    See  Judas. 

I^ehrija,  .^lius  Antoulus  do,  1291. 

lA:buin,  or  Liafwiii,  1291. 

J^H-ccne,  Charles,  1291. 

iAi  Clerc,  Jean.     See  (;icricu8. 

J<eetern,  or  Ix-cturn,  1292. 

lx,>ctlonarieK,  1292. 

lyuetor,  1292. 

1.4-ctur<-i«,  Ix'clnre  Courses.  See  Bamp- 
um,  Boyle,  llulttcan,  etc.,  and  Appen- 
dix. 

Ix-'e,  Ann,  1292. 

Lee,  Jesse,  1293. 

Ixe.  Samuel,  1293. 

1^  Kcvre.     Sec  Kabcr  StapulensU. 

Ia'KiUvh  and  Nuncios  in  the  Koman- 
Catholic  Church,  1293. 

IjC|;end,  1294. 

Ix-Kenda  Aurca.  Bee  Jacobus  do  Vora- 
ffine. 

Ix'tfcr,  Jean,  1294. 

LtkIo  Kulniltiatrix.  Bee  Legion,  ThuQ- 
4lerinK- 

Ix.'Kiun,  tlic  Thcban,  1294. 


Legion,  the  Thundering,  1295. 

Leibnitz,  Gottfried  Wilhclm,  1295. 

Leigh,  Edward,  1296. 

Leighton,  Robert,  1296. 

Leipzig,  the  Colloquy  of,  1298. 

Leipzig  Disputation.     See    Eck,   Karl- 
6l4idt,  Luther. 

Leipzig  Interim,  the,  1299. 

Leland",  John,  1299. 

Lelong,  Jacques,  1209. 

Le  Maitre,  Louis  Isaac,  1299. 

Lenfant,  Jacques,  12yy. 

Lent,  1299. 

Lentulus,  Epistle  of.     Sec  Christ,  Pic- 
lures  of. 

Leo  (popesl,  1299. 

Leon,  Luis  de,  1304. 

Leoiitius  of  Byzantium,  1304. 

Leonlius  of  I^eapolis.    See  Lcontiue  of 
Byzantium. 

Leprosy,  1304. 

Lerins,  Convent  of,  1307. 

Lesley,  John,  1307. 

Leslie,  Charles,  1307. 

Less,  Gottfried,  1308. 
'Lessing,  Gotlhold  Ei)hraim,  1308. 

Lessius,  Leonhard,  1309. 

Lestinee,  Synod  of,  1309. 

Leusden,  Joliannes,  1309. 

Levi.    Sec  Tribes  of  Israel. 

Leviathan,  1309. 

Levirate  Marriage,  1309. 

Levites,  1310. 

Leviticus.    See  Pentateuch. 

Lewis,  Tayler,  1312. 

Leydecker,  Melchior,  1312. 

Leyden,  John  of.    See  Bockhold. 

Leyser.  Polykarp,  1313. 

Liaswin.     See  Lebuin. 

Libanius,  1313. 

Libellatici.    See  I.^i>8i. 

Libelli  Pacis.     See  I^apei. 

Liber  Diurnus  Xtomanorura  Pontilicura, 
1313. 

Liber  Pontificalie,  1313. 

Liber  Sextus.    See  Canon  Law. 

Liberia,  1314. 

Libcrius,  1314. 

Libertines,  1315. 

Liberty,  Religious,  1316. 

Libri  Carolini.    See  Caroline  Books. 

License,  1318. 

Lichfield,  1319. 

Liebner,  Karl  Theodor  Albert,  1319. 

Lightfoot,  John,  1319. 

Lights,  the  Ceremonial  Use  of,  1320. 

Liguori,  Alfonso  Maria  da,  1320. 

Ligure.  1321. 

Lillie,  John,  1321. 

Lily,  1321. 

Limboreh,  Philipp  van,  1321. 

Limbus,  or  Limbo,  1322. 

Lincoln,  1322. 

Llndsey,  Theophilus,  1322. 

Lindsley,  Philip,  1322. 

Linen,  1322. 

Lingard,  John,  1822. 

Linus,  1323. 

Linz,  the  Peace  of,  1323. 

Lions,  1323. 

Liptines.    See  Lcstines. 

Litany,  1323. 

Literos  Formato?,  1324. 

Lithuania.     See  IluHsia. 

ijturgicH.     Sec  Woisldp. 

Liturgy,  1324.    See  also  Praycr-Book. 

Liudgcrus,  St.,  1329. 

Liudprnnd,  1330. 

Liverpool,  1330. 

LivingNion,  John  Henry,  13.30. 

Livingstone.  David,  13:m. 

Llorenie,  Dun  Juan  Antonio,  1332. 

Lloyd.  William,  1332. 

I.^)bo,  Jeronlmo,  1332. 

Lubwasser,  Ambrosius,  1332. 


Local  Preachers,  1332. 

Loci  Theologici,  1332. 

Locke,  John,  1333. 

Locust,  1334. 

Lodenstein,  Jodokus  von,  1335. 

Loijn,  Juhann  Michael  von,  1335. 

Logan,  John,  1335. 

Logos,  1335. 

Liihe,  Juhann  Konrad  Wilhelm,  1336. 

Lollards,  1337, 

Lombards,  the,  1341. 

Lombardus,  Petrus,  1341. 

Longfellow,  Henry  Wadsworth,  1342. 

Lunyobards.    Seo  Lombards. 

Lord,  1342. 

Lord,  Nathan.  1343. 

Lord's  Day,  1343. 

Lord's  Prayer,  the,  1343. 

Ix)rd'6  Supper,  1344. 

Lord's  Supper,  Controversies  respecting. 

See    Bereiigar,    Lanfranc,    Paschasius 

R;idbertus,  J.,uthei-,  Zwingli,  etc. 
Loreto,  or  Loretto,  1352. 
Lorimer,  Peter,  1352. 
Loscher,  Valentin  Ernst,  1353. 
Lot,  1353. 
Lot,  the  Use  of  the,  among  the  Hebrews, 

1353. 
Lotze,  Hermann  Rudolf,  1354, 
Louis,  St.,  1354. 
-Love,  1355. 

Love.  Family  of.     See  Faniilista. 
Love-Feasts.     See  Agape. 
Love,  Christopher,  1355. 
Low  Church,  1356. 
Lowder,  Cliarlus  Fuge,  1356. 
Lowell,  John,  1357. 
Lowman,  Moses,  1357. 
Low-Sunday,  1357. 
Lowth,  Robert.  1357. 
Lowth,  William,  1357. 
Loyola.    See  Ignatius  Loyola. 
Lucian  the  Martyr,  1357. 
Lueian  of  Samosata,  1358.  , 

Lucidus,  1358. 
Lucifer,  1358. 

Lucifer  and  the  Luciferlans,  1358. 
Lucius  (popes),  1350. 
Liieke,    Gottfried   Christian    Friedrlch, 

1359. 
Lud,  1359. 

Ludgerus.    Sec  Liudgerua. 
Luditu.     See  Lud. 
Ludlow,  John,  1359. 
Ludolf,  Hiob,  1359. 
Luitprand.    See  Liutprand. 
Lukaa  of  Tuy,  1359. 
Luke,  1359. 
Luiceof  Prague,  13G2. 
Lullus,  1302. 

Lullufl,  lUyniundus,  1362. 
Luna,  Peter  de.     See  Benedict  XIII. 
Lupus,  Servatup,  1363. 
Luther,  Martin,  1303. 
Luther's  Two  Catechisms,  1369. 
Lutheran  C-hurch  (in  Europe),  1370. 
Lutheran  Church  (in  tlic  United  Stales), 

1372. 
Lutherans,  Separate,  i;".70. 
Lutz,  Juhann  Ludwig  Samuel,  1377. 
Lutz,  Samuel,  1377. 
Luz,  1377. 
Lycaunia,  1377. 
Lycia,  i:;77. 
Lydda,  1377. 
Lydia.    See  Lud. 
Lydius,  Martin,  1377. 
LydiUB,  Ballhasar,  1377. 
Lyon,  Mary,  1377. 
Lyra,  Nlcolaus  de.  1378. 
LyHaniiiri.     See  Abilene. 
Lystra,  137K. 

Lyte,  Henry  FrancU.  1378. 
Lyttlyt*jn.  George,  137«. 


VOLUJIE  III. 


M. 

Mnbllinn,  .Tcun,  137(1. 
MH<!iiniui..    Hve  MiicnriliB  (IV.)* 
M;iciiiii.  (1-1),  i;;;ii. 

Mii(:l>i'i<lL',  .lolin  UuvlJ,  1.170. 

MuccHbtM-A,  1:t70. 

MiuurHbi'L'H,  Uuuk.  of.    Hcc  Apocr^'pha. 


MaccabcpB,  Fcstlvnl  of  tlic,  13SI, 
MaccovluH,  .TdiiiitirH,  Vim. 
Maccdo,  Antonio,  1^81. 
Miiccdo,  KriiMciMCu,  1^1. 
Miiccdonlii,  l;)81. 
Miicijdi>nluH,  I»81. 
Miichipl'uit,  I^1H2. 
MacUulo,  Jubn,  1382. 


Miiclipcluli,  1.182. 

Mui-k.'iizb.,  Clmrlcii  Frederick,  13S2. 

M:ickiilKlil,  .liunen,  MK;,!. 

Miieliiurin.  .loliii,  13S'.>. 

Miiele<i<l,  Noniiiili,  13N3. 

Mm'iU'lle.  Hugh,  1383. 

MAeun,  l:W3. 

Mudugtuicar,  1364. 


INDKX. 


Maduiinn,  1384. 

MiiftVi,  Fiiiiic'CBCO  Scipioiip,  1384. 

MailVi,  Gioviiniii  Pietro,  1384. 

Miirtci,  Vegio,  1385. 

MiigiiriUi,  Magarites,  1385. 

Wagdala,  138/). 

Magdalen,  Order  of,  1385. 

Magoe,  Willimn,  1385. 

Magi,  1385. 

Magic,  1386. 

Magister  Sacri  Palatii,  1386. 

Magiiilicat,  1386. 

MagnuB,  1386. 

Magog.    See  Gog  and  Magog. 

Mnhan,  Miio,  1386. 

Mahaiiaim,  1387. 

MahoniL't.    St,-e  Mohammed. 

Mai.  Angelo,  1387. 

Maillard,  Olivier,  1387. 

Mainibourg,  Louis,  1387. 

Maiiuuuidcs,  Moees,  1387. 

Maistre,  Count  Marie  Joseph  de,  1388. 

Maitland,  San:iuel  Roffey,  1388. 

Major,  1389. 

Majorini  Pars.    See  Donatists. 

Majoriftiic  Controversy.    See  Major. 

Makemie,  B'rancia,  1389. 

Makriiia.  1389. 

Makowsky,  Johann.    See  Maccoviua. 

Mahicbi,  1389. 

Malachy,  St.,  1390. 

MaLikanes,  1301. 

Malan,  Cesar  Henn  Abraham,  1391. 

Mnl.iy  Archipelago,  1391. 

Malcom,  Howard,  1392. 

Maldonatus,  Joannes,  1392. 

Malebranche,  Nicolas,  1392. 

Malmesbury,  William  of.    See  ■William 
of  Malmcsbury. 

Malvenda,  Thomas,  1392. 

Mamachi,  Thomas  Maria,  1393. 

Mamertus.     See  Ilogalions. 

Mamertus  Claudianus.    See  Claudianus. 

Mammon,  1393. 

Mamre,  1393. 

Man,  1393. 

Manasselj,  1395. 

Manasseh,  Prayer  of.    See  Apocrypha. 

Manasseh,  Tribe  of.    See  Tribes  of  IS' 
rael. 

Mandseans.    See  Mendaeans. 

Mandeville,  Bernard  de,  1395. 

Mandrake,  1395. 

Mandyas,  1395. 

Manetho,  1395. 

Mangey,  Thomas,  1395. 

Mani.    See  Manichaeiam. 

ManichseiKm.  1396. 

Maniple,  1398. 

Manna,  1398. 

Manning,  James,  1398. 

Manse,  1398. 

Manscl.  Henry  Longuevillc,  1398. 

Mansi,  Giovanni  Dominico,  1399. 

Mant,  Iliehard,  1399. 

Manton,  Thomas,  1399. 

Manuel,  Niklaiis,  1400. 

Manuscripts.    See  Bible-Text- 
Maori.    See  New  Zealand. 

Mappa,  UitO. 

Marah,  1400. 

Maranatha,  1400. 

Marunos,  1400. 

Maranus,  Prudentius,  1400. 

Marbaeh,  Johann,  1400. 

Marburg  Bible,  the,  1400. 

Marburg,  (.'unfcreiice  of,  1400. 

Marbury,  Kdward,  1401. 

Marca,  Petrus  de,  1401. 

Marcellians  and  Mareellinists,  1401. 

Marcellinus,  1401. 

Mareellus  (popes),  1401. 

Mareellus  (1-5J,  1401. 

Mareellus,  1402. 

Marchetti,  Giovanni,  1402. 

Marciun,  1402. 

Marcus,  1403. 

Marcus  Aurelius,  1403. 

Marcus  Eremita,  1403. 

Marcus  Eugeuicus,  1404. 

Maresius,  Jean  de.    See  Desmnret*. 

MarcHius,  Samuel.     See  Dcsniarets. 

Maru':irct's  Day,  St.,  1404. 

Mar^raiila,  1404. 

M:ii-oli,Mnh,  Moses,  1404. 

MailR-iiieke,  Philipp  Konrad,  1404. 

Mari;iiniii',  14O0. 

Uuiiana,  Juan,  1405. 


Marianists,  1405. 

Mariazell,  14U5. 

Marie  a  la  (.-'uque,  1405. 

MariiiUB  (i)ope«),  1405. 

Mariolatry.     See  Mary. 

Marius  of  Aventicuni,  1406. 

MariuM  Mercator,  1406. 

Mark,  1406. 

Mark's  Day,  St.,  1408. 

Marlorat,  AugUKlin,  1408. 

Marnix,  Philii)p  van,  1409. 

Maronites^  1409. 

Marot,  ('lenient,  1411. 

Marriage,  1411, 

Marriage  among  the  Tlehrcwn,  1415. 

Marriott,  Wharton  Booth,  1416. 

Marrow  Contioverwy,  1416. 

Marsay,  Charles  Hector  de  St.  George, 

Marquis  de,  1417. 
Marsden,  Samuel,  1417. 
Mars'  Hill,  1417. 
Marsh,  Herbert.  1417. 
Marsh,  James,  1417. 
Marshall.  Su-phen,  1417. 
Marshniaii,  Jnsluia,  1418. 
MarsiliUH  PaUivimis,  1418. 
Marlene.  E.iMiond,  1419. 
Martiaiiay,  Jean,  1419. 
Martin  (popes),  1419. 
Martin  ot  Braga  or  Duniia,  1420. 
Martin  of  Tours,  St.,  1420. 
Martin,  David,  1420. 
Mailin     Marprelate     Controversy,     the, 

1420. 
Martin,  Sarah,  1421. 
Marlinalia.     See  Mai'tiniliaB. 
Martinius,  Mntlhia>.  1421. 
Martinmas,  l-'e^lival  of,  1421. 
Martyn,  Henry,  1421. 
Martyr  and  Confesr-oi-,  1422. 
Martyrs,  the  Forty,  1422. 
Maruthas,  1422. 
Mary,  14:^:;. 
Mary    (Tudor),   Queen.      See    England, 

Church  of. 
Masada,  1425. 

Masch,  Andreas  Golllicb,  1425. 
Mabou,  Erskine,  1420. 
Ma&oM,  Francis,  1425, 
Mason,  John,  1425. 
Masun,  Jolm  Milcliell,  1425. 
Mason,  Lowell,  1420. 
Masorah.     See  Massora. 
Mass,  the,  1426. 
Massa  Candida,  1429. 
Massalians.     See  Messaliane,  1429. 
Massillon,  Jean  Bap^i^te,  142;i. 
Massiiigberd,  Francis  Charles,  1430. 
Massora,  1430. 
Mass-Priests,  1431. 
Massuet,  Kene,  1431. 
Matamoros,  Manuel,  1431. 
Mater  Dolorosa,  1431. 
Materialism,  1431. 
MaternuB,  Julius  Firmicus,  1433, 
Mather,  Richard,  14;i3. 
Mather,  Samuel,  1433. 
Mather,  Nathaniel,  1433. 
Mather,  Eleazer,  1433. 
Mather,  Increase,  1433. 
Mather,  Cotton,  1434. 
Mathesius,  Johann,  14.34. 
Maihew,  Theobald,  14:^14. 
Mathilda,  Couutesw  of  Tuscany,  1436. 
Mathurins.     See  Trinitarian  Brothers. 
Malins.     See  Canonical  Hours. 
Matter,  Jacques,  1435. 
Matthew,  1435. 

Matthew  Blaatarc?.     See  Blastares. 
Matthew's  Day,  St.,  1437. 
Matthew  of  Bassi.     See  Capuchins. 
Matthew  of  Paris,  1437. 
Matthew  of  Westminster,  1437. 
Matthew  of  York,  1437. 
Matthew,  Thomas.    See   English   Bible 

Versions,  and  Rogers,  Juhn. 
Malllhesen.     See  Bockhold. 
Maulhroim,  1437. 
Maimdy  Thursday,  14.3S. 
Maur,  Congregation  of  St.,  1438. 
Maurice  of  Sa.Kony,  1439. 
Maurice,  John  Frederic  Doniscm,  1439. 
Mauritius.    See  Legion,  the  Thebaic. 
Maiirns,  1440. 
Maury,  Jean  Siffrein,  1440. 
Maxeiitius.     See  Conslanline. 
Maximilian  H.,  1441. 
Maximinus  'J'hrax,  1441. 


Maximus  Confessor,  1441. 

Maxinius,  1443. 

Maxwell,  Lady  Darcy,  144.1. 

May,  Samuel  Juseph,  1443. 

Mayence.  1443. 

Mayer,  Johann  Frlcdrich,  1443. 

Mayer,  Lewis,  1444. 

Mayhew,  Experience,  1444. 

Maylu'W,  Jonathan,  1444. 

Mayuooth,  1444. 

Ma/.arin,  .Tules,  1444. 

Mazaiine  Bible,  the,  1444. 

M'All  Mission  in  Paris,  1444. 

Mc(Jaul,  Alexander,  1445. 

McAuley,  Catharine  E..  1445. 

Mc(?heync  Robert  Murray,  1445. 

McCleriand,  Alexander,  1440. 

McClintock,  John,  144fi. 

McCiure,  Alexander  Wilson,  1447. 

McCrie,  Thomas,  1447. 

McCrie,  Thomas,  jun.,  1447. 

McDowell,  John,  1447. 

McDowell,  William  Anderson,  1448. 

Mcllvaine,  Charles  Petlit.  1448. 

McKendree,  William,  1450. 

McLeod,  .Mexander,  1450. 

McVickar,  John,  1450. 

McWhorter,  Alexander,  1450. 

Meade,  William,  1450. 

Meals  and  Banquets  among  the  Hebrews, 

1451. 
Means  of  Grace,  1451. 
Measures.     See  Weights  and  Mt-asuren. 
Meat,  Meat  Ollerings,  1452. 
Mecca,  1452. 
Mechitar,    Mechitarists.      See    Mekhita- 

rists. 
Mechthildis  of  Hackeborn,  1452. 
Mechthildis  of  Magdeburg,  1452. 
Mecklenburg,  1452. 
Medardus,  St.,  1452. 
Mede,  Joseph,  1453. 
Medes.     See  Mcdii. 
Medhurst,  Walter  Henry,  1453. 
Media,  1453. 

Mediator,  Mediation,  1454. 
Medicine  of  the  Hebrews,  1454. 
Medinah,  1456. 
Medler,  Nikoiaus.  1456. 
Meeting.     See  Friends. 
Meg;mdor,  Kaspar,  1456. 
Megapoleiisis,  Joannes,  1456, 
Me^iddo,  1457. 
Meisn.-r.  B.iUhasar,  1457. 
Mrkhit:insts,  the,  1457. 
i\I.-l;tm-hth.,n,  Philipp,  1457. 
Melchiades,  or  Miltiades,  1402. 
Melchiles,  1462. 
Mclchizcdck.  1462. 
Meldenius,  Rupcrtus,  1463. 
Melctian  Schism.     See  Mclethis  of  Anti- 

och  and  Meletius  of  I^ycopolis. 
Meletius  of  Antioch,  1463. 
Meletius  of  Lycopolis,  1463. 
Melita,  1464. 
Melito  of  Sardcs.  1464. 
Melvill,  Henry,  1464. 
Melville,  Andrew,  1464. 
Memi)his.     See  Noph. 
Men  of  Understanding,  1466. 
Meneea,  or  Menaion,  1466. 
Menahem,  1466. 
Menander,  1467. 

MenilEeans.orChristlansofSt.  John,  1467. 
Mendelssohn,  Moses,  1469. 
Mendicant   Orders,  or   Begging    Friars, 

1469. 
Meni.  1470. 
Meiiius,  Justus,  1470. 
Menken,  Gottfried,  1470. 
Meniias,  1470. 
Menmi  Simons.  1470. 
Meiinunites,  1471. 
Menologion,  14T2. 
Menot,  Michel,  1472. 
Menses  Papales,  1473. 
Menlzer,  Balthasar,  1473. 
Mercersburg  Theology,  1473. 
Mercy.  1475. 
Mercv,  Sisters  of,  or  Order  of  Our  Uady 

of  Mercv,  1476. 
Mercy-Seat.     See  Ark  of  the  Covenani. 
Meribab.  1476. 

Meritum  de  Condicno,  de  Congrno,  14.(1 
Merle  d'Aubigne,  Jean  Henri,  1476. 
Merudach.  1477. 
Merndach-Baladan,  1477. 
Merom,  Waters  of,  1477. 


xxxu 


INDEX. 


Merewin,  Rulman.    See  Rulraan  Mere- 
win. 
Mesopotamia,  1478. 
Mesrob,  or  M;ishto2, 1478. 
Mees-ilians,  147S. 

Messiah,  Messianic  Prophecy,  1479. 
McBtrezal,  Jean,  14S4. 
Metals  in  the  Bible,  1484. 
Mctnplirnsites,  Simeon,  1484. 
Meth.  Ezechiel.  and  Stiefel,  Esaias,  14S4. 
Methodism,  1485. 
Metliodism  in  America,  14S9. 
Methodius  (bishop),  1494. 
Methodius.    See  Cyrillus  and  Methodius. 
Methodology,  1494. 
Metrophanes  Critopolus,  1495. 
Metropohtan,  1495. 
Mcusel,  Wolfgang.    See  Museulus. 
Mexico,  1495. 

Meyer,  Ileinrich  Autjiist  Wilhclm,  1496. 
Meyer,  Johann  Friedrich  von.  1497. 
Mcyfart,  or  May  fart,  Johann  MalLbaus, 

1497. 
Mezuzah,  1498. 

Mezzofnnti,  Giuseppe  Caspar,  1498. 
Micah,  1498. 
Michael,  1499. 

Michael  Palieologus.    See  Caerularius. 
Michael  VIIL,  1499. 
Michael  Scotus.    Sec  Scotns,  Michael. 
Michaeiis,  Johann  Heiiirich,  1500. 
Michachs,  Christian  Bencdikt,  1500. 
Michaeiis,  Johann  David,  1500. 
Michaelmas,  15U0. 
Middle  Age,  the,  1500. 
Middlcton,  Conyers.  1503. 
Middlcton,  Thomas  Fanshaw,  1504. 
Midian,  1504. 
Midrash,  1504. 
Migne,  Jacques  Paul,  1507. 
Mikkelscn,  Hans.  1507. 
Milan,  the  Churcli  of,  1507. 
Mildraay  Conference,  1508. 
Miletus,  1508. 
Milicz  of  Kremeicr,  1508. 
Military  Religious  Orders,  1509. 
Mill,  John,  1513. 
Mill,  John  Smart,  1513. 
Millcdoler,  Philip,  1514. 
Millenarianism,  1514. 
Millenary  Petition,  1516. 
Millennium.    See  Millenarianism. 
Miller,  Hugh,  1517. 
Miller.  Samuel,  1517. 
Miller,  William,  1517. 
Milleriles.     See  AdvcnliBts. 
Millit  nmonj?  the  Hebrews,  1517. 
Mills,  Samuel  John.  1517. 
Milman,  Henry  Hart,  1518. 
Milner,  Joseph,  1518. 
Milner,  Inaac,  1518, 
Milnor,  James,  1519. 
Miltiades,  1510. 

Miliiades.  Pope.    Sec  Melchlades. 

Miititz.     Sec  Luther. 

Milton.  John,  1519. 

Minims,  the  Order  of,  1520. 

Mining  Operations  of  the  Hebrews.    Bee 
Melals. 

Minif^ler.  Ministry.    See  Clerev. 

MinUterial   Education.    See  Education, 
MiniHterial. 

MlnlKterium,  1-520. 

Minor  Canons,  1520. 

Minor  I'rophelM,  the,  l.'i20. 

Minorlteii.     See  Franclhcann. 

MInuclun  Felix,  Marcus,  1521. 

Mlracle-riavK.    See  Kuligious  Dramas. 

Miracles,  1521. 

Mirucles.  Hlmorlcal  View  of,  1525. 

Miraiidula.  Giovanni  Pico  delta,  1527. 

Miserere,  1527. 

Mishna,  1527. 

Mlssa.    See  Ma^s. 

Mlsna  C'nleehuinenorum  and  Mlssa  Fids- 
Hum,  1527. 

MiKiut  I'rwHnnrtincatoruro,  1527. 

MlBsa  Sicca,  1.527. 

MlMal,  \:>'2H. 

Mlsnlon.  1528. 

MIsKJon,  Inner.    See  Inner  Mission. 

MlMion.SchoolK,  1528. 

MiiNtons,  Protestant, amongthc  licathce, 
lf»28. 

Mil*'.  1539. 

Mil  re.  1539. 

Mixed  Marriages,    flee  Mnrringc. 

Mixed  Multitude,  1539. 


Mizpah,  or  Mizpeh,  1539. 

Mizpeh  of  Gilead,  1539. 

Mizpah  of  Benjamin,  1589. 

Moab,  1539. 

Modalism,  1541. 

Moderates,  1541. 

Moderator,  1541. 

Moffat,  Mary,  l.Ml. 

Mogilas,  Peter,  1541. 

Mohammed,  Mohammedanism,  1541. 

Mohler,  Johann  Adam,  1545. 

Molanus,  Gerhardt  Walthcr,  154.5. 

Molanus,  Jan,  1545. 

Molech,  or  Moloch,  1545. 

Molina,  Luis,  1546. 

Molinos,  Miguel  de,  1546. 

Moll.  Willcm.  1547. 

Moller,  or  Moller,  1547. 

Molokani,  the,  1547. 

Momiers,  or  Mummers,  1548. 

Monarchianism,  1548. 

Mona-stery,  1551. 

Monasticism.     See  Monastery. 

Money  among  the  llebreww,  1555. 

Mongols,  Christianity  among  tlie,  l^'jQ, 

Monheim,  Johannes,  1557. 

Monica,  or  Monnica,  1557. 

Monod,  Adolphe.  1557. 

Monod,  Frederic,  1558. 

Monogram  of  Christ.    See  Chrit-t,  Mono- 
gram of. 

Monophysites.  1558. 

Monolhelites,  1559. 

Monstrance,  1560. 

Montaigne,  Michel  Eyqnem  de,  1560. 

MonUlembcrt,    Charles    Forbes     Kon£, 
Count  de,  1561. 

Montanisni,  1561. 

Monte  Casino,  1562. 

Monies  Pietalis.  1563. 

Montesquieu,  Charles  deSerondnt,  Baron 
de,  1563. 

Montfaucon,  Bernard  de,  1563. 

Montfort,  Simon  de,  lo6o. 

Montgomery,  James,  1563. 

Montgomery,  Robert,  1564. 

Monumental  Theology,  1564. 

Monuments,  1565. 

Moon,  the,  1565. 

Moore,  Clement  Clarke,  1565. 

Moore,  Henry,  1565. 

Moors.     Sec  Spain. 

Mondities.    Sec  Religious  Dramas. 

Moral  Law,  1566. 

Moral  Philosophy,  1566. 

Moral  Theology.     See  Casuistry. 

Moravian  Church.  1567. 

More,  Hannah,  Miss,  1571. 

More,  Henry,  l.'>71. 

More,  Sir  Thomas,  1572. 

Morel,  Jean,  1573. 

Morel,  or  Morelli,  Jean  Bapliste,  1573. 

Morel.  Robert.  1-573. 

Morclstsliiki,  1574. 

MordTi,  Louis,  1574. 

Morgan,  Thomas,  1574. 

Morganatic  Marriages,  Iw74, 

Moriah,  1574. 

Morigia,  Jncobo  Antonio  de.    See  Bar 
nabites. 

Morikofi-r,  Johann  Kaspar,  1574. 

Morin,  Ktienue.  1574. 

Morin,  Jean,  1574. 

Morlsonians.    See  Evangelical  Union. 

Morley,  George,  1574. 

Murlin,  Joachim,  1575. 

Mormons,  1575. 

Morning  Lectures,  1581. 
Morocco,  15S1. 

Morono,  Giovanni  de,  1581. 

Morris,  Thomas  Ashnry,  1582. 

Morrison,  Robert,  15.S2. 

Morse,  Jede<llah,  15S2. 

Morse,  Sidney  Edward,  1.583. 

Morse,  Richard  Cary,  158;;. 

Morse,  Samuel  Finley  IJreeso,  1583. 

Mortar.     See  Mills. 

Mortification.  1583. 

Mortmain,  15i^3. 

Morton,  John,  1.583. 

Morton,  Nallumiel,  1583. 

Morton,  Thomas,  1583. 

Mortuaiv.  1583. 

Morua,f^amuel  Friedrich  Nathnnael,  1683. 

Mosaic  I>uw.     See  Decalogue,  Moses. 

MoHclius,  •Johannes,  158^1. 

Mosen,  1.581. 

Moses  ChorenenslM.  1580. 


Moshcim,  Johann  Lorenz  von,  1536. 

Mosque,  15S7. 

Mount  Hulyokc  Female  Seminary,  l.VSa 

Mourning  among  the  Hebrews,  1588. 

Moyer's  Lectures,  1589. 

Mozarabic  Liturgy,  1589. 

Mozley,  James  Bowling,  1590. 

Mucddin,  or  Muezzin,  1590. 

Mufti,  1590. 

Muggletonians,  1590. 

Muhlenberg,  Ileinrich  Melchior,  1591. 

Muhlenberg,  J-  Peter  G.,  1592. 

Miihlenberg,  Fred.  Aug.  Conrad,  1592. 

Miihk-nbrig,  GoUh.  Henry  Ernst.  1592. 

Muhlunberg,  William  Augustus,  1592. 

Mullens.  Joseph,  1593. 

Miiller,  Ueinvich.  1593, 

MUller,  Johann  Georg,  1593. 

Miiller,  Julius,  1593. 

Mummy.    See  Embalming. 

Miimpelgart.  the  Colloquy  of,  1595. 

MUnscher,  AVilbelm,  1595. 

Miinster,  1595. 

Miinter,  Friedrich  Christian  Karl  Hcio, 
rich,  1.595. 

Miinzer,  Thomas,  1595. 

Muratori,  Ludovico  Antonio,  1.596. 

Mur.ilorian  Canon.     Sec  Canon. 

Murder  among  the  Hebrews,  1596. 

Murtlock,  James,  1597. 

Murner,  Thomas,  1597. 

i  Murray,  .lohn,  1597. 

(Murray,  Nicholas,  1597. 

Mutaus,  Joharni,  1593. 

iMusculus,  Andreas,  1598. 

i Museulus,  Wolfgang.  1593. 

Musgrave,  George  Washington,  1598. 

Music  and  Musical  Inslrumenls  among 
the  Hebrews,  1598. 

Music,  Sacred,  lOUO. 

Mus-sclmans.     See  ^ohamracd,  Moham- 
medanism. 

Mutianus,  Rufus  Conradus,  1602. 

Myconius,  Friedrich,  161.12, 

Mvconius,  Oawald,  1602. 

Myrrh,  1602. 

Myrtle,  the.  1602. 

Mystngugue.  Mystagogy,  1602. 
Mysticism,  1602. 

Mythical  and  Legendary  Theory,  1604. 


N. 

Nnaman,  1605. 

Nimai'iies.    See  Gnosticism. 

Nubiil,  160.5. 

Nabnlieiins.    Sec  Arabia. 

Nutliil,  IJiTnarJ  Harrison,  1605. 

Nahor,  1605. 

Nahum,  1605. 

Nain,  1606. 

Nanus,  Biblical  Siirnlficannc  of,  1C06. 

Natnfs,  CliriKtian  Ose  of,  1007. 

Nantos,  the  Eiliel  of,  1007. 

Naphtali.    8™ 'I'ribca  of  larac'.. 

Nartl.    See  Spilci-nard. 

Nardin,  Jean  Frwleric,  1607. 

Nailhex,  1007. 

Nanmith,  Davlil,  1607. 

Natalin  Alexander,  1607. 

Nathan,  1607. 

Nathanaijl.     Sec  Bartholomew. 

Nativity  of  Christ.    See  ClH-istmaii. 

Natnral  Ability.     See  In.ibillly. 

Natnnil  Law,  1008. 

Natnral  lieliiiion.    Sec  llellgion. 

Natnral  'l'be..l..«y,  1008. 

Naudiius,  l'hili|>|>n8,  lOOS. 

Naninburi<,  Convention  of,  1609. 

Nave,  1009. 

Navigation.    See  Ship. 

Naylor,  James.  Uioo. 

NazareTiea.     See  Kbioniles. 

Nazareth,  16011. 

Na/.arUes,  1610. 

Neal,  Daniel.  1010. 

Neale,  John  Maaon,  1010. 

Neander,  Joachim,  lOl'i. 

NeJinder,  Johann  .\nBU8t  Wllhclm,  1013. 

Neapolis,  1014. 

Nehaiolh.     Sec  Aroblll. 

Nebo,  1014. 

Nebo  (uionntaln),  1616. 

Nebo  (elly).  l"'-''- 

Nebuchadnezzar,  1615. 

Nebuziir-Adan,  1016. 


INDEX. 


xxxin 


Necessity,  Moral,  1616. 

Necbo,  1616. 

Neckbam,  Alexander,  1616. 

Necrologium,  Necrology,  1617. 

Necromiincy,  1617. 

NcctarJus,  I'atriarcli  of  Constantinople, 

1617. 
Nectarine,  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  1617. 
Needham,  John,  1617. 
Needlework.    See  Clothing,  ViHtments. 
Neff,  Felix,  1617. 
Negri,  Francesco,  1617. 
Negro  Evangelization  and  Education  in 

America,  1617. 
Nehemiah,  1621. 
Nehushtan,  1622. 
Nelson,  David,  1622. 
Nelson,  Robert,  1622. 
Nemesius,  1622. 
Nennius,  1622. 
Neology,  1622. 
Neonomianism,  1622. 
Neophytes,  1622. 
Neo-Platonism,  1623. 
Neot,  St.,  1626. 

NeoBtadienaium  Adnionitio,  1625. 
Nepomuk,  John  of.    See  JohnNepomuk. 
Nepos,  1625. 
Nergal,  1625. 
Nergal-Sharezer,  1625. 
Neri,  Philip,  1625. 
Nero,  1626. 

Nersee  the  Great,  1626. 
Nerses  Clayensis,  1626. 
Nerses  Lambronensis,  1627. 
Nesse,  Chrietopher,  1627. 
Nestor,  1627. 
Nestorians,  1627. 

Neetorius    and    the    Ncstorian    Contro- 
versy, 1629. 
Netherlands.    See  Belgium,  Holland. 
Netherlands  Bible   Society.      See   Bible 

Societies. 
Netherlands    Missionary    Society.     See 

Missions. 
Nethinim.     See  Levitcs. 
Netter,  Thomas,  1630. 
Nettletou,  Asahel,  1631. 
Neubrigeneis,  William,  1631. 
Neufchatel,     Independent      Evangelical 

Church  of,  the,  1631. 
Nevins,  William,  1632. 
New  Birth.    See  Regeneration. 
New-Brunswick  Theological   Seminary, 

1632. 
New  Christians.    See  Spain. 
New    Church.        See     New -Jerusalem 

Church. 
Newcomb,  Harvey,  1633. 
Newcome,  William,  1633. 
Ne-yvell,  Harriet,  1634. 
Newell,  Samuel,  1634. 
New-England  Theology,  1634. 
New. Haven  Divinity.   See  Taylor,  N.  W. 
New  Israelites.    See  Southcott,  Joanna. 
New-Jerusalem  Church,  1638. 
New-Light  Antiburghers.   Sec  Seceders. 
New  South  Wales.    See  Australasia. 
New  Testament.    See  Bible  Text,  Canon. 
Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  1641. 
Newton,  John,  1641. 
Newton,  Robert,  1642. 
Newton,  Thomas,  1642. 
Newton  Theological  Institution,  1642. 
New- Year's  Celebration,  1642. 
New- Year,    Feast    of.      See    Trumpcta, 

Feast  of. 
New-York  City,  1643. 
New-York  Sabbath  Committee,  the,  1644. 
New  Zealand,  1645. 
Nibhaz,  1646. 
Nicsea,  Councils  of,  1646. 
Nicaeno-Constanlinopolitan  Creed,  1648. 
Nice.     See  Nicsea. 
Nicene  Creed.    See  Nicseno-Constantino- 

politan  Creed. 
Nicephorus,  1651. 
Nicephonis,  Callisti,  1652. 
Niceron,  Jean  Pierre,  1652. 
Nicetas  Acominatos,  1652. 
Nicetas,  David,  1652. 
Nicetas  Pectoratue,  1652. 
Niche,  1652. 
Nicholas  (popes),  1652. 
Nicholas  of  Basel.  See  John  of  Chur,  and 

Friends  of  God. 
Nicholas,  Bishop  of  Methone,  1653. 
Nicholas,  Bishop  of  Myra,  1653. 


Nicholas,  Henry.     See  Familisls. 

Nicholas  of  Strassburg,  1654. 

NicoderauH,  1654. 

Nicolai,  Philip,  1654. 

NicoluitauH,  1654. 

Nicolas,    See  Nicolaitane. 

Nicolas  de  Cleraanges.    See  Clemanges. 

Nicolas  de  Cusa.    See  Cusa. 

Nicole,  Pierre,  1655. 

Nicopolis,  1656. 

Niebuhr,  Carstcn,  1656. 

Niedner,  Clirifitian  Wilhelm,  1656. 

Niemeyer,  August  Hermann,  1656. 

Niemeyer,  H.  A.,  1656. 

Nihilism,  1656. 

Nikon,  1656. 

Nile,  1657. 

Niles,  Nathaniel,  1657. 

Niles,  Samuel,  1657. 

Niles,  Samuel,  2d,  1657. 

Nilus  the  elder,  1657. 

Nilus  the  younger,  1657. 

Nilus  the  Archfmandrite,  1657. 

Nimbus,  1658. 

Nimrod,  16.'")8. 

Nineveh, 1658. 

Ninian,  1661. 

Nioba.     See  Monophysiles. 

Nirvana.    See  Buddhism. 

Nisan.     See  Year,  Hebrew. 

Nisroch,  1061. 

Nitschmann,  David,  1661. 

Nitechmann,  John,  1661. 

Nitzsch,  Karl  Immanuel,  1661. 

NitzBch,  Karl  Ludwig,  1662. 

No,  1662. 

Noachian  Precepts.    See  Noah. 

Noah  and  the  Flood,  1662. 

Noailles,  Louis  Antoine  de,  1665. 

Nob,  1665. 

Noble,  Samuel,  1665. 

Nocturns.    See  Canonical  Hours. 

Nod,  1665. 

Noel,  1665. 

Noel,  Baptist  Wriotheeley,  1665. 

Noel,  Gerard  Thomas,  1665. 

Noetius.    See  Monarchianism. 

Nolascus,  Petrus,  1665. 

Nominalism.    See  Scholasticism. 

Norainatio  Regia,  1665. 

Nomocanon,  1665. 

Nonconformists,  the,  1666. 

Nonjurors,  1666. 

Nonnos,  1666. 

Non-residence,  1666. 

Noph,  1666. 

Norbert.    Sec  Premonstrants. 

Nordheimer,  Isaac,  1667. 

Norman  Architecture.   Sec  Architecture. 

Norris,  John,  1667. 

North  America.     See  Canada,  Mexico, 

United  States. 
North,  Brownlow,  1667. 
North-west,    Theological    Seminary    of 

the.    See  Seminaries,  Theological. 
Norton,  Andrews,  1667. 
Norton,  -John,  1668. 
Norway.  1668. 
Norwich,  1668. 

Nosselt,  Johann  August,  1668. 
Notker  (1-4),  1668.  " 
Notre  Dame,  1669. 
Nutt,  Eliphalet,  166U. 
Nourry,  Nicolas  le,  1660. 
Novalis,  1669. 
Novatian,  1669. 

Novatianus,  Novalus.     See  Novatian. 
Novice.    See  Novitiate. 
Novitiate,  1672. 
Nowell,  Alexander,  1672. 
Nowell,  Laurence,  1673. 
Noyes,  George  Rapall,  1673. 
Numbers.    See  Peinatcuch. 
Nun,  Nunnery,  1673. 
Nuncio.     Sec  Legate. 
Nuremberg,  Religious  Peace  of,  1673. 


Oak.  1674. 

Gates,  Titus,  1674. 

Oath,  1674. 

Obadiah,  1676. 

Obedience  of  Christ,  the,  1677. 

Ober-Amniergau,  1677. 

Oberlin,  Jean  Frederic.  1678. 

Oberlin  Theological  Seminary,  1678. 

Oberlin  Theology.     See  Finney,  C  G. 


Oblation.     Sec  Offerings. 

Occam,  William,  1679. 

Occasionalism.     See  Malebranche. 

Occum,  Sampson,  1680. 

Ochino,  Bernardino,  1680. 

Octave,  1681. 

Odcnheimer,  William  Henry,  1681. 

Odilo,  St.,  1681. 

Odo,  St.,  1681. 

CEcolampadius,  John,  1681. 

(Ecumenical  Councils,  1683. 

Oehler,  Giistav  Friedrich,  1684. 

Oetinger,  Eriedrich  Christoph,  1685. 

Offerings  in  the  Old  Tcslaruent,  1685. 

Offertory,  1690. 

Office,  Congregation  of  the  Holy,  1600. 

Offices    of    Christ.      See    Jesus    Christ, 

Three  Offices  of. 
Official,  1690. 
Ogilvie,  John,  1690. 
Oil,  Olive-tree,  1690. 
Ointment.    See  OU. 
Olaf,  St.,  1691. 

Oldcastle.     See  Cobham,  Lord. 
Old-Catholics,  1691. 
Oldenburg,  1692. 

Old  Light  Antiburghers.    Sec  Seceders. 
Old  Testament.    See  Bible  Text,  Canon. 
Olearius  (1-8),  1692. 
Olevianus,  Caspar,  1692. 
Olga,  St.,  1693. 
Olier,  Jean  Jacques,  1693. 
Olin,  Stephen,  1693. 
Oliva,  Fernan  Perez  de,  1693. 
Olive.     See  Oil. 
Olivers,  Thomas,  1693. 
Olivet  and  Olives,  Mount  of,  1693. 
Olivetan,  Pierre  Robot,  1694. 
Olivi,  Pierre  Jean,  1694. 
Ollivant,  Alfred,  1694. 
Olshausen,  Hermann,  1694. 
Ornish,  or  Araish.    See  Mennonites. 
Omnipotence,  OmniscieDce,  of  God.    See 

God. 
On,  1695. 

Onderdonk,  Henry  Ustic,  1695. 
Oneida  Community,  1695. 
Onkelos,  1695. 

Oosterzee,  Jan  Jacob  van,  1695. 
Ophir,  1696. 

Ophites.    Sec  Gnosticism. 
Optatus,  1696. 

Optimism  and  Pessimism,  1697. 
Option,  1698. 
Opus  Operantis    and    Opus    Operatuni, 

1698. 
Oral  Law.     See  Tradition. 
Orange,  Councils  of,  1698. 
Oratorio,  the,  1698. 
Oratory,  1699. 

Oratory,  Priests  of  the.     See  Neri. 
Ordeal,  1699. 

Ordericofl  Vitalis.     See  Vitalls. 
Orders,  Holy,  1700. 
Ordinary,  1700. 
Ordinati'on,  1700. 
Ordines,  1701. 
Ordo  Roraanus,  1702. 
Organ,  1702. 
Oriel,  or  Oriole,  1702. 
Oriflaramc,  1702. 
Origen,  1702. 

Origenistic  Controveisies,  1705. 
Original  Antiburghcis,   Burghers,    ana 

Seceders.     See  Seceders. 
Original  Sin.    See  Sin. 
Orleans,  Maid  of.     See  Joan  of  Arc. 
Orme,  William,  1706. 
Ormuzd  and  Abrimnn.  1706. 
Orosius,  Paulus,  17U0. 
Orthodoxy  and  Heterodoxy,  1706. 
Orthodoxy,  Festival  of.    See  Orthodoxy. 
Orton,  Job,  1707. 
Oscultatory,  1707. 
Osgood,  David,  1707. 
Osgood,  Samuel,  1707. 
Osiander,  Andreas,  1707. 
Osiander  (1-3),  1708. 
Osier,  Edward,  1708. 
Osmond,  St.,  1708. 
Ossat,  Arnold  d*,  1708. 
Osterwald,  Jean  Fr6deric,  1708. 
Ostiary,  Ostiarius,  1708. 
Oswald,  St.,  1709. 
Otfried  of  Weissenburg,  1709. 
Othmar,  St.,  1709. 
Otho  of  Bamberg,  1709. 
Otho  of  Froising,  1709. 


ISSIV 


O'Tooie,  taurence,  St.,  1709. 

Ouerbein,  Philip  'Wiiliam,  1709. 

Oudin,  Casimir,  1710. 

Ouen.  St.,  1710. 

Our  Lady  of   Mercy,  eiaters  of.     See 

Mercy,  Sistera  of. 
Ouseley,  Gideon,  1710. 
Overberg,  Bernbard,  1710. 
Owen,  Jobn.  1710. 
Owen,  John  Jason,  171'2. 
Owen,  Robert,  1712. 
Owen,  Robert  Dale,  1712. 
Oxford,  1713. 

Oiford  Tracts.    See  Tractarianiiin. 
Ollee,  John,  1714. 
Ozanam,  Aiitoine  Frederic,  1714. 

P. 

Paeca,  Bartolommeo,  1T15. 

Pace,  Richard,  1715. 

Pachomius,  1715. 

Pachymeres,  Oeorgiua,  1716, 

Pacianus,  1716. 

Pacification.  Edicts  of,  1716. 

Padua,  1716. 

Paedobaptism,  1716. 

Paedobaptist,  1716. 

Paganism,  1716. 

Page,  Harlan,  1717. 

Pagi,  Antoine,  1717. 

Pagoda,  1717. 

Paine,  Robert.  1717. 

Paine,  Thomas,  1717. 

Painting,  Christian,  1718. 

Pajon,  Claude,  1722. 

Palafox  de  Mendoza,  Juan  de,  1722. 

Palamas,  Qregorius,  1722. 

Paleario,  Aonio,  1722. 

Paleetine,  1723. 

Paleetrina,  Giovanni  Pierluigl,  1727. 

Paley,  William,  172S. 

Palimpsest.    Bee  Bible  Text. 

Palisay,  Bernard,  1728. 

Pall,  1729. 

Palladiue,  1729. 

Palladius,  Scotorum  Epiacopus,  1730. 

Pallavicino,  or  Pallavicini,  Sforza,  1730. 

Pallium,  1730. 

Palmer.  1730. 

Palmer,  Christian  David  Friedrich,  1730. 

Palmer,  Edward  Henry,  1731, 

Palmer,  Herbert,  1731. 

Palm-8unday,  1731. 

Palm-Trec,  1731. 

Pamphilun,  1732. 

Pamphylia,  1732. 

Paiiagiu,  1732. 

Pan-Anglican  Synod,  1732. 

Panegyricon,  1733. 

Panis  Literaj,  1733. 

Panormitanurt,  1733. 

Pan-Prenbyterian  Council.    Se«  Alliance 

of  the  Reformed  Churches. 
Panticnufl,  1733. 
PanLhei.-<m  and  Pantheist,  1733. 
Pantheon,  1735. 

Papacy  and  l*apal  System,  1735. 
Papal  Election.    See  Conclave. 
Papebrocck.    See  Bollandiata. 
Paphnulliis,  1737. 
PaphoH,  1733. 
Paplas,  1738. 
Pttpin,  Isaac,  1739. 
PapyruH.    See  Bible-Text,  Writing. 
Parabk-rt,  1730. 
Parabotanl,  1742. 
ParacelMUH,    Philippus    Aureolua   Theo- 

phnuttus  Bombastus,  1742. 
Paraclete.    See  Holy  Spirit,  Trinity. 
Parach-tlc6,  or  Paraclctlcon,  1742. 
ParadlHO.  1742. 
Paraguay.  1743. 
Paran,  WlldernoAH  of,  1743. 
Pardee,  Richard  flay,  1743. 
ParouH.  iMvld,  1743. 
Paris,  1743. 

I'arls,  KrancoU  dc,  174r). 
I'urls,  Matthew.    Sec  Matthew  of  Paris. 
Parish,  1745. 
Parity,  17  W. 
Parker,  Matthew,  1746. 
Parker,  Samuel,  1746. 
Parker.  'I'lieoib^re,  1747. 
Parkhurnt,  John,  174tf. 
Parncll.  ThomoM,  1749. 
{'arseelFtm,  17411. 

Parflonn,  Robert.    See  Persona,  Robert. 
I'ojuoUH,  Levi.  1762. 


INDEX. 


Particular  and  General  Baptists,  1752. 

Passagians,  the,  1752. 

I'ascal,  Blaise,  1752. 

Pascal,  JacqueUne.    See  p.  1752. 

Paschal  Controversies,  1754. 

Paschaiis  (popes),  1756. 

Fascbasius,  Radbertus.    See  Radbertus. 

Pasqualis,  Martinez,  1757. 

Passion,  the,  of  our  Lord,  1757. 

Passion-Plays.    See  Religious  Dramas. 

Passion-Week.    See  Holy  Week. 

Passionei,  Dominic,  1757. 

Passionists,  the,  1757. 

Passover,  the,  1757. 

Pastoral  Letters,  1759. 

Pastoral  Theology,  1759. 

Pastorells,  1762. 

Patarenes,  1762. 

Paten,  1762. 

Pater-Noster,  1762. 

Patience,  1762. 

Patmos,  1763. 

Patouillet,  Louis,  176.3. 

Patriarch,  1763. 

Patrick,  St.,  1763. 

Patrick,  Symon,  1765. 

Patripassiane,  1765. 

Patristics  and  Patrology,  1765. 

Patronage,  1767. 

Patteson,  John  Coleridge,  1768. 

Paul  the  Apostle  and  his  Epistles,  1768. 

Paul  (popes),  1774. 

Paul,  Father.    See  Sarpi. 

Paul  of  Samosata.    See  Monarchianism. 

Paul  of  Thebes.    See  Monastery. 

Paul,  Vincent  de.     See  Vincent  de  Paul. 

Paul  the  Deacon,  1776. 

Paula,  1776. 

Paullciane,  1776. 

Paulinus  of  Aquileja,  1777. 

Paulinus,  Pontius  Mcropius  Anicius,  177S. 

Paulinus  of  York,  1778. 

Paulists,  1778. 

Paulus,  Ileinrich  Eberhard  Gottlob,  17rS. 

Pauperes  de  Lugduno.    See  Waidenses. 

Pavia,  the  Council  of,  1779. 

Pavilion,  1779. 

Payson,  Edward,  1779. 

Pazmany,  Peter,  1780. 

Peabody,  George,  1780. 

Peabodv,  William  Bourne  Oliver,  1781. 

Peace,  Kiss  of.    See  Kiss  of  Peace. 

Peace  Offering.    See  Offeldngs. 

Pearson,  Ellphalet,  1781. 

Pearson,  John,  1782. 

Peck,  George,  17S3. 

Peck,  Jesse  Truesdell,  17S3. 

Peck,  John  Mason,  1783. 

Pedersen,  Christiern,  1783. 

Pedobaptism,  Pedobaptists.    See  Pifido- 

baptism,  Pajdobajjtists. 
Pelagius  and  the  Pelagian  Controversies, 

1783. 
Pelagius  (popes),  1785. 
Pelagius,  Alvarus,  1786. 
Pelllkan,  Knnrad,  1786. 
Pelt,  Anton  Kriedrich  Ludwig,  1786. 
Penance, 1787. 
Peultentlals,  1787. 
Penitential  Psalms,  1788. 
Penu,  William,  1788. 
Pennaforte,  Raymond  de,  1790. 
Penrv,  John,  17a0. 
Pontaleuch,  the,  1790. 
Pentecost.  1801. 
Perala?.    See  Gnosticism. 
Percy,  Thomas,  1801. 
Pcrca,  1802. 

Percira,  Antonio  dc  Flguclredo,  1902. 
I'erfectlonism,  1802. 
I'ergaraos,  1802. 
I'cricopCB,  1802. 
Perlkau,  Synods  of,  1808. 
Pcrlzzlles.    Sec  Canaan. 
Perkins,  Justin,  1806. 
I'erklns,  William.  1800. 
Pcrpetua,  Pte.,  ISOO. 
IVrroue,  Glovanid,  1806. 
Perronet,  Edward,  ISUT. 
I'ersecutlon  of  the  Christians  In  the  Ro 

man  Empire,  1807. 
Perseverance  of  the  Saints,  1808. 
Persia,  1808. 
Persons,  Robert,  1811. 
I'eru,  isn. 

Peslilto.    Sco  Bible  Versions. 
I'esslmlsm.       See    Optimism,  Schopcn 

hauer. 
Pcstulozzl,  Johann  Hclnrlch,  1812. 


Petavius,  Dionysius,  1812. 

Peter  the  Apostle,  1813. 

Peter,  Festivals  of  St.,  1817. 

Peter  of  Alcantara,  1818. 

Peter  of  Alexandria,  1818. 

Peter  d'Ailiy.    See  AilU. 

Peter  of  Blois,  1818. 

Peter  of  Bruys  and  the  Petrobruslana, 
1818. 

Peter  of  Celle,  1818. 

Peter  Lombard.    See  Lombard. 

Peter  Martyr,  or  Peter  of  Verona,  1818. 

Peter  Martyr  Vermigli,  1818. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  1819. 

Peter  the  Venerable,  1819. 

Peterborough,  1819. 

Peter-Pence,  1S19. 

Peters,  Hugh,  1820. 

Petersen,  Johann  Wilhelm,  1330. 

Petit,  Samuel,  1820.  j 

Petra.    See  Selah. 

Petri,  Olaus,  1820. 

Petri,  Laurentius,  1820. 

Petrobrusiaus.    See  Peter  of  Bmys. 

Peucer,  Caspar,  1820. 

Pew,  1821. 

Pezel,  Christof,  1821. 

Waff,  Christof  MatthSus,  1821. 

Pflug,  Julius,  1821. 

Pharaoh,  1821. 

Pharisees,  the,  1821. 

Philadelphia,  1822. 

Philadelphia  (U.S.A.),  1822. 

Philadelphian  Society,  1823. 

Pbilaster,  or  Pbilastrius,  1824. 

Philemon.    See  Paul. 

Philip  the  Apostle,  1824. 

Philip  the  Arabian,  1824. 

Philip  the  Evangelist,  1824. 

Philip  the  Fair,  1824. 

Philip  the  Magnanimous,  1825. 

Philip  ri.,  1826. 

Philip  the  Tetrarcb.    See  Herod. 

Philippi.  1S26. 

Philippi,  Friedrich  Adolf,  1827. 

I'hilippians,  Epistle  to  the.    See  Paul. 

Philippists,  IS27. 

Philistines,  1827. 

Philipotts,  Henry,  1831. 

Philo,  1831. 

Phllo  Carpathius,  1833. 

Philopatris,  1833. 

Philoponus.    See  John  Phllopouua. 

Philosophy  and  Religion,  1833. 

Philosophy,  Christian,  American  Insti- 
tute of,  1836. 

Philostorgius,  1836. 

Philostratus,  Flavius,  1336. 

Pbilosenus,  1336. 

I'hoeas,  1836. 

Phoenicia,  18.16. 

I'hotinus,  1837. 

I'hotius,  1837. 

I'hrygia,  T838. 

Phylactery,  1838. 

Plarlsls,  o"r  Fathers  of  the  Pious  Schools, 
or  Paulinian  Congregation,  1839. 

Picards,  ISIW. 

l^ictet,  Benedict,  1839. 

Picus  of  Mlrandula.    See  Mlrandula. 

Pierce,  Lovick,  1S39. 

Pierpout,  John,  1840. 

Pietism,  1840. 

Pighlus.  Albert,  1841. 

Pilate,  Pontius,  1841. 

Pilate,  Procla,  or  Claudia  Procula,  1342. 

Pllu'rlmaKes,  1842. 

Pllkliigton,  .lames,  1843. 

PInkncy,  William,  1843. 

Plrkd  Aboth,  1843. 

PIrmlu,  St.,  1843. 

Pisa,  Councils  of,  1843. 

Plscator,  Johannes,  1844. 

Pise,  Charles  Constantino,  1844. 

Plsgah,  1844. 

Plsidla,  1845. 

PIstorius.  Johannes,  1845. 

Plthom,  1846. 

Plus  (popes),  1845. 

Pius  Soolotios,  1849. 

i'lacet,  1849. 

Plnceus,  1849. 

Plagues  of  Egypt.    See  Kgypt. 

Planck,  Gutllleb  Jakob,  1819. 

Planck,  Hclnrlch  Ludwig,  1849. 

Platliia,  ltaithc)l<)nuLnlrt,  1849. 

I'latonism  and  (.,'hrlsllnidty,  18.')0. 

Platonlsts.  the  Cainbridge,  18.^3. 

Pint,  Guslav  Leopold,  1856. 


Plumer,  William  Swan,  1855. 

Pluralities,  1856. 

Plymouth  Brethren,  1856. 
Pneumatomachi,  1859. 

Pocock,  Edward,  1859. 

Podiebrad,  George  of,  1859. 

Poetry,  Hebrew.    .See  Hebrew  Poetry. 

Pohlraan,  William  John,  1S60. 

Poiraenics.    See  Pastoral  Theology. 

Poiret,  Pierre,  1860. 

Poisey.  Conference  of,  1860. 

Poland,  1861. 

Pole,  Reginald,  1862. 

Polemics,  1862. 

Polentz,  George  of.     See  George  of  Po 
lentz. 

Poliander,  Johann,  186;J. 

Polity,  1863. 

Pollok,  Robert,  1863. 

Polycarp,  1863. 

I'olyehrouius,  1864. 

Polygamy.    See  MarHage. 

Polyglot  Bibles,  1864. 

Polytheism,  1867. 

Pomfret,  John,  1868. 

Pomponatius,  Petrus,  1868. 

Pond,  Enoch.  1868. 

Pontianus,  1868. 

Pontificale,  1868. 

Foote,  Matthew,  1868. 

Poor,  Daniel,  1869. 

Poor  Men  of  Lyons.    See  Waldeuses. 

Pope,  the,  1869. 

Pope,  Alexander,  1871. 

Pordage,  John,  1871. 

Poritoppidan,  Erik  Ludwigsen,  1872. 

Porphyry.    See  Neo-Platouisra. 

Porter,  Kbenezer,  1872. 

Portiuncula  Iiidulgeuce,  1872. 

Port  Royal,  1872. 

P'ortugal,  the  Kingdom  of,  1873. 

Poschl,  Thomas,  1874. 

Positivism.    See  Comte,  Auguste. 

Possession,  Demoniacal.  See  Demoniacs. 

Possevino,  Antonio,  1874. 

Possidius,  or  Possidonius,  1874. 

PoBtel,  Guillaume,  1874.      , 

Postil,  1874. 

Potter,  Alonzo,  1874. 

Potts,  George,  1876. 

Poulain,  Nicolas,  1876. 

Pouring,  1876. 

Powell,  Baden,  1876. 

Practical  Theology,  1877, 

Prades,  Jean  Martin  de,  1877. 

Pradt,  Dominique  Dufour  de,  1877. 

Praeraunire,  1877. 

Prfetorius,  Abdias,  1877. 

Praetorius,  Stephan,  1877. 

Prayer,  1877. 

Prayer,  Book  of  Common,  1880. 

Prayer  for  the  Dead,  1882. 

Prayer,  the  Lord's.    See  Lord's  Prayer. 

Preachers,  Local.    See  Local  Preachers. 

Preaching,  1883. 

Preaching  Friars,  1885. 

Prebend,  1885. 

Precious  Stones,  1885. 

Preconization,  1886. 

Predestination,  1886. 

Premillennialism,  1887. 

Premonstrants,  or    Premonstratensiana, 
1890. 

Prentiss,  Elizabeth,  1890. 

Presbyter  and  the  Preebyterate,  1890. 

Presbyterian  Churches,  1892, 

Presbyterianisra,  1917. 

Presbyteriura,  1921. 

Presbytery,  1921. 

Presence,  the  Real.    See  Lord's  Supper. 

Presiding  Elders,  1921. 

Pressly,  John  Taylor,  1921. 

Prester  John.    See  John  the  Presbyter. 

Preston,  John,  1921. 

Prideaux,  Humphrey,  1921. 

Prierias,  Sylvester,  1922. 

Priests  and  Priesthood  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, 1922. 

Priesthood  in  theRoman-CathoIicChurch, 
1926. 

Priestley,  Joseph,  1927. 

Primacy,  Primate,  1927, 

Primicerius,  1927. 

Primitive    Methodist    Connection.      See 
Methodism. 

Prince,  Thomas  (1),  1927. 

Prince.  Thomas  (2),  1928. 

Princeton,   the  Village,  its  Institutions, 
Theology,  and  Literature,  1928. 


INDEX. 


Prior  and  IVloreafi,  1930. 

PrlacllllnnlstB,  1930. 

Probablllam,  1931. 

Probation,  Future,  1931. 

Procession  of  the  Iloiy  Uhoet.    Hec  Filio 
que. 

ProceBsIoDB,  1932. 

Procius.    See  Neo-PIatoniem. 

Procopius  of  CiBBarea,  1932. 

ProcopiuB  of  Oaza,  1932. 

ProcopiuB  the  Great,  1932. 

ProdicianB,  1933. 

Professlo  Kldei  Tridentinee.    See  Triden 
tine  ProfesBion  of  Faith. 

Proiocutor,  1933. 

Pronier,  Cesar  Louis,  1933. 

Propaganda,  the,  193.3. 

Prophetic  Ofllce  in   the  Oid  Testament, 
1936, 

Prophets  In  the  New  Testament,  1940. 

Propitiation,  1940. 

Proseiytes  of  the  Jews,  1941. 

Prosper  of  Aquitania,  1942. 

Protestauten-Verein,  1942. 

Protestantism.    See  Reformation. 

Protevaugeliura.    See  Apocrypha. 

Protonotarius  Apostolicus,  194:;. 

Proto-Presbyter,  or  Proto-Pope,  1942. 

Proudfoot,  William,  1942. 

Proverbs  of  Solomon,  1943. 

Providence,  1948. 

Provincial,  1949. 

Provost,  1949. 

PrudenliuB,  Aurelius  Clemens,  1949. 

Prudent)  us  of  Troyes,  1949. 

Prussia,  1949. 

Prynne,  \Villiara,  1950. 

Psairaanazar,  George,  1950. 

Psalmody  in  the  Early  Christian  Church, 
1950. 

Psalms,  1961. 

Psalms,  Use  of  the,  in  Worship,  1959. 

Psalter,  1961. 
Psellus,1901. 
Pseudepigrapha  of  the  Old  Testament, 

1961. 
Pseudo-Ieidorian   Decretals,  1966. 
Ptolemeeus,  Ptolemy,  196S. 
Ptolemy  I.,  Soter,  1968. 
Ptolemy  II.,  Philadciphua,  196S. 
Ptolemy  III.,  Euergertes,  1968. 
Ptolemy  IV.,  Philopator,  1968. 
Ptolemy  V.,  Epiphaues,  1969. 
Ptolemy  VI.,  Philometor,  1969. 
Publican,  1969. 
Publicani,  1969. 
Pufendorf,  Samuel,  1969. 
Pul.    See  Tiglalh-pileser. 
Pulcheria,  1969. 
Pulleyn,  Robert,  1909. 
Pulpit,  1970. 
Pulpit-Eloquence.         See      Homiletioa 

Preaching. 
Punishmenl  among  the  Hebrews,  1970. 
Punishment,  Future,  1971. 
Punshon,  Willi.am  Morley,  1974. 
Purcell,  Henry,  1974. 
Purcell,  John  Baptist,  1975. 
Purgatory,  1975. 
Puriiications,  1976. 
Purim,  1979. 

Puritan,  Puritanism,  1979. 
Purvey,  .John,  1983. 
Pusey,  Edward  Bouverie,  1984. 
Pym.  John,  1984.    • 
Pynchon,  ''Vllliam,  1985. 
Pyx,  1985. 


(Juadragesima.    ,See  Lent. 
Quadratus,  1986. 
t^uakera.    See  Friends. 
Quariea,  Francis,  1986. 
Quarterly  Meeting.    See  Friends. 
Quartodecimani.     See    Paschal    Contro 

versy. 
Queen  Anne's  Bounty.    See  Taxei. 
Quenstedt,  Andreas,  1986. 
Queenel.  Pasquier,  1986. 
Quetif,  Jacques,  1986. 
Quietism.    See  Moiiuos,  Guyon. 
Quinisextum  Concilium,  1987. 
Quirinius,  1987. 


R. 

Eabauus  Maurus,  1988. 


XXXV 


Rabaut,  Paul,  1988. 

liabaut,  St.  Eticnne,  198*. 

Rabaut,  Pommier,  1988. 

Rabbah.    See  Ammonites. 

Rabblniam,  1988. 

Rabbula.    See  Rabulas. 

Rabaaria,  19<.I0. 

Rabahaiich,  1990. 

Rabulaa,  1990. 

Raca,  1990. 

Racovian  Catechiam.    See  SociDi>nlM>. 

Rachel.    See  Jacob. 

RadbertUB,  Paachaaiua,  1990. 

Raffles,  Thom,a8,  1991. 

Ragged  Schoola,  1991. 

Rahab,  1991. 

Rallies,  Robert,  1991. 

Rainerio  Sacchoni,  1991. 

Rale,  Sebaatien,  1992. 

Raleigh,  Alexander,  1992. 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  1992. 

Ramah,  1992. 

Ramadan,  1992. 

Rambach,  August  .Takob,  1992. 

Rambach,  Johann  Jakob,  1992. 

Raraeses.    See  Exodus. 

Rammohun  Roy,  1993. 

Ramus,  Petrue,  1993. 

Ranee,  Armand  Louis  le  Bouthillier,  de, 
1993. 

Randall,  Benjamin.    See  Freewill  Bap. 
tists. 

Randolph  Macon  College,  1993. 

Ranters,  1994. 

Raphael,  1994. 

Raphall,  Morris  Jacob,  1994. 

Rappiats,  1994. 

Raahi,  1994. 

Raakoiniks.    See  Russian  Sects. 
Ratherius,  1994. 

Rathraann,  Hermann,  1995. 

liationalism  and  Supranaturalism,  1995. 

Ratisbon,  the  Conference  of,  1998. 

Ralramnus,  1998. 

Ratzeberger,  Matthaus,  1998. 

Rau,  Chriatian,  1998. 

Ranch,  Frederick  Augustus,  1998. 

Rauhe  Haus.    See  Wichern. 

Rautenatrauch,  Franz  Stephan,  1999. 

Ravenna,  1999. 

Ravignan,  Gustave  Franjois  Xavier  de  la 

Croix  de,  2001. 
Raymond  Martini,  2001. 
Raymond  of    Pennaforte.      See    Penna- 

forte. 
Raymond  of  Sabunde,  or  Sabiende,  2001. 
Raymundus  Lullus.    See  Lullus. 
Reader.     See  Lector. 
Realism.    See  Scholastic  Theology. 
Real  Presence.    See  Lord's  Supper, 
liechabites,  2002. 
Reciuao,  2002. 
Recollect,  2002. 

Reconciliation.    See  Atonement. 
Rector,  2002. 

Redeemer,  Orders  of  the,  '2002. 
Redemption,  2002. 
ReJemptorista,  or  CongregatioQ  of  Our 

Most  Blessed  Redeemer,  20O3. 
ied  Sea,  the,  2004. 
Heed,  Andrew,  2004. 
Reformation,  '2004. 
Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  in  America, 

•2013. 
Reformed  Episcopal  Church.     See  Epis- 
copal Church,  Reformed. 
Reformed     (German)     Church     In     the 

United  States,  2015. 
Reformed     Presbyterian    Church.      See 

Presbyterian  Churches. 
Regalia,  2016. 
Regeneration,  2017. 
Regenaburg.    Sec  Ratisbon. 
Regino,  2018. 
Regionariua,  2018. 
Regiua,  UrbauuB.    See  Rhegius. 
Regula  Fidei.  '2018. 
Regulars,  2018. 
Rehoboam,  201S. 
Reichel,  Johann  Friedrich,  2019. 
Reid,  ThoEuas,  '2019. 
Reihing,  .Jakob,  2021. 
Reimarus,  Hermann  Samuel,  '2021. 
Reinhard,  Franz  Volkmar,  '2021. 
Reiand,  Hadrian,  2021. 
Reiica,  2021. 

Relief  Synod.  See  Presbyterian  Churched. 
Religion  and  Revelation,  2021. 
Religion,  the  Philosophy  of,  '2024. 


INDEX. 


ReligioUB  Dramas  in  the  Middle  Agea, 
2025. 

Religious  Liberty.    See  Liberty. 

Religious  Statistics,  2026. 

Relly,  James,  2026. 

Remigius,  St.,  202". 

Remphan,  2027. 

Renaissance,  the,  2027. 

Renata,  2030. 

Renaudot,  Eus^be,  2030. 

Repentance,  2030. 

Rephidim.  See  Wilderness  of  the  Wan- 
dering. 

Reprobation.    See  Predestination. 

Requiem,  2031. 

Reredos,  2031. 

Reservation,  Mental,  2031. 

Resen-ation,  Papal,  2031. 

Residence,  2032. 

Restoration.    See  Apokatastasis. 

ResignaUon,  2032. 

Resurrection  of  the  Dead.  2032. 

Rettberg,  Friedrich  Wilhclm,  2033. 

Rettig,  Heinrich  Christian  Michael,  2033. 

Reuben.    See  Tribes. 

Reuchlin,  Johann,  20;i3. 

Reuterdahl,  Henrik,  2034. 

Revelation,  Book  of,  2034. 

Revivals  of  Religion,  2038. 

Revolution,  the  French,  2041. 

Reynolds,  Edward,  2043. 

Reynolds,  John,  2044. 

Rhcgium,  2044. 

Rhegius,  Urbanus,  2044. 

Rhetoric,  Sacred.    See  Homiletics. 

Rhodes,  2044. 

Ricci,  Lorenzo,  2044. 

Ricci,  Scipione  de',  2045. 

Rice,  John  Holt,  2045. 

Rice,  Nathan  Lewis,  2045. 

Rich,  Edmund.    See  Eadmund,  St. 

Richard,  Fitzralph,  204.'.. 

Richard  of  St.  Victor,  2046. 

Richard,  Charles  Louis,  2046. 

Richards,  .Tames,  2046. 

Richards,  William,  2046. 

Richelieu,  Armand  Jean  Dupleesis  d«, 
2016. 

Elcher,  Edmund,  2046. 

Richmond.  Legh,  2046. 


Rlchter,  .^Erailius  Ludwig,  2047. 

Richter,  Christian  Friedrich  Gottlieb, 
2047. 

Riddle,  Joseph  Esmond,  2047. 

Ridgley,  Thomas.  2047. 

Ridley,  Nicholas,  2047. 

Rieger,  Georg  Conr.ld,  2048. 

Righteousness,  Origiual,  2048. 

Rimmon,  2048. 

Ring,  Melchior,  2049. 

Rings,  2049. 

Hinkart,  Martin,  2049. 

Ripley,  Henry  Jones,  2049. 

Ripon,  2049. 

Rippon,  John,  2049. 

Risler,  Jeremiah,  2049. 

Ritter,  Karl,  2050. 

Ritual,  2050. 

Rituale  Romanura,  2050. 

Ritualism,  2050. 

Rivet,  AndriS,  2053. 

Robber-Council.     See  Ephesus. 

Robert  the  Second,  2053. 

Robertson,  Frederick  William,  2053. 

Robertson,  James  Craigie,  205-1. 

Robinson,  Edward,  2054. 

Robinson,  John,  2055. 

Robinson,  Robert,  2056. 

Robinson,  Stuart,  2056. 

Roch,  St.,  2056. 

Rochester,  2056. 

Rock,  Daniel,  2056. 

Rodgers,  John,  2056. 

Rodiger,  Emil,  2066. 

Rogations,  2057. 

Rogers,  Ebenezer  Piatt,  2067. 

Rogers,  Henry,  20.57. 

Rogers,  .John,  2057. 

Rohr,  Johann  Friedrich,  2057. 

Rokycana,  .John,  2057. 

Romaine,  William,  2058. 

Roman-Catholic  Church,  2058. 

Roman-Catholic  Church  in  the  United 
States,  2062. 

Roman  Empire  and  Christianity,  the, 
2068. 

Romance  Bible  Versions.  See  Bible  Ver- 
sions. 

Romans,  Epistle  to  the.    Sec  Paul. 

Romanue,  2072. 


Rome,  2072. 

Ronsdorf  Sect.     See  Eller. 

Rood,  2073. 

Roos,  Magnus  Friedrich,  2074. 

Rosa  of  Lima,  2074. 

Rosa  of  Viterbo,  2074. 

Rosalia,  St.,  2074. 

Rosary,  the,  2074. 

Roscelin,  2074. 

Rose,  the  Golden.     See  Golden  Rose. 

Rose,  Henry  John,  207-1. 

Rose,  Hugh  James,  2074. 

Rosenbach,  Johann  Georg,  2075. 

Rosenmiiller,  Ernst  Friedrich  Karl,  2075. 

Rosicrucians,  2075. 

Roswitha,  2076. 

Rota.    See  Curia. 

Rothe,  Richard,  2076. 

Roumania,  2076. 

Rous,  Francis,  2076. 

Rousseau,  Jean  Jacques,  2076. 

Roussel,  Gerard,  2078. 

Routh,  Martin  Joseifh,  2078. 

Row,  Thomas,  2078. 

Rowc,  Mrs.  Elizabeth.  2078. 

Rowlands,  Daniel,  2078. 

Royaards,  Hermann  Jan,  2078. 

Rubrics,  2078. 

Ruchat,  Abraham,  2078. 

Riickert,  Leopold  Iramunuel,  2078. 

Rudelbach,  Andreas  Gottlob,  207B. 

Riidinger,  Esrora,  2079. 

Ruet,  Francisco  de  Paula,  2079. 

Rutlnus,  Tyrannius,  2079. 

Ruinart,  Thierry,  2079. 

Rule  of  Faith.    See  Regula  Fidel. 

Rulnlan  Merswin,  2080. 

Rupert,  St.,  2080. 

Rupert  of  Deutz,  2080. 

Russell,  Charles  William,  2080. 

Russia,  2080. 

Russian  Sects,  2082. 

Rutgers  Theological  Seminary.  See  New- 

Brunswick  Theological  Seminary. 
Ruth,  2085. 

Rutherfurd,  Samuel,  20S6. 
Ruysbroeck,  or  RuBbro«k,  2086. 
Ryerson,  Adolphus  Egerton,  2086. 
Ryland,  John,  2086. 


VOLUME  IV. 


Saadla  ha  Gaon,  Ben  Joseph,  2087. 

Baalschiitz,  .Joseph  Le\in,  2087. 

Sabaoth,  2087. 

Sabas,  St.,  2087. 

Sabbatarians.    See  Seventh. Day  Baptist!, 

Sabbath,  2088. 

Sabbath-Day's  Journey,  2089. 

Sabbath  Laws,    See  Sunday  Legislation. 

Sabbathalsra.    See  Israel. 

Sabbatharlans,  or  New  Israelites,  20S9. 

Sabbatical  Yearand  Yearof  Jubilee, 2089. 

Sabbatler,  Pierre,  2090. 

SabbatluH,  2090. 

Sabdllus,  2090. 

Sablans,  2091. 

Sablna,  2091. 

Sabinianus,  2091. 

Sacerdotalism.    See  Priesthood. 

Sachcvercll,  Henry,  2091. 

Bachs,  Hans,  2091. 

Sack,  August  Friedrich  Wilhclm,  2002. 

Sack,  Friedrich  Samuel  (Jottfrlcd,  2092. 

Sack,  Karl  Heinrich,  2092. 

Sack,  Brethren  of  the,  2003. 

Sacrament,  2093. 

Sacred  Heart,  Society  of  the.    Sec  Jesus, 

Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of. 
Bacrlflcatl,  2003. 
Sacrifices.    See  Offerings. 
Sacrilege,  2094. 
Sacristy  and  SucrlsUiii,  2094. 
Sacy,  Louis  Isaac  Le  Malstre  dc,  2094. 
Sadducees,  2094. 
Sadoleto,  .Jacopo,  2096. 
Sagittarius,  Kaspar,  2006. 
Banak.     See  Armenia. 
Sailer,  Johann  Michael,  20t6. 
Halht  Albans,  20110. 
Saint  John,   Knights  of.     See  Mllllorjr 

ICellglous  Orders. 


Saint-Martin,  Louis  Claude  de,  2096. 

Saint-Simon  de  Ronvroy,  Count  Clauds 
Henri,  2097. 

Saints,  Day  of  All.     See  All-Saints'  Day. 

Saints.  Worship  of  the,  2097. 

Sakya  Muni.     See  Buddhism. 

Sala'mis.  2U98. 

Salem  Witchcraft.    See  Wilchcnift. 

Sales,  Francis  de.    See  Francis  of  Sales. 

Salig,  Christian  .-Vugust,  2098. 

Salisbury,  or  New  Sarum,  2098. 

Salisbury,  John  of.  See  John  of  Salis- 
bury. 

Saluianticenscs,  2098. 

Salmasius,  Claudius,  '2098. 

Salmeron,  .Vlphonso,  2098. 

Salt,  2098. 

Salt  Sea,  2099. 

Sultzmann,  Friedrich  Rudolph,  2099. 

Salvation.    See  Rcdeni])tion. 

Salvation  Army,  the,  209;.. 

Salve,  2100. 

Salvianus,  210O. 

Salzburg,  2100. 

Samaria  and  the  Samaritans,  2101. 

Samaritan  Pentateuch.    See  Samaria. 

.Saniosata,  Paul  of.    See  MonarchianlsnL 

Sampsnpan.     See  Klkesalles. 

Samson,  2104. 

Samson,  Bernhardin,  2106. 

Samuel,  2105. 

Hnmuel,  Books  of,  2106. 

Haiiballul,  2107. 

Han  Benito.    Bee  Inquisition. 

Sanchez,  Thomas,  2107. 

Sanchunlathon,  2108. 

SanerofI,  William,  2108. 

Sanctincatlon,  2108. 

Sanction,  Pragmatic,  2108. 

Sandernan  and  the  BandemanUDB,  2109. 

Sandwich  Islands,  the,  2109. 

Saiidys,  Edwin,  'illO. 


Sandys,  George,  2110. 

Sanhedrin,  2110. 

Santa  ('asa.    See  Loreto. 

SarceriuB,  Erasmus,  2112. 

Sardis,  2112. 

Sargon,  2112. 

Sarpi,  Paolo,  2113. 

Sartorius,  Ernst  Wilhclm  Christian,  211i 

Sarum  Use,  2123. 

Satan.    See  Devil. 

Satanael,  '2113. 

Satisfaction.    See  Atonement. 

Saturninus,  2114. 

Saturnlnus  the  Gnostic.    See  Gnosticism. 

Saul,  2114. 

Saumur.  2115. 

Kaurin,  filie,  2115. 

Saurin,  Jacqlies,  2115. 

Savonarola,  IlieronyrauB,  2115. 

Savoy  ('onference.    See  Conference. 

Saybrook  Platform.    See  Congregation. 

allsm. 
Bcallger,  .Joseph  Justus,  2117. 
Scapegoat.    See  Atonement,  Day  of. 
BcapuTary,  2117. 
Schade,  Georg,  2117. 
Schadc,  Johaiui  CJaspar,  2117. 
Schaetfer,  Charles  Frederick,  2117. 
Schall,  .Johann  Adiim,  2117. 
Schaufller,  William  Gottlieb,  2117. 
Bchefller,  Johann,  2118. 
Schelhorn,  Johann  Georg.  2118. 
Scholling,  Friedrich  Wilhclm  Joseph  Ton, 

2118. 
Schelwig,  Samuel,  2120. 
Schem,  Alexander  Jacob.  21*20. 
Schlnner,  Mattliiius,  '21'20. 
Schism,  2121. 
Sehliilter,  Michael,  2121. 
Schlelermachcr,  Friedrich  Daniel  Krust, 

2121. 
Schlcusner,  Johann  Fried rirh.  2126. 


INDEX. 


xxxvii 


I 

Schraalkiild,  League  and  Articles  of,  2125. 
Schmid,  Christian  Friedrlch,  2126. 
Schmld,  Konrad,  2126. 
Schmidt,  Oswald  Gottlob,  2126. 
Bchraolke,  Benjamin,  2126. 
Schmuckcr,  Samuel  Biraon,  2120. 
Schneckenburger,  Matthias,  2127. 
Schoberlein.  Ludwlg  Kriediich,  2127. 
Scholastic  Theology,  2127. 
Scholium,  the,  2130. 
Schonherr,  Johann  lleinrich,  2130. 
Schoolmen.    See  Scholastic  Theology. 
Schott,  Heinrich  August,  2130. 
Schijttgen,  Christian,  2130. 
Schrockh,  Johann  Matthias,  2130. 
Schuitens,  Albert,  2131. 
Schwartz,  Christian  Friedrich,  2131. 
Schwarz,  Friedrich  Heinrich  Christian, 

2131. 
Schwebel,  Johann,  2131. 
Schwegler,  Albert,  2131. 
r^chwenkfekl    and    the   Sohwenkfelders. 

See  Tunkers. 
Schyn,  Hermannus,  2132. 
Scotch  Confession  of  Faith,  2132. 
Scotch  Paraphrases,  2132. 
Scotland,  Churches  of.    See  Presbyterian 

Churches. 
Scott,  Elizabeth,  21.32. 
Scott,  Levi.  2133. 
Scott,  Thomas,  2133. 
Scott,  Thomas,  2133. 
Scottish  Philosophy,  2133. 
Scotus  Erigena,  John,  2134. 
Scotus,  Marianus,  2135. 
iScribes  in  the  New  Testament,  2135. 
Scrlver,  Christian,  2137. 
Scuddcr,  John,  2137. 
Sculpture,  Christian,  2137. 
Scultetus,  Abraham,  2140. 
Seabury,  Samuel,  2140. 
Seagrave,  Robert,  2142. 
Seals.    See  Rings. 
Seaman,  Lazarus,  2142. 
Seamen,  Missions  to,  2142. 
Sear,  Barnas,  2145. 

Sears,  Edmund  Hamilton,  2145. 

Sebaldus,  2145. 

SeBaptist.    See  Smyth,  John. 

Sebastian,  2146. 

Secession    Church.      See    Presbyterian 
Churches. 

Seckendorf,  Veit  Ludwig  von,  2146. 

Seeker,  Thomas,  2146. 

Second    Adventists.       See    Adventists. 
(Appendix.) 

Second  Coming  of  Christ.     See  Millena- 
rianism,  Preraillenianism. 

Secret    Discipline.      See    Arcani    Disci- 
plina. 

Secular  Clergy.    See  Clergy. 

Secularization,  2146. 

Secundus,  2146. 

Sedes  Vacans,  2146. 

Sedgwick,  Daniel,  2146. 

Sedgwick,  Obadiah,  2147. 

Sedulius,  C.ijus  C(EliuH,  2147. 

Sedulius  Scotus,  or  Sedulius  Junior,  2147. 

Seeing  God,  2147. 

Seekers,  2148. 

Segneri,  Paolo,  2148. 

Seir,  or  Land  of  Seir,  2148. 

Sela,  or  Selah,  2149. 

Selah,  2149. 

Selden,  John,  2149. 

Seleucia,  2160. 

Seleucidian  Era.    See  Era. 

Selneccer,  Nicoiaus,  2150. 

Selwyn,  George  Augustus,  2150. 

Semi-Arians,  2150. 

Seminaries,     Theological,     Continental, 
2151. 

Seminaries.   Theological,   of  the  United 
I     States.    See  Theological  Seminaries. 

Semi.Pelagianism,  2151. 

Semitic  Languages,  2153. 

Semler,  .Johann  Salomo,  2156. 

Seneca,  Lucius  Annasus,  2157. 

Sennacherib,  2158. 

Separates,  2160. 

Separatism,  2160. 

Sepharv'aim,  2160. 

Septuagint.    See  Bible  Versions. 

Septuagesima,  2161. 

Sepulchre,  Holy.    See  Holy  Sepulchre. 

Sequence,  the,  2161. 

Seraphim,  2161. 

Sergius  Paulus.     See  Paul. 


Serglus,  2161. 

Sergius  (confessor),  2161, 

Sergius  (popes),  2161. 

Sermon.     See  Homlletics. 

Serpent,  Brazen,  the,  2162. 

Servetus,  Michael,  2102. 

Servia,  2163. 

Servites,  2164. 

Ser\'us  Servorum  Dei,  2164, 

Session,  2164. 

Session  of  Christ,  2164. 

Sethlani.    See  Gnosticism. 

Seton,  Elizabeth  Ann,  2164. 

Seven,  the  Sacred  Number,  2164. 

Seven  Sleepers  of  Ephesue.    S«e  Epho 

Bu.«,  Seven  Sleepers  of. 
Seventh-Day  Baptists,  2165. 
Severianus,  2167. 
Severinus,  St.,  2167. 
Severinus  (pope),  2167. 
BeveruB,  2167. 
Severus,  Alexander,  2168. 
Severus,  Septimus,  2168. 
Severus,  Sulpiclus,  2168. 
Sewall,  Samuel,  2168. 
Sewell,  William,  2168. 
Sexagesima,  2168. 
Sexton,  2168. 
Sfondratl,  Francis,  2168. 
Sfondrati,  Nicholas,  2168. 
Sfondrati,  Celestlne,  2168. 
Shaftesbury.    See  Deism,  Infidelity. 
Shakers,  2108. 
Shalmaneser,  2170. 
Shammai.  2171. 
Sharp,  Granville,  2171. 
Sharp,  James,  2171. 
Sharpe,  Samuel,  2172. 
Shastra,  2172. 
Sheba.    See  Arabia. 
Shechem,  2172. 
Shechinah,  the,  2172. 
Shekel.    See  Weights. 
Shem  Hammephorash,  2172. 
Shemitic  Languages.    See  Semitic  Lan- 
guages. 

Sheol,  2172. 

Shepard,  Thomas,  2172. 

Shepherd,  Thomas,  2173. 

Shepherd  of  Hermas.     See  Heimas. 

Sherlock,  Richard,  2173. 

Sherlock,  William,  2173. 

Sherlock,  Thomas,  2173. 

Sherlock,  Martin,  2173. 

Shlnar,  2173. 

ShinShiu,  or  "  Reformed  "   Buddhism, 
2175. 

Shinta,  2175. 

Shirley,  Hon.  Walter,  2177. 

Shishak,  2177. 

Showbread,  2177. 

Showbread,  Table  of  the,  2178. 

Shrine,  2178. 

Shrive,  2178. 

Shrove-Tuesday.     See  Shrive. 

Shrubsole,  William,  2178. 

Shuckford,  Samuel,  2179. 

Shushan,  2178. 

Slbbes,  Richard,  2178. 

Sibel,  Caspar,  2179. 

SibylUne  Books,  2179. 

Sicaril,  2180. 

Sickingen,  Franz  von,  2180. 

Sidney,  Sir  Philip,  2180. 

Sidon.    See  Zidon. 

Sidonius,  Michael,  2180. 

Siena,  Council  of,  2180. 

Sieveklng,  Amalie,  2181. 

Sigebert  of  Gemblours,  2181. 

Sigismund,  Johaim,  2181. 
!  Sign  of  the  Cross.    See  Cross. 
!  Sigourney,  Lydia  Howard  Huntley,  218L 

Sihor,  2182. 

Siloah.    See  Jerusalem. 

Simeon.    See  Tribes. 

Simeon  in  Bible.    See  Simon,  the  Name 
in  Biblical  History. 

Simeon  Metaphrastes.   See  Metaphrastee. 

Simeon  Stylites.    See  Stylites. 

Simeon,    Archbishop    of    Thessalonica, 
2182. 

Simeon,  Charles,  2182. 

Simler,  Josias,  21S2. 

Simon  ben  Yochai,  21S2. 

Simon,  the  Name   in   Biblical  History, 
2182. 

Siraun  Maccaboeus.    See  Maccabees. 

Simon  Magus,  2183. 


Simon,  Richard,  2185. 
Simon  of  Tournay,  2185. 
SlmoEiy,  2185. 
Bimplicius,  2186. 
Bin  (city),  2186. 
Bin,  2186. 

Bin  against  the  Holy  Spirit,  the,  218«. 
Sin-Offerings.    See  Oftcriiigs. 
Sins,  the  Forgiveness  of,  2188. 
Sinai,  2189. 

Sinaita.    See  .John  Scholasticus. 
Sinaiticus,  Codex.    See  Bible  Text. 
Singing.    See  Hyranoiogy,  Music,  Psalm- 
ody. 
Sintram,  2190. 
Sion  College,  2190. 
Sirach.    See  Apocrypha. 
Biricius,  2190. 
Sirmond,  Jacques,  2190. 
Sisters  of  Charity.  See  Charity,  Sisters  of. 
Sisters  of  Mercy.    See  Mercy,  Sisters  of. 
Sisterhoods.    See  Deaconesses. 
Siva.    Bee  Brahmanism. 
Six  Articles,  the,  2190. 
Six-Principle  Baptists,  2191. 
Sixtus  (popes),  2191. 
Skelton,  Philip,  2192. 
Skinner,  Thomas  Harvey,  2192. 
Slater  Fund  for  the  Education  of  Freed. 

men,  2192. 
Slavery  among  the  Hebrews,  2192. 
Slavery  in  the  New  Testament,  2193. 
Slavery  and  Christianity,  2194. 
Slavic  Bible  Versions.    See  Bible  Ver- 
sions. 
Sleidan,  Johannes,  2198. 
Smalcald    Articles    and    League.       8ae 

Schmalcald  Articles. 
Smalley,  .John,  2198. 
Smaragdus,  2198. 
Smart,  Christopher,  2193. 
.Smectymnuus,  2198. 
Smith,  Eli,  2199. 
Smith,  George,  2199. 
Smith,  Henry  Boynton,  2199. 
Smith,  .John,  2200. 
Smith,  John  Cotton,  2200. 
Smith,  John  Pye,  2201. 
Smith  Joseph.    See  Mormons. 
Smith,  .Samuel  Stanhope,  2201. 
Smith,  Sydney,  2201. 
Smith,  William  Andrew,  2201. 
Smyrna,  2201. 
Smyth.  John,  2201. 
Snethen,  Nicholas,  2203. 
Socialism,  2203. 
Sociite  fivang^lique  de  Geneve,  2207. 

Society  Centrale  Protestante  d'Evang411. 
sation,  2207. 

Socinus  and  the  Socinians,  2207. 

Socrates,  2210. 

Socrates  (historian),  2211. 

Sodom,  2212. 

Sodor  and  Man,  2212. 

Sohn,  Georg,  2212. 

Soissons,  2212. 

Solemn  League  and  Covenant.     See  Cov- 
enant. 

Solitarius,  Philip,  2212. 

Solomon,  2213. 

Somaschians,  the  Order  of  the,  2214. 

Soothsayer,  2214. 

Sophia,  2214. 

Sophia  Senatrix,  2214. 

Sophia,  St.     See  Architecture. 

Sophronius,  2214. 

Sorbonne,  the,  2215. 

Sot«r,  2215. 

Soteriology,  2215. 

Soto,  Domiuicus  de,  2218. 

Soto,  Petrus  de,  221S. 

Soul-Sleep,  or  Psychopannychism.  2218. 

Soule,  Joshua,  2218. 

South,  Robert,  2218. 

Southcott,  Johanna.    See  Sabbatarians. 

South-Sea  Islands.    See  Fiji  Islands. 

Southwell,  Robert,  2219. 

Sozomenos,  Salamanes  Hermias,  2220. 

Spain,  2220. 
\  Spalatin,  Georg,  2221. 

Spalding,  .Johann  .Joachim,  2221. 
I  Spangenberg,  Augustus  Gottlieb,  2221. 

Spangenberg,  Cyriacus,  2222. 

Spanheim,  Friedrich  (1),  2222. 

Spanheim,  Friedrich  (2),  2222. 
I  Sparrow,  William,  2222. 

Spe»,  Friedrich  von,  2223. 
1  Spencer,  John,  2223. 


XTXVlll 


INDEX. 


Spener,  Philipp  Jakob,  2223. 

Spengler,  Ls'.arus,  3225. 

Spenser,  Edmund,  2225. 

Speratus,  PauluB,  222C. 

Spice  among  the  Hebrews,  222Q. 

Spiera,  Francesco,  2227. 

Spifaxne,  Jocques  Paul,  Sieur  de  Passy, 

2227. 
Spina,  Alphonso  de,  2227. 
Spinola,  Cristoval  liojas  de,  222T. 
Spinoza,  Barucli  de,  222S. 
Spires  (city),  2230. 
Spirit,  Holy.    See  Holy  Spirit. 
Spiritual  Gifts.    See  Gifts.  Spiritual. 
Spirit,  the  Human,  in  the  Biblical  Sense, 

2230. 
Spiritualism,  2231. 
Spitta,  Karl  Johann  Philipp,  2232. 
Spondanus,  2232. 
Sponsors.    See  Baptism. 
Sports,  Book  of,  2232. 
Spotswood.  John,  2232. 
Sprague,  William  Buell,  2232. 
Spreng,  Jakob,  2233. 
Spring,  Gardiner.  2233. 
Spring,  Samuel,  2234. 
Stabat  Mater,  2234. 
Stackhouse,  Thomas,  2235. 
Stahl,  Friedrich  Julius,  2235. 
Stancaro,  Francesco,  2235. 
Stanhope,  Lady  Hester  Lucy,  2235. 
Stanislaus,  Bishop  of  Cracow,  2235, 
Stanislaus,  St.,  2230. 
Stanley,  Arthur  Penrhyn,  2236. 
Stapfer,  Johann  Friedrich,  2237. 
Stapfer,  Johannes,  2237. 
Stapfer,  Philipp  Albert,  2237. 
Staphylus,  Friedrich,  2237. 
Stark,"  Johann  August,  2237. 
Statistics,  Religious.    See  Religious  Sta- 
tistics. 
Staudeumaier,  Franz  .-^nton,  223S. 
Stiiudlin,  Karl  Friedrich,  223S. 
Staupitz,  Johann  von,  2238. 
Sledingers,  the,  2239. 
Steele,  Anne,  -2239. 
Steinhofer,  Maximilian  Friedrich  Chrifl- 

toph,  22:i9. 
Steitz,  Georg  Eduard,  22.39. 
Stennett,  Joseph,  2239. 
Stennett,  Samuel,  2240. 
Stephan,   Martin,  and    the    Stephanists, 

2240. 
Stephen,  2'240. 
Stephen  (popes),  224L 
Stephen  de  Vellavilla,  2241. 
Stephen  of  Hungary.    See  Hungary. 
Stephen  of  Tournay,  2241. 
Stephens,  Henry  (1),  2241. 
Stephens,  Robert  (1),  2241. 
Stephens,  Francois,  2242. 
Stephens,  Robert  (2),  2242. 
Stephens,  Henry  (2),  2242. 
Stephens,  Paul,  2242. 
Stephens,  Joseph,  2242. 
Stephens,  Antolne,  2242. 
Stercoranlsls,  2243. 
Stcrnhold,  Thomas,  2243. 
Sterry,  Peter,  22»3. 

Stcuuel,  Johann  Chrislian  Friedrich,  2243, 
Steward.  2244. 
Stewart,  Dugalrl,  2244, 
Sllchometry,  2244. 
Sticfcl,  Michael,  2247. 
Btlekna,  (Jonrad.  2247. 
Stler,  Rudolf  Ewald,  2248. 
Stigmatlzatlon,  2248. 
Stiles,  Ezra.  2248. 
Slllling,  221(1. 

6tllllngHeet,  Edward,  2249. 
Htockcr,  John,  2250, 
Stockton,  Thomas  Hewllngs,  ',^50. 
Stoddard,  Itavld  Taj)paii.  2250. 
Stoddard,  Solomon,  22.^)0. 
Stoicism,  2250. 
Slolberg,  Friedrich  Leopold,  (.'ount  von, 

22.50. 
Stoning  among  the  IIebrew>4.  2261. 
Storr,  Oottlob  Christian.    .See  Tiiblngcn 

School. 
Stowcll,  Hugh,  2251. 
Strabo,  Walafrled,  22.',I, 
.Straphan,  .Toseph,  2251 , 
Strauss,  David  Fried  rich,  22.51. 
Strlgel,  VIctorlnus,  225:1, 
Strjgolnlks.    See  Russian  Sects. 
Strong,  Nathan,  2'ita. 
HIrypc,  ,Tohn,  2254. 


Stuart,  Moses,  2254. 

Studites,  Simeon,  2255. 

Studites,  Theodore,  2255. 

Sturm,  Abbot  of  Fulda,  2265. 

Sturm,  Jakob,  2255. 

Sturm,  Johann,  2255. 

Stylites,  or  Pillar-Saints,  225S. 

Stylites,  Simeon,  2255. 

Suarea,  Francis,  2256. 

Subdeacon, 2256. 

Snbiutroductse,  2256. 

Sublapsarianisra,  2256. 

Subordinationism.    See  Trinity. 

Succession,  Apostolical,  2256. 

Succoth-Benoth,  2257. 

Sudaili,  Stephanus  Bar,  2267. 

Suffragan,  2257. 

Suger,  2257. 

Suicerus,  Johann  Caspar,  2257. 

Suidbert,  2257. 

Sulzer,  Simon,  2257. 

Summerlield,  John,  22,58. 

Summers.  Thomas  Osmond,  2258. 

Sumner,  John  Bird,  2258. 

Sun,  Worship  of  the,  2253. 

Sunday,  2259. 

Sunday  Legislation,  2260. 

Sunday  Schools,  2261. 

Supererogation,  2267. 

Superstition,  2267. 

Supralapsarianisra,  2268. 

Supranaturalism.  See  Rationalism,  Re- 
ligion, and  Revelation. 

Surius,  Laureutius,  2268. 

Surplice,  2268. 

Susannah.    See  Apocrj'pha. 

Suso,  Heinrich,  2268. 

Suttee.    See  Brahmanism. 

Sutton,  Christopher,  2269. 

Swain,  .Joseph,  2269. 

Sweden,  2269. 

Swedenborg,  Emanuel,  2270. 

Swift,  Elisha  Pope,  2272. 

Swithin,  St„  2272. 

Switzerland,  2272. 

Syllabus,  the  Papal,  2274. 

Sylvester  (popes),  2275. 

Sylvester,  Joshua,  2275. 

Sylvestrians,  2275. 

Symbol,  2276. 

Symbolics,  2276. 

Symbolura  .Vpostolicum.  See  Apostles' 
Creed, 

Symmachians,  2276. 

Symmachus,  2270. 

Symphorianus,  2276. 

Symphorosa,  2276. 

Synagogue,  the  Great,  2276. 

Synagogues  of  the  Jews,  2277. 

Syncellus,  2278. 

Syncretism,  2278. 

Synergism,  2279. 

Syncsius,  2280. 

.Synod,  the  Holy.    See  Russia. 

Synods,     See  Council. 

Syria,  and  Missions  to  Syria,  2281. 

Syrlac  Literature,  2285. 

Syrlac  Versions.    Sie  Bible  Vereiont. 

Syropulos,  Sylvester,  2287. 


Ta\>ernacle,  2288. 

Tabernacle  (for  the  Eucharist),  2289. 

Tabernacles,  the  Feast  of,  2290. 

Tabor,  2290. 

Taborites.    See  Utrafiulsts. 

Tadruor,  2291. 

Tnlping,  2291, 

Talt,  .\rchlbald  Campbell,  2282. 

Tnllis,  Thomas,  2292. 

Talmud,  2292. 

Tanimuz,  2296. 

'i'anchelm,  22911. 

Tnncred  of  Bologna,  2296, 

Taol«m,  2296, 

Tappan.  David,  2297. 

Tappan.  Il.nry  Philip,  2297. 

'I'appan,  William  Bingham,  2287. 

TarasluB.  2297. 

Targum,  2297. 

Tarshlsh,  229U. 

Tarsus,  2;i(lO. 

Tarlan,  2300. 

Tascodrugltes,  2300. 

Tasmania,  2300. 

Tale.  Nahum,  2.101. 


.Tatian,  2302. 

Tattam,  Henry,  2302. 

Tauler,  Johannes,  2302. 

Tausen,  Hans,  2303. 

Taverner,  Richard,  2303. 

Taxation,  Ecclesiastical,  2303. 

Taylor,  Dan,  2304. 

Taylor,  Isaac,  2304. 

Taylor,  Jane,  2304. 

Taylor,  Jeremy,  2304, 

Taylor,  John,  2305. 

Taylor,  Nathaniel  William,  2306. 

Taylor,  Thomas  Rawson,  2307. 

Taylor,  William,  2307. 

Te  Deum.    See  Ambrosian  Musle. 

Teleology,  2308. 

Telesphorus,  2308. 

Teller,  Wilhelm  Abraham,  2308. 

Tellier,  Michael  le,  2308. 

Temperance,  2308. 

Temple  at  Jerusalem,  2313. 

Templars.    See  Military  Orders. 

Temporal  Power.  SeeChurch  and  State; 
Church,  States  of  the. 

Tempus  Clausum,  2316. 

Ten  Articles,  the,  2315. 

Ten  Commandments.    Sec  Decalogue. 

Tenison,  Thomas,  2315. 

Tennent,  William  (1),  2316. 

Tennent,  Gilbert,  2316. 

Tennent,  William  (2),  2316. 

Tennent,  John,  2317. 

Tennent,  Charles,  2317. 

Teraphim,  2317. 

Terminism  and  the  Termiiiistic  Contro- 
versy, 2317. 

Territorialism,  2317. 

Tersteegen,  Gerhard,  2317. 

Tertiaries,  Tertiarii,  2318, 

Tertullian,  2318, 

Test  Act.  the,  2319. 

Testament,  the  Old  and  New,  2319. 

Tetragrammaton,  2319. 

Tetrapolitan  Confession,  2319. 

Tetrarch.  2320. 

Tetzel,  .lohann,  2,',20, 

Textus  Receptus.     See  Hible  Text. 

Thacher,  Peter,  2320. 

Thadda'us,     See  Judas. 

Thamer.  Theobald,  2320. 

Theatines,  2320. 

Theatre,  the,  and  the  Church,  2320. 

Thecla  and  Paul.    See  Apociypha. 

Theiner,  Augustin,  2321. 

Theism,  2322. 

Theocracy,  2323. 

Theodicy,  2324. 

Theodora,  2324. 

Theodore  (popes),  2324. 

Theodore,  St.,  2324. 

Theodore,  tiraptus,  2324. 

Theodore  Lector,  2325. 

Theodore  of  Mopsuestla,  2325. 

Theodoret,  2.326. 

Theodosius  the  Great,  2326. 

Theodotion.     See  Bible  VersiOQl. 

Theodulph,  2326. 

Theognostus,  2327. 

Theologia  Germanica,  2327. 

Theological  Education,  2327. 

Theological  Seminaries,  Complete  List 
of,  2328. 

Theological  Seminaries,  Sketches  of, 
2333. 

Theologus,  or  Theologal,  2344. 

Theology,  234). 

Theology,  Monumental.  See  Monumen- 
tal Theology. 

Theology,  New-England.  Sec  New- 
England  Theology. 

Theology,  Speculative,  2345. 

Theontts,  or  rhe(ni,  2346. 

Tbeopaschites,  2346, 

Theophanes  of  Byzantium,  2.346. 

Theoi»hunes,  (.'eranieus,  2340. 

Theophany,  2;J46, 

TheoplillanthroplslB,  2347. 

TheophlluB,  Blsnop  of  Alexandria,  2347. 

Theophllus,  Blsbui>  of  .\ntloch.  '2347. 

Theophylact,  2:147. 

Theopneusty.    See  Inspiration. 

Theosophy,  2:!48. 

Theotokos,  2:148. 

Therapeutn',  234S. 

Theremin,  Ludwlg  Friedrkh  Franz,  2348. 

Theresa,  Ste,,  2:148. 

Thessalonlans,  Kptstle  to  the.     See  Paul. 

Thessalonica,  2348, 


INDEX. 


XXXIX 


Theudas,  2349. 
Theurgy,  234». 
Thibet,  Religion  of.    Sec  liuddliiteiu  aud 

Lamaiem. 
Thletmar,  2349. 
Thilo,  Johann  Karl,  2349. 
Thirlwall,  Connop,  2349. 
Thirty  Years'  War,  the,  2:>'>i). 
Tholuck,  Friedrich  August,  23.11. 
Thomas  the  Apostle,  2352. 
Thomas  a  Becket.    See  Becket. 
Thomas  a  Kempis.    See  Kenipis. 
Thomas  Chrietians.    Sec   ChriBtiaus    of 

Si.  Thomas. 
Thomas  of  Aquino,  2353. 
Thomas  of  Celano,  2355. 
Thomas  of  Villanova,  2355. 
Thomasin  of  Zirklaria,  2355 
Thomasius,  Gottfried,  2355. 
Thomassin,  Louis,  2355. 
Thompson,  Joseph  Parrish,  2355. 
Thomson,  Andrew,  2356. 
Thomson,  Edward,  2356. 
Thomson,  James,  2356. 
Thorah,  2356. 

Thorn,  the  Conference  of,  2357. 
Thorndike,  Herbert,  2358. 
Thornton,  Robert  II.,  2358. 
Thomwell,  James  Henley,  2358. 
Three-Chapter  Controversy,  the,  2359. 
Thugfl,  2360. 

Thummira.    See  Urim  and  Thummim. 
Thurible,  2360. 
Thuriticati.    See  Lapsed. 
Thyatira,  2360. 
Tiara,  2360. 
Tiberias,  2360. 
Tiglath-pileser,  2360. 
Tiilemont,  Louis  Sebastien    le  Xain  de, 

236L 
Tillotson,  John,  2361. 
Timothy,  2362. 

Timothy,  Epistles  to.     See  Paul. 
Tiudal,  Matthew,  2362. 
Tischeudorf ,  Lobegott  Friedrich  Coustan- 

tin,  2363. 
Tithes,  2364. 

Tithes  among  the  Hebrews,  2365. 
Tittmann,  Johann  August  Heinrich,  2366. 
Titular  Bishop.    See  Episcopus  in  Parti- 

buB. 
Titus,  2366. 

TitUB,  Bishop  of  Bostra,  23G6. 
Tobit.    See  Apocrypha. 
Tobler,  Titus,  2366. 
Todd,  Henry  John,  2366. 
Todd,  James  Henthorn,  2367. 
Todd,  John,  2367. 
Toland,  John,  2367. 
Toledo,  Councils  of,  2367. 
Toledoth,  Jeshu,  2;J68. 
Toleration.    See  Liberty,  Religious. 
Tolet,  Francis,  2368. 
Tombes,  John,  2369. 
Tomline,  George,  2369. 
Tongues,  Gift  of,  2369. 
Tonsure,  the,  2369. 
Toplady,  Augustus  Montague,  2370. 
Torquemada,  Juan  de,  2370. 
Torquemada,  Thomas  de,  2370. 
Torrey,  Joeeph,  2370. 
ToBsanus,  Petrus,  2370. 
Toulmin,  Joshua,  2371. 
Toulouse,  Synods  of,  2371. 
Tournemine,  Rene  Joseph,  2371. 
Tours,  Synods  of,  2371. 
Towianski,  Andreas,  2372. 
Townley,  James,  2372. 
Townsou,  Thomas,  2372. 
Trachonilis,  2372. 
Tractarianism,  2372. 
Tract  Societies,  Religious,  2374. 
Tradition,  2.378. 
Traditores.     See  Lapsed,  the. 
Traducianism.    See  Crcationism. 
Trajan,  2380. 

Transcendentalism  in  New  England,  2380. 
Transfiguration,  2382. 
Transmigration,  2385. 
Transubstantiation,  23S-r». 
Trapp,  John,  2387. 
Trappists,  the,  2387. 
Trauthson,  Johann  Joseph,  2388. 
Tregelles,  Samuel  Prideaux,  2.388. 
Trcmellius,  Emmanuel,  2388. 
Trent,  Council  of,  2389. 
Trespass  Offering.     See  Offerings. 
Treves,  Holy  Coat  of,  2390. 


Trials,  2300. 

Tribes  of  Israel,  2391. 

Trichotomy,  2394. 

Tridentiiie  Profession  of  Faith,  2304. 

Tridentinum.     See  Trent,  Council  of. 

Trine  Baptism,  2395. 

Trinitiirians,  2395. 

Trinity,  2395. 

Trinity  Sunday,  2397. 

Trisagion,  2397. 

Tritheism,  2397. 

TrithemiuB,  Johann,  2397. 

Troas,  2397. 

Tronchin,  Theodore,  2397. 

Tronchin,  Louis,  2398. 

Truber,  Primus,  2398. 

Truce  of  God,  2:198. 

True  Reformed  Dutch  Church.    Sec  Re 

formed  (Dutch)  Church. 
Trullan  Councils,  the,  239H. 
Tiibingen  School,  the,  239S. 
Tuckerman,  Joseph,  2401. 
Tuckney,  Anthony,  2401. 
Tudela,  Benjamin  of.    Sec  Benjamin  of 

Tudela. 
Tunkers,  or  Dunkere,  2401. 
Turibius,  AIphouBO,  2405. 
Turkey,  2405. 
Turiupins,  the,  2407. 
Turner,  Daniel,  2407. 
Turner,  Francis,  2407. 
Turner,  James,  2408. 
Turner,  Samuel  Hulbeart,  2408. 
Turretini,  orTurretin,  B6n6dict,  2408. 
Turretiui,  or  Turretin,  Francois,  240H. 
Turretini,  or  Turretin,  Jean  Alphonse, 

2408. 
Tweeten,  August  Detlev  Christian,  240S. 
Twin,  or  Dwin,  Councils  of,  2409. 
Twissc,  William,  2409. 
Tyana,  ApoUonius  of.     See  Apollonius 

of  Tyana. 
Tyana,  the  Synod  of.  2409. 
Tychonius,  2409. 
Tychsen,  Oluf  Gerhard,  2409. 
Tyler,  Bennet,  2409. 
Tyndale,  William,  2410. 
Type,  2412. 
Tyre,  2412. 
Tzschirner,  Heinrich  Gottlieb,  2413. 


u. 

Ubbonites,  2414. 

Ubertinus,  2414. 

Ubiquity,  2414. 

Ullmaun,  Karl,  2415. 

Ulphilas,  2416. 

Ulrich,  2416. 

Ulrich  von  jfl      pn.    See  Hutten. 

Ultramontane,  or  UltramoutanistB,  3417. 

Umbreit,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Kaii,  2417. 

Unbelief.    See  Infidelity. 

Uncial  and  Cursive  Manuscripts,  2417. 

Uncleanness.     See  Purifications. 

Unction.    See  Extreme  Unction. 

Uniformity,  Acts  of,  2417. 

Unigenilus,  2418. 

Union  of  Churches,  241S. 

Union  Evangelical  Church.  See  Union  of 
Churches. 

Unitarianism,  2410. 

Unitarians,  2422. 

Unitas  Fratrum.    See  Moravians. 

United  Brethren  in  Christ,  2422. 

United  States  of  America,  Religious  His- 
tory, 2423. 

Universaliem,  2427. 

Universities,  2430. 

University  in  America,  2433. 

Upham,  Thomas  Cogswell,  2434. 

Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  2434. 

Urban  (popes),  2431. 

Urim  and  Thummim.  2435. 

Urisperger,  Johann  August,  2435. 

Ureicinus,  2435. 

UrsinuH,  Zacharias,  2435. 

Ursula,  2436. 

Ursulines,  the,  2437. 

Ussher,  James,  2437. 

Usteri,  Leonhard,  2438. 

UeuarduB,  2438. 

Usury,  2438. 

Utenlieim,  Christoph  von,  2439. 

Utilitarianism,  2439. 

Utraquists  and  Taborites,  2441, 

Uytenbogaert,  Jan,  2443. 

Uzziah,  2443. 


V. 

Vadian,  2444. 

Vagantes,  2444. 

Valdee,  Alonso  and  Juan  de,  2444. 

Valens,  2445. 

Valentine,  St.,  2445. 

Valentinian  III.,  2445. 

Valenlinus,  St.,  2445. 

ValentinuB  the  Gnostic.    See  Guofltlclia. 

Valerian,  2446. 

Valerian,  St.,  2446. 

Velesius,  Henri  de  Valoif*,  2446. 

Valla.    See-Laurentius  Valla. 

Vallombrosa,  the  Order  of,  2446. 

Vandals,  2446. 

Vanderbilt  University,  2447. 

Van  Doren,  William  Howard,  2447. 

Vane,  Sir  Henry,  2447. 

Van  Leunep.    See  Leiiiiep. 

Various  Readings,  2447. 

Vaesar  College,  2448. 

Vassy,  2448. 

Vatablus,  Fran9ois,  2448. 

Vater,  Johann  Severiii,  2448. 

Vatican  Council,  2448. 

Vatican,  Palace  of  the,  24.''i0. 

Vaticanue,  Codex.    See  Bible  Text. 

Vatke,  Johann  Karl  Wilhelm,  2450. 

Vaud  Canton,  Free  Church  of  the,  2451. 

Vaudois.    See  Waldentes. 

Vaughau,  Henry,  2451. 

Vaughau,  Robert,  2451. 

Vedas.    See  Brahmanism. 

Vedder  Lectures.    See   Lectures.     (Ap- 

pendlx.) 
Vehmic  Court,  2451. 
Veil,  2452. 
Veil  of  the  Tabernacle,   Temple.      See 

Tabernacle,  Temple. 
Veil,  Taking  the,  2452. 
Vellum,  24.52. 

Venantiue  Fortunatus.     See  Fortunatus. 
Veuatorius,  Thomas,  2452. 
Veuce,  Henri  Fran9oie  de,  2452. 
Venema,  Hermann,  2452. 
Venerable,  2452. 

Venerable  Bede,  the.    See  Bede. 
Veni,  (I'reator  Sjiiritus,  2452. 
Veni,  Saucte  Spiritus,  2452. 
Venn,  Henrj',  2452. 
Vercellone,  Carlo,  2452. 
Verena,  2453. 

Vergeriue,  Petrus  Paulue,  2453. 
Vermigli.    See  Peter  Martyr. 
Vernacular,  Use  of.    See  Latin,  Use  of. 
Veronica,  2453. 

Verses.    See  Chapters  and  Verses. 
Versions.    See  Bible  Ver&ious. 
Very,  Jones,  2453. 
Very,  AVashington,  2453. 
Vespasian,  Titus  Flavins,  2453. 
Vespers,  2454. 
Vestments  and  Insignia  in  the  Christian 

Church,  2454. 
Vestry,  2455. 

Via  Dolorosa.    See  Jerusalem. 
Viaticum,  2455. 
Vicar,  -.^56. 

Vicar,  Apostolic,  General.    See  Vicar. 
Vicarious  Atonement.    See  Atonement. 
Vicelin,  2456. 
Victor  (popes),  2456. 
Victor,  Claudius  Marius,  2457. 
Victor,  Bishop  of  .\iitioch,  2457. 
Victor,  Bishop  of  Capua,  2457. 
Victor,  Bishop  of  Cartenna,  2457, 
Victor,  Bishop  of  Tununa,  2457. 
Victor,  Bishop  of  Vita,  2457. 
Victoriuus,  2457. 
Victricius,  St.,  2457. 
Vieune,  2457. 
Vigilantius,  2457. 
Viglliue,  i458. 
Vigilius  the  Deacon,  24-58. 
Vigilius,  Bishop  of  Tapsus,  3458. 
Vigilius,  Bishop  of  Trent,  3458. 
Vigils,  2458. 

Vignolles,  Alphonse  de,  2459. 
Villegagnon,  Nicholas  Durand  de,  2459. 
Villers,  Charles  Francois  Dominique  de, 

3459. 
Vilmar,  August  Friedrich  Christian,  2459. 
Vincent  of  Beauvais,  2459. 
Vincent  of  Lerius,  2460. 
Vincent  de  Paul,  3460. 
Vincent  of  Saragossa,  2460. 
Vincent,  Samuel,  2460. 


xl 


INDEX. 


Vine,  Cultivation  of  the.    See  Wine. 

Vines,  Richard,  2461. 

Vinet,  Alexandre  Rodolphe,  2461. 

Vinton,  Francis,  2462. 

Viret,  Pierre,  2462. 

Virgilius,  St.,  2462. 

Vir^nia,  Protestaut-Episcopal  Theologi- 
cal Seminary  of,  2463. 

Vishnu.    See  Brahraauism. 

Visitants,  or  Nuns  of  the  Visitation,  2403. 

VisitatioLiminuiuSS.  Apostolorum,246:j. 

Vitalian,  2463. 

Vitalis,  24<>4. 

Vitringa,  Carapegius,  2464. 

Vitus,  St.,  2464. 

Vives,  Juan  Ludovico  de,  2464. 

Vocation.    See  Calling. 

Voetius,  Gysbertus,  2464. 

Volney,  Constairtin  Francois  Chassebceuf , 
Comte  de,  2464. 

Voltaire,  2465. 

Voragine.    See  Jacobus  dc  Voragiiie. 

Vorstius,  Conrad,  2466. 

Vossius,  Gerard,  2467. 

Vossius,  Gerard  Jan,  2467. 

Votive-Offerings,  2467. 

Vowel-Points.    See  Bible  Text. 

Vowel -Points,  Controversy  respecting. 
See  Buxtorf,  Capellus. 

Vows,  2467. 

Vows  among  the  Hebrews,  2468. 

Vulgftte,  2468. 

w. 

Wackernaerel,  Karl  Eduard  I^hilipp,  2469. 
Waddell,  James,  2469. 
Wadding,  Luke,  2469. 
Waddington,  George,  2469. 
Wafer,  2469. 

Wagenseil,  Johanu  Christoph,  2469. 
Wahabees,  2469. 

Wainwright,  Jonathan  Mayhew,  2470. 
Wake.  William,  2470. 
Wakefield,  Gilbert,  2470. 
Walch,  Johann  Georg,  2470. 
Walch,  Christiau  Wilhelm  Franz,  2470. 
Waldegrave,  Samuel,  2470. 
Waklenses,  2470. 
Waldhausen,  Conrad  von,  2477. 
Waldo,  Peter.    See  Waldenses. 
Walker,  James,  2477. 
Wall,  William,  2477. 
Wallafrid  Strabo.    See  Strabo. 
Waller,  Kdmund,  2477. 
Wallin,  Benjamin,  2477. 
Wallis,  John,  2477. 
Walloon  Church.    See  Ilolland. 
Walpurgis,  or  Walpurga,  St.,  2477. 
Walsh,  Thomas,  2477. 
Walter  of  St.  Victor,  2478. 
Walther  von  der  Vogylweide,  247S. 
Walton,  Brian,  2478. 
Wandelbert,  St.,  2478. 
M'anderlngin  the  Wildernees.    See  Wil- 
derness of  the  Wandering. 
Wandering  Jew.     See  Jew,  Wandering. 
War,  2479. 

War,  Hebrew  Methods  in.    See  Army. 

Warburton,  William,  2479. 

Warburtonian  Lecture,  2480. 

Warden,  24-SO. 

Wardluw,  lialph,  2480. 

Ware.  Henry.  2481. 

Ware,  Henry,  jun.,  2481. 

Warham,  24^1. 

Washburn,  Edward  Abicl,  2481. 

WalchXlKht,  the,  2482. 

Water,  Holy.    See  Holy  Water. 

Water  cif  Jealousy.    See  Jealousy. 

Watertand.  Daniel,  2482. 

Watfon,  lilchurd,  Bishop  of  Llandaff, 
24^2. 

Wathon,  Kichard,2482. 

Watson,  'J'hoinas,  2483. 

Watt,  Joachim  von.    See  Vadlan. 

Walt-*,  Isaac.  2483, 

Wautfh,  Beverly,  2484. 

Wuvland,  Francis,  2484. 

Wazo,  24S4. 

Week,  24H4. 

WeuHchelder,  Julius  August  Ludwl^ 
218.'.. 

WelK.I.  Valentin,  2485. 

Weights  and  Measures  among  the  lie 
brews.  24Hr). 

Weir,  Duncan  IfarknoM,  24B0. 

WelsM,  Chnrlen,  2187. 

\VvU»,  Pnntiik'on,  2487. 


Weisse,  Christian  Hermann,  2487. 

Wells,  Edward,  2487. 

Welsh  Calvinistic  Methodist  Church,  2487. 

Wendelin,  or  Waudelin,  24S9. 

Wendelin,  Markus  Friedrich,  24S9. 

Wends.  2489. 

Werenfels,  Samuel,  2489. 

Werkraeister,  Beuedikt  Maria  von,  2489. 

Wernsdorf,  Gottlieb,  2490. 

Wertheim,  the  Bible  of,  2490. 

Wesel,  Johann  von,  2490. 

Wesley,  Charles,  2490. 

Wesley,  John,  2491. 

Wesley,  Samuel,  sen.,  2495. 

Wesley,  Samuel,  jun.,  2495. 

Wesley,  Susannah,  2495. 

Wesleyau  Female  College,  2496. 

Wesleyan  Methodists,  Theology  of.    See 

Arniiuianism. 
Wessel,  Johann,  2496. 
Wessenberg,  Ignaz  TIeinrich,  2497. 
West  Goths.    See  Goths. 
West,  Stephen,  2497. 
Westen,  Thomas  von,  2498. 
Western  Theological  Seminary,  the,  249S. 
Westminster  Abbey,  2499. 
Westminster  Assembly,  2499. 
Westminster  Standards,  2501. 
Westphai,  Joachim,  2503. 
Westphalia,  the  Peace  of,  2503. 
Wetstein,  Johanu  Jakob,  2504. 
Wette,  de,  Wilhelm   Martin   Leberechl, 

2504. 
Wetzer,  Heinrich  Joseph,  2506. 
Whately,  Richard,  2506. 
Wheelock,  Eleazer,  2507. 
Wheelock,  John,  2508. 
Whewell,  William,  2508. 
Whichcote,  Benjamin,  2508. 
Whiston,  William,  2509. 
Whitaker,  William,  2509. 
Whitby,  the  Council  of,  2509. 
Whitby,  Daniel,  2509. 
White,  Henry,  2510. 
White,  Henry  Kirke,  2510. 
White,  Joseph,  2510. 
White,  William,  2510. 
Whitetield.  George,  2511. 
Whitgift,  John.  2512. 
Whitsunday.    See  Pentecost. 
Whittemore,  Thomas,  2513. 
Whittinghara.  William  Kollinson,  2513. 
Whittlesey.  William,  2513. 
Wicelius,  or  Wilzel,  Georg,  2513. 
Wichern.  Johann  Heinrich,  2514. 
WicUf.  John,  2514. 
Widows,  Hebrew,  2519. 
Widows  in  the  ApostoUc  Church.     Sec 

Deaconesses. 
Wigand,  Johann,  2519. 
Wigbert,  St.,  2520. 
Wigglesworth,  Michael,  2520. 
Wightman,  William  May,  2520. 
Wilberforcc,  Samuel,  2520. 
Wilberforce,  William,  2520. 
Wilbrord,  or  Willibrord,  2521. 
Wilderness,  2521. 

AVllderness  of  the  Wandeiilig,  iC22. 
Wilfrid.  2522. 
Will,  the,  2522. 
Willehad,  St..  2528. 
Willeram,  or  Wlltramus.  2528. 
William  of  Auvergne,  2528. 
William  of  ( -himii.eaux.  2528. 
William  of  Malnuhbury.  2529. 
William  of  .NanHau.  252'.<. 
William  of  St.  Amour,  2529. 
William  of  Tyre,  2.V29. 
M'llllam  of  Wykeham.  2530. 
Williams,  Daniel,  2530. 
Willlanifi,  Helen  Maria.  2530. 
Williams,  Ismic.  2530. 
WUHams,  John,  Archbishop  of    York, 

2530. 
Williams,  John,  Mieeiouary,  2531. 
Williams,  RoKcr.  2631. 
Williams,  Rowland,  2533. 
Williams.  William.  25:i3. 
WIlliamHon,  Isaac  Dowd,  2533. 
Willibald.  St.,  2533. 
Wlllibrod.    See  Wilbrord. 
Willirani.     See  Willeram. 
Willson.  James  Uenwlck.  2533. 
Wllmcr,  William  Holland,  2633. 
Wilson.  Bird.  2533. 
Wilson.  Daniel,  2534. 
WilHon.  John.  2534. 
Wilson,  Thomas.  2W4. 


WimpTieling,  Jakob,  253Ji. 

Wimpina.  Conrad,  2535. 

Winans,  William,  2535. 

Winchester,  2535. 

Winchester.  Elhanan,  25S5. 

Winckler,  Johann,  2535. 

Windesheim,  or  Windesen,  2536. 

Wine-Making  among  the  Hebrews,  2536. 

Wine,  Bible,' 2536. 

Wiuebrennerians,  2538. 

Winer,  Georg  Benedikt,  2539. 

Wines,  Enoch  Cobb,  2540. 

Winfrid.    See  Boniface. 

Wiuslow,  Miron,  2540. 

Winterthur,  Johann  of,  2540. 

Wisdom  of  Solomon.    See  Apocrypha. 

Wiseman,  Nicholas  Patiick  Stephen,  2540. 

Wishart,  George,  2540. 

Wishart,  or  Wiseheart,  George,  2541. 

Witchcraft,  2542. 

Wither,  George,  2542. 

Witherspoon,  John,  2543. 

Witness-Bearing   amon^    the    Hebrews, 

2543. 
Witsius,  Hermann,  2543. 
Wittenberg,  the  Concord  of,  2544. 
Wodrow,  Robert,  2544. 
Wolf,  Johann  Christoph,  2545. 
Wolfenbiittel  Fragments,  2545. 
Wolff,  Bernard  C,  2545. 
Wolff,  Christian,  2545. 
Wolff,  Joseph,  2547. 
Wollaston,  William,  2547. 
Woileb,  Johannes,  2547. 
Wolsey,  Thomas.  2547. 
Woltersdorff,  Ernst  Gottlieb,  2548. 
Woman,  2548. 
Woodd,  Basil,  2549. 
Woods,  l,eonard.  2550. 
Woods,  Leonard,  jun.,  2500. 
Woolston,  Thomas,  2550. 
Worcester,  2550. 
Worcester,  Samuel,  2550. 
Wordsworth,  Christopher,  2551. 
Works,  Good,  2551. 
World,  2551. 
Worms,  2553. 
Worship,  2554. 
Wotton,  Sir  Henry,  25jj. 
WottOD,  AVilliam,  2555. 
Writing  among  the  Hebrews,  2555, 
Wulfram,  St.,  2557. 
%Vurtemberg,  the  Kingdom  of,  2557. 
Wuttke,  Karl  Friedrich  Adolf,  2557. 
Wylie,  Samuel  Brown,  2557. 
Wyttenbach,  Thomas,  2557. 


Xavier.    See  Francis  Xavier. 
Ximenes  de  Cisueros,  Francisco,  2i^. 


Yale  University,  2560. 

Yates,  William,  2561. 

Year,  the  Church,  2562. 

Year,  Hebrew,  2562. 

Yeomaus,  Edward  Dorr,  2563. 

York,  2564. 

Young,  Brigham.     See  Mormons. 

Young.  Edward,  2564. 

Young,  l*atrick,  2564, 

Young    Men's    Christian    Associations, 

2564. 
Young  Women's  Christian  ABSociations, 

2566. 
Yule.  25G6. 
Yvouetus,  2566. 


Zabarolla,  or  Dc  ZnbnrelliB,  25G7. 

ZacchtPUH,  2567. 

Zacharlii.  Gotthllf  Traugott,  2567. 

^acharias,  2567, 

ZachariUH  Scliolaslicus,  2567, 

Zam7.umml[n,  or  Zu/lm,  2567. 

Zanchl.  IlieronymuB,  2567. 

Zealot.  2567. 

Zebulun.    See  Tribes  of  Israel. 

Zechariah.  2568. 

Zedekiah,  2570. 

Zeisborger,  David  2570. 

Zell,  MatthiiuB,  2571. 

Zwui  Avesta.    See  PorseelBm. 

Zeno.  2571. 

Zephaniah.  2571. 


INDEX. 


xli 


Zephyrinu9,  2572. 

Ziuzeiidorf,  Nicholas  Lewis,  Count  von, 

Zoba.  or  Zobah,  2576. 

Z.Mi.bbabi-l,  2572. 

2.57;). 

Zollikofer,  Georg  .Joacbitn,  257fl. 

Ziiloii.  (ir  Smon,  2578. 

Ziori,  or  Sion,  2575. 

Zoiiaras,  .Johannes,  2570. 

Zk-;;cnbalf;,     Bartholomew. 

See 

Mls- 

Zizl<a,  .lolin.    See  Hussites,  1M5  ;  Utra- 

Zi>r<)aHt<'r.    See  Parseeisni,  1750, 

siona,  :530,  1531. 

quistri,  2.J42. 

ZoHiiiMirt,    2ri7tJ. 

Zillerthal,  2573. 

Zoan,  2575. 

Zuick,  .lohiiiincs,  2576. 

Zimri,  2573. 

Zoar,  2570. 

Zwincli,  lluldrelch,  2576. 

^  p  p  E  isr  D  I  X 


Accad.    See  Shinar,  2174. 

Adams,  Mrs.  Sarah  Flower,  2581. 

Adventists,  2681. 

Advowson,  2582. 

AHatius,  Leo,  2582. 

Alleine,  .Joseph,  2.°i82. 

Allen,  James,  2582. 

Anan  the  Karaite.      See  Karaite  .Jew.s, 

122.5. 
Andrew,  2582. 
Anstice,  .Joseph,  2.582. 
Anti-mission  Baptists,  2.583. 
Atwater.  Lyman  Hotchkif^y,  2583. 
Auber,  Harriet,  2583. 
Austin,  .John,  2583. 
Baker,  Sir  Henry  Williams,  2583. 
Bakewell,  John,  2583. 
Barton,  Bernard,  258;J. 
Bathurst,  William  Hiley,  2583. 
Bauer,  Bruno,  2583. 
Beaumont,  Joseph,  2584. 
Beddome,  Benjamin,  2584. 
Begii,  James,  2581. 
Bellows,  Henry  Whitney,  2585. 
Berridfie,  .John,  2585. 
Bible  Christians,  2585. 
Blacklock,  Thomas,  258G. 
Boden,  James,  2586. 
Boston  University,  School  of  TheoloEv 

of,  2586. 
Bowdler,  John,  Jr.,  2587. 
Brown,  James,  2587. 
Brown,  Matthew,  2.587. 
Brown,  Phrebe,  2.587. 
Browne,  George,  2587. 
Browne,  I'eter,  2587. 
Browne,  Simon,  2587. 
Bruce,  Michael,  2588. 
Bryant,  William  Cullen,  2588. 
Bnlflnch,  Stephen  Greenleaf,  2588, 
Harder,  George,  2588. 
Barleigh,  William  Henry,  2588. 
Buridjam,  Richard,  2588. 
Byrom,  John,  2588. 
Carlyle,  Joseph  Dacre,  2588. 
Cary  sisters,  2,588. 
Caswall,  Edward,  2588. 
Cawood,  John,  2589. 
Ceuuick,  John,  2589. 


Chandler,  John,  2.589. 

Christadelphians,  2589. 

Coan,  Titus,  2590. 

Coleman,  Lyman,  2590. 

Colenso,  John  William,  2590. 

Collyer,  William  Hengo,  2590. 

Conder,  Josiah,  2590. 

Cooper,  Peter,  8590, 

Cotterill,  Thomas,  2591. 

Cotton,  Nathaniel,  2592. 

Cowley,  ,\l)raham,  2592. 

Croly,  Ceorge,  8592, 

Cro,ssiii:in,  Samuel,  2592, 

Crosswell,  William,  259i, 

Darby,  John  Nelson,  2592, 

Davies,  Sir  John,  2593. 

De«ey,  Orville,  2593. 

Dobell,  John,  2593, 

Dodge,  William  Earl,  2.593. 

Doremus.  Mrs.  ThonuiH  C,  2594. 

Drummond,  William.  2595. 

Dunn,  llobinson  I'orter,  2.595. 

Edmeston,  James,  2.595. 

Elliott,  Charlotte,  2595. 

Elliott,  David,  2595. 

Enfield,  William,  2.595. 

Ephraim.    See  Tribe,  of  Israel,  2398. 

Erskiiie,  Ralph,  8595. 

Eucharist.  2595. 

Fawcett,  John,  2596. 

Fitch,  Eleazar  Thompson,  2696. 

Follen,  Eliza  Lee.  2596. 

Friends,  Liberal  Branch,  2.596. 

Frothingham,  Nathaniel  Langdon,  2597, 

General  Baptists.    See  p.  2202. 

Gibbons,  Thomas,  2597. 

Gilnian,  Samuel,  2597. 

Gisborue,  Thomas,  2597. 

Goode,  William,  2597. 

Graham,  .Tames,  2597. 

Grant,  Sir  Robert,  2597. 

Grigg,  Joseph,  2697. 

Gurney,  John  Hampden.  2597. 

Habington,  William,  2597. 

Hammond,  William,  2597. 

Hanna,  William,  2598. 

Hart,  Jo."eph,  2598. 

Hastings,  Thomas,  2598, 

Hallleid,  Edwiu  Francis  2599. 


Haweis,  Thomas,  2599. 

Heginbotham,  Othwell,  2599. 

Hemaiis,  Felicia  Dorothea,  2-599. 

Herbert,  Daniel,  2.599. 

Herrick,  Itobert,  2599. 

Herron,  Francis,  8599. 

Herzog,  Johann  Jakob,  2599. 

Hornblower,  William  Henry,  2600. 

Hoskins.  Joseph.  2000. 

Hurn,  William,  8600, 

Hyde,  .\bby,  2601. 

Indians  of  North  America,  2i;01. 

Irons,  Joseph,  2608. 

Irons,  William  Josiah,  2602. 

Johns,  John,  2602. 

Joyce,  James,  2003. 

Kent,  John,  2603. 

Key,  Francis  Scott,  2603. 

Krauth,  Charles  Porterfleld,  :I003. 

Leland,  John,  2604. 

Lenox,  James.  2604, 

LeQuien,  Michael,  2604, 

Lloyd,  William  Freeman,  2004, 

Lourie,  Walter,  2604, 

Lynch,  Thomas  Toke,  2004. 

Aiacurdy,  Elisha,  2605. 

Madan,  Martin,  2605. 

Martensen,  Hans  Lassen,  2610. 

McMillan,  John,  800.5, 

Medley,  Samuel,  2605. 

Merrick,  James,  2600. 

Mills,  Henrv,  2600, 

Moffat,  Robert.  8606, 

Moncrciff,  Sir  Henry  Wellwood,  20O6. 

Monsell,  .John  Samuel  Bewly,  8007. 

Moore,  Thomas,  2007. 

Morgan,  Edwin  Denison,  2607. 

Patterson,  Joseph,  2607. 

Primitive    Baptists.    See   Anti-miseioq 

Baptists,  2,583. 
Schwab,  Guslav,  2607. 
Stark,  Johann  Friedrich,  2608. 
Starke,  Christoph,  2608, 
Stuart,  Robert  L,  and  Alexander,  260S, 
Ueberweg,  Friedrich,  2008, 
Veni,  Creator  Spiritus,  8608, 
White,  Norman,  2009. 
Wilson,  Samuel  Jennings,  2609. 
Zschokke,  Johann  Heinrich  Daniel.  2609. 


INDEX  TO  ENCYCLOPiEDIA  OF  LIVING  DIVINES. 


A. 

PAGE 

Abbot,E 1,273 

Abbott,  E.  A a,  273 

Abbott,  L 2,873 

Abbott,  T.  K 3 

Achelis,  E.  C 3,251 

Acquoy.J.G.M 3,251 

Adams,  W.  F 3 

Adler,  F 3 

Adler,H 3 

Adler,  N.M 3,873 

Ahlfeid.J.F 3,251 

Aiken,  C.  A 3 

Aitken,  W.  H.  M.  H  4 

Alden,  E.  K 4 

Alexander,  H.  C 4,  251 

Alexander,  W 4,251 

Alexander,  W 4,273 

Alexander,  W.  L 4 

Alger,  W.  R     4 

Allen,  A.  V.  G 5,251,273 

Allen,  J.  H  5 

Allioli,  J.  F 5 

Allison,  J 5 

Allon,H 5 

Anderson,  G 5,  273 

Anderson,  M.  B 5,  273 

Andrews,  E.  G 6 

Angus,  J 6 

AppeI,T (i,  273 

Apple,  T.G fi,273 

Argyll,  Duke  of 6,273 

Ariitage,  T  6,273 

Armstrong,  G.  D 6 

Arnold,  E 6 

Arnold,  M 7,  251 ,  273 

Arthur,  W 7,  273 

Aetie,  J.  F 7,273 

Atlav,  J 7 

Attcrbtirv,  W.  W 7,  273 

Atwood,  I.  M 7 

B. 

Bach,  J 8 

Bachmann,  J.  F.  J 8,  273 

Bacon, L.W 8,273 

Baethgen,  F.  W.  A 8,273 

Baird,  C.  W 8,273 

Baird,  H.  M 9,251 

Balan,  P 9 

Ballantine,  W.  G 9 

Balogh,  F 9 

Barbour,  W.  McL 9,  273 

Barclay,  J 10 

Barg«B,J.J.L 10,273 

Baring-Gould,  S 10,  251,  273 

Bamard,F.A.P 10,274 

Barrett,  B.  P 10 

Barrows,  J.  H 11 

Barrows,  S.J II 

Barrows,W.M 11 

Barry,  A 11 

Bartlett,  E.  T 11 

Barllett,  S.  C 11 

Bartol,  C.  A  11 

Bascom,  J 12,274 

Biussermann,  H 12,  274 

Bates,  C.  S 12 

Batterson,  H.  G 12 

Baudisein,  W.  W.  F 12,  251,  274 

Baum,  H.  M 18,  31 

Baur,G.(A.L.) 12,251,274 

Banaman,  B 12 

BavViss,  J.  H  12,274 

Beard,  C  12,274 

Bcattie,  F.  K 12 


PAGE 

Beaudry,  L.  N 13 

Beckwtth,  J.  W 13 

Beckx,  P.  J 13,274 

Bedell,  G.  T  13 

Beecher,  C 13 

Beecher,  E 13 

Beecher.  H.  W 14,251,274 

Beecher,  T.  K 14 

Beecher,  W.  J 14 

Beet,  J.  A 14,  274 

Beets,  N 14,251 

Behrends,  A.  J.  F 14,2,51,274 

Bell,  F.  W.  B.  V 14,    251 

Bender,  W.  P 14,  252,  274 

Bennett,  C.  W 15,274 

Benrath,  K 15,  252,  274 

Bensly,  R.  L 15 

Benson,  E.  W 15,  252 

Benton,  A.  A 15 

Benton,  J.  A 15 

Beresford,  M.  G 15,  252 

Berger,  D 15 

Berger,  S  15 

Bernard,  C.  B 16,2.52 

Bernard,  T.  D 16 

Bemheim,  G.  D 16 

Bersier,  E.  A.  F 16,2,52,274 

Bertbeau,  C 16 

Bertheau,  E 16,  274 

Bertram,  R.  A 18 

Bestmann,  H.J 16,  252,  274 

Bevan,  L.  D 17,253 

Beyschlax,  W 17,  253,  274 

Bickell,  G 17,  274 

Bickersteth,  E 17,  253 

Bickerttetb,  E,  H 17 

Biedermann,  A.  E 17 

Binney,  J 18 

Binnie,  W 18,274 

Bird.F.M 18 

BirreIl,J 18 

Bissell,  E.  C 18,274 

Blssell,  W.  n 18 

Bittner,  F.  A 18,  274 

BiOrling,  C.  () 19 

Blackburn,  W.  M 19 

Blackwood,  W 19 

Blaikie,  W.  G 19,274 

Blakesley,  J.  W 19 

Bledsoe,  A.  T 19 

Bliss,  D 20 

Bliss,  G.  R 20 

Blomfleld,  A 20 

Blunt,  J.  H 20,  252,  274 

Bbardman,  G.  D 21,  274 

Boardman,  G.N 81,252 

Boehl,  E 21,274 

Boehringer,  G.  F 21 

Boebrlngcr,  P 21,  274 

Boise,  J.  R 81 

Bomberger,  J.  H.  A 21,  274 

Bonar,  A.  A 22 

Bonar,  H 22,252,274 

Bonet-Maury,  A.  G.  C.  A 22,252 

Bonnet,  J 23,252,274 

Bonwetsch,  G.N 23 

Boone,  W.J 23 

Booth,  W 22,  274 

Bordier,  H.  L 22,252,274 

Bomemann,  F.  W.  B 23,274 

BoUTier,  A.  A.  0 22 

Bovet,E.V.F 23,274 

Bowman,  T 23 

Boyce,  J 23 

Boyce,  J.P 2.3,274 

Boyce,  W.  B 23,274 

Boyd,A.K.H  23,274 

Boyle,  G.D 24 


PAGE 

Brace,  C.  L 21,275 

Bradley,  C.  F 24 

Bradley,  G.  G 24,  275 

Brastow,  L.  O -.   ••    24 

Bratkc.E 24,275 

Bredenkarap,  C.  J 24,  253,  275 

Breed,  W.P 24,275 

Brewer,  L.K 24 

Brieger,  T 34,275 

Briggs,  C.  A 25,  a.T.'i,  275 

Bright,  W 25,  a>3,  275 

Broadus,J.A 25,275 

Brooke,  S.  A 25,  253 

Brooks,  P 25,275 

Brown,  C.  R 2B,  375 

Brown,  D 28,275 

Brown,  F 26,275 

Brown,  H.  S 28,275 

Brown,  J.  B 28.  275 

Brown,  J.  H.  H 26,275 

Browne,  E.  H 27,  253,  275 

Browne,  J 27 

Bmce,  A.  B 27,25:^,275 

Brueckner,  B.  B 27,253 

Bruston,  C.  A 27,  253,  275 

Bryce,  G 27 

Bryennios,  P 27 

Buchwald,  G.  A 28,253,275 

Buckley,  J.  M 28,253,275 

Budde,"  K.  IF.  R.) 28,  275 

Buder,  P 28 

Buel,  S 89.275 

Buell.M.D 29 

Burgess,  A 29 

Burgess,  H 29 

Burgon,  J.  W 29,  253.  275 

Burney,S.G 29,275 

Burnbam,  S 30 

Burr,  E.  F 30.275 

Burrage,  H.  S 30.  275 

Burrowes,  G 30 

Burton,  E.DeW 30,27a 

Burwash,  N 30 

Butler,  CM -^ 

Butler,  H.  M 31 

Butler,  J.  G 81,275 

Butler,  W 31 

Buttz,  H.  A 31 

C. 

Caird,  J 32,275 

Cairns,  J 33 

Calderwood,H 32.275 

Cameron,  G.  G 33 

Campbell,  J.  C 32,275 

Campbell,  J 32 

Campbell,  \V.  H 82,  275 

CapeT,T.  J 32 

Capen,  E.  H 33 

Carpenter,  W.  B 43.275 

Carroll,  H.  K 33.253 

Carson,  J.  G 33,  253 

Cary,  G.  L    33 

Caspari,  C.  P 33,25.3,275 

Cassel,  P.  (S.  S.) 33,353,275 

Cathcart,  W 34 

Cattell,  W.  C 34 

Cave,A 3«,  276 

Caven,  W 34 

Chadwick,  J.  W 34.276 

Chalmers,  W 34 

Chamberlain,  J  34 

Chambers,  T.  W 35.276 

Chance,  F •■•    3j 

Channinff,  W.  H  35,  276 

Chantre,  D.  A 35 


Nliv 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Chaponni^re.  J.  F 35 

Charteris,  A.  U 33 

Chase.  T^ 36,  276 

Chastel,  E.  (L.) 36,276 

Cheetham,  S 36 

Cheever,  G.  B 36,  276 

Chenery,  T 36 

Cheney,  C.  E  37 

Chester,  W.  B 37,253 

Chejiw,  T.  K 37,  253,  276 

Chluiquy,  C 37,  276 

Chinnery-Haldaue,  J.  R.  A 37 

Christlieb,  T 37,276 

Church,  P 38,  276 

Church,  R.W 38,254,276 

Churchill,  J.  W 38 

Clapp,  A.  H .38 

Clark,  G.  W 38 

Clark,  J.  B 38 

Clark,  X.  G 38 

Clark,  T.  M 39,276 

Clarke,  J.  F 39,  254,  276 

Clarke,  W.  N 39 

Claughton,  T.  L 39 

Clifford,  J 3U,  276 

Cobb,L.H 39 

Coe,  D.  B 39 

Coit,T.  W 40 

Collier,  R.  L 4ii.  276 

Collyer,  R 40,276 

Comba,  E 40,  254,  276 

Compton,  A.  S 40 

Conant,  T.  J 40 

Conder,  E.  R 41,  254,  276 

Conrad,  F.  \V 41 

Converse.  F.  B 41 

Converse,  T.  E 41 

Conwav,  M.  D 41 

Cook,  F.  C 41 

Cook,  J 41,  276 

Cooper,  T 42,  276 

Comill,  C.  H 43,  254 

Cornish,  G.  H  42 

Corrigan,  M.  A 42 

Corwm,  E.  T 42 

Cotterill,  H 42,254 

Coulin,  F 42,254 

Coussirat,  D 42 

Cowie,  B.  M 43 

Cox,  S 43,  276 

Coxe,  .\.  C 43,276 

Crafts,  W.  F 43 

Craig,  J.  A 44,276 

Craig,  W.  G 44 

Cramer,  J 44,  254 

Cramer,  M.  J 44 

Crarv,  B.  P 44 

Craven,  E.  R 44 

Creighton,  M -44.2.54,  276 

Cremer,  A.  11 44,  254,  276 

Crooks,  G.R 44,276 

Crosby,  H 45,  )i!54,  276 

Croskery,  T 45,  2.54 

Cross,  J 45 

Culross,  J 45,  3.54,  376 

Cunilz,  A.  E 45,2,54 

Curci,  CM 45 

Currey,  G 46 

Carrier.  A.  H 46 

Curry,  I) 46,376 

Curry, .(.  L.  M 47,  276 

Curtis,  E.  L 47 

Curtiss,  S.  1 47 

Cnylcr,  T.  L 47,  270 

D. 

Dabnev,  R.  L 48,376 

Dale,  R.  W 48,  2"^,  270 

Dales,  .J.  B  48 

Dniton,  n 48,3.54,270 

D'Alviella,  G 4«,  2.VI,  377 

Daviil-nn,  A.  B  49 

Davidson,  R.  L Ifl,  2.54 

Davidson,  R.  T 49,  277 

Davidson,  S 49 

Dnvies,  .1.  L no,  a»,  277 

Davis,  P.  S 50 

Dawson,  J.  W 60,277 

Day,  0.  E 50 

Day,  M.  F .50,277 

Dcuuc,  II 5(i,2.Vj,a77 

Dcanc,  W..J....   81 

Decoppct,  A.  L 61 ,  3.W,  277 

DeCosIa,  B.  F 51,277 

Deems,  C.  F 51,277 

Delloon  HchelTer 51 

Ifclltzsch,  F 61,277 

Dcllt/.flch,  F 62,855,277 


Demarest,  D  . . 
Demarest,  J.  T.. 

Denio,  F.  B 

Deuison,  G.  A... 
Denton,  W.. 


PAGE 

52,377 

52,  277 
...  52 
52,255 

53,  2 


DePuy,W.  H 52 

Derenfoourg,  J 52,  '2^,  377 

DeSchweinitz 53 

Deutsch,  S.  M .52 

DeWitt,  J 53 

De  Witt.  J 5:3,  277 

Dexter,  H.  M 53,277 

Dickson,  W.  P 53 

DieckhoU,  A.  W 53,  255,  277 

Dike,  S.  F 54 

Dike,  S.  W 54,277 

Dillmann  (C.  F.),  A 54,  377 

Dittrich,  F 54,265 

Dix,  M 54,  355,  277 

Dixon,  R.W 55,255 

Doane,  W.  C 55 

Dodd,  T.  J 55 

Dodge,  E 55 

Dods,  M 55,  255,  277 

Doedes,  J.  1 6,5,  2.55 

Doellinger,  J.J.I 56,  277 

Donaldson,  J 57,  255 

Domer,  A 57,  255 

Dorner,  A.J 57,  278 

Dorner,  I.  A 57,  255 

Douen,E.0 58,355 

Douglas,  A.  G 59 

Douglas,  G 59 

Douglas,  G.  C.  M 59,378 

Dow,  N 59 

Driver,  S.R 59,378 

Drummond,  H 59,  265,  378 

Drummond,  J 60,  278 

Dmry,  A.  W 60 

Drury,  J.  B (iO 

Dubbs,J.H 60,278 

DuBose,  W.  P 60 

Duchesne,  L CO,  256,  278 

Duckworth,  R 60 

Dudley,  C.  D 61 

Dudley,  T.  U 61 

Duff,  i) 01 

Duffleld,  G 61,278 

Duffleld,  S.  (A.)  W 61,278 

Duhm,  B 61,256,278 

Dulles,  J.  W 61,378 

Dunlop,  G.  K 61,278 

Dunn,  R 61 

Dunning,  A.  E 61 

Duns,  J 61,236 

Durnford,  R 62 

Durvea,  J.T 62,278 

Dwight,  T 62,  2.56 

Dvvinell,  1.  E 62,  278 

Dver,  H 62,  250,  278 

Dykes,  J.  0 02,  278 


K. 

Eaton,  S.J.  M 6.3,2,56, 

Ebrard  (J.  H.),  A 03,  356, 

Eddy,  R 6.3, 

Eddy,  Z 63, 

Eden,  R 6.3,  250, 

Edershcim,  A 03,  236, 

Edkins,  J 04, 

Kdniond,  .1 

Edwards,  L W,  250, 

Eells,  J   

Kgli,  E 


Ehrcnfeld,  C.  L... 

Ekman,  K.  J 

Ellicolt,  C.J 

Ellinwood,  F.  F... 

Elliot,  (i 

Klliolt,  C 

Elliott,  U.  W.  B 

Ellis,  (!.E 


.64, 


6.5,2.56, 


. .  05, 
. .  05, 


,  05, 

Elnislle,  W.  0 06, 

Emerton,  E CO, 

Endors,  E.  L  

English,  J.  M 

Erdinann  (C.  P.),  D 60, 

Errctt,  1 00, 

Evans,  L.  I .   ,. 

Evans,  T.  8 

Everett,  f  ■.  0 00, 

EwaldOI.  A.),P 07, 

Exen,J.S 87, 

Eyro.C ^ 07, 

I''. 
Fnlrbiiirn,  A.  M 08,  278 


278 

278 

378 

356 

378 

378 

278 

M 

378 

(14 

378 

64 

64 

378 

05 

65 

256 

278 

278 

278 

Si'S 

66 

00 

278 

278 

06 

60 

278 

278 

2;'8 

2.50 


PAGE 

Fairchild,  J.  H 68,  256 

Fallows,  S 68,  278 

Farrar,  A.  S 68,256 

Farrar,  F.  W 08,256,378 

Fausset,  A.  R 69,  256,  279 

Ferguson,  S.  D 69,  256 

Ferris,  J.  M 69 

Ffoulkes,  E.  S 09,  256,  279 

Field,  F TO 

Field,  H.  M 70,238,279 

Fisher,  G.  P 70,  256,  279 

Fisk,  F.  W 70 

Fitzgerald,  O.  P 70 

Flickinger,  D.  K 70 

Fliedner,  F 70,  256,  279 

Flint,  R 70,256,279 

Footman,  H 70,  279 

Forbes,  J 71,  279 

Foss,  CD 71 

Foster,  F.  H 71,379 

Foster,  R.  S 71 

Foster,  R.  Y 71,256,279 

Fowler,  C.  U 71 

Fo.x,  N 71,279 

Frank,  F.  H.  R 71,258,279 

Frank,  G.  (W.) 72 

Franke,  A.  H 72,  356,  279 

Eraser,  D 73,279 

Fraser,  J 72,  279 

Fremantle,  W.  n 7*2,279 

Freppel,  C.  E 7*2,256,279 

Fricke,  G.  A 73,  256,  279 

Friedlaender,  M 73 

Friedlieb,  J.  H 73,256 

Friedrich,  J 73,  356,379 

Fritzsche,  O.  F 73,  256,  379 

Frothingham,  O.  B 74,  379 

Fn-,  B.  St.  J 74,278 

Fu'ller,  J.  M 74,279 

Fullonton,  J 74 

Funcke,  O  74,350,279 

Funk,F.X 74,256,279 

Flmk,  1.  K 75 

Funkhouser,  G.  A 75 

Furraan,  J.  C 73,279 

Furness,  W.  11 75 

Furrer,  K 76,279 


Gabriels,  H 76 

Gailev,  M 76 

Gailor,  T.  F 76 

GalleUer,  J.  N 76 

Gams,  B 76,266 

Gaudcll,  R 76,267 

(ianse.  H.  D 76 

CJardiner,  F 76,  279 

(iarland,  L.  C 77 

(iarrctt,  A.  C 77 

(Jarrison,  J.  F 77 

Garrucci,  R 77 

(Jass,  F.  W.J.  II 77,257,280 

Gilst,  V.  A 77 

(Javazzi,  A  77,280 

Gebhardt,  O.  L.  V 78 

(icden,J.  D 78 

Geikic,  C 78,280 

Gerhart,  E.  V 78,  257 

Gerok,  K.  (F.) 78,257,280 

Ocss,  W.  F 79,380 

(iibb,  J 79,357 

Gibbons,  J  79,280 

Gibson,  J.  M 79,  280 

Gillespie,  G.  DeN 79 

Gillctt,  C  R 79 

Oilman,  E.  W 79 

Gladden.  W 79,267,380 

(Jlasgow,  J 79 

Gloag,  P.J 80,257,280 

Cilossbrenner,  J.  J 80 

Goadhv,  T 80,380 

(iorlcl,"F.  (L.) 80,  280 

Gocbel,  S.  A 80,280 

GipHz,  II.  vondcr 80 

Gcu.(l,.I.  H 80 

(;oinh\in,  I).  R 81,  2MI) 

Goodwin,  E.  P 81 

Goodwin,  II 81,257,380 

Gordon,  A.  J HI.  380 

Gordon,  A 81,281) 

(Jordon,  W.  R 81,  2.57 

(;<isniini.  A HI 

(iotch,  F.  W HI,  280 

Gollbell.  G 81,  3H0 

(iollschick,  J 82,  3H(I 

Goilgh,  J.  n 82,  280 

Gmilburn,  E.  M  8.'),  280 


INDEX. 


xlv 


Gould,  S.  B m 

Grafe,  E s:),  »» 

Graham,  R  83 

Granbery,  J.  C  K3 

Grant,  G.  M m 

Graa,  R.  F 83,  2H0 

GraveSj  C H4 

Gray,  A.  Z (M,  880 

Gray,  G.  Z  84,280 

Gray,  W.  O  84 

Green,  8.  G 81,257 

Green,  W.  II 81,  280 

Green,  W.  M 81,  280 

Gregg,  A 85 

Gregg,  R.  S 85 

Gregg,  W 85 

Gregory,  C.  R 85,257,280 

Gregory,  D.  S 85 

Grier,  M.  B 85 

Grier,  W.  M 85 

Griffls,  W.  E 85,280 

Griffith,  B 88 

Grimm,  O.  L.  W 86,  281 

Grimm,  J 86,  281 

Orisar,  H 86 

Grubbs,  I.  B 86 

Grundemann,  P.  R 86,  2.57,  281 

Grunert,  M.  E 86 

Gubelmann,  J.  S 86 

Guenther,  M  86 

Gulliver,  J.  P 86 

Guthe  H 87,  257,  281 

Gwynn,  J 87 


H. 

Haering,  T 88,  257,  281 

Hale,aR 88 

Hale,  E.  E  88,  257,  281 

Haley,  J.  W 88,857,  281 

Hall,  C.N 88,  281 

Hall,  I.  H 89,  281 

Hall,  J 89 

Hall,  N 89,257 

Hall,  R.  C  89 

Hallock,  J.  N 89 

Halsey,  L.J 90 

Hamburger,  J 90,  281 

Hamilton,  E.J 90 

Hamlin,  C 90 

riammond,  C.  E  90 

Hammond,  E.  P 90,281 

Hanne,  J.  W 90,  257 

Happer,  A.  P 91 

Hare,  G.  E 91,  881 

Hare,  W.  H 91 

Hargrove,  R.  K 91 

Harkavy,  A     ..    91 

llarman,  H.  M  92,  281 

Harmon,  G.  M 98 

Hamack  (K.  G.),  A 93,  857,  281 

Hamack,  T 92,  857,  281 

Harper,  W.  R 92,  237.  881 

Harris,  G 93,  281 

Harris,  8 93,  281 

Harris,  S.  S 93,  881 

Harrison,  B 93,  857,  281 

Harrison,  F 93 

Hartranft,  C.  D 93 

Harvey.H 93 

Harwood,  E 93 

Base,  K.  A 93,  381 

Hasselquist,  T.  N 94 

Hastings,  T.  S 94 

Hatch  E 94,  2.i8,  281 

Hauck,  A 94,1:58,281 

Haupt,  E 94 

Hanpt,H 94 

Haureau,  J.  B 95,258,  281 

Hansrath,  A 95 

Haweis,  H.  R 95,858,281 

Hay,  C.  A 95 

Hayes,  B.  P    95 

Haygood,  A.  G  95,  881 

Heard,  J.  B 95 

Hecker,  I.  T 96,281 

Hedge,  F.  H 96,  8.58,  281 

Hefele,  C.J.  v 96,281 

Heidenheim,  M 98,  858 

Heinrici,  K.  F.  G  96,  2.58,  281 

Heman,  C.  F 96,  258,  281 

Hemphill,  C.  R 97 

Hendrix,  E.  R 97 

Henson,  P.  S 97 

I  !(Tfienroether,  J 97,  281 

Horing,  H 07,282 

Herminyard.  A.  L 97 

Herrmann,  J.  G.  W 97,  282 


PAGK 

nerahon,  P.  I  ....      97 

Uervey,  A.  C 98,  258 

Herzog,  E  98,  283 

Hessey,  J.  A 98,  258,  882 

Hi;ttinger,  F 98,  258,  882 

Heurtley,  C.  A 99,  2.58 

Hevvit,  A.  F 99 

Ilickock,  L.  P 99,282 

Hilgenfeid,  A.  (B.  C.  C.)  ....  99,  258,  282 

Hill,  U.  J 99,  288 

Hill,  R lix; 

Hill,  T 100 

Ilillcr,  A ..  100 

Himpel,  P.  v 100,  883 

Hincks,  E.  Y lOO,  858 

Hitchcock,  R.  D   100,  838,  888 

Hodge,  A.  A  100,  2.58,  282 

Hodge,  C.  W  100 

Hodgson,  T 101 

Hockstra,  S 101,  258,  282 

Hoelemann,  H.  G 101,  2.58,  282 

Hoerschelmann,  F 101,  859 

Hoffman,  E.  A 101,  359,  883 

Hofmanu,  I«.  H. , 101,  282 

Hofstede  de  Groot,  C.  P 101,  259,  288 

Hofstede  de  Groot,  P 101,  859,  282 

Hoge,  M.  D 101 

Hole,  C 101,282 

Holland,  H.  8 101,  282 

Holsten,  K.  J 101,  359 

Holt,  L.  H 102 

Holtzmann,  H.J 102,  239,  282 

Hood,  E.  P 102,239,283 

Hoop-Scheffer,  J.  G.  de....  103,  259,  282 

Hooykaas,  1 102,359 

Hopkins,  J.  U 108,383 

Hopkins,  M 108,  359,  282 

Hopkms,  S.  M 103 

Hoppin,  J.  M  103 

Hort,  F.  J.  A 103 

Hott,  J.  W  103 

Hovey,  A 103,282 

How,  W.  W 104,  259,  283 

Howard,  E 104 

Howe,  J.  A  104 

Howe,  M.  A.  DeW 104 

Howe,  W.  B.  W 104 

Howson,  J.  S  104,  239 

Hoyt,  W  105,383 

Hughes,  J 105,  282 

Hughes,  J 105 

Huidekoper,  F 105 

Hulbert,  E,  B 105 

Hiunphry.  W.  G 105,  2.59,  382 

Hunt,  A.  S 105 

Hunt,  J 106 

Hunt,  S 106 

Huntington,  F.  D 106,282 

Huntington,  W.  R 106,  259 

Hurst,  J.  F  106,  359,  883 

Hurter,  H .106,  239,282 

Hyacinthe,  Father lOti 

Hyde,  J.  T 107,383 


Ignatius,  Father, 
Immer,  H.  A 


107, 
107, 


Jackson,  G.  A 108 

Jackson,  J 108 

Jackson,  L.  E 108 

Jackson,  S.  M 108 

Jackson,  S 108,  360 

Jacob,  G.  A 108,  383 

Jacobl,  J.  L 109,  383 

Jacobs,  H.  E 109,  383 

Jacobeon,  W 109 

Jacoby,  C.  J.  H 109,  880,  283 

Jaeger,  A  109 

Jaggar,  T.  A  109 

James,  F 109 

Janssen,  J  110,  360.  383 

Jebb,  J 110,  283 

JefEers,  E.  T 110 

Jeffers,  W.  H 110 

Jennings,  A.  C 110,  360,  283 

Jermvn,  H.  W 110 

Jessup,  H.  H 110,260 

Johnson,  E.  H , Ill 

Johnson,  H 111,283 

Johnson,  W.  A Ill 

Jones,  S.  P Ill 

Jones,  W.  B Ill 

Jostes,  F.  (L.) Ill,  260,  283 


PABE 

Jnwett,  B 113,  2«0 

Jungmunn  J 112,283 


Kaehler  (C),  M.  (A.) 11.3,  360,  283 

Kaftan,  J.  W.  M 113,260,283 

Kahnis,  K.  F.  A 113,3*1 

Kalkar,  C.  A.  H 1 13 

Kalisch,  M 113 

Kamphausen,  A.  (H.  H.) 114 

Karr,  W.  8 114,  283 

KattenbuBCh  (F.  W.),  F....114,  260,  2*3 

Kaulen,  F.  P 114,360.  283 

Kautzsch,  E.  F 114.  383 

Kawerau.G 114.283 

Kay,  W     114,28.3 

Kayser,  A ]15 

Keener,  J.  C 115 

Keil.  J.  C.  F 115.360 

Keller,  L 113,  360,  383 

Kellner,  K.  A.  H 113 

Kellogg,  8.  H 115,283 

Kendall,  H 116 

Kendrick,  A.  C     116,  383 

Kennedy,  B.  H 116,360,  383 

Kenrick,  P.  R 116 

Kephart,  E.  B 116 

Kesselring,  H 116,  360 

Kidder.  D.  P n6 

Kihn,  H 116 

Killen,  W.  D 117,260,283 

King,  J.  M nr 

Kip,  W.  1 117 

KJrkpatrick,  A.  F 117,  360,  283 

Kirkpatrick,  J.  D 117 

Kistler,  J.  L     117 

Kitchin,  G.  W.... 117,  260,383 

Kittredge,  A.  E  118 

Kleinert  (H.  W.),  P 118,383 

Kliefoth,  T.  F.  D 116,  383 

Kloepper.  A.  H.  E  118 

Klostermann  (H.),  A  118,  283 

Kneucker,  J.  J 118 

Knickerbacker,  D.  B 118 

Knight,  G.  T 118 

Knox,  C.  E 118 

Knox,  R.  B 119 

Kober,  F 119 

Koegel,  R  119,283 

Koehler,  A 119,283 

Koenig,  A 119,280.  883 

Koenig,  P.  E 119 

Koenig.  J  119,260 

Koessmg,  F 119,260 

Koestlin,  H.  A 119,283 

Koestlin,  J.  T 1 19,  384 

Kolde,  T.  (H.  F.) 130,  860.  284 

Kraffl,  W.  L 180.  360 

Kraus,  F.  X 180,  884 

Krauss,  A.  (E.)...    180,  284 

Krawutzcky,  A 120.  284 

Krotel,  G.  F 121 

Knieger  (H.)  G.  (E.) 131.884 

Kuebel.  R.  B 181.  884 

Kuenen,  A     131,  26(1.  2»4 

Kurtz,  J.  H 121,  380,  384 


Lat:d,G.T 133,384 

Laemmer.  H 128,  260,  284 

Lagarde,  P.  A.  de 182,  260,  884 

Laldlaw,  J 123.384 

Lake,  W.  C 123 

Lang,  J.  M 133 

Lange,  C.  H.  K 133 

Lange,  J.  P 18;i.  360 

Langen,  J 134.  884 

Langhans,  E 184.884 

Langworthy,  I.  P 124 

LansdeU,  H 135.  361 

Lansing,  J.  G 183.  384 

Lasher,  G.  W 1*5 

Latimer,  J.  E 135 

Lawrence,  W 125 

Lawson,  A.  G 123,  261 

Lea,  H.  C 12.5,284 

Leathes,  S  125,261 

Lechler,  G.  V 126,  361,  284 

Lee,  A 128,284 

Lee,  F.  G 126,  2&4 

Lee,W 136 

LefEingwell,  C.  W 126 

Legge,  J 136,  361.  384 

Lemme.L 137,361,384 

LeoXIil 127,361,384 


ilvi 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Lewis,  A.  H 127,  285 

Lewia,  R 127 

Lias,  J.  J 128,285 

Lichtenberger,  F.  A  128,  2!B 

Liddon,  H.  P 128,  261,  285 

Lightfoot,  J.  B 128,261,285 

Lincoln,  H 128,261,  285 

Link,  A 128,2^ 

Linsenmann,  F.  X 129,  261,  285 

Lipscomb,  A.  A 129 

Lipsius,  R.  A 129,261,285 

Little,  C.E 129 

LiMedale,  E.  F 129,  261,285 

Littlejoiin,  A.  N 129 

Livermore,  A.  A 130,285 

Lobstein,  P 130,285 

Loesclie,  G.  (C.  D.) 130,261,285 

Loman,  A.  D 130,  261,  285 

Lominatzsch,  S.  O.  N 130,  261,  285 

Long,  A.  L 130 

Loofs  (A.),  F 130,  285 

Loomis,  A.  W 130 

Lord,  W 131 

Lorimer,  0.  E 131,  261 

Loive,  W.  H 131,  262,  885 

Lowne,  J.  C 131 

LoOTie,  S.  T  131 

Lon-ry,  E 131 

Loy,  M 131,283 

Luard,  H.  E 182 

Lucius,  P.  E 132,285 

Luckocli,  H.  M 132,208,285 

Ludlow,  J.  M 132 

Lnedemanu,  H 138 

Luedemuun,  K 133,  285 

Luenemann,  G.  C.  G 132 

Luthardt,  (J.  E 133,  262,285 

Lyman,  T.  B 133 

Lyne,  J.  L 1.33,  285 

Lvon,  D.  G 133,262 


M. 

Mabon,  W.  A.  V.  V 134,  262 

McAll,  E.  W 134 

MacArthur,  E.  S 134,885 

McAuley,  J 134 

McCabe,  C.  C 135 

McClellan,  J,  B 135 

McClOfkey,  J 135 

McCook,  II.  C 135 

McCosh,  J 138,  885 

MacCracken,  H.  M 136,  886 

McCurdy,  J.  F 1.36 

Macduff,  J.  E 136,  2(i2,  286 

McFcrrin,  J.  B 136,286 

MctJarvey,  J.  W 137,  886 

aicGiflert,  A.  C 1.37,  286 

llc(;Ul,  A.  T 137,280 

Mcllvaim-,  J.  11 137,262 

Mackarncss,  J.  F 137,  262,  286 

McKt-nziu,  A 137,  288 

McKnight,  U.  W 137 

Maclugan,  W.  D 1.37,  203 

McLaren.  A 138,280 

McLaren,  W.  E l.)8 

McLean,  A 138 

Maclear,  G.  F 188,202,880 

Macleod.  D l:)8 

Macmillan,n Ijy,  262 

McTycire,  11.  N 138,  288 

MacVicar,  D.  H ko 

Mac  Vicar  M 139 

Magee,  W.  C 139,286 

Magoon,  E.  L  1.39,  862 

Mahan,  A 1.39,202,  280 

MaicT,  A 139,  362,  880 

Malan,  H.  C 139,  280 

Mallalieu,  W.  F MO 

Mallorv,  O.  S 140 

Mangold,  W.J 140.286 

Manly,  B 141.288 

Mann,  W.J 141,202,  280 

Manning,  n.  E 141,268,288 

Mariml^  D.  C 141,802 

Marti,  K 141,202,  280 

,Martlgny,J.  A 141 

Martin,  W.  A.  P 141 

Martlncau,  J 142,  280 

Mathcson,  0 142,280 

Matloon,  S 142,280 

M«id,  O.  M J42,  280 

Mcdd,  P.  G 112,286 

Milnhold,  J 143,  8»it 

.Mcnzfl,  A 143 

Mcrivale,  O 113 

Merrill,  H M3,  202 

Merx(E.  O.),  A 148,  268,  288 


PAGE 

I  Mesener  (K.  F.),  H  143,26:3,286 

Meuss,  E 144,  286 

Meyrick,  F 144,286 

Michaud,  P.  E 141,  286 

Michelsen,  A 1+4 

MLllcr,J 144,287 

Milligan,  W 144,  287 

Miner,  A.  A 145 

Mitchell,  A.  F 145,  86;3 

Mitchell,  A 145 

Mitchell,  E.  C 145 

Mitchell,  H.  G 145 

Mitchell,  S.  T 145 

Moberly,  6 146 

Moeller,  E.  W 146,263 

Moffat,  J.  C 146,263,287 

Moffat,  J.  D 140 

Mombert,  J.  J 146,  283,  287 

Monod,  G 146,  287 

Monod,  J.  P.  F 146 

Monod,  T 148,287 

Monrad,  D.  G 146,  287 

Mooar,  G 147 

Moody,  D.  L 147,287 

Moore,  D 147 

Moore,  G.  F 147 

Moore,  W.  E 147 

Moore,  W.  W 147 

Moorhouse,  J 147,  263,  887 

Moran,  P.  F 117 

Morehouse,  H.  L 147 

Morison,  J 148,263,287 

Morris,  B.  W 148 

Morris,  E.  D 148,287 

Morris,  J.  G 148,263 

Morse,  E.  C    148 

Moulton,  W.  P 148.203 

Mudge,  B 14S 

Muehlau  (H.),  P 149 

Mueller,  G 149 

Mueller,  K.  (P.  P.) 149,287 

Mulford,  E 150 

Munger,  T.  T 131,287 

Murphv,  J.  G 151,287 

Muston,  A 151,887 

Myrberg,O.P 151,863 


N 

Naville,  J.  E 132.  287 

Neely,  H.  A 152 

NeU,  C 132 

Nestle  (C),  E 152,  287 

Nevin,  A 158,287 

Nevln,  E.  H.  153 

Nevin,  J.  W 153,287 

Newman,  A.  H 153 

Newman,  F.  W 153,  287 

Newman,  J.  H 15:3,  287 

Newman,  J.  P 151,  287 

Newth,  S  I.>1 

Newton,  U 154,  287 

Newton,  K.  H 154,  287 

Niccolls,  S.  J 154 

Nicholson,  W.  E 154 

Nicoll,  W.  E 155,  887 

Nielsen,  F.  K 155,20:3 

Niles,  W.  W 155 

Nillos,  N 1.55,263,287 

Ninde,  W.  X 1.55 

Nippold,  F.  W.  F 155,  283,  287 

NitZBCh,  F.  A.  B 155,  287 

Norman,  K.  W 155 

Northrup,  (J.  W 1.50 

Nowack,  W.  G.  U 158,887 

NystrOm,  J,  E 158 


O. 

Octtingcn,  A.  T 157,  263,  287 

Olsson,  O 1,57 

Oltramare,  M.  J.  U 167,  808 

Oort,  II 157.20.3 

Orelll  ai),  C.  V 157,287 

Ormiston.  W 157,  888 

Osborn,  II.  S 1.58,  288 

Osgood,  H 1.58,20.3 

Oswald,  J.  H 158,  28,S 

Otto  (J.),  K.  (T.),  R.  V.  0 168,288 

Overbcck,  K.  C l.W 

Overton,  J.  II 159,203 

Oxendcn,  A 159 

Oxenliam,  II.  N 1.59,  264 

P. 
Packard,  J 100 


PAGE 

Paddock,  B.H 160 

Paddock, J. A 160 

Paine,  L.  L 160 

Paine,  T.  0 160 

Palmer,  B.M ..  160,  288 

Palmer,  E 161 

Palmer,  E 161,288 

Paret,  W 161 

Park,  E.  A 161,  264 

Parker,  E.  P 162 

Parker,  J i  62,  288 

Parkhurst,  C.  H 168,  288 

Parry,  E 162,  204,  288 

Passaglia,  C 162,  288 

Paterson,  H.  S 168 

Paton,  J.  B 163,204,288 

Patterson,  E.  M , 163,288 

Pattison,  T.  H 163 

Patton,  A.  S 10:3.288 

Patton,  F.  L 103,  288 

Patton,  W.W 163,  288 

Paxton,  J.  R 168,264 

Paxton,  W.  M 163 

Pa)-ne,  C.  H  164 

Payne-Smith,  R 164,  264 

Peabodv,  A.  P. 164,  288 

Peck,  T.  E 164 

Peirce,  B.  K 164 

Pelham,  J.  T 165 

Peloubet,  F.  N 165 

Pendleton,  J.  M 165 

Penick,  C.  C ]65 

Pentecost,  G.  P 185,  288 

Perowne,  J.  J.  S 165,  864,  288 

Perrin,  L 166,288 

Perry,  G.  G 106,  888 

Perry,  W.  .S 106,  288 

Peterkin,  G.  W 167 

Peters,  G.  N.  H 167 

Peters,  J.  P 167 

Pf leiderer,  O 167,  204,  288 

Phelps,  A 107,  288 

Phelps,  S.  D 167 

Philfips,  P  167 

Philpott,  H 168,284,  888 

Pick,  B 168.  888 

Pieper,  F.  A.  O 168 

Pierce,  G.  P 108 

Pierce,  11.  N KW,  264 

Pierson,  A.  T 108,  264,  888 

Pigou,  F 168,  201,  288 

Piper,  K.  W.  F 168 

Pirie,  W.  R 168 

Pitcher,  J 169 

Pitra.  J.  B 169,  264,  288 

Pitzer,  A.  W 169,  288 

Plath,  K.  H.  C 109,  864.  2,S8 

Plumb,  A.  H 169 

Plummcr,  A 109,  8()4.  388 

Plumptre.  E.  H 170,  204,  288 

Plunket,  W.  0 170 

Poor,  l>.  \V 170 

Pope,  W.  B 170 

Porter,  J.  L 170,  8(«.  288 

Porter,  N 171,288 

Post,  G.  E 171 

Potter,  H.  C 171,  288 

Potter,  H 171,  288 

Power,  F.  D 171 

Pratt,  L 171,288 

Preger,  J.  \V 171,  264,  288 

Prentiss,  G.  L 171,  289 

PressensiS,  E.  (D.)  de ]?3,  264,  889 

Preston,  T.  S 172 

Prime.  E.  I).  G 172 

Prime,  S.  I  178 

Prime,  W 173,  204 

Prins,  J.  J 173,204 

Puaux,  F 173,  204 

Puenjer  (G.  C),  B 173,  864 

Pnllnian,  J.  M 174 

Purey-Cust,  A.  P 174 


Qulntard,  C.  T. 


Q- 


R. 


174,  864 


Radslock,  O.  A.  W.  W 175 

lineblger,  J.  F 175,  20-4 

Kalnv,  R 17.5,  864 

Rulstnii.  T.  N 175 

Rimd,  W.  W 17.5,  2(Vt 

Randolph,  A.  M  175 

Hanke,  E 175,  204,  389 

Ranke,  L.  v 170 


INDEX. 


xlvii 


PAGE 

Rauscheubusch,  A 176,  2H1» 

Itauweuhoff,  L.  W.  E 17(i,  28'J 

Kawlinsou,  G 17G,  »«) 

Itaymond,  M 17ti 

Bedford,  U.  A 17(i,'M) 

Uecd,  V.  D 177 

Reichel,  C.  P m,iim 

Keichel,  O.  J 177,289 

Iteid,  J.  M 177 

Reid,  W.J 177 

Reimenanyder,  J.  B 177 

Keinkenu,  J.  H 177 

Keischle,  M.  W.  T 177,805,  289 

Kenan,  J.  E  178,  289 

Renouf,  P.  Le  P 178 

Keusch,  F.  H 178,289 

ReuBB,  E.  (W.  E.) 178,  289 

Keuter,  H.  F 179,  265,  289 

Revel,  A  179 

Reville.A 179,265,289 

Reynolds,  H.  R 179,  265,  289 

Rice,  E.  W 179,26.5,289 

Ricbardson,  E.  0 179,  289 

Ridille,  M.  B  179,  289 

Ridgaway,  H.  B 180 

EieUm,  E.  (U.  A.) 180,289 

Rigg,  J.  U 180,  265,  289 

Rijrgenbach,  B.  E  180,  289 

Riggenbach,  C.J 1.80,  289 

Rigge,  E  181,265,289 

Riggs,  J.  S 181 

EiUchl,  A 181,289 

Ritechl,  O 181,289 

Roberts,  W 181,290 

Roberts,  W.C 182,265,290 

Roberts,  W.H 182,290 

Robertson,  C.  F 182 

Robins,  H.  E 182 

Robinson,  C".  S 182,  265,290 

Robinson,  E.  G 182,  265,  290 

Roljinson,  T.  H 182,  265 

Rohling,  J.  F.  B.  A 183,290 

Roller.T  183 

Romestin,  A.  H.  E.de  183,290 

Ropes,  C.J.  H 1&3,  290 

Roiws,  W.  L ia3 

Rossi,  G.  B.  de 1*3,  290 

Rudin  (E.  G.),  W.  (N.) 183,  205 

Ruetschi,  A.  R 183 

Riietscbi,  R 184,  205 

Rulison,  N.S 181 

Ranze,  G.  A.  W 184,290 

Rust,  H  184 

Ryan,  P.J 184 

Rydberg,  A.  V 184,265 

Rylance,  J.  H 184 

Rvle,  J.  C 184,265,290 


S. 

Sabatier,  A 186,264 

Sabine,  W.  T 186 

Sage,  A.  J 186 

SaTmon,  G 186,265,290 

Salraond,  S.  D.  F 186,290 

Samson,  G.  W 180,  205 

Sanday,  W 186,265,890 

Sanderson,  J 180,  290 

Sankey,  I.  D 187 

Sapbir,  A 187 

Saussaye,  P.  D.  C.  de  la 187,  205 

Savage,  G.  S.  F 187 

Savage,  M.J 187,265,290 

Sayce,  A.  H 187,26.5,290 

Scarborough,  J 188 

Schacter,  A 188,  390 

Schaeffer,  C.  W 188 

Schaeffer,  H.  M 188 

Scbaff,  D.  S 188,  265 

.Schafl,  P  188,  290 

ScbauE,  P 190,  265,  290 

Scheele,  K.  H.  G.  v 190,  265 

Scbegg,  P 190,  290 

Schell,  n     190,291 

Schenck,  W.  E 190,  265 

Schenkel,  D  190 

Scherer,  E.  H.  A 191,  265,  891 

Schereschewsky,  S.  1 191 

Schickler,  F.  de 191,  205 

.Scblottmann,  K 191,291 

Schmid,  A 191 

Schmid,  .\ 191 

Schmid,  H 191,  291 

Schmidt,  C.  G.  A 191 

Schmidt,  C.  H  192,  291 

Schmidt,  P.  (W.) 192,291 

Schmidt,  W.  G 192,291 

Schmiedel,  P.  W 193 


PAGE 

Schmucker,  B.  M 192,  291 

Schnedermaun,  G.  H 192,  265,  891 

Hchodde,  O.  U 198 

Schoell,  C.  W 193 

Schoenfeldcr,  J.  M 193,  291 

Scholten,  J.  H 193 

Scholz,  A 198,265,891 

Scholz,  P  liW 

Schrader,  E IM,  291 

Schroers,  J.  U 194 

Hchuerer,  E  194,291 

Schuette,  C.  H.  L 191,  865 

Schultz,  F.  W 19-t,  865 

Scbultz,  H 194,  805,  891 

Scbultze,  A 194,  891 

Schultze,  M.  V 194,  891 

Hchuize,  L.  T IM,  205,  891 

Schwane,  J 195,206,891 

Schwarz   K.  H.  W 195,  266,  291 

Schweinitz,  E.  de 195,  891 

Schweizer,  A 195,  291 

Scott,  H.  McD 195 

Scott.J 195 

Scott,  R 195,291 

Scott,  W.  A 196 

ScouUer,  J.  B 190 

Scrimger,  J 196 

Scrivener,  F.  H.  A 190 

Scudder,  H.  M 196,  291 

Seabury,  W.  J 196,  291 

Seeberg,  R 196,  266,  291 

Seeley,  J.  R 197,260,  891 

Seelye,  J.  H  197 

Segond,  J.  J.  L 197 

Seiss,  J.  A 197,  266,  291 

Selborne,  R.  P 197,  291 

Semisch,  K.  A 197 

Sepp,  J.  N 197,266,  291 

Service,  J ...,198 

Sevvall,  J.  S 198 

Seyerlen,  K.  R 198,  266 

Seymour,  G.  P  198 

Shaftesbury,  A.  A.-C 198,  260,  291 

Sbaw,  W.  1 199 

Shedd,W.G.T 199,291 

Sheldon.  H.  C 199 

Shepherd,  T.J 199 

Sheraton  J.  P 199 

Sherwood,  J.  M 199,  291 

Shields,  C.  W 800,  891 

Shipp,  A.  M 200 

8hone,S 200 

Shore,  T.  T 200 

Short,  C 200,  866 

Shuey,  W.  J  200 

Sieffert,  F.  A.  E 200,  891 

Siegfried,  C.  (G.  A.) 201,  891 

Simon,  D.  W 201,  292 

Simpson,  M    201 

Sinker,  R  201,  292 

Skinner,  T.  H 801 

Sloane,  J.  R.  W 201,  292 

Smend,  R 202 

Smith,  B.  M 202 

Smith,  C.  S 802 

Smith,  C.  W 802 

Smith,  G.  V 802 

Smith,  H.  P ...  202 

Smith,  J 202 

Smith,  J.  A 202 

Smith,  L.  E 203 

Smith,  M.  M 203,  292 

Smith,  R.  P 203 

Smith,  S.  F 803,  292 

Smith,  W 203 

Smith,  W.  R 203,892 

Smyth,  E.C 203,  806 

Smyth  (S.PJ,N 204,260,892 

Southgate,  H 204 

Spaeth,  A 804 

Spalding,  J.  F 204,  206,  292 

Spalding,  J.  L 201 

Spalding,  M.  J 204 

Spence,  H.  D.  M  205 

Spencer,  H 205,892 

Spencer,  J.  A 205,  266 

Spitta,  F.  (A.  W.) 805,  866,  898 

Sprecher,  S 205 

Sprinzl,  J 205 

Sproull,  T 205,  292 

Spurgeon,  C.  H 805,  292 

Stade,  B  -207,892 

Staehelln,  R 207,  292 

Stalker,  J 207,  898 

Stall,  S  807,  292 

Stanford,  C 208 

Starkey,  T.  A 208 

Stearns,  L.  F 20S.  292 

Steams,  O.  S 308.  892 


PAGB 

Steele,  I)   208 

SteeuBtra,  P.  II , 208 

Steiner,  II 208,  208,  292 

SteiTimeyer,  F.  1 208,  893 

Stellhoru,  F.  W 208,898 

Stephens,  D.S 209 

Stevens,  A 209,  866 

Stevens,  (i.  B 209,  292 

Stevens,  W.  A 209,  292 

Stevens,  W.  B 209,  266,  292 

Stevenson,  J.  F  209 

Stevenson,  W.  F 209,  866 

Stewart,  W 209 

StIHer,  J.  M 210 

Stockmever,  I  210,  267,  292 

Stoddard,  V.  A 210 

Stoucker,  A 210,  2C7,  292 

Stokes,  O.  T 210,  867,  292 

Stolz,  A 210 

Storrs,  R.  8 210,298 

Story,  R.  H 210,  887 

Stoughton,  J 210 

Stowe,  C.  E 211 

Strack,  H.  L 211,267,296 

Strong,  A.  H 211,  298 

Strong,  J  •. 211,892 

Strossmayer,  J.  G 212 

Strong,  J 212,  267 

Stuart,  G.  H 212,267,292 

Stubbs,  W 818,868,  292 

Stuckenberg,  J.  H.  W 212,293 

Studer,  G.  £ 212 

Super,  H.  W 212 

SwaiuBua,  C.  A 212,  298 

Swete,  H.  B 813,  268,298 

Sydow  (K.  L.\  A 213 


T. 

Talcott,  D.S 214 

Talmage,  T.  DeW 214,  268,  293 

Tarbox,  I.  N 214,  293 

Taylor,  B.  C 214 

Taylor,  C 214,268 

Taylor,  G.  L 214,  893 

Taylor,  J.  P 215 

Taylor,  M.  W 815,  268 

Taylor,  W 215 

Taylor,  W.  J.  R 215 

Taylor,  W.  M 215,  268,  293 

Temple,  F 815 

Terry,  M.  S 216,293 

Thayer,  J.  H 216,293 

Thiersch,  H.  W.  J 216,  268,  293 

Thisted,  W.  A 216,  293 

Thomas,  D  216,868 

Thomas,  J.  B 217,293 

Thomas,  0  217,  268 

Thompson,  A.  C 817,  293 

Thompson,  H.  M 217,293 

Thompson.  \V 817,  293 

Thomson,  W 217,293 

Thomson,  W.  McC 217 

Thorold,  A.  W 218,  269,  293 

Tiele,  C.  P 218,  869,  293 

Tillett,  W.  F 218 

Titcomb,  J.  H  218,  269,  293 

Tollin,  H.G.N 218,  269,  293 

Toorenenbergen,  J.  J.  van 218,  269 

Tousey,  W.  G 819 

Townsend,  L.  T 219,809,893 

Toy,  C.  H 819,  293 

Trechsel,  F 219 

Trench,  F.  C 219 

Trench,  R.  C 219,869,893 

Tristram,  H.B 280 

Trollope,  E 220,  269 

Troutbeck,  J  220,  269 

True,  B.  0 280,293 

Trumbull,  H.C    880,893 

Tschackert,  P.  (M.  R.) 221,  269,  293 

Tucker,  H.  H..  .   221.293 

Tucker,  H.  W 221,269 

Tucker,  W.J 221,  269 

Tulloch,  J  221,269,293 

Tuttle,  D.  S 222,293 

Twining,  K 222,869 

Tyerman,  L 228,293 

Tyler,  W.S 223,269 

Tyng,S.H 233 


U. 

Uhlhom,  J.  G.  W 224,  369,  293 

Upham,  P.  W 824 

Upham,  S.  F 284 

Upson,  A.J 224 


xlviu 


INDEX. 


V. 


PAGE 


Vail,  T.  H 225,293 

Valentine,  M 225,269 

Van  Dyck,  C.  Van  A 225 

Van  Dyke,  H.  J 225,  294 

Van  Dyke,  H.  J.,  Jr 225,294 

VanDyke,J.S 285,369 

Van  Vleck,  H.  J 225 

Vaughan,  C.J 225,  294 

Venables,  E 226,269.294 

Vincent,  J.  H 226,294 

Vincent,  M.  R  226,  269,  294 

Voelter,  D.  E.  J 226,  269,  294 

Vogeiav.l.  A 226 

Voigt.  H.  J.  M 236 

Volck,  W 226,  269,  294 

Volkmar,  G 327,294 

Voysev,  C 2i7,  294 


W. 

Wace.  H  228,  269,  294 

Waddington,  C 228,  270 

Wagenmann,  J.  A 228,270,  294 

Warden,  J.  SI 228 

Waldenstrom,  P.  P 228,  270 

Walker,  G.  L  228,294 

Walker,  W.  D 229 

Walker,  W 229,294 

Walsh.  W.  P  229,294 

Walther,  C.  F.  W 229,  294 

Wanamaker,  J 229,  270 

Ward,  J.  T 229 

Ward,  J.  H  229,294 

Ward.  W.  H  229,  294 

Warfleld,  B.  B 229,370,294 

Wameck,  G 229,  294 

Warner,  Z 3.30 

Warren,  H.  W 230 

Warren,  I.  P 230 

Warren,  W.  F 231,  294 

Washburn,  G , 331 

Watson,  A.  A 231 

Watson,  F 231 

Watts,  R 2:31,270,294 

Wsyland,  H.  L S31 


PAGE 

Weaver.  J 232,294 

Weed,E.G 8:32,270 

Weidner,  R.  F  232,  394 

Weiflenbach,  E.  W 232,294 

Weingarten,  H 232,394 

Weiss,  B  333,270,294 

Weiss,  H 232,295 

Weiss,  N...     232,370,295 

Weizsackcr,  K.  (H.)  v 332,  270,  295 

Welch,  E.B  232,295 

Welles,  E.  R  2:33,  395 

Wellhausen,  J 333,  270,  295 

Welton,  D.  M 233 

Wendt,H.U 2*3,270,395 

Werner,  K 333,  295 

West,  E 333 

Westuott.  B.  F 2.33,  270,  395 

Weston,  H.  G 334 

Whedon,  D.  D  2.31,  370,  395 

Wheeler,  1).  H 3:34 

Whipple,  II.  B 3.31 

Whitaker,  O.  W 231 

White,  E.  N 234 

Whitehead,  C 234 

Whiton,  J.  JI 231,  295 

Whitsitt,  W.  H 3:35 

Whittle,  F.  McX 335 

Wiberg,  A   335,  295 

Wieseler,  K 335 

Wikner,  C.  P 3.36,270 

Wilbertorce.  E.  R 236 

WUkes,  H 236,270 

Wilkinson,  W.  C 386,  270,  295 

Willcos,  G.  B 237,295 

Williams,  C.  M 237 

Willianis,G 237,370 

Williams,  J 237.  395 

Williams,  S.  W 238 

Williams,  W.  R 2.38,  271 

Willson,  D.  B 2.38 

Wilmer,  R.  H 238,  295 

Wilson,  II.  R 238 

Wilson,  J.  L 339,  271 

Wilson,  J.  R 239 

Wilson,  R.  D 239 

WUson,  W.  S 2.39.295 

WlDg,  C,  P 339,295 


PAGE 

Wingfleld.J.  II.  D 339 

Wirthmueller,  J.  B 239 

Wise,  D 240,  271,  295 

Witherow,  T 340,271.295 

Witherspoon,  T.  D 2W 

Withrow,  J.  L  B40,  271 

Withrow,  W.  n 241,  395 

Woerter,  F ail 

Wolf,  E.J 241,271,295 

Wood,  J.  G 341,395 

Woodbridge,  S.  M 241 

Woodford,  J.  E 311,  395 

Woodrow,  J 242 

Woodrufl.  F.  E 342,271 

Woolsev,  T.  D !M2,  SH,  295 

Worcester,  J ai3,  295 

Wordsworth,  C 243,  271.  295 

Wordsworth,  C 242,295 

Wordsworth.  J  243.  271 ,  295 

Worthington.  G 344,371 

Wratislaw,  A.  H 241.295 

Wright,  C.H.  H 244,271 

Wright,  G.  F 31.5,  295 

Wright,  M 245 

Wright,  T.  F  245,  295 

Wright,  W 245.  2n,  295 

Wrong,  G.  McK 345 

Wylie,  J,  A 345,271,295 


Y. 

Yerkes,   S 247 

Yoimg,  A a47 

Young,  R 247,  271 ,  295 


Z. 

Znhn,  T 249,  271,  395 

Zeller,E 249,271 

ZezschwitE,  G.  v 249,  3n 

Zimmer,  F.  K 249,  295 

Zoeckler,  O M9.  271.  290 

Zocpffel,  R.  0 2.50.  296 

Zunz,  L 350 


RELIGIOUS    CYCLOPzEDIA. 


A. 


A  and  .Q,  or  ALPHA  and  OMEGA,  the  combi- 
nation of  the  first  and  last  letters  of  the  Greeli 
alphabet,  is  the  phrase  used  three  times  by  our 
Lord,  in  the  Apocalypse,  to  set  forth  liis  eternity 
(Rev.  i.  8,  xxi.  (i,  xxii.  13).  [The  E.  V.  and 
the  received  text  have  it  aLso  in  1.  11,  where  the 
best  MSS.  omit  it.]  Tlie  idea  is  much  older. 
In  the  O.  T.,  Isn.  xliv.  6  (eomp.  xli.  4,  xliii.  10), 
Jehovah  calls  himself  "The  first  and  the  last," 
in  contrast  to  the  perishable  idols.  In  both 
Testaments  the  phrase  expresses  the  popular 
conception  of  eternity  as  endless  duration,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  idea  of  divine  causality; 
the  Alpha  looking  back  to  the  ixpxh,  the  begin- 
ning, the  creation;  the  Omega,  to  the  rtAof,  the 
end,  the  completion  of  the  kingdom  of  God  in 
Christ. 

Tertullian  (/>e  Monori.  c.  5)  and  Prudentius 
{Calhemer.  hiimn.  IX.,  10-12')  use  the  figui'e. 
Marcus  the  Gnostic  discovered  that  the  numeri- 
cal value  of  a  and  w  was  equal  to  the  numeri- 
cal value  of  the  individual  letters  comiinsing 
Trepiaripd  (dove) ;  whence  he  inferred  that  Christ 
called  himself  A  and  S2  with  reference  to  tlie 
Holy  Spirit,  who  descended  on  him  at  his  baptism 
in  the  shape  of  a  dove  (Irenseus,  Adv.  Haeres.  I., 
14,6;  1.5,1;  Tertullian,  De  I'raescripl.  c.  50). 
This  trifling  was  employed  by  Primasius  in  his 
commentary  on  the  Apocalypse  {Bthl.  Pair.  J\Iax. 
X.  p.  338)  to  prove  that  "the  Iloly  Ghost  is  of 
the  same  substance  with  the  Father. 

The  combination  of  a  and  w,  by  its  simplicity 
and  suggestiveness,  commended  itself  as  a  .sym- 
bol of  Christian  faith  from  the  earliest  times, 
and  was  used  extensively  on  monuments  of  every 
description;  sometimes  alone,  but  more  fre- 
quently in  connection  with  the  monogram  of 
Christ  in  its  various  forms : 


^i^    4 


"ii 


Sometimes  the  two  letters,  of  which  the  u  is 
almost  always  of  that  uncial  form  which  resembles 
the  miiiuscular,  ai'e  hung  by  chains  from  tlie  arms 
of  the  cro.ss.  One  of  the  oldest  instances  of  the 
use  of  the  letters  is  in  the  catacombs  on  the  Island 
of  Melos,  and  dates  from  the  first  part  of  the  sec- 
ond century  or  tlie  latter  part  of  the  first.  (See 
Iloss,  Rei^en  nuf  den  griech.  Inseln  dcs  iiiieixchi'ii 
Meerea,  vol.  III.  p.  14!).)  The  oldest  coins  on 
which  it  is  used  belong  to  Constance  and  Con- 


["  Cori/e  natttn  ex  par<'iitift  attte  mundl  exordium 
Alpha  et  il  cndnoininfttns;  ipfie  fons  et  ctansuta, 
OnmiJim  (jttte  sttnt,/ui'j-u?ii,  tjtuxt/ne  post  J'aturu  9unt"\ 


stantine,  the  .sons  of  Constantino  the  Great.  Tt 
is  found  upon  rings  and  sigils,  in  jiictures,  illus- 
trations, mosaics,  reliefs,  &c.  Occasionally  it  is 
used  by  Protestants,  e.g.,  on  the  front  of  the 
royal  mortuary  chapel  at  Charlottenburg,  near 
Berlin,  on  the  altar  of  the  Matthaeikirche  in 
Berlin  [in  the  Madison-square  Presbyterian 
Church,  New  York,  and  iu  other  American 
churches]. 

[Lit. — Pfeiffeu:  De  a  el  u.  Kegiom.  1667. 
Beyschlag:  T)e  siijillo  nnminis  Dei  hnininls.  Vi- 
ti-'b.  1G92.  Ewald:  De  a  et  u  nomine  Christi 
mtptico,  in  his  Emhl.  II.  109.  ROdigeu:  Da 
Chruilo  pa-  prirnnm  (Pi^'dii'}2)  et  ulfimain  {'A/ii/v') 
S.S.  vocem  indicalo.  Giess.  3724.  Diduom  : 
Icohoyr.  Chrel.  ^Iartign'y:  Diet,  dcs  atiliq. 
cliret.  s.  V.  anneaux.  S.MiTH  and  Cuketiiam  : 
t'hrifl.  Antiq.  I.  p.  1.]  F.  PIPER. 

AA'RON  (mountaineer,  or,  according  to  another 
root,  enlii/hlened),  the  first  high  priest  of  the  .Jews, 
eldest. sou  of  Amram  and  Jochebed,  of  the  tribe 
of  Levi,  brother  of  Miriam  and  Moses,  husband 
of  Elislieba,  and  father  of  Nadab,  Abiliu,  Elea- 
zar,  and  Ithainar  (Exod.  vi.  20,  23) ;  was  the 
"  prophet,"  or  mouthpiece,  of  Moses  (Exod.  iv.  16), 
and  associated  with  him  in  all  the  preparations 
for  and  the  actual  conduct  of  the  exodus  and  the 
subsequent  wandering.  By  divine  command  he 
and  his  sons  were  set  apart  for  the  priesthood, 
and  accordingly  were  consecrated  by  Moses  (Lev. 
viii.)  ;  and  the  choice  of  Aaron  as  high  priest  was 
afterwards  miraculously  confirmed  bj'  th<^  bud- 
ding rod  (Num.  xvii.).  Aaron  held  the  office  for 
almost  forty  years;  and  it  then  passed  to  Eleazar, 
the  older  sons  having  died  at  the  hand  of  God 
(Lev.  X.  1,  2).  The  most  prominent  defect  iu 
his  character  was  weakness.  He  reflected  the 
mood  of  those  about  him,  and  never  acted  inde- 
pendently. Thus  he  yielded  to  the  solicitations 
of  the  people  at  Sinai,  during  the  absence  of 
Moses,  and  made  the  gcjlden  calf  (Exod.  xxxii.  4). 
He  joined  Miriam  in  her  jealous  niurniuiing 
against  Jloses  (Xnm.  xii.).  and  subsequently 
Moses  in  his  impatient  disobedience  of  the  divine 
command  at  Jleribah  (Num.  xx.  10).  For  this 
latter  sin  he  was  kept  out  of  the  promised  land 
(verse  24).  He  died  on  Mount  Ilor,  at  the  age  of 
a  hundred  and  twenty-three  years,  in  sight  of  all 
the  ]>eople,  who  mourned  sincerelv  over  his  death. 
See  MosKs,  Priest.  fr.  \v.  gciiL-L-rz. 

AARON  ben-Asher,  or  AARON  bar-Moses,  .-i 
Jewish  rabbi,  who  in  the  eleventh  century 
collected  the  various  readinss  of  the  text  of 
the  O.  T.  from  the  manuscripts  of  the  AVestein 

9 


ABADDON. 


lO 


ABBOT. 


libraries,  while  Ben  Xephtliali  made  a  similar 
collection  from  those  of  the  Eastern  librarii's. 
These  collections  are  the  first  Hebrew  books  in 
which  the  rowel-signs  are  given,  and  to  their 
authors  the  honor  of  this  invention  is  often  as- 
cribed.    See  Bible  Text,  O.  T. 

ABAD'DON  (ileslrucllon),  in  the  O.  T.  the 
kingdom  of  the  dead,  Hades,  or  Sheol  (.Tob  xxvi. 
(5;  Prov.  xv.  11).  The  rabbins  used  the  word  of 
the  lowest  part  of  hell.  But  in  Rev.  ix.  11 
Abaddon  is  personified,  and  called  the  angel  of 
the  bottomless  pit,  and  king  of  tlie  infernal  lo- 
3USts.  WOLF  B-VUIHSSIN'. 

AB'ANA  (slwu/)  and  PHAR'PAR  (xwifi).  the 
"rivers  of  Damascus"  (2  Kings  v.  1'2),  identified 
with  the  modern  Barada  and  Awaj  respectively. 
The  Abana  is  the  Amana  of  Cant.  iv.  S,  and 
jjrobably  the  Greek  C'hrysorrhoas  {(jnfdfn  sirfiam). 
It  rises  in  the  Antilibanus,  and  runs  through  tlie 
city;  while  the  Awaj  rises  in  Hernion.  and  flows 
eight  miles  south  of  Damascus.  But  their  di- 
rection is  the  same,  from  west  to  east,  acioss  the 
plain  of  Damascus;  and  both  empty  them.selves 
into  the  so-called  '-Meadow  Lakes."  eighteen 
miles  east  of  Damascus.  Tlie  Abana  is  the 
chief  cause  of  the  extraordinary  fertility  aud 
beautv  of  the  jilain  of  Damascus. 

ABARBANEL.  See  ABRABANEL. 

AB'ARIM  (lieyimd,  i.e.  the  .Jordan),  a  monn- 
t.ain-range  in  the  Land  of  Moab,  opposite  Jericho 
(Num.  xxvii.  \i;  Deut.  xxxii.  49).  Nebo,  IVor, 
and  Pisgah  belong  to  the  range.  The  range  rises 
U)  a  height  of  more  than  four  thousand  feet 
above  the  De<ad  Sea. 

ABAUZIT,  Firmin,  b.  at  Uzes,  Languedoc, 
France,  Nov.  11,  1G70;  d.  in  Geneva,  March  20. 
17(i7 ;  was  educated  in  the  latter  city,  and 
became  public  librarian  there  in  1727,  having 
previously  travelled  and  studied  in  Holland  and 
Kngland.  Of  his  (Jutcra.i  Uivc.raes  (2  vols.,  Am- 
aterdam,  1773),  parts  have  been  translated  by 
E.  Harwood,  London,  1771,  under  the  title,  Mis- 
cellanies on  Historical,  Tkeoloyical,  and  Critical 
Subjecl.t. 

AB  BA,  the  Aramaic  word  for  "father,"  lioth 
Chaldrc'  aud  .Syriac.  Christ  and  Paul  api'lied  it 
lo  (iiid  (Mark  xiv.  .3G ;  Uom.  viii.  1.")).  Luther 
traiislati-d  Aliha.  Fnfher,  by  "dear  Father." 

ABBADIE,  Jacques,  h'.  at  Nay,  in  Be'arn, 
Franci',  1(;."j7;  d.  in  Loudon,  1727;  studied  in  the 
flourishing  reformed  academies  of  Saumur  and 
.Sedan,  and  i-arly  showed  extraordinary  talent; 
on  invitation  from  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg 
was  pastor  of  the  Frencli  Ui'formed  Coiigregaliou 
in  Berlin,  from  KJSO  lo  1088;  went  with  Marshal 
Schonil)erg  to  England,  and  became  pastor  of  the 
French  R<'formed  Congregation  in  London,  in 
1089.  His  Ln  Vi:riti  lU  In  Udiijion  Clirelicnne,  oi 
which  the  two  first  volumes  ajipeared  1G81,  and 
the  thini  in  1G8!),  was  translated  into  Kngli.sh 
(Ixmdoii,  lG!)l-98,  2  vols.)  and  also  into  German; 
and,  though  written  liy  a  •' heretic,"  it  became 
nne  of  the  standard  apologetical  works  in  the 
French  literature.  Of  his  other  works,  his  L'Art 
lie  se  Connaitre,  1G02,  giving  an  outline  of  his 
moral  syst'in,  attr.icted  mueli  attention,  and  was 
warmly  di'fended  by  Malebranclie. 

ABBESS,  .iIro  hoinetiines  called  Antistita  or 
JIajori.s.s.i,  the  sui>erior  of  an  iibbey  of  nuns,  was 
clecltid  ill   this  aame  Jiiauncr  U6  an   abbot,  and 


held  ne.arly  the  same  power.  She  could  not 
excommunicate,  however,  or  give  tlie  veil,  or 
ordain ;  aud  thus  she  became,  in  a  general  way, 
more  dependent  on  the  episcopal  authority  than 
the  abbot.  That  the  Abbess  of  Lucia  wore  the 
title  of  Episcopa  was  an  entirely  exceptional  case; 
but  her  right  to  be  present  at  councils  and  synods 
was  generally  acknowledged  in  the  Western 
Church.  See  M.\NSi :  Coll.  Con.  Tom.  L  Siipp. 
pp.  .519.  .523,  sq.  Lixgard:  Antiq.  of  the  Anylo- 
Snxon  Church,  I.  139. 

ABBEY,  a  religious  house  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  an  abbot  or  abbess.  They  were  of 
two  general  classes,  —  royal  abbeys,  founded  and 
endowed  by  kings,  which  rendered  an  account  of 
tlieir  temporal  administration  to  the  king's  offi- 
cers;  and  episcopal  abbeys,  which  were  directly 
under  the  care  of  the  bishops.  Their  jurisdic- 
tion was  at  first  confined  to  the  immediate  lands 
aud  building  in  |iossession  of  the  house;  but 
subsequently  they  very  much  extended  their 
sway,  even  ruling  over  cities,  and  issuing  coin, 
and  acting  as  courts  of  justice.  The  abbeys  of 
England,  a  hundred  .and  ninety  in  number,  and 
possessing  lands  valued  in  that  day  at  .i2.8.')0,000, 
were  suppressed  under  Henry  VIIL.  and  their 
property  confiscated.  Similar  was  the  fate  of 
the  French  abbeys  in  the  revolution  of  1790. 
See  Convent.  Mon.^stery,  Priory. 

ABBO  of  Fleury,  b.  near  Orleans;  d.  Nov.  13, 
1001.  He  w.as  educated  in  the  .\bbey  of  Fleury; 
studied  at  Rheims  and  Piiris;  went  in  985,  ou  the 
invitation  of  Archbishop  Oswald  of  York,  to  Eng- 
land, where,  since  the  d.ays  of  Alfred,  studies  and 
learning  had  sunk  so  low,  that  very  few  priests 
understood  Latin;  taught  for  two  years  iu  the 
school  of  Ramsey;  was  chosen  .\bbot  of  Fleury 
in  988,  and  brought  the  school  of  this  place  to  a 
flourishing  ciuulition  ;  so,  on  the  whole,  he  occu- 
pies a  prominent  position  iu  this  barren  time 
which  followed  after  the  bloom  of  the  age  of 
Charlemagne,  In  the  synod  of  St.  Denis,  ODo, 
he  took  the  part  of  the  monks  against  the 
bishops ;  and  when  the  former  aroused  the  peo- 
ple, and  dispersed  the  latter,  he  wrote  his  Apolo- 
fjeticus  in  their  defence.  He  was  not  a  blind 
p.artisan,  however,  of  the  monks.  He  introduced 
severe  reforms  in  tlie  monasteries  of  Fleury, 
Marmontier,  Mici,  Saiut-l'fere  de  Chartre.s,  and 
Reole;  and  it  was  the  monks  who  in  the  last-men- 
tioned place  roused  the  people  against  him,  and 
caused  tlie  riot  in  which  lie  was  kilh^d.  His 
life,  written  by  his  pupil  Aimoin,  is  given  by 
iMabillon  :  /lr(.  Sand.  Onl.  Jicnedt.  \i.  1;  his 
Apolor/eticus  and  a  number  of  very  interesting 
letters  by  Fit.  Pniioi' :  Codex  Caiionum,  Paris, 
1G87.  Aiany  of  Iiis  works,  mathematical,  astro- 
nomical, historical,  and  dialectical,  still  exist  in 
manuscript.  liUNnKSHAOKN  (11Kii>km.\nn). 

ABBOT  (Greek  'AjJfJnf,  Latin  AMias,  Italian 
Abate,  French  Alihe,  Gerinan  Aht,  from  tlw^  Chal- 
dee  or  .\raiuaio  form  of  the  common  Hebrew 
word  iov/alher)  was  iutroiluced  in  the  East,  first 
as  a  general  term  of  respect  fiu'  any  iiKuik,  and 
then  as  a  special  title  for  the  superior  of  a  inoii- 
astery.  .\s  such  it  was  afterwards  rejilaceil 
among  the  (Jreeks  by  t)lher  terms,  a.s,  for  in- 
stance, .Archimandrite;  and  in  the  West  it  was 
retained  only  by  the  order  of  the  Benedictiin'S 
and  ila  branches,  —  the  Cistercians,  lieinliaidiues, 


ABBOT. 


11 


ABBOTT. 


Trappists,  Graii<!inoiitanes,  ami  Pronioiistratcii- 
ses;  while  the  Carmelites,  Aui^ustinians,  Domini- 
cans, and  Sei-vites  use<l  the  titles  of  /'nejio.tilus 
or  Prior  Couvcnlualis ;  the  Franciscans,  those  of 
Cuxton  or  Giian/ianus ;  the  Camalchilensians  and 
Jesuits,  those  of  Major  and  Jteclor,  etc.  In  courses 
of  time  the  title  was  applied  also  to  other  cleri- 
cal, though  not  monastical  otBces  ;  and  we  find 
abljalHS  cnxtrense.i,  preachers  appointed  for  army 
service,  ahhatea  ctirim  jxilatil,  etc.  Auotlier  liis- 
tinction,  not  of  title  only,  but  also  of  position, 
was  tliat  lietween  ablialex  rcf/ulares,  srciiliires,  and 
taici.  The  abhas  xeculnris  was  not  a  monk,  but  a 
member  of  the  secular  clera^y,  holding;  an  abbey 
ill  commeniiam ;  that  is,  as  a  benefice,  enjoyini;  the 
honor  of  the  title,  and  a  certain  amount  of  the 
revenues,  but  taking  no  part  in  the  administra- 
tion or  jurisdiction.  From  this  system  of  giving 
monasteries  in  cmnnifmlam  arose  the  ahhales  laid. 
Tliey  were  not  only  not  monks,  but  they  did  not 
even  belong  to  the  clerical  order.  They  were 
simply  laymen,  in  tlie  beginning  warriors,  after- 
wards courtiers.  In  the  time  of  Cliarles  Martel 
it  was  determined  to  employ  monastic  revenues, 
at  least  tempoiarily,  for  the  pressing  needs  of  the 
warfare  against  the  Saracens;  and  the  noblemen 
who  led  the  troops  raised  in  this  way  thus  be- 
came titular  abbots.  But  the  patriotic  jiurpose 
was  soon  forgotten  ;  and  a  practice  gi-ew  np  which 
finally,  in  the  time  of  Louis  XI\''.,  became  a 
public  scandal. 

The  al/bax  reijularis  was  elected  by  the  monks, 
and  from  among  themselves;  only,  in  cases  when 
a  monastery  seemed  to  present  no  fit  subject,  he 
was  chosen  from  another  congregation.  Origi- 
nally the  right  of  nomination  rested  with  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese ;  but  in  the  middle  of  the 
sixth  century,  during  the  reign  of  Justinian,  this 
right  was  by  law  transferred  to  the  monks 
througliout  the  Western  Church,  and  the  bishops 
retained  only  the  right  of  institution.  The  sys- 
tem of  commendation,  however,  and  also  other 
circumstances,  gave  both  the  bishop  and  the  king 
manifold  opportunities  to  interfere  with  the  elec- 
tions. Once  elected  and  confinned,  the  abbot 
held  office  for  life,  and  could  be  deposed  by  the 
bishop  only  with  the  consent  of  his  fellow-pres- 
byters and  abbots.  With  respect  to  discipline 
an<l  jurisdiction,  his  power  was  almost  absolute; 
and  tliough  the  prxpositi  or  priorc.s  nominated  by 
himself,  and  the  decani  and  centenurii  elected  by 
the  monks,  could  exercise  some  influence,  it  be- 
came necessary  for  tlie  councils  to  enact  laws 
jirohibiting  abbots  from  blinding  or  nmtilating 
their  monks.  In  earlier  times  their  power  was 
somewhat  checked  by  the  episcopal  authority; 
but,  in  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  the 
Councils  of  Rheims  (1119)  and  of  Rome  (112J) 
entirely  emancipated  them  from  the  episcopal 
jurisdiction,  and  placed  them  immediately  under 
the  pope.  In  secular  things,  however,  especially 
with  respect  to  the  abbey  property,  their  power 
was  often  very  circumscribed;  and,  as  they  were 
unable  to  interfere  in  person  with  civil  suits,  it 
often  happened  that  the  O'lvocalus  ecclexite  or 
mconomus  or  procurator  usurped  an  exclusive 
authority  over  the  administration  of  the  reve- 
nues. There  are,  nevertheless,  laws  from  a  later 
date,  prohibiting  abbots  from  lending  money  on 
usury,  liautiug  the  number  of  tlieir  horses  and 


attendants,  etc.  ;  and  the  frequent  rumors  of  de- 
baucliery  and  intrigue  were  not  confiiu-il  to  the 
abl/alcs  taici,  but  touched  also  the  abbales  7-ri/ulares. 

See  IIki.yot:  llistoire  des  ordrcs  vtonnxliquas. 
Paris,  1714-1!!,  8  vols.  MoNTAi.K.Miii;i;r :  The 
Monhs  of  Ihc  We.ft.  E<linb.  and  l.ond..  18G0  aq. 
7  vols."  'WioTZKit  u.  Wklte  (2d  ed.),  1880, 
sub  Abt. 

ABBOT,  George,  b.  at  Guildford,  Oct.  29, 
15(i2;  d.  at  Croydon,  Aug.  4,  lO.'}:} ;  studied  at 
Baiiol  College,  Oxford:  was  chosen  master  of 
University  College  ]oU7,  and  appointed  Bishop 
of  Lichfield  1(500,  Bishop  of  London  a  month 
later,  and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  within  the 
lapse  of  a  year.  In  1001  he  was  chosen  one  of 
the  eight  Oxford  divines  who  were  intrusted 
with  the  tr.anslation  of  the  New  Testament,  ex- 
cepting the  Epistles ;  and  in  lOOS  he  accom- 
panied the  Earl  of  Dunbar  to  Scotland,  to  bring 
about  a  union  between  the  churches  of  England 
and  Scotland.  In  both  cases  he  distinguished 
himself,  but  his  rapid  preferment  was  neverthe- 
less due  as  much  to  his  flattery  of  James  I.  as  to 
his  merit.  He  showed  considerable  firmness, 
however,  when  once  .seated  in  the  archiepiscopal 
chair,  both  in  his  relation  to  the  king  and  the 
court,  and  more  especially  to  Laud  :  he  was  even 
suspended  for  a  short  time,  having  refused  to 
license  a  sermon  preached  by  Dr.  Sil>thorp,  which 
stretched  the  royal  prerogatives  beyorul  their  con- 
stitutional bounds.  Of  his  numerous  writings, 
his  Geoi/rajihi/,  or  a  Brief  De.^cription  of  l/ie  Whole 
World,  YAi\  through  many  editions;  and  liis  Ex- 
poailion  on  the  Prophet  Jonah  (IGOO)  was  reprinted 
in  1845.  A  Life  of  him  was  published  at  Guild- 
ford in  1797. 

ABBOT,  Robert,  b.  at  Guildford,  1.5U0;  d.  at 
Salisbury,  March  2,  1G17  ;  elder  brother  of  the 
archbishop,  was,  like  him,  educated  at  Oxford, 
where  he  became  Master  of  Balliol  College,  and 
professor-regius  of  divinity.  In  1615  he  was 
made  Bishop  of  Salisbury.  lie  was  a  learned 
man  and  a  prolific  writer,  following  his  brother's 
[lolicy,  especially  in  his  opposition  to  Laud  ;  but 
most  of  his  works,  even  Ins  Mirror  of  Popish 
.Sul/lillies  (1594)  and  Antichristi  Demonstralio 
(16Uo),  have  fallen  into  oblivion. 

ABBOT,  Robert,  b.  about  1.588;  d.  about  1657  ; 
was  at  once  vicar  of  Cranbrook,  Kent,  and  minis- 
ter of  Southwick,  Hampshire  ;  but,  when  parlia- 
ment decided  against  pluralities  of  ecclesiastical 
offices,  he  gave  up  the  former  benefice,  though  it 
was  the  larger.  Afterwards  he  was  made  rector 
of  St.  Austin,  Watling  Street,  London,  where 
he  died.  Though  a  strong  churchman,  and  much 
mixed  up  in  controversies  with  the  nonconform- 
ists, especially  the  Brownists-,  he  stands  as  a 
remarkable  specimen  of  the  Puritan  type  of 
clergymen  of  his  time :  and  his  prose  writings 
were  very  popular;  as,  for  instance,  liis  Milk  for 
Babes;  or,  A  Mother's  Catechi.tmfor  her  Children, 
first  pulilished  in  l(i46,  and  often  reprinted. 

ABBOTT,  Jacob,  a  popular  American  author, 
b.  at  Ilallowell,  Me.,  Xov.  14,  1803;  d.  at  Farm- 
ington,  Me.,  Oct.  31,  1879.  He  was  graduated 
at  Bowdoin  College  in  1820  ;  student  of  theology 
at  Andover,  Mass.,  1822-24;  tutor  in  Amherst 
College,  1824-25;  professor  of  mathematics  and 
l>hilosophy,  1825-29  ;  principal  of  the  Mount 
Veruou    School   for   Girls,   in  Boston,  1829-34 • 


ABBREVIATORS. 


12 


ABELARD. 


ivistor  of  Kliot  Congri'sational  Church  in  Rox- 
liury,  1834-36;  and  since  then  he  devoted  liira- 
self  to  literary  work.  He  is  mentioned  here 
because  of  his  "  Young  Christian  Series,"  con- 
sisting of  The  Vounr/ C/iriilian,  lS'i'2 ;  The  Corner- 
stone, 1834;  The  Way  to  dn  Good;  Hoary  Head; 
and  McDonner,  —  a  series  which  has  been  exten- 
sively circulated.  His  numerous  stories  for  chil- 
(Irenbreathe  a  gentle  Christian  spirit,  and  convey 
valuable  moral  truths. 

ABBREVIATORS  are  notaries,  or  secretaries, 
of  the  papal  court,  whose  duty  it  is  to  prepare 
condensations  or  outlines  of  letters,  bulls,  and 
onnsistorial  proceedings.  Their  number  is  fixed 
at  sevent}'-two ;  of  whom  twelve  are  prelates, 
Iwentv-two  are  lower  clergy,  and  the  remain- 
der may  be  laymen.  Similarly  named  officers 
do  the  "same  for  the  acts  of  general  synods. 
The  office  dates  from  Benedict  XIL,  in  the  early 
])art  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  h.as  been 
filled  by  distinguished  men  who  held  the  rank 
of  prelates.  In  1466  Paul  II.  aboli.shed  it  be- 
cause it  had  been  corrupted,  but  it  was  restored 
later  on.  -Jlneas  Sylvius,  afterwards  Pius  H., 
was  "  Abbreviator  major"  of  the  Council  of  Basel 
(1430). 

ABBUNA,  the  special  title  of  the  metropolitan 
of  .\xuni,  or,  as  he  is  also  .styled,  the  Bishop  of 
.■\byssiuia  or  Ethiopia.  As  twelve  was  the  lowest 
canonical  number  of  bishops  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  patriarchate,  and  the  metropolitan  of 
Axum  was  forbidden  to  have  more  than  seven 
suffragan  bishops,  he  was  not  a  patriarch,  but 
wore  the  above  special  title  of  Abbuna.  lie  is 
nominated  by  the  Coptic  Patriarch  of  Alexan- 
dria. 

ABDIAS.  Under  the  title,  Ahdioe,  Babylonkc 
primi  episrnpi,  De  HUtoria  Certa/itini.i  Apostolici 
liliri  X.  Julio  Africniio  interprete,  we  have  a  collec- 
tion of  myths,  legends,  and  traditions  relating  to 
the  lives  and  works  of  the  apostles,  and  pretend- 
ing to  be  the  Latin  translation  of  the  Greek 
translation  of  the  Hebrew  work  of  Abdias.  An 
Abdias,  however.  Bishop  of  Babylon,  and  a  di.sci- 
ple  of  the  apostles,  is  not  known  to  liistory ;  and 
the  collection, drawn  from  various  sources,  canoni- 
cal and  non-canonical,  catholic  and  heretical,  is 
evidently  a  compilation  from  the  eighth  or  ninth 
century.  \V.\(iEN'M.\X.V. 

AB'DON  (nervile)  1.  A  (Jersonite  Levitical  city 
in  .Asher  i<li'ntitied  with  Abdeh,  ten  miles  nortil- 
east  from  Accho. 

2.  Al.so  the  name  of  several  Bible  characters, 
of  whom  one  was  the  eleventh  judge  of  Israel 
(Judg.  xii.  l:i-15). 

ABECEDARIAN  HYMNS  are  acro.stic  poems. 
in  imitation  of  those  in  llidjrew,  e.g.,  Ps.  cxix., 
in  which  the  several  verses  begin  with  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet  in  regular  order,  and  thus  liav(; 
the  practical  effect  of  aiding  the  memory.  Au- 
gustine composed  a  hynni  on  this  principle  against 
tlie  J.)onatist8;  and  the  Church  employed  also 
others,  for  all  saw  the  importance  of  song  as  a 
means  of  religious  instruction. 

ABEEL,  David,  D.D.,  an  eminent  missionary, 
l>.  at  N<".v  Brunswick,  X..I.,  June  VJ,  1801;  d.  iit 
.\Huny,  N.Y.,  .Sept.  4,  1816.  lie  was  graduated 
from  the  seminary  of  the  Ueformcd  (DuUdi) 
Church  in  his  native  town,  and  in  18Li6  was 
licensed,    and    settled    at    Athens,    N.Y.  :    but 


failing  health  compelled  him  to  resign,  and  at 
length  he  went  in  18'29  as  a  chaplain  of  the 
Seaman's  Friend  Society  to  Canton  ;  in  that  ca- 
pacity he  there  remained  a  year,  when  he  p\it 
himself,  as  had  been  at  first  propo,sed,  under  the 
American  Board,  by  whose  direction  he  visited 
Java  and  other  Eastern  countries  in  order  that 
he  might  report  their  true  condition.  In  1833  he 
returned  home  to  recridt  his  health,  but  on  his 
journey  through  Europe  embraced  every  oppor- 
tunity to  present  the  cau.se  of  foreign  missions. 
In  England  he  was  instrumental  in  organizing  a 
society  for  promoting  female  education  in  the 
East.  He  returned  to  China,  February,  1839, 
and  was  the  founder  of  the  Amoy  Mission.  1844  ; 
returned  to  America,  1845.  He  was  an  estimable 
man,  and  a  sincere  and  devoted  Christian,  His 
gentle,  refined  manners  made  him  welcome  every- 
where, an<l,  joined  to  his  practical  wisdom,  enabled 
him  to  wield  a  wide  and  consecrated  influence. 

A'BEL  (breath).  The  second  son  of  .-Vdam  and 
Eve,  and,  according  to  some,  the  twin-brother  of 
Cain,  who  from  envy  killed  him,  Abel  was  a 
shepherd,  Cain  a  farmer;  and  thus  the  two  chief 
callings  of  the  Hebrews  were  represented  in  the 
first  family  (Gen.  iv.  1-8).  Abel  was  the  first 
"martyr,"  and  hero  of  faith  (Matt,  xxiii.  35; 
Heb.  xi.  4).  In  patristic  theology  the  brothers 
are  regarded  as  types;  as,  by  Augustine,  .\liel  is 
the  representative  of  the  regenerate  or  spiritual, 
Cain  of  tlie  natural  or  corrupt,  man. 

A'BEL  (mcailoir),  as  a  prefix,  enters  into  several 
Hebrew  names  of  places:  — 

1.  Abel-Betii-1M.\'achah  (mendnw  of  the  hon^e 
"f  opprcssioji'),  also  called  Abkl-Ma'i.m  {meadoio 
of  icater.<!),  and  twice  simply  Aukl  (2  Sam.  xx. 
14,  18),  identified  with  Abil-el-Kumh,  a  ruin  on  a 
stream  north  of  the  waters  of  Merom,  in  the  north 
of  Palestine,  near  D.am.ascus  (2  Sam.  xx.  14,  15 ; 
1  Kings  XV.  20;  2  Kings  xv.  29). 

2.  A'dei.-Mkho'laii  (meadow  of  the  dance),  a 
place  in  the  Jordan  Valley  (Judg.  vii.  22),  inter- 
esting because  Elisha  lived  there  (1  Kings  xix. 
10).     The  identification  is  uncertain. 

3.  A'nEL-Miz'iiAiM  (meadoio  of  lu/t/pt).  The 
name  given  by  the  Canaanites  to  the  place,  some- 
where east  of  the  Jordan,  which  was  the  .sceno 
of  the  final  "mourning"  of  the  Egyptians  over 
Jacob  (Gen.  1.  11). 

4.  .'V'nEi.-.Siirr'riM  (meadow  of  the  acacias), 
called  Sliittini  (Xum.  xxv.  1),  —  the  hist  halting- 
place  of  the  Israelites  (Xum.  xxxiii.  49). 

6.  "The  great  .\bel  "  of  1  Sam.  vi.  18,  a  copy- 
ist's error  for  "  the  great  .■<toiie." 
—  ABELARD,  b.  at  Palais,  a  village  of  Brittany, 
in  1079  ;  d.  in  the  priory  of  St.  Marcellus,  near 
Chalons,  .\i>ril  21,  11 12.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of 
a  knight,  the  lord  of  the  village.  His  Christian 
name  was  Pierre  de  Palais  (Petrus  Palalinus)  ; 
but  when  he  renounced  his  right  of  primogeni- 
ture, and  gave  up  his  claims  on  his  parental  in- 
heritance in  order  to  devote  his  whole  life  to 
studies,  he  assumed  the  nanu>  of  Abelard,  either 
from  the  French  abeille,  a  bee,  or  from  the  French 
bail,  —  Latin ,  bajitlun.  —  a  tutor.  1 1  is  first  teacher 
in  philosophy  was  llo.scellinus,  who  kept  a  school 
in  Lokmenaeh,  near  Vannes,  in  Brittany,  and  w.as 
a  decided  Xominalist,  declaring  all  unii'cr.^alia  to 
be  merely  mental  conceptions.  His  second  teach- 
er was    William  of   Champcaux,   who  presided 


ABELARD. 


13 


ABELARD. 


over  the  cathedral  school  of  Paris,  and  was  a 
decideil  Realist,  declarinfj  the  unicersalin  to  be  the 
very  essence  of  all  existence,  and  indiviihialitv 
only  till!  product  of  incidental  circnnistances. 
]5etween  these  two  extremes,  whose  bitter  o[ipo- 
sition  to  each  other  forms  the  niovinc;  power  in 
the  whole  history  of  scholastic  philosopliy,  Abe- 
lard  att('ni|)ted  to  occupy  a  position  of  his  own. 
His  positive  view.s,  however,  such  as  they  are 
developed  in  his  Diulecticti,  Gloxstt  in  Por/iht/rium. 
in  CiUetinriax,  in  Topica  BoHlhii,  etc.,  are  vague  and 
even  self-contradictory.  In  jihilosophy,  as  in 
tiieoloc;y.  he  is  merely  a  critic;  but  his  criticism 
is  as  bohl  as  it  is  brilliant,  and  in  many  points  it 
placed  iiim  far  in  advance  of  his  age.  He  at- 
tacked William  of  Champeaux,  and  compelled 
liim  to  alter  his  system, — -  a  feat  oidy  to  be  com- 
pared with  the  gaining  of  a  decisive  battle. 
After  this  success,  lie  opened  a  scliool  of  his  own. 

—  though  he  was  still  a  very  young  man,  — first 
at  Melun,  then  at  Corbeil,  and  finally  at  Paris. 
But  William,  though  beaten,  was  still  a  powerfid 
man.  Abelard  was  compelled  to  leave  Paris ; 
and  about  1113  he  staid  at  I^aon,  where  he 
studied  theology  under  Anselm,  a  pupil  of  An- 
selm  of  Canterbury.  Shortly  after,  however, 
lie  returned  to  Paris,  AVilliani  having  retired  ; 
and  now  followed  the  most  bi'illiaut  period  of  his 
life.  He  ta\ight  both  theology  and  philusophy, 
and  more  than  five  thousaml  pupils  gathered 
around  his  chair.  Nearly  all  the  great  men  of  the 
age,  both  within  and  without  the  Church,  heard 
Abelard.  Celestine  II.  and  Arnold  of  Brescia 
were  both  among  his  pupils ;  and  his  books 
"  went  across  the  sea  and  the  Alps."  But  this 
brilliant  career  was  suddenly  checked  by  hi.s  rela- 
tion to  Heloise. 

Heloise  was  a  young  girl  of  eighteen  years,  an 
illegitimate  daughter  of  a  canon,  and  living  in 
the  house  of  her  uncle,  the  Canon  Fulbert  of 
Paris.  She  was  very  studious,  and  her  fur- 
ther instruction  was  confided  to  .\belard.  A 
passionate  love  sprang  up  between  them  ;  and 
they  eloped  to  the  house  of  Abelai'd's  sister, 
where  Heloise  bore  a  son,  Astralabius.  In  order 
to  reconcile  Fulbert,  the  two  lovers  were  married; 
but.  from  a  regard  to  the  ecclesiastical  career  of 
Abelard,  it  was  determined  to  keep  the  marriage 
secret.  To  this  Fulbert  would  not  consent;  and 
wlien  Abelard  brought  his  wife  to  a  Benedictine 
nunnery  at  Argenteuil,  near  Paris,  Fulbert  sus- 
pected an  attem]it  to  get  rid  of  her  by  making 
her  a  nun,  and  .sought  revenge.  One  night  lie 
fell  upon  Abrlard,  and  had  him  mutilated,  thereb}' 
jn"eventing  him  from  ever  holding  any  ecclesi- 
astical office.  Broken  by  shame  and  anguish, 
Abelard  retired  to  the  Alonastery  of  St.  Denys, 
and  here  he  lived  quietly  for  a  couple  of  years 
(about  1118),  teaching  in  a  secluded  place  —  the 
cella  —  built  for  the  purpose.  But  his  views  of 
Dionysius  Areopagita,  the  patron  saint  of  the 
monastery  and  of  France,  brought  him  in  conflict 
with  the  monks.  He  fled,  but  was  compelled  to 
return  and  recant;  and  though  he  afterwards 
was  allowed  to  retreat  into  the  wilderness  of  Ko- 
gent,  in  Champagne,  where  he  built  an  oratory, 

—  the  so-called  I'lirnclclu^,  — he  was  still  subject 
to  the  authority  of  the  abbot  of  St.  Denys.  The 
original  ]'aracleliis  was  made  of  reeds  ami  .sedges: 
but  so  many  pupils  gathered  around  the  celebrated 


teacher,  that  soon  a  building  of  stone  could  he 
erected.  Abelard,  however,  felt  miserable.  One 
of  his  principal  theological  works,  />  Unilale  el 
'I'rinitate  Divina,  was  condemned  by  the  Council 
of  Soissons,  llL'l,  and  he  lived  in  jierpetual  fe.ir  of 
persecution.  He  accepted  the  election  as  abbot 
of  the  Monastery  of  St.  (iildasius  at  Buys,  in 
Brittany;  but  here  he  literally  fell  among  a  gang 
of  ruffians.  It  was  impossible  for  him  to  estab- 
lish discipline.  Twice  the  monks  tried  to  [loison 
him.  Finally  they  attempted  to  .strangle  him. 
and  he  had  to  flee  for  his  life.  Meanwhile  He- 
loise had  moved  to  the  Paracletux,  the  Monastery 
of  Argenteuil  having  been  closed  in  1127;  and 
here  Abelard  lived  for  some  time  ;  but  his  stay 
caused  scandal,  and  he  left.  For  several  years 
—  until  the  conflict  with  his  great  adversary. 
Bernard  of  Clairveaux,  begins  —  the  continuity 
of  his  life  is  lost  to  us.  W'f  only  know  that  John 
of  Salisbury  heard  him  teach  in  the  school  on  the 
hill  of  St.  Geneveva,  in  Paris,  in  113G,  and  that 
he  wrote  his  autobiography,  Hisluria  Calamilalum, 
during  these  years. 

As  a  theologian,  Abelard  was  a  disciple  of  An- 
selm of  Canterbury;  but  being  by  nature  a  critic, 
while  Anselm  was  a  mystic,  his  dialectics  drove 
him  on  every  point  beyond  the  pale  of  the  estab- 
lished faith.  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  wliich 
forms  the  centre  of  his  theology,  he  always  treats 
in  connection  with  the  doctrine  of  the  divine 
attributes;  and,  in  spite  of  all  the  precautions 
he  takes,  the  Trinity  becomes  under  his  hands  a 
mere  divine  attribute.  Very  characteristic  for 
his  attitude  with  respect  to  the  Church  and  the 
tradition  on  which  it  rests  is  his  work  Sic  el  Non. 
It  consists  of  quotations  from  the  fathers,  arranged 
in  hartnony  with  the  loci  theolnf/ici,  but  contradict- 
ing each  other  at  every  point,  without  any  .solu- 
tion being  offered.  At  the  Council  of  Sens,  3141, 
Bernard  presented  a  formal  accusation  of  heresy  ; 
and  Abelard  left  the  council  without  defending 
himself,  and  appealed  directly  to  the  jiope.  But 
Bernard  wrote  himself  to  the  pope,  denouncing 
Arnold  of  Brescia  as  one  of  the  champions  of 
Abelard;  and  Innocent  III.,  now  decided  against 
the  latter,  forbade  him  to  write  or  teach  any 
more,  and  ordered  his  writings  to  be  burnt.  By 
the  friendly  mediation  of  Peter  Venerabilis,  abb'ot 
of  Clugny,  he  was  allowed  to  spend  the  rest  of  his 
days  in  that  place.  lie  continued  his  studies, 
"read  always,  prayed  frequently,  and  kept  silent." 
He  died  (sixty-three  years  old)  on  a  visit  to  St. 
Marcellus,  and  was  buried  in  the  J'aracletuf. 
Heloise  died  May  1(5,  1164.  and  her  body  was 
laid  in  the  same  coffin,  beside  that  of  Abelard. 
They  now  lie  together  in  the  famous  tomb  at 
Pere-Lachaise,  Paris. 

Lit.  —  A  complete  edition  of  Abelard's  works, 
philosophical,  theological,  poetiial,  and  letters, 
was  given  by  Cousi.N,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1849  ami 
1859.  In  Migne's  edition  :  Patrol,  vol.  178,  thi- 
Diiileclicii  and  the  Sic  el  Non  are  lacking.  Sepa- 
rately have  been  published:  Epistotfe,  hy  Krcii- 
.•\i!i)  IIawlinson,  London,  1718;  Uisloria  CaUnn,- 
tiiiuni  by  Okelli,  Turin,  1841;  Sic  el  Non  by 
Hknkk  and  Li.ndkxkoiil,  Marburg,  18.51.  Gui- 
ZOT  :  Essdi  siir  Abilard  el  Hiloise,  Paris,  18:Jf). 
Cii.\ULi:s  DK  Rkmusat:  AhelartI,  Paris,  184.'). 
J.  L.  Jacoiu  :  A/tularil  tind  Heloise,  Berlin,  18o3. 
\^'iunr:    llonmnce  of  Abelurd  and  Heloise..  New 


ABBLITBS. 


14 


ABILENE. 


York,  ISO'?.  BoxNiER  :  Ahelard  et  Si.  Bernard, 
Palis,  186:>.  Kaiinis  :  Drei  Vortraqe,  Leipzig, 
18(i5;  [Deutsch  :  Abalnrd,  1883].     F.'  NITZSCII. 

ABELITES,  or  ABELONIANS,  a  sect  mentioned 
by  .'Vucjustine  (Dehcer.  c.  8G),  lived  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Hippo  Regius,  in  Northern  Africa, 
and  consisted  merely  of  country  people,  but  had 
become  extinct  at  the  time  when  Augustine  first 
heard  of  them.  Their  name  they  derived  from 
Abel,  whose  e.xample  they  pretended  to  follow. 
They  took  wives,  but  their  marriages  were  never 
consummated.  Each  coujile  adopted  a  boy  and 
a  girl,  who  made  a  vow  to  marry  each  other  in 
the  same  manner,  and  to  whom  they  bequeathed 
their  property.  They  were  probably  a  branch  of 
some  older  Gnostic  sect.  HERZOG. 

ABELLI,  Louis,  b.  at  Vez,  France,  1GU4;  d.  in 
Paris  1691  ;  was  made  bishop  of  llhodez  in  lG(i4, 
but  resigned  in  1667,  and  retired  to  the  Convent 
of  St.  Lazare.  lie  wrote  with  great  vehemence 
against  the  Jansenists :  TraJilion  de  I'Er/lixe  lou- 
clianl  le  Culte  de  la  Vierge,  1652 ;  Medulla  Theo- 
logica  :    Vie  de  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  etc. 

ABEN-EZRA,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  Jew- 
ish scholars  of  the  twelfth  century,  called  Eben- 
are  or  Evenare  by  the  schoolmen  ;  b.  at  Toledo  in 
1088 or  1092;  d.  in  1167  at  Calahorra.  on  the  boun- 
dary of  Navarre  and  Catalonia;  emigrated  from 
Toledo  in  1138;  visited  .\frioa,  Egypt,  Palestine. 
Hagdad,  and  perhaps  Indi;i;  taught  graniuiar  and 
languages  among  the  Italian  Jews  from  1110  to 
115.5;  vi.sited  France  and  London;  and  settled,  in 
1160,  at  Narbonne.  As  a  poet,  lie  was  complete 
master  of  the  metrical  technics,  both  in  Hebrew 
and  Arabic ;  but  he  had  no  inspiration.  As  a 
philo.sopher,  he  belonged  to  the  Neo-Platonic 
school ;  but  he  was  without  originality.  But  his 
commentaries  on  the  Pentat-'uch  (11.52-53),  on 
I.s.aiah  (1151-55),  on  the  Psalms,  Daniel,  etc., 
show  a  new  method,  in  which  grammar  and  his- 
tory were  made  to  {ilay  a  much  greater  part  than 
they  had  formerly  done.  See  Woi.F :  Bililin:/i. 
Jlcbr.  Tom.  I.  pp.  71-86  ;  De  Rossi  :  Dizion.  Maricn 
dc'i/liaulori  EOrei  ;  Eiiscu  und  Guitbkk:  Enci/k-ln- 
jiiidie  :  Ciuaktz  :  Gescluclite  derJudcn.  VI.  p.  198 
nq.,  ,-ilid   111!  S(|.  inj.  W.  .St:iUir,TZ. 

ABERCROMBIE,  John,  b.  at  Aberdeen  Oct.  10. 
1780;  d.  at  Edinburgh  Nov.  M,  1811;  studi(-d 
medicine  at  Eilinlnirgh  and  London  ;  settled  in  the 
former  city  as  practical  physician,  and  became  in 
1835  lord-rector  of  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen. 
In  1830  he  published  ICnquiries  conccrnin//  the 
Iiilelleclwd  I'oivcrs,  which  in  1833  was  followed 
bv  his  Pliilosoplii/  of  Ike  Moral  Feetinr/.i.  The 
object  of  these  works  is  to  sliow  the  important 
ri-lation  which  subsists  between  the  science  of 
mind  and  the  doctrines  of  revealed  religion,  and 
both  of  them  ran  through  a  great  number  of 
I'llitioiis. 

ABERNETHY,  John,  b.  .at  Coleraine  in  Ire- 
land 1680;  d.  ill  Dublin  1710;  studied  theology 
in  Glasgow  and  Eiliiihurgh,  and  hecaiiK!  minister 
of  the  Presbyterian  congregation  of  .\ntrim  1703. 
and  of  tliat  of  Wood  Street.  Dublin,  1730.  His 
iiarticij)ation  while  in  Antrim  in  the  conlrover.sy 
b'tween  the  Sidt.ii:ril)rr.i  and  the  N(in-.Sah.icrilier.i, 
and  while  in  Dublin  in  that  concerning  the  Test 
Act,  showed  him  to  be  a  century  in  ailvance  of 
Ills  ago;  and  his  TrarlK  were  collected  and  re- 
printed ill  later  times  with  considerable  effect.    A 


Life  of  him  by  DuciiAi.  is  found  in  the  collection 
of  his  Sennnnx.      London,  17-18-51;  4  vols. 

ASI'ATHAR  {father  nf  abundance,  i.e.,  liberal), 
the  tenth  high  jiriest  of  the  .lews,  and  fourth  in 
descent  from  Eli,  and  the  last  priest  ot  the  house 
of  Ithamar.  In  consequence  of  his  support  of 
Adonijah.  he  was  deposed  by  Solomon  (1  Kings 
ii.  27).  This  act  put  an  end  to  the  double  high 
priesthood,  —  Abiathar  in  the  party  of  David, 
Zadok  in  the  p.arty  of  Saul,  —  but  also  fulfilled 
the  ]irophecy  made  to  Eli  (1  Sam.  ii.  31). 

ABGARU'S,  the  name,  or  perhaps  the  title,  of 
a  series  of  toparchs  reigning,  during  a  period  of 
three  and  a  half  centuries,  —  u|i  to  .\.D.  217, — 
over  Osroeiie,  the  north-western  part  of  JSIesopota- 
mia,  with  the  capital  of  Edessa.  Of  the  fifteenth 
of  these  toparchs  Eusebius  tells  (Eccl.  Hi.it.  I.  13), 
that  suffering  terribly  from  diseases,  and  having 
heard  of  the  miracles  of  Jesus,  he  sent  a  letter 
to  him,  professing  belief  in  his  Messiah.ship,  and 
asking  him  to  come  to  Edessa  and  help  him.  To 
this  letter  Jesus  transmitted  an  answer,  promis- 
ing, that,  since  he  could  not  come  himself,  he 
would,  after  his  death,  send  one  of  his  disciples 
to  him.  Both  these  letters  Eusebius  clnims  to 
have  found  in  the  archives  of  Edessa,  and  to  have 
translated  literally  from  the  Syriac  text;  and  ho 
add,s,  from  similar  .sources,  that  Thaddens,  one  of 
the  seventy,  was  sent  by  the  apostle  Thoma.s  to 
Ede.ssa,  that  he  cured  the  king,  and  preached 
Christianity,  etc.  In  the  fifth  century  Moses 
Choreneiisis  repeats  this  story  in  his  //(.<^  Arm. 
II  30-33,  and  .adds  that  Christ  sent  a  portrait  of 
himself  to  .-Vbgar;  that  Abgar  wrote  about  Christ 
to  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  to  Nerses,  King  of 
,\ssyria,  and  Ardache,s,  King  of  Persia,  etc.  In 
the  East  the  truth  of  these  stories  was  never 
doubted,  nor  the  genuineness  of  the  letters;  and 
even  in  the  West,  though  a  Roman  synod  of  491 
declared  the  letters  apocryphical  (Maxsi:  Colled. 
Concil.  Vill.  152),  both  Rome  and  (Jenoa  still 
claim  to  be  in  possession  of  the  original  picture 
(W.  GitiMM:  Die  Sat/e  rom  l'rs/)runi/  dex  Clirixtus- 
bildex,  Berlin,  18-13);  and  the  genuineness  of  the 
letters  has  been  defi'uded  by  \Vki.te  in  'I'iib.  .'Iieol. 
QuuruUaclirif,  1812.  and  by  F.  W.  Ri.vcK  in  Zeit- 
actirift  f.  d.  Iii.ll.  Tlicolotjie,  1843.  [See  R.  A. 
LirsiL's  :  Die  edessenische  Abgar-Sa;je.  Braunsch- 
weig, 1880.]  K.  SCHMIDT. 

ABl'JAH  (ii'Iiose  father  i.i  Jchorah).  The  name 
of  several  men  and  of  one  woman  (the  mother 
of  llezekiah,  2  Cliroii.  xxix.  1)  mentioned  in  the 
Bible.  The  only  one  of  importance  w  as  the  second 
king  of  Judali,  called  in  Kings  Abijani,  who  suc- 
ceeded his  father  Rehoboam  (B.C.  959).  He 
only  reigned  a  part  of  three  years,  and  even  in 
that  short  period  fell  from  Jehovah  to  idol  wor- 
ship; nor  was  his  promising  attempt  to  recover 
tlu!  allegiance  of  the  ten  trib(>s  followed  up  as 
it  should  have  been,  and  the  kingdom  grasped 
(irmly  (2  Chron.  xiii.  16,20).  Lust  and  idolatry 
were  his  ruin. 

ABILE'NE  (from  Abifa).  The  tetrarchy  gov- 
erned by  l.ysanias  ill  the  time  of  .John  the  Baptist 
(Luke  iii.  1).  It  was  a  small  district  of  Coele- 
.Syria,  upon  the  eastern  slopes  of  Anti-Lebanon, 
north-west  from  Damascus.  Abila  the  capital 
w.os  on  the  Harada,  ami  stood  in  a  gorge  called 
Silk  Wady  Barada,  eighteen  miles  fnun  Dama.s- 
cus.     Joseph.  .Li//(y.  xviii.  6,  10,  xx.  7,  1.     IS.  J. 


ABIMELECH. 


15 


ABRAHAM. 


ir.  11,  5.  Tradition  makes  it  tlie  death-place  of 
AV)el,  confouiKiiiig  Abel,  a  meadow,  from  wliicli 
Ahi/a  comes,  with  Hebe],  vanity. 

ABIM'ELECH  (father  of  llicJ^hif/).  1.  The  name 
of  two  Philistine  king,s  at  G<'rar  who  had  similar 
dealinffs  with  .\braham  and  Isaac  and  with  their 
wives  successively  (Gen.  xx.,  xxvi.).  "  Abinie- 
lech "  was  probably,  like  Pharaoh  among  the 
Egyptians,  a  ti/le  given  to  their  kin<;.s. 

2.  A  son  of  Gideon  by  his  Shechemite  concu- 
bine. He  was  proclaimed  king  by  the  Shechem- 
ites  after  he  had  slain  his  seventy  brothers,  but 
at  the  end  of  three  years  was  killed  by  a  piece  of 
a  millstone  while  storming  Thebez  (Judg.  ix.). 

AB'ISHAQ  (xource  of  error).  The  young  Shu- 
nammite  who  nursed  the  aged  David  (1  Kings  i. 
1-4).  .\donijah  subsequently  desired  to  marry 
her;  but  as  this  was  virtually  a  usurpation,  ac- 
cording to  Oriental  notions,  Solomon  put  him  to 
death  (1  Kings  ii.  13-2.5). 

ABISH'AI  I  father  of  a  f,ift).  The  head  of  Da- 
vid's "  thirty  "  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  19),  the  eldest  son 
of  Zeruiah,  David's  sister,  and  brother  to  Joab 
and  Asahel  (1  Chron.  ii.  1(J)  ;  noted  for  bravery, 
and  devotion  to  David.  Coming  with  his  broth- 
ers unto  David  while  in  the  Cave  of  Adullani, 
hs  shared  all  his  dangers,  and  once  saved  his 
life  (2  Sam.  xxi.  17).  David  appointed  him  com- 
mander of  one  of  the  divisions  of  his  army,  and 
he  led  it  successfully  against  the  Kdomites  (1 
Chron.  xi.x.  11),  Ammonites,  and  Syrians(2  Sam. 
X.  10),  against  .\bsalom  (2  Sam.  xviii.  2),  and 
against  Sheba  (2  Sam.  xx.  C). 

ABLON,  a  village  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Seine,  twelve  miles  from  Paris,  is  noticeable  as 
the  first  place  of  public  worship  conceded  to  the 
Protestants  of  Paris.  The  promulgation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  May  2,  1.598,  caused  great  indig- 
nation among  the  Roman  Catholics  in  France, 
and  its  execution  in  detail  was  accompanied  with 
innumerable  intrigues  and  subterfuges.  Thus  the 
Protestants  of  the  capital  could  obtain  no  place 
of  public  worship  within  the  city  itself,  but  had 
to  travel  twelve  miles  to  Ablon,  generally  by  foot, 
because  they  were  poor  people,  and  often  har- 
assed by  the  railleries  and  insults  of  the  sur- 
rounding Roman- Catholic  population.  In  1(J02 
they  petitioned  the  king  to  grant  thom  a  place 
nearer  to  the  city,  as,  during  the  winter,  forty 
children  had  died  from  being  brought  so  long  a 
distance  for  baptism;  but  not  until  1G06  was 
their  petition  granted,  and  Charenton  St.  Jilaurice 
conceded  to  them  as  a  place  of  public  Protestant 
worship.  The  toilsome  and  often  dangerous 
"expeditions"  to  Ablon  are  often  spoken  of  by 
Sully  and  Casaubon. 

AB'NER  (father  of  light),  a  cousin  of  Saul,  and 
commander  of  his  army  (1  Sam.  xiv.  50  sq.). 
He  proclaimed  Ishbosheth,  Saul's  son,  king  after 
Saul's  death,  and  succeeded  in  getting  him  rec- 
ognized by  all  the  tribes  except  Judah,  which 
vigorously  opposed  and  defeated  him  (2  Sam.  ii. 
17).  Shortly  after  this  defeat,  Ishbosheth  re- 
proached Aimer  with  aspiring  to  the  throne 
because  he  had  taken  Rizpah,  a  concubine  of 
Saul,  into  his  liarem  (for  so  this  act  would  be  in- 
terpreted by  Orientals) ;  and  Abner  in  anger 
abandoned  Saul's  house,  and  transferred  his  pow- 
erful assistance  to  D.avid.  Joab  feared  that  David 
would  appoint  Abner  in  his  stead  conunander-in- 


chief  of  the  army:  accordingly  he  denounced 
him  as  a  spy,  but,  failing  in  this,  he  deadened  his 
conscience  by  the  ]ilea  of  revenge  for  Abner's  mur- 
der of  his  brother  Asahel,  and  slew  him.  David 
mourned  Aimer's  death,  and  apparently  the  peo- 
ple shared  his  grief  (2  Sam.  iii.).  David  sol- 
emnly laid  the  punishment  of  Joab's  deed  upon 
Solomon  (1  Kings  ii.  (!).  Abni>r's  tomli  is  still 
shown  in  the  courtyard  of  a  house  in  Hebron. 

ABRABANEL  or  ABARBANEL,  Isaac,  b.  in 
Lisbon  1437,  d.  at  Venice  1.509,  descended  from 
a  wealthy  Jewish  family  which  traced  its  pedi- 
gree back  to  King  David,  and  distinguished 
both  as  statesman  and  author.  He  was  the 
financier  of  Alphonso  V.  of  Portugal,  of  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella  of  Spain,  of  Ferdinand  I.  and 
Alphonso  II.  of  Naples;  and  when  in  1503  he 
moved  from  Monopoli,  where  he  had  lived  in  re- 
tirement since  1196,  to  Venice,  he  succeeded  in 
effecting  a  reconciliation  between  that  republic 
and  Portugal.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  the 
Pentateuch,  the  Prophets,  etc.,  several  of  which 
have  been  translated  from  Hebrew  into  Latin, 
liut  his  most  celebrated  work  is  his  "Herald  of 
.Salvation,"  an  elaborate  representation  of  the 
Jewish  doctrine  of  the  Messiah,  first  printed  in 
1525,  prob.ably  in  Saloniki,  then  in  IGll,  in 
Amsterdam,  and  1707  in  Offenbach,  and  trans- 
lated into  Latin  under  the  title  of  Pmro  Salutix 
by  II.  M.\Y,  Franctort,  1712.  In  this  book  he 
gives  free  vent  to  his  hatred  of  Christ  and  (Chris- 
tianity. FMossE  translated  his  Le  principr  ile  la 
foi,  Avignon,  1885.]  See  Kkscu  und  (inuiiEu  : 
Eacyklopwlic ;  Guaetz:  Gcschichle  der  Juilen, 
Vlli.  p.  334,  and  IX.  p.  6.  fr.  w.  SCIiultz. 
'  A'BRAHAWl  (father  of  a  miiltilwle),  originally 
named  A'rr.\m  (father  of  elevation),  the  patri- 
arch honored  by  Jew,  Christian,  an<l  Mohamme- 
dan as  the  divinely  appointed  founder  of  the  true 
religion.  The  leading  trait  in  his  chaiacter  was 
faith  in  God  :  henc3  he  is  called  "  the  Friend  of 
God,"  and  "  the  Father  of  the  Faithful."  He  was 
the  eldest  son  of  Terah,  and  w.as  born  at  Ur,  a 
city  of  the  Chaldees,  identifiod  with  Mugheir 
on  the  western  shore  of  the  Eu|ihratcs,  between 
Babylon  and  the  Persian  Gulf.  He  married 
Sarai,  his  half-sister,  who  was  ten  years  younger 
than  ho.  Our  information  about  him  is  derived 
entirely  from  Gen.  xi.  20,-xxv.  10.  Philo,  Jose- 
phus,  and  other  Jewish  writers,  add  nothing  reli- 
able. The  family  was  idolatrous  :  nevertheless  it 
was  under  divine  guidance  that  they  took  their 
journey  into  Canaan  ((ien.  xi.  31,  xv.  7 ;  Neh. 
ix.  7),  but  got  no  farther  than  Haran,  where 
Terah  dieil.  There  Ciod  appeared  to  Abram.  and 
told  him  to  leave  Haran,  and  go  to  Canaan,  where 
he  would  be  the  founder  of  a  great  nation. 
Abram,  then  seventy-five  years  old,  obeyed,  took 
his  childless  wife  and  his  nephew  Lot,  their  ser- 
vants, —  a  company  of  some  two  thousand,  —  and 
all  their  substance,  and  journeyed  to  Sichem  unto 
the  oak-grove  of  jMoreh.  There  again  God  ap- 
peared unto  him,  and  promised  to  give  the  whole 
l.and  unto  his  seed.  The  outbreak  of  a  famine 
forced  them  into  Egypt,  where  Abram  greatly 
increased  his  posse.ssions,  but,  to  save  Sarai  from 
dishonor,  denied  that  she  was  his  wife.  Ho  re- 
turned to  Canaan  very  rich,  but  his  troubles 
began  at  this  point,  lie  showed  his  generosity 
in   the   peaceful    separation    from    Lot,    and    i:i 


ABRAHAM. 


IG 


ABRAXAS. 


l-escuiiig  him  from  hia  enemies  (Gen.  xiii.,  xiv.). 
]t  was  on  liis  retiini  he  met  that  m^-sterious  per- 
Bonaare,  Melchizedek.  Year  after  year  passed, 
and  the  faith  of  Abram  in  the  fulfilment  of  God's 
promise  tliat  he  should  have  a  son  was  more  and 
more  tried,  since  Sarai  remained  barren  ;  and  yet 
theojihany  and  sisjn  had  declared  offspring  to  be 
certain.  At  Sarai's  su,!;gestion  he  took  her  maid 
llatjar,  an  Egyptian,  as  his  concubine;  and  she 
bore  him  a  son,  Ishmael.  lie  was  then  eighty- 
six  years  old.  But  Ishmael  was  not  the  prom- 
isi'ij  aon.  At  ninety-nine  God  appeared  again  to 
him,  and  solemnly  renewed  his  promise,  and 
changed  his  name  from  Abr.am  to  Abraham,  and 
Sarai's  (i/i'ncrotis)  to  Sarah  (prinrc.i.i).  In  token 
of  the  Lord's  sincerity,  the  rite  of  circumcision 
was  instituted;  and,  accorLlin!:jly,  Abraham  and 
Ishmael  and  all  the  males  of  his  household  were 
circumcised.  The  declaration  was  made  by  an 
angel  to  Sarah,  subsequently,  who  received  it 
donbtingly.  At  this  timo  the  Lord  revealed  to 
Abraham  the  impending  destruction  of  the  cities 
of  the  plain.  The  intercession  of  Abraham 
(Gen.  xviii.  23-33)  is  one  of  the  most  touch- 
ing on  record.  But,  inasmuch  as  there  were  not 
ten  righteous  persons  in  it,  Sodom  was  destroyed. 
Very  probably  in  consequence  of  the  destruction 
of  those  cities,  Abraham  cmigr.ated  unto  Gerar, 
upon  the  Atrance  south  of  Canaan,  and  there 
)iractised  the  same  weak  deception  as  in  Egypt. 
Yet  the  Lord  watched  over  Sarah;  and  Abime- 
lech.  the  King  of  Gerar,  administered  to  the 
patriarch  a  deserved  rebuke.  The  Father  of  the 
Faithful  does  not  appear  in  a  very  good  light. 
Within  a  year,  when  Abraham  was  a  hundred 
years  old,  and  Sarah  ninety  years,  at  last  the 
long-awaited  son  was  born,  and  called  Isaac 
{Iduyhlrr').  Jealou.sy  between  Sarah  and  Ilagar 
compelled  the  dismissal  of  the  latter.  The  jil.an 
of  God  required  complete  separation  between  the 
chosen  s<'ed  and  the  world.  The  final  trial  to 
the  faith  of  the  patriarch  was  the  severest,  —  the 
offering  of  Isaac  (chap.  xxii.).  By  this  crown- 
ing act  of  faith  Abraham  had  testified  to  his 
belief,  not  only  in  (Jod's  absolute  ownership  of 
all  things,  that  (iod's  comm.ands  must  be  obeyed 
at  all  hazards,  and  implicitly,  but  also  that  (iod's 
promises  would  be  fulfiUeil,  even  though  Isaac 
must  be  raised  from  the  dead.  From  this  timo 
on,  the  life  of  Abraham  was  peaceful.  Sarah 
<lied  at  the  age  of  a  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
years;  and  he  buried  her  in  the  only  piece  of 
property  he  owned,  —  the  Cave  of  Rlachpelah, 
at  Hebron,  —  which  he  bought  of  Ephron,  the 
llittite.  On  the  expre.ss  solicitation  of  Abra- 
liain,  Isaac  took  a  wife  from  Abraham's  kin- 
dred. Abraham,  by  a  concubine,  Keturah,  was 
the  father  of  six  sons  ;  but  these  were  portioned 
oil,  and'  did  not  share  with  the  Child  of  the 
I'romise  ((Jen.  xxv.  G).  The  eyes  of  the  ag<!d 
patiiarch  were  gladd(!ned  by  the  light  of  Is;iac'.s 
Bons  Esau  and  Jacob;  and  it  was  not  imtil  fif- 
t<;en  years  after  their  birth  th.at  Abraham,  being 
then  a  hundred  and  sev(!nty-five  years  old,  "was 
path('re<l  to  his  people"  ((ien.  xxv.  7,  H).  The 
()\i\  Ti'stamcnt  writers  recorded  no  worthier  life 
than  his.  The  facts  that  today  there  is  no  more 
widely  spread  name,  and  none  held  in  grealiT 
poi)ular  reverence,  show  how  important  is  the 
sphere  lie  fills  in  the  world's  history.     ,Jcw  and 


Gentile  claim  him  as  ancestor,  —  the  one  of  the 
body,  the  other  of  the  spirit  (Rom.  iv.  IG,  17; 
Ileb.  xi.  8sqq. ;  Jas.  ii.  21).  See  Bker:  Lchcn 
Alirciham's  nach  Aujfaxxung  rier  jtidisclien  Sat/r. 
Leipzig,  1859  ;  H.  J.  Tomkins  :  Studies  on  tlie 
Times  of  Abraham,  London,  1878. 
■~  ABRAHAM'S  BOSOM.  "  To  lie  in  Abraham's 
bosom  "  was  a  Jewish  phrase  for  felicity  in  para- 
dise, beeause  it  implied  nearness  to  the  great 
Father  of  the  Faithful  (Luke  xvi.  19-31). 

ABRAHAM-A-SANCTA-CLARA,  b.  at  Kreen- 
heinstetten,  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  June 
2,  1011,  d.  in  Vienna  Dec.  1,  1709;  the  son  of 
au  inn-lce<'per,  and  baptized  LUrich  Megerle,  but 
educated  first  by  the  Jesuits  of  Ingolstadt,  and 
then  by  the  Benedictines  of  Salzburg;  entered 
the  order  of  the  Barefoot  Augustiues  in  1662, 
and.  with  a  short  exception,  he  resided  from 
10G8  to  his  death  in  Vienna,  where  he  preached 
in  the  Church  of  the  Augustiues,  always  to 
crowded  audiences,  lie  was  an  orator  of  the 
very  first  rank.  His  publications  consist,  besides 
Jiutas  ilcr  ErzscJtelm,  of  a  series  of  sermons  in  four 
volumes,  1086-!).'),  and  Grammatica  Jieliginxa, 
1691,  a  representation  of  the  moral  system  of  the 
Roman-Catholic  Church,  mostly  of  pamphlets 
written  upon  some  occasion  ;  as,  for  instance, 
Die  (jrosse  Tolcnhruderschaft,  1680,  when  the  plague 
reigned;  Auf,  Auf  ihr  C/irislen,  1083,  when  the 
Turks  approached;  Gark-Gack,  1G84,  for  pil- 
grims, Eltrns  Jiir  A  He,  1098 ;  Hcihiimes  Geiniscli- 
Gemastch,  170-1,  etc.  These  publications  show 
that  the  author  was  neither  a  gri?at  writer  nor 
a  great  theologian;  but  they  also  show  that  he 
was  possessed  of  a  peculiar  off-hand  and  artless 
but  captivating  and  almost  irresistible  eloquence, 
and  a  great  wit.  A  conii^lete  edition  of  his 
works  does  not  exist.  See  S.  Tu.  G.  vox  Kau- 
AJA.v:  Abraham  a  Sancta  dara,  Vienna,  1867; 
Schkuer:  Vorlrcif/e  und  Aufialzc,  B<'rliu,  1874; 
II.  Mareta:  Ueber  Judas  den  Erzschtbn,  Vienna, 
1875.  SCIIEUER. 

ABRAHAMITES.  L  A  branch  of  the  Panli- 
cians  (which  see).  II.  ;\  deistic  sect  which  arose 
in  liiihemia  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  ]>rofessing  the  faith  of  Aliraham  before 
his  circumcision,  acce])ting  the  doctrines  of  one 
God  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  of  the 
Scriptures,  the  Decalogue,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer. 
As  their  children  were  not  allowed  to  be  edu- 
catecl  in  the  fait'n  of  the  parents,  the  sect  died  out 
in  the  same  generation  in  which  it  arose. 

Lit.  —  Gcschichte  dcr  bOhmischen  JJaisleii,  Lei}>. 
sic,  178.">.  IIEUZOO. 

ABRAXAS  is  a  word  with  a  mystic  meaning, 
arbitrarily  formed  by  combining  together  tho.se 
letters  of  the  (ireek  al])habet,  which,  when  con- 
sidered according  to  tlieir  numerical  value,  and 
addeil  together,  give  the  sum  of  305.'  This  word 
was  first  applieil  by  the  (iuoslic  liusilidi^s  as  the 
name  of  the  Sn]irenie  Being  of  llie  universe,  the 
(Jod  of  the  305  heavens,  the  Divine  Source  of 
the  3(i5  emanations,  of  which  liasilides  pretended 
to  know  something.  Now  the  name  is  generally 
given  to  every  kind  of  symbolical  rejiresenta- 
tioti  of  (iiioslic  idi'as,  such  ;is  were  jiroduced  in 
great  masses  in  the  form  of  gems,  or  images 
engraved  on  metal,  or  in.scriptions  in  Greek,  Cop- 


»  A=i,p=a,p=i«),a=i,{— (w,.=i,?=a)o. 


ABSALOM. 


17 


ABYSSINIAN  CHURCH. 


tic,  etc.,  on  stones,  metal  tablets,  etc.,  with  and 
without  pictorial  additions,  from  tlie  second  down 
to  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  character  most  frequently  occnrrincf  in 
these  representations,  the  Abraxas  iniaj;e  proper, 
shows  the  head  of  a  cock  coiuiected  with  two 
serpent  tails  as  legs  by  means  of  a  body  in 
armor,  a  whip  in  one  hand,  and  a  shield  in  the 
other.  According  to  scholars  who  have  devoted 
themselves  to  the  study  of  Gnostic  arcluelogy, 
this  figure  represents  the  totality  of  cosnuc  intel- 
lectual forces,  watching  over  that  which  is  ]>ure 
in  the  world,  and  leading  it  triumphantly  througli 
life  back  into  the  source  of  all  jiurity.  Often  this 
figure,  tlie  central  symbol  of  Basilidian  wisdom, 
is  combined  with  other  figures  symbolizing  other 
Gnostic  ideas  derived  from  Jewish,  Egyptian,  or 
Greek  sources.  Often,  also,  the  .symbolical  rep- 
resentation is  confined  to  a  mere  oval,  formed  by 
a  serpent,  and  combined  with  some  more  or  less 
unintelligible  inscription. 

The  Abraxas  literature  is  very  heavy.  The 
study,  however,  is  of  psychological  rather  than 
historical  interest :  the  question  what  such  sym- 
bols mean  is  of  less  interest  than  that  how  peo- 
ple ever  came  to  think  that  such  symbols  could 
mean  any  thing.  The  subject  was  first  taken  up 
by  Je.\n  Chiflet:  Macarii  Abraxnn  seu  de  Hem- 
mis  Basilulianis,  Antw.,  1057.  It  was  then  treated 
by  Capello  :  Prodromus  Iconicus  Sculplarum, 
Gcmmarum,  Venice,  1702;  Montfaucon:  L'Anti- 
qniie  Explifjuee,  Paris,  1722;  P.\ssei;io:  Thc.iaurux 
GemnmruiH,  Florence,  17.30;  Bellekmaxn' :  Die 
Gemmen  der  Allen  mil  dein  Abraxasbilde,  Berlin, 
1817-19;  Walsh:  Ancient  Coins,  London,  1828; 
Mattkk  ;  Ili.iloire  de  Gnosticisine,  Paris,  1S28. 
^  AB'SALOM  {father  of  peace),  third  son  of 
Davi<l,  remarkable  for  his  abundant  hair  and 
great  personal  beauty;  murdered  his  brother 
Amnon  in  revenge  of  the  latter's  violation  of 
Tamar,  his  sister  (cf.  2  Sam.  xiii.,  xiv.  32),  and 
then  fled  to  Talmai,  King  of  Geshur,  his  mother's 
father,  with  whom  he  staid  three  years.  By 
Joab's  stratagem  David  was  induced  to  recall 
his  son,  but  it  was  two  years  thereafter  before 
his  father  admitted  him  to  his  presence  (2  Sam. 
xiv.).  The  re-instated  son  abused  his  father's 
generosity,  and  employed  his  pleasing  arts  to 
corrupt  the  people.  When  he  thought  himself 
Bufficiently  strong,  he  gathered  his  followers  at 
Hebron,  and  there  proclaimed  himself  king. 
David  made  no  resistance  at  first,  gave  up 
Jerusalem  ;  but  at  length  the  opposing  forces 
met,  and  Absalom's  army  was  defeated,  and  he, 
contrary  to  David's  express  order,  was  killed  by 
Joab  <as  he  hung  suspended  by  his  head  from  an 
oak.  '1  he  mourning  of  David  is  one  of  the  most 
touching  episodes  in  history  (2  Sam.  xvii.  3^3). 
U  was  during  his  brief  period  of  glory  that  he 
reared  his  pillar  in  the  king's  dale  to  keep  his 
name  in  remembrance  (2  Sam.  xviii.  IS).  The 
so-called '•  Absalom's  tomb"  in  the  Kedron  val- 
ley was  erected  much  later. 

'aBSALON,  or  AXEL,  b.  in  the  IsLand  of  Sea- 
land  1128,  d.  in  the  Convent  of  Sorre,  1201; 
studied  in  Paris,  and  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Koskilde  1158.  and  Archbishop  of  Lund,  that  is, 
Iirimate  of  the  three  Scandinaviiin  comitries,  1 178. 
lie  was  a  great  warrior;  conquered  the  Island 
of  lUigen,  and  established  successful  missionary 

3-  I 


stations  among  the  Wends.  He  was  also  a  patron 
of  learning  :  on  his  instigation  .Saxo  (irammaticus 
wrote  his  Instory  of  Denmark  iji  elegant  Latin. 

ABSOLUTION.  The  canonists  of  the  Latin 
Church    distinguish    five    kinds    of    absolution  : 

1.  Jiii/)lism,  because  it  is  "a  washing  in  the 
laver  of   regeneration,"  —  ,a  cleansing  from  sin; 

2.  The  liiichdrkl ;  3.  The  Word  and  hoclrine,  the 
declaration  of  the  terms  on  which  reconciliation 
and  salvation  are  granted  to  maidnnd  ,'  4.  Inter- 
cession and  Prai/er;  5.  Reconcilement  to  flic  Church, 
which  was  given  aftercanonical  penance.  The  last 
is  accompanied  by  an  imposing  service,  being  per- 
formed before  the  people  gathered  for  worship, 
and  immediately  before  the  f^ueharist.  The 
person  absolved  had  been  guilty  of  some  great 
sin;  and  if  a  priest  was  deposed,  and  if  a  lay- 
man was  disqmilified,  altliough  after  absolution, 
he  was  admitted  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  There 
is  also  absolution  for  the  dead,  —  prayers  for  deliv- 
ery of  souls  from  jiurgatory  pronounced  after  the 
celebration  of  nniss  for  the  deceased. 

The  Roman  Church  gives  the  power  to  absolve 
from  sins  to  the  priests  as  the  ministers  of  Jesus 
Christ.  The  Greek  Church  makes  account  of 
the  act  of  the  priest.  So  wdiile  the  former  uses 
the  indicative  form  of  absolution,  —  "I  absolve 
thee," — the  latter  uses  the  deprecatory, — "Cln'ist 
absolve  thee."  The  Church  of  Engl.md  is  now 
divided  in  opinion ;  but  probably  the  donunant 
view  is,  that  the  so-called  absolution  is  a  mere 
authoritative  statement  that  God  will  absolve  all 
who  repent.     See  Confession. 

ABSTINENCE  differs  from  fasting,  in  that  not 
all  food,  but  some  particular  kind,  mostly  meat, 
is  abstained  from.  The  objects  of  abstinence 
have  usually  been  marriage,  flesh,  or  wine.  The 
non-use  of  the  latter  has  given  the  phrase  "total 
abstinence,"  which  is  a  much  more  truthful  de- 
scription than  "temperance"  for  what  is  aimed 
at.  Tliere  is  no  virtue  in  acstinence  ;  it  is  a 
negative  thing :  there  is  virtue  in  moderate  use 
of  the  gifts  of  God.     See  Fasting. 

ABUKARA.     See  TiiicoDouus  Abl-kara. 

ABULFARAJ  {Bar  HebroMs),  b.  at  JMalatia  in 
Cappadocia,  122G;  d.  at  Waragha  in  Adharbai- 
jan  ;  the  son  of  a  Jewish  pliysician  who  had 
embraced  Jacobitism;  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Gubos  in  121(3,  Bishop  of  Aleppo  in  1247,  and 
iMaphrian,  or  Primate  of  the  Jacobites  in  Clial- 
daja,  Assyria,  and  Mesopotami.a,  in  ]2(;i.  Of  his 
numerous  works  have  been  published  :  C/ironicon 
Si/riacum,  in  Syriac  ajid  Latin,  the  Ciril  Chronicle 
by  P.  I.  Bruns  and  G.  ^\'.  Kirsch,  Leipzig,  1788; 
and  the  Ecclesiastical  Chronicle  by  J.  B.  Abbe- 
loos  and  Th.  J.  Lainy,  Louvain,  'lS72;  Ilisloria 
coinpen(/iosa  Di/nastiarum,  in  Arabic  and  Latin. — 
an  extract  of  the  above  work  by  K.  Pococlc,  Ox- 
ford, 1GG3;  a  Syriac  gramm.ar,  a  liturgy,  and 
several  minor  pieces  in  Wiseman  :  Ilurw  :Si/riacij:, 
and  Bernstein:  Clirestomathia  Sijriaca. 

Lit. — F.  Ue.nan  :  l)e  I'hilosojihut  Pcripatelicn 
apud  ^i/ros,  1852  ;  EuscH  und  GnUBEU  :  Enci/clu- 
pddie. 

ABYSSINIAN  CHURCH.  Ethiopia  was  in 
antiquity  a  geographical  name  of  rather  vague 
signification,  comprising  Nubia,  Sennaar,  and 
Abyssinia.  These  lands,  while  they  were  Chris- 
tian, formed  the  Ethiopian  Cliurch.  At  presi-nt 
Christianity  is  confined  to  the  plateau  and  nioun- 


ABYSSINIAN  CHURCH. 


18 


ABYSSINIAN  CHURCH. 


tain-refrions  of  Abyssiiiiii ;  and  thus  the  Ahys- 
sinian  Church  of  our  time  represents  the  Ethio- 
pian Church  of  antiquity. 

Native  tradition  ascribes  the  name  of  the 
country  and  the  foundation  of  tlie  state  to 
Ethiops,  the  son  of  Cash,  the  son  of  Mam,  who 
s<>ttled  in  tlie  old  capital  of  Axum  in  the  present 
Province  of  Tigre.  After  centuries  of  Paqfan- 
ism,  the  visit  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba  to  Solomon 
led  to  the  conversion  of  the  people  to  Judaism. 
She  bore  a  son  to  Solomon,  Menilek,  who  was 
ediicated  in  Jerusalem  by  his  father.  When 
Jlcnilek  returned  to  Axum,  he  brought  along 
with  him,  not  only  a  number  of  Jewish  priests, 
but  also  the  ark,  which  was  carried  away  from 
the  Temple  of  Jerusalem,  and  deposited  in  the 
Ethiopian  capit.al ;  and  from  that  time,  down  to 
our  day,  Abyssinia  has  been  ruled  by  a  Solo- 
monic dynasty;  the  succession  having  been 
broken  only  now  and  then  by  usurpers  and  con- 
querors. Of  course,  all  this  is  mere  fable.  At 
the  time  of  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  rank 
heathenism  prevailed  throughout  the  country; 
and  the  custom  of  circumcision,  practised  to- 
gether with  baptism,  may  have  been  introduced 
from  Egypt.  A  Jewish  immigr.ation  mu.st,  never- 
theless, liave  taken  place,  as  is  proved  by  the 
presence  in  the  country  of  a  great  number  of 
Jews,  the  so-called  Falashas;  but  the  time,  man- 
ner, and  magnitude  of  this  iumiigration,  cannot 
be  ascertained. 

During  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great, 
about  330,  Frumentius  and  yEdesius  came  inci- 
dentally to  Ethiopia,  and  began  to  preach  Chris- 
tianity. vEdesius  afterwards  returned  to  Tyre; 
but  Frumentius  continued  the  work,  went  to 
Alexandria,  where  Athanasius  occupied  tlie  p.atri- 
archal  see,  obtained  missionary  co-workers  from 
him,  and  was  himself  cons"crated  bishop,  and 
liead  of  the  Ethiopian  Church,  under  the  title 
of  Aldia  Siilama,  "  father  of  peace,"  which  title 
is  still  in  use,  together  with  the  later  one  Aln'ina, 
"our  father."  Thus  the  Etliiopian  Church  was 
established  in  close  relation  to  the  Egyptian;  and 
tlie  Abyssinian  Church  of  our  time  still  stands 
as  a  branch  of  the  Coptic.  In  the  iitth  and  sixth 
centuries  the  Ethiopian  mission  received  a  new 
impulse  by  the  immigration  of  a  number  of 
monks  from  Upper  Egypt.  They  brought 
nionasticism  along  with  them,  and  the  legends 
and  worship  of  saints.  Also  the  Ethiopian 
translation  of  the  Bible  seems  to  belong  to  this 
time,  though  a  tradition  ascribes  tlie  translation 
of  the  New  Testament  to  Frumentius,  and  jiarts 
of  the  Old  Testament  are  said  to  have  been 
brought  from  Jerusalem  by  Menilek.  [See 
further  undi.T  liilile  Versions  A.  VI.  ll^thiopic.'] 
The  Ethiopian  Diblo,  liowever,  has  not  exer- 
cised any  great  influence  on  the  Christian  growth 
of  the  people;  tor  the  Ethiopian  language,  a 
tongue  of  .Shemitio  origin,  by  the  Abyssinians 
called  Gccz,  that  is,  "original  speech,"  was 
already  at  th.at  time  completely  superseded  by 
Amharic,  a  dialect  wliicli  arose  in  the  Southern 
I'roviiice  of  Ainhara,  and  is  much  mixed  up 
with  African  elements.  At  present  lOthiopian 
is  ail  eiitindy  dead  language,  used  only  in  (be 
Church,  ami  studied  only  by  the  priests;  but 
most  of  thc'm  can  only  read  it  without  under- 
standing it.    In  the  Abyssinian  Church,  Ethiopic 


plays  the  same  part  as  Coptic  in  the  Egyptian 
Church. 

The  close  connection  between  the  Abyssinian 
and  Coptic  churches  is  very  apparent  in  the 
sphere  of  doctrines.  Like  the  Coptic,  the  .A.b)'s- 
sinian  Church  holds  a  purely  monophysitic  view 
of  the  person  of  Christ.  But,  while  this  question 
has  been  settled  long  ago  for  the  whole  rest  of 
the  Christian  Church,  here  it  is  still  deliateil 
under  the  form  of  a  double  or  triple  birth  of 
Christ,  and  gives  rise  to  violent  controversies. 
Indeed,  in  spite  of  the  spiritual  barrenness  and 
ecclesiastical  petrifaction  of  the  Abyssinian 
Church,  these  controversies  have,  nevertheless, 
caused  such  enmities,  that  both  Theodorus  and 
Joannes  of  Tigre  have  reaped  considerable  ad- 
vantages from  them  in  their  plans  against  Shoa. 
Also  the  questions  of  the  person  and  dignity  of 
Alary.  —  w  hether  she  really  bore  God,  or  only  was 
the  mother  of  Jesus;  whether  she  is  entitled  to 
the  same  worsliip  .as  Christ.  etc.,-^are  eagerly 
debated,  though  it  seems  to  be  the  general  view 
that  an  almost  divine  worship  is  due  to  the 
Virgin;  that  she  and  the  saints  are  indispensa- 
ble mediators  between  Christ  and  man  ;  that  the 
saints,  who  died  not  for  their  own  sins,  died  for 
the  sins  of  others,  etc. 

The  Abyssinian  canon,  called  Scmnnja  Ahwht, 
"  eightj'-one,"  because  it  consists  of  eighty-one 
sacred  books,  compri.scs,  besides  the  sixty-five 
books  of  our  canon,  the  Apocrypha,  the  Epistles 
of  Clement,  and  the  Synodus;  that  is,  the  de- 
crees of  the  Apostolic  Council  of  Jerusalem.  See 
W.  Fell:  Canoncs  Ajm^lolomm  jElhinpice,  hiiis., 
1S71.  Only  a  very  slight  difference,  however,  is 
made  between  this  canon  and  some  other  works 
of  ecclesiastical  literature,  —  the  Didascalia  or 
Apostolical  Constitutions,  the  Haimanol-Ahn.  giv- 
ing quotations  from  the  councils  and  the  Fathers, 
the  writings  of  the  Eastern  Fathers,  Athanasius, 
Cyril,  and  Chrysostom,  and  the  l-'cl/ia-\(ir/ast,  the 
royal  law-book.  On  the  whole,  the  tradition  of  iho 
Church  has  the  same  authority  as  the  Scriptures. 
Of  the  councils,  only  those  before  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  (4.)1)  are  recognized,  because  at  Chal- 
cedon  the  monophysite  heresy  was  condemned. 
The  .\postles'  Creed  is  unknown  :  the  Nicene  is 
used.  At  the  head  of  the  Churcli  stands  the 
Abvlna,  who  resides  in  (Jondar.  He  is  appointed 
by  the  Cnptio  jiatriarch  of  Cairo;  and,  according 
to  a  law  from  the  twelfth  century,  no  .\byssiniaii, 
but  only  a  Copt,  can  become  AInnia.  lie  alone 
has  the  right  to  anoint  the  king,  and  to  ordain 
priests  ami  deacons.  Both  in  secular  .and  in 
ecclesiastical  things  ho  has  a  great  power;  and 
his  favor  or  disfavor  may  be  of  importance  to  the 
king  himself.  The  duties  of  the  priests  consist 
in  celi.'brating  divine  service  three  or  four  times 
a  d.ay,  purifying  liouses,  utensils,  an<l  tools,  etc. 
The  priests,  as  well  as  the  monks  and  the  .schol- 
ars, take  the  Lord's  Supjier  every  morning  fast- 
ing. The  deacons  jierlorm  all  the  .subordinate 
busine.s.s,  baking  bread  for  the  Lord's  .Supper, 
cleaning  the  church  and  the  sacred  vessels,  etc. 
They  dare  not  enter  the  Holy  of  holies,  whe.-e 
stands  the  ark.  The  Ihlitcnis,  i\w  teachers,  are 
not  ordained,  nor  are  the  AlaLim.  to  whom  is  in- 
trusted the  whole  administrations  of  the  t'luirdi. 
lieside  th(!  secular  clergy  stands  the  monastic 
clergy,  under  the  head  of  the  ICisli'vyc,  who  ranks 


ABYSSINIAN  CHURCH. 


19 


ACACIUS. 


next  to  the  AbOna,  and  decides  many  ecclesiasti- 
cal and  theological  questions  in  common  with 
him.  The  number  of  niouks  and  nuns  living 
after  the  rule  of  Pachorains,  is  very  great.  The 
ju'incipal  monasteries  are  those  of  Dclira  Dammo 
(where  nearly  three  hundred  monks  live  to- 
gether in  small  huts),  Axum,  Abba  (iarima, 
Waldubba,  Debra  Libanos,  and  St.  Stepluui. 
The  church-buildings  are  exceedingly  munerous 
in  Abyssinia,  generally  small,  low,  circular  struc- 
tures, with  a  conical  roof  of  thatch  and  four 
doors,  one  towards  each  of  tlie  cardinal  points. 
An  outer  court  surrounds  the  buililing,  occupied 
during  service  by  the  laymen,  and  oft<'n  serving 
at  night  as  a  place  of  refuge  to  forlorn  travellers. 
The  interior,  dirty  and  neglected,  but  overloaded 
with  frightfully  bad  pictures  of  the  Virgin  and 
the  saints,  the  angels,  and  the  Devil,  is  divided 
into  two  apartments,  — •  the  holy  for  the  priests 
and  deacons,  and  the  Holy  of  holies,  where  stands 
the  ark.  This  ark  is  the  principal  object  in  the 
whole  church.  Neither  the  deacons  nor  laymen 
dare  touch  it :  if  they  do,  the  church  and  the 
adjacent  cemetery  become  unclean,  and  must  be 
purified.  Service  consists  of  singing  of  psalms, 
recitals  of  parts  of  the  Bible  and  Liturgy,  and 
prayers,  especially  to  the  Virgin  and  the  wonder- 
working saints  :  it  i.s  undignified  and  nnedifying. 
Of  sacraments,  the  Church  numbers  two  ;  but  the 
language  lacks  the  word,  and  with  the  word  also 
the  idea  seems  to  have  become  lost.  Beside 
the  Christian  Sunday,  also  the  Jewish  sabbath  is 
kept:  in  all,  one  hundred  and  eighty  holidays 
are  celebrated.  In  the  discipline,  fasting  plays 
a  prominent  part.  There  are  in  all  two  hundred 
fast-days  ;  but  they  are  not  kept.  For  a  small 
compensation,  the  priest  undertakes  to  do  pen- 
ance for  somebody  else. 

Not  all  the  inhabitants  of  Abyssinia  belong  to 
the  State  Church  or  to  Christianity.  The  Zalanes, 
a  nomadic  tribe,  consider  themselves  to  be  Jews, 
and  keep  aloof  from  the  Christians,  though  by 
travellers  they  are  described  as  being  really  good 
Christians.  The  Chamantes  are  baptized,  and 
have  Christian  priests;  but  in  reality  they  are 
nearly  Pagans,  and  celebrate  many  thoroughly 
Pagan  rites.  The  real  Jews,  the  Falashas,  live 
along  the  northern  shore  of  the  great  lake  Tsana, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Gondaraiid  Shelga,  where 
they  pursue  agriculture  and  trade.  They  are 
more  industrious  than  the  Christians,  but  also 
more  ignorant,  and  spiritually  more  forlorn.  The 
Moliammedans  make  about  one-tenth  of  the  whole 
population,  and  Mohammedanism  is  slowly  but 
steadily  progressing.  In  order  to  distinguish 
themselves  from  all  non-Christians,  the  Chris- 
tians receive  at  baptism  a  cord  of  blue  silk  orcot- 
ton,  called  maleb,  which  they  always  wear  around 
the  neck. 

The  first  missionary  w-ork  which  the  Western 
Church  undertook  in  Abyssinia  was  the  Jesuit 
mission  of  I.j.j.j,  which  labored  there  for  nearly 
a  century  ;  but,  as  everywhere  else,  the  mission- 
ary activity  of  the  Jesuits  was  deeply  mixed  up 
with  the  politics  of  the  country,  and  tlieir  sole 
purpose  seems  to  have  been  to  establish  there 
the  authority  of  the  Roman-Catholic  Church. 
At  last  they  reached  the  goal.  After  a  frightful 
massacre  of  the  o]iposite  party.  King  Sasneos 
declared  the  Komau-Catholic  Church  tiie  Church 


of  the  State;  but  in  IGIO  the  Jesuits,  with  their 
Roman  archbishop,  were  compelled  to  leave  tlio 
country,  and  the  old  religion  with  its  old  Church 
was  re-established.  With  the  new  AbOna  who 
ft>llowed  after  this  Roman-Catholic  interregnum, 
Peter  Ileyling,  from  Ijlibeck,  a  Protestant  mis- 
sionary, came  into  the  country;  but  his  great 
zeal  led  only  to  small  result.  The  Anglican 
Missionary  Society  had  more  success  in  th(! 
first  half  of  this  century.  The  circumstance 
that  a  pious  Abyssian  monk,  Abi-Ruch  or  Abre- 
ka,  translated  the  whole  Bible  in  the  Amharic 
language  (1808-18)  gave  the  first  occasion  to  this 
attempt.  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Soci- 
ety bought  and  printed  the  translation,  and  in 
IS.'JO  the  missionaries  Gobat  and  Kngler  were 
sent  to  Abyssinia.  These  men  were  succeeded 
iu  1837  by  Isenberg  and  Krapf;  but  the  work 
was  partly  spoiled  by  the  opposition  of  the  native 
priests  and  the  intrigues  of  some  newly-arrived 
Roman-Catholic  missionaries.  In  18.38  a  Coptic 
priest  who  had  frequented  the  school  of  a  Protes- 
tant missionary  in  Alexandria,  and  favored  the 
Protestant  mission,  became  Abftna,  and  the  St. 
Chrischona  Society  of  Basel  now  sent  a  number 
of  Protestant  missionaries  into  the  country.  They 
labored  with  considerable  success;  but  the  dis- 
turbances of  the  reign  of  King  Theodore  over- 
took them,  and  almost  destroyed  their  work. 
They  were  thrown  into  prison,  and  only  relea.scd 
by  the  victory  of  the  British.  Since  that  time,  no 
missionary  attempt  has  been  made  in  Abyssinia. 
See  AnuuxA. 

Lit.  —  LuDOLF  :  Ilistoria  JElhinjnca  and  Com- 
menlarius  ad  Hist.  JElhiop.,  Frankfort,  1081-01; 
Gobat:  Tarjehuch,  Basel,  1831;  lsi;xnEi;G  and 
KiiAPF :  Journals  from  the  Kinf/dom  of  S/ioa,  Lon- 
don, 1843  ;  IsF.XEERO:  Abcssinicn  iind  die  ecan- 
r/ctische  Mksion,  Bonn,  1844 ;  Flad  :  12  Jahre 
in  Abessinien,  Basel;  18G9  ;  A.  Dillmax.v  : 
Die  Anfunge  dcs  axumilisclien  lleiches,  Berlin, 
1879.  M.  LiJTTKE. 

ACACIUS,  T.  Bishop  of  Cresara;a,  a  discii.lo 
and  the  successor  of  Eusebius,  d.  303;  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Arian  party,  and  as  such  dejMsed 
by  the  synods  of  Antioch  (341)  and  Seleucia  (359); 
fell  out  with  the  radical  fraction  of  the  party, 
and  gathered  a  large  number  of  followers.  The 
Acacians,  who,  though  denying  the  sameness, 
accepted  the  likeness  of  substance,  between  the 
Father  and  the  Son,  subscribed  finally  to  the 
Nicene  symbol.  A  fragment  of  his  work  against 
Marcellus  of  Ancyra  is  found  iu  Epiphan : 
Hair.  72,  5.  39. 

II.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  since  471 ;  d. 
488 ;  persuaded  the  emperor  Zeno  to  issue  the 
Ilenotikon,  by  which  was  brought  about  a  recon- 
ciliation with  the  Monophy.'^ites,  but  was  for 
this  very  reason  excommunicated  by  Felix,  the 
Bishop  of  Rome,  nunquam.  analhcmalis  vmcuhs 
exuemlun,  whereby  a  schism  ■o'as  occasioned  be- 
tween tlie  Eastern  and  the  Western  churches. 

III.  Bishop  of  Beroea,  b.  422,  d.  430,  was  one 
of  Chrysostom's  bitterest  enemies,  and  was  pres- 
ent at  the  council  ad  Quercum  (403),  which  de- 
posed him.  Ill  the  controversy  between  Nestoriua 
and  Cyril  he  tried  to  mediate.  Three  of  his 
letters  — two  to  Alexander  of  Ilierapolis,  and  o:-.3 
to  Cyril  —  are  given  by  Bai.uzius  in  i\oi'.  Cult. 
Coned,  c.  XVII.,  XII.,  LV.  HEIIZOO- 


ACCEPTANTS. 


20 


ACHERY. 


ACCEPTANTS  is  the  name  of  that  party 
wliicli  ill  the  Janseiiist  controversy  accepted  the 
bull  Unii/eiiittis.     See  Jaxskxism. 

ACCESS,  I.  In  the  Liturgy  of  tlie  Roman 
Cluirch,  a  collection  of  prayers  preparatory  to 
the  celebration  of  mass;  in  the  Liturg-y  of  the 
Church  of  England,  a  prayer  falling  between 
the  consecration  and  the  communion. 

II.  In  canon  law  a  form  of  electioneering;  the 
minority  changing  their  votes,  and  conferring 
them  on  the  candidate  of  the  majority  by  an 
acccdo  ilamino,  in  order  to  give  him  the  number 
of  votes  necessary  to  election. 

ACCOLTI,  Peter,  generally  known  as  the 
Cardinal  of  Bologna,  b.  in  Florence,  1U)7,  d. 
there  in  15i9;  was  apostolical  abbreviator  under 
Leo  X.,  and  drew. up  the  famous  Bull  of  15:20 
against  Luther.  Under  Clement  VII.  he  was 
made  a  cardinal;  but  under  Paul  III.  he  was 
arraigned  for  peculation,  and  imprisoned  iu  San 
Angelo.  He  paid  an  enormous  sum  in  order  to 
be  released,  but  left,  nevertheless,  a  large  for- 
tune to  his  three  children.  Some  poems  by  him 
are  found  in  Carmina  III.  Poelarum  Ilal.  Flor- 
ence, l.')ij'2.     Vol.  1. 

ACCO.VIWIODATION,  a  theological  term  mean- 
ing iu  its  broad  sense  an  ethical  notion,  and,  in 
its  narrow,  a  certain  exegetical  method  prevalent 
from  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century 
to  the  second  quarter  of  the  nineteenth.  An 
accommodation  in  the  theological  sense  is  de- 
manded by  ethics  whenever  a  person's  circum- 
stances, or  the  condition  of  his  feelings,  render 
him  incompetent  to  understand  the  whole  truth. 
God  must  lessen  his  p.ace  if  he  would  keep  sLep 
with  man.  He  must  also  keep  back  part  of  the 
truth  while  we  are  babes  in  Christ,  or  else  dilute 
it  to  our  weakness.  This  was  the  method  of 
Christ  (John  xvi.  1-2)  and  of  Paul  (Ileb.  vi.  1). 
Tlie  go.spel  preached  is,  of  course,  always  the 
same;  the  manner  of  presenting  it  differs;  and 
the  preacher  has  abundant  opportunities  to  exer- 
cise iiis  judgment  in  accommodating  the  truth 
to  his  hearers.  The  goal  is  the  whole  truth,  tlio 
comiilete  revelation.  Conse(piently,  by  all  ap- 
propriate means,  by  illustrations  and  examples, 
by  arguments  and  ex))lanations,  he  U'ads  his 
flock  to  the  fuller  and  fuller  revelation  of  God, 
luitil,  if  he  is  faithful,  he  has  taught  his  peoples 
knowledge.  Tins  is  the  moral  accommodation, 
sanctioneil  by  the  highest  pi-actice,  and  conlirmeri 
by  the  widest  experience.  But  there  is  an  im- 
moral kind:  this  i.s,  not  the  gradual  unfoldment, 
but  the  actual  concealment,  of  the  truth.  The 
preacher,  eitlier  by  silence  gives  assent  unto  error, 
or  else  directly  imjiarts  what  is  wrong.  Expe- 
rience sliows  that  great  pati(Mice  is  requisite  with 
young  cojiverls  who  come  from  heathenism  into 
Christianity.  They  i-equire  lenient  dealing,  for 
they  carry  over  into  their  new  relations  the  faults 
of  the  former  state.  But  the  success  of  Christ 
and  of  I'aul  iu  similar  positions  to  the  mission- 
ary's to-day  shows  that  the  gradual  growth  of 
Christian  knowledge,  will  correct  all  errors. 

A  (piite  (lilfenMit  matter  is  the  .accommodation 
of  the  iiiiilpriiit  of  ))reachiug  so  as  to  get  rid  of 
or  greatly  lessen  the  supi'ruatural  element  of 
■Scripture.  The  e;isy-going  rationalism  of  the 
last  century  declar<'d  that  many  things  in  the 
Bible  were  Jir/urutive,  mere   accoininodations   to 


human  understanding.  Thus  Zachariii,  in  his 
Essay  upon  the  Condescension  of  God  toward 
Man,  published  in  1763,  explains  the  epiphanies 
of  the  Old  Testament,  the  covenants  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament,  the  incarnation,  in  short, 
all  the  facts  of  revelation,  as  •'accommodations." 
And,  the  more  Christianity  lost  its  hold  upon  the 
theologians  through  this  kind  of  talk,  the  more 
eager  were  their  answers  to  the  question,  How 
many  of  the  Bible  statements  are  accommoda- 
tions ?  Their  voices  are  heard  arguing  the  mat- 
ter in  the  opening  years  of  this  century,  but 
die  away  as  the  .school  of  .Strauss  makes  itself 
known.  Its  method  is  shorter,  more  decisive, 
and  apparently  more  reverential.  It  says,  "  The 
facts  you  cannot  accept  because  they  are  super- 
natural, you  need  not  trouble  yourselves  about. 
We  have  discovered  that  the  writings  in  which 
they  are  found  are  not  ijettuine.  Thus  we  have 
vindicated  God  from  the  charge  of  deceiving 
you,  for  he  simply  did  nol  inspire  the  irrational 
statements."  As  wo  look  at  the  throng  who  arc. 
rapidly  retreating  before  the  "critical  school," 
we  see  that  in  general  they  are  those  who  are 
desirous  to  do  away  with  all  biblical  statements 
which  clash  with  (their)  reason,  but  at  the 
same  time  do  not  want  to  attack  directly  the 
authority  of  Scripture.  In  this  fashion  they  did 
away  with  the  Messianic  Propliccics,  —  these  Jesus 
applied  to  himself  merely  to  induce  the  Jews  to 
believe  in  his  JMessiahship,  although  he  did  nov 
himself  (!);  with  the  doctrine  of  anf/cls  and 
(lernons,  — Jesus  and  the  Bible-writers  merely  em- 
ployed the  current  talk;  the  doctrine  of  the 
atonement,  —  ,a  condescension  to  popular  ideas  in 
order  to  console  the  Jews  for  the  loss  of  the 
s.acrificial  worship.  It  should  be  said,  however, 
that  not  all  the  theologians  were  thus  madly 
imdermining  the  faith.  Such  men  as  II.Tuit 
(178S),  Gess  (1707),  and  others,  fought  against  the 
theory  as  destructive  of  the  Church,  and  it  is 
now  universally  condemned.  It  is,  however,  :'.n 
unquestionable  fact  th.at  the  Bible-writers  u.-se 
the  popular  speech  in  regard  to  natural  objects; 
for  they  say,  "the  sun  rises;"  also  the  conduct 
of  Paul  in  circumcising  Timothy  (Acts  xvi.  l-:5), 
and  in  taking  the  vow  at  Jerusalem  (.\xi.  17-2G), 
was  an  acconiniodation.  But  this  use  of  lan- 
guage, and  this  prudent,  conciliatory  conduct,  did 
no  injury:  indeed,  by  these  means  the  cause  of 
truth  w:i's  advanced.  IlUDOLP  IIOF.M.IXK. 

ACEPHALI,  from  the  Greek  a  and  Kti^aKii,  will.- 
oui  head  or  chief,  a  terra  applied  to  certain  eccle- 
siastical parties,  as,  for  instance,  to  th.at  which, 
at  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  would  follow  neither 
Cyril  nor  John  of  Antioch;  and  to  that  which 
separated  from  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria  when 
ho  signed  the  Henotikon  ;  and  others. 

ACHERY,  Jean  Luc  d',  b.  .at  St.  Quentin  100!); 
d.  in  Paris,  April  '21),  1(18.");  was  educati'd  by  the 
B<'n('dictines;  entered  their  order  in  Ki^iJ,  and 
was  appointed  librarian  at  St.  Germain  des  Pros, 
in  P:uis,  lUlO,  the  ]irincipal  seat  of  the  congreg:i- 
tiou  of  St.  Maur,  in  which  position  he  achieved 
his  great  work  as  a  collector  an<l  editor  of  the 
Arlii  S'inctiirntii  OnJini.i  S.  Jlene(lieli,'J  vols.,  Paris, 
1(1(18-1701,  with  prefaces  and  notes  by  Mabillon; 
Vclerum  aliijiint  Srri/ilnruin  S/iieilei/iaw,  PI  vols., 
Palis,  1(j.j5-77,  (.■Hlarge<l  by  Baluze,  JIartcne,  and 
l-a  Bane  in   17'J3;  and  LunJ'ntncs  Opera  Oinniu, 


ACHTERPBLDT. 


21 


ACTA  MARTYRUM. 


with  an  uppendix  containing  many  docnnuMits 
conceniinf;:  tiie  introduction  of  Cliristianity  in 
Knjjland,  Paris,  1648,  etc. 

]at.  —  Tassin  :  Hixloire  LlUeraire  de  la  Congre- 
tjulinn  lie  Saint  Mum;  Paris,  17'J(i. 

ACHTERFELDT,  Johann  Heinrich,  b.  at  Wcscl 
1788;  d.  ;i,t  Konu  1SG4  ;  ordaininl  jiricst  in  1813; 
was  apiiointed  professor  of  tlieolnyy  at  Urauns- 
l)ercr  in  1817,  and  at  Bonn  in  18'J(i.  After  the 
death  of  Hermes,  he  was  tlie  head  of  the  Her- 
mesian  scliool;  and  wlien  tin;  system  of  tlie  school 
was  condemned  liy  the  pope,  and  he  refused  to 
comply,  he  was  discharcjed.  Since  183^  he  w.as 
tlie  editor  of  the  Zeitxchrijl  fiir  P/iiloxop/iii'  und 
hilhnlisrhe  T/ieologie,  the  organ  of  the  Ilenne- 
sian  scliool. 

ACOEMETAE,  from  the  Greek  uKoifirjTai,  the 
"sleepless"  or  "  unresting,"  an  order  of  monks 
establislied  in  the  East  in  the  middle  of  tlie  fifth 
century,  and  named  from  the  circumstance  that 
in  its  monasteries  the  members  were  divided  into 
six  choirs,  which  alternately  kept  up  the  work  of 
prayer  and  praise  without  intermission  day  and 
night.  Their  ])rincipal  seat  w,as  in  Constanti- 
nople, in  the  celebrated  monastery,  Sluilium,  so 
called  after  its  founder  Stndius,  a  Roman  noble. 
But  also  in  the  Western  Church  they  fouml  imi- 
tators;  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury they  were  established  in  the  Abbey  of  St. 
Maurice  of  Aganne  in  Valois,  by  the  Burguadian 
king,  Sigismnnd. 

Lit.  —  Hklyot  :    Onlrca  Reliij.  I. 

ACOLYTHS,  from  the  Greek  aKuAowto,  "follow- 
ers." The  first  of  the  four  minor  orders  in  the 
ancient  Cliurch  originated  in  the  beginning  of 
tlie  third  century,  but  was,  as  a  distinct  order, 
confined  to  the  \Vestern  Church,  the  name  being 
applied  in  the  Eastern  to  the  order  of  sub-dea- 
cons. Tlie  duties  of  the  acolyth  consisted  prin- 
cipally in  lighting  the  tapers  in  the  church, 
whence  the  name  of  accensorius,  and  attending 
die  officiating  priest  with  wine  for  the  eucharist. 
See  Concil.  Cartnrj.  IV.,  a  ?98.  can.  6.  Originally 
the  order  of  acolyth,  iiKe  those  of  exorcist,  reader, 
and  doorkeeper,  was  considered  a  preliminary 
step  to  the  sacred  order  of  deacon  ;  but  in  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  it  became 
customary  to  confer  all  the  four  minor  orders  at 
once,  and  to  release  the  thus  ordained  from  the 
discharge  of  the  duties  of  the  office,  for  which 
lay-clerks  were  employed.  The  Council  of  Trent 
jirotested  against  this  custom,  but  its  canons 
were  never  enforced. 

ACOSTA,  Uriel  or  Gabriel,  b.  at  Porto  l.'i.Ol; 
d.  at  Amsterdam  1017;  belonged  to  a  noble 
family  of  Jewisli  descent,  but  Cliristian  confes- 
sion, and  was  educated  in  the  Roman-Catholic 
faitli.  Ill  his  twenty-fifth  year,  however,  he  held 
all  the  specifically  Christian  dogmas  in  doubt; 
and,  as  a  conversion  from  Christianity  to  Juda- 
ism was  an  impossibility  in  Portugal,  he  fled  to 
Amsterdam,  where  he  was  circumcised,  and  ad- 
mitted to  the  synagogue.  But  he  soon  felt  dis- 
appointed; and  after  the  publication,  in  1023,  of 
his  Exumen  de  Iradicoens  P/iarixeax  cnnfcridus  con  n 
ley  escrlpla,  he  was  excommunicated  from  the  syna- 
gogue, and  arraigned  before  the  court  as  an  athe- 
ist, lie  was  condemned  to  imprisonment,  fined, 
his  book  was  burnt,  and  he  remained  for  seven 
years  under  the  ban  of  the  synagogue,  from  wdiicli 


he  was  released  only  by  doing  or  undergoing  a 
humiliating  penance:  he  was  beaten  in  the  syna- 
gogue and  trampled  upon  at  the  door.  He  left 
an  autobiography :  Exeiiiplar  Vila;  llumanm. 

Lit. —  Uriel  Acnsta'x  Selhsdjiii/p-ajiliie,  in  Latin 
and  German,  Leipzig,  1817;  I.  da  Costa:  Israel 
en  dc  rnll:e.  Flaarburg,  1819. 

ACTA  MARTYRUM  and  ACTA  SANCTORUM 
are  collections  of  biograpliics  from  the  early 
Christi;in  Church,  the  former  recording  the  lives 
only  of  martyrs,  properly  speaking:  the  latter 
also  of  saints;  that  is,  persons  who,  though  they 
did  not  gain  the  crown  of  martyrdom,  served  the 
cause  with  heroic  courage  and  self-ileiiial. 

The  Ada  ]\ftirli/nim  begin  with  the  persecu- 
tions, the  earliest  being  reports,  in  the  forms  of 
letters  sent  from  one  congregation  to  another,  of 
the  liardships  suffered  and  the  courage  evinced. 
Thus  the  congregation  of  Smyrna  announced  the 
martyrium  of  many  of  its  members,  and  finally 
that  of  its  old  bishop,  Polycarp,  during  tlie  per- 
secutions under  Marcus  Aurelius,  107,  in  a  letter 
to  Philadelphia  in  Lydia  (Euseb.  ///.</.  Ecrl.  IV., 
15).  The  congregations  of  Lugdnnnm  and  Vi- 
enna communicated  the  hardshiiis  they  suffered 
under  the  same  emperor  in  177,  to  the  Christians 
of  Asia  and  Phrygia  (lb.  V.  1).  Diouysius  of 
Alexandria  reported  the  history  of  the  martyrs 
of  the  place  to  Fabian  of  Antioch  (lb.  VI. 
41,  42);  etc.  Of  these  reports,  however,  none 
survived  the  persecutions  under  Diocletian,  his 
plan  being  to  destroy  all  copies,  not  only  of  the 
Bible,  but  of  any  book  dear  to  the  Christians 
(Arnoli.  .Idc.  IValion.  IV.,  30;  Euseb.,  lli.sl.  Kcd., 
VIII.  2).  Nevertheless,  as  soon  as  the  perse- 
cutions ceased,  and  Christianity  became  victori- 
ous, in  the  reign  of  Constantine,  the  old  lives  of 
martyrs  were  re-written ;  and,  as  people  looked 
upon  these  lives  as  the  record  of  the  heroic  age 
of  the  Church,  great  zeal  was  bestowed  upon  the 
task.  Eusebius  wrote  his  report  on  the  mar- 
tyrs of  Palestine  as  an  appendix  to  the  eigiith 
book  of  his  Hist.  EccL,  and  also  a  general  his- 
tory of  the  martyrs  of  the  whole  Church,  which 
latter  work  he  mentions  himself,  but  which,  at 
the  end  of  the  sixth  century,  could  not  be  found, 
and  seems  to  have  been  lost.  After  his  time,  the 
sulijeot  continued  to  be  cultivated,  and  that  in  a 
twofold  manner:  first  in  a  meagre  form,  simply 
for  liturgical  purposes,  the  so-called  t'ideyidnria ; 
and  tlifu  in  a  more  elaborate  form,  for  the  pur- 
jiose  of  edification,  the  so-called  Passiones  or  IJesIa 
niarljinim. 

Of  catalogues  of  martyrs,  Calendnria,  made  for 
some  special  church,  and  giving  the  names  of 
the  martyrs  for  the  respective  days  of  the  calen- 
dar, several  specimens  are  still  extant.  The 
Jesuit  jEgidius  Bucherius  found  one  in  Rome 
belontfing  to  the  Roman  Church,  and  dating 
from  the  fourth  century  (Ruixart  :  Act.  Sim-era. 
Marl.,  p.  541).  The  number  of  saints  anno- 
tated is  very  small,  however;  the  first  part  con- 
taining only  twelve  days  commemorating  Roman 
bishops,  and  the  second  twenty-five  conimenio- 
rating  other  martyrs.  A  Calendariiim  belonging 
to  the  Church  of  Carthage,  and  dating  from  tlie 
fifth  century,  was  discovered  by  Mabillon,  and 
numbers  eighty-one  days  of  commemoration. 
Such  Calenilaria  as  were  destined  for  the  use 
of  some  special  church  gave  only  the  names  of 


ACTA  MARTYRUM. 


90 


ACTS. 


those  martyrs  who  had  suffered  within  the  dio- 
cese or  neighborhood  of  the  church  ;  but  soon 
these  Calcnilaria  were  combined,  and  formed 
into  a  real  Mart>/ri)logium  ;  tliat  is,  a  catalogue 
of  martyrs  comprising  the  whole  church.  Such 
a  Mar!i/i-o!of/iu7n,  used  in  the  Roman  Church  at 
the  close  of  the  sixth  century,  is  described  by 
Gregory  I.  (7i7«'s(.VlII.,  19).  It  contains  only 
the  names  of  the  martyrs  arranged  according  to 
the  days  on  which  they  were  celebrated  in  the 
ma.ss,  and  the  day  and  place  of  the  passion,  with- 
out any  further  description ;  but  for  each  day 
several  saints  from  various  countries  and  prov- 
inces are  mentioned,  and  thereby  the  character 
of  the  Caleiiclariian  is  changed  into  that  of  tlie 
Martijrolni/ium 

The  existence  of  the  other  kind  of  compil.a- 
tions.  which,  for  the  sake  of  edification,  gave  elab- 
orate narratives  and  descriptions,  we  learu  from 
the  Council  of  Carthage,  307,  which  in  its  can. 
47  (Buu.N'S  :  Concil.  I.,  p.  133)  grants  that  read- 
ings may  be  made  not  only  from  the  Scriptures, 
but,  on  the  days  of  commemorations,  also  from 
the  Pas.'iioncs  Marlyrnm.  A  Council  of  Rome, 
494  (Mansi  :  Concil.  VIII.,  p.  149),  showed  more 
discrimination,  and  forbade  the  reading  of  the 
Ada  Marli/rum  in  the  churches,  because  the  names 
of  the  autliors  were  not  known,  and  because  in- 
fidels, lieretics,  and  ullolce  had  brought  much 
superfluous  and  improper  matter  into  the  texts. 
The  leaders  of  the  monks,  however,  recommended 
these  books;  as,  for  instance,  Ca.ssiodorus  (Dc 
Iii.ll.  Dtt:  Lit.,  c.  32)  and  Fejreolus.of  Uzes  (lier/ul. 
c.  IS),  and  even  in  Rome  the  critical  cautiousness 
gradually  passed  away-  In  a  letter  iu  defence 
of  tlie  seventh  synod (Mansi  :  Concil.  VII., p.  800) 
Adrian  I.  tells  us  that  not  only  the  Bible,  but  also 
the  Vdce  J'alrum,  as  far  as  they  were  written  by 
orthodox  authors,  were  read  in  the  Cliurch. 

Besides  these  two  kinds  of  Acta  Marti/rum, 
the  Calendarium  for  liturgical,  and  the  J'ax.sionc.i 
for  devotional  purpo.ses,  there  developed  a  new 
brancli  of  ecclesiastical  literature,  the  so-called 
Acid  Sanctorum,  —  more  or  less  reliable  works  by 
known  autliors,  on  men  remarkable  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Church,  written  principally  for  a 
purely  literary  purpose.  Both  the  (Jreek  and  the 
J>atin  churches  possess  considerable  collections 
of  the  kind.  In  tlie  beginning,  tliese  Ada  Sanc- 
torum showed  a  meagre  and  statistical  cliaracter 
similar  to  that  of  the  Calcnilaria  ;  but  in  the  ninth 
century  an  entirely  different  treatment  of  tlic^ 
wliole  subject  was  introduced, — -a  treatment  which 
paid  no  regard  to  historical  truth,  but  trans- 
formed and  'n vented  facts  in  tlie  most  arbitrary 
manner.  Thus  began  the  era  of  the  legend 
wliich  treated  religious  subjects  in  exactly  the 
sami;  manner  as  the  romance  of  the  day  treated 
worldly  sulijects;  that  is,  as  mere  v(^hicles  for 
the  eccentricities  and  extravagancies  of  the  im- 
aginaticm.  A  special  encouragiMnent  this  kind 
of  wiitiiig  found  in  the  wish  manifested  almost 
by  every  country  and  evcrry  city  to  show  an 
apostle,  or  at  lea.st  an  apostle-<liscii)le,  as  founder 
of  its  churcli.  Paris,  with  its  St.  Dionysius, 
led  the  way;  and  in  (Jermany  biographies  were 
written  of  St.  Kucharius.  V'ah'rins,  ami  i\Ial<!r- 
nus,  who,  on  the  command  of  St.  I'eter,  went  to 
the  Rhine-regions  to  found  llie  churcliesof  Treves. 
Cologne,   and     roiigcrn.      In    many  cases    al.so 


doctrinal  purposes  came  into  play,  and  then  the 
composition  generally  sinks  into  open  fraud  and 
lie.  The  biography  of  Suidbert,  the  apostle  of 
the  Bractereans  (LmiiXiTz  :  Script,  rer.  Brunsvic. 
II.  p.  222),  gives  a  striking  instance. 

With  the  revival  of  the  study  of  classical 
literature,  criticism  awakened,  and  the  time  of 
the  legend  was  over.  Only  in  a  critical  and 
historical  form  the  history  of  the  saints  could 
vindicate  itself,  and  collections  edited  with  a 
regard  to  these  new  demands  appeared  in  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  They  were  all 
excelled,  however,  by  that  of  the  Bollandists : 
Ada  Sanctorum  qnnlquol  Tola  Orbe  coluntur,  of 
which  sixty-one  volumes  folio,  with  supplement, 
have  appeared.  Antwerp.,  1643  sqq.  —  Paris, 
1S75.  See  Boll.vxdists.  Numerous  collections 
have  also  been  made  for  special  purposes.  Thus 
for  the  separate  orders  ;  ^Mahillon  :  Act.  Sand. 
Oril.  Bcnedictini,  9  vols,  fob,  Paris,  16GS;  M. 
Ant.  Alkgke  :  I'araduius  Carmelitici  Dccori.<, 
Lugdun.,  1C39  ;  Chr.  IIknriquez  :  Marfijrol. 
Ci.<:/ercie».<:e,  Antverp.,1630;  Du  Ches.xk:  Biblinth. 
Cluniacens,  1  aris,  1G14;  Akt.  dk  Moustikk: 
Martyrot.  Franciscan,  Paris,  1638,  etc.  Or,  for 
single  countries;  Fu.  Foppexs  :  Batavia  Sacra, 
Bruxels,  1714;  Wilson:  Marti/rot.  Anr/licauum, 
1608;  A.  DK  Sauss.w:  Marlyrolog.  Gatlicanum, 
Paris,  1C37,  etc.  ZoCKl.Elt. 

ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES.  The  similarity 
of  opening,  of  style,  and  of  language  satisfactorily 
demonstrate  that  the  third  Gospel  and  the  .Vets 
are  by  tlie  same  author.  A  tradition  fiom  the 
earliest  times  assigns  them  both  to  the  physician 
Luke.  For  a  time  this  unity  of  authorship  was 
disputed  by  the  Tubingen  school,  but  to-day  it  is 
almost  universally  acknowledged. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  the  Acts  should  be  so 
called,  as  the  title  does  not  describe  the  book, 
which  deals  almost  exclusively  with  Peter  and 
Paul,- — with  Peter  for  the  first  twelve  chapters, 
with  Paul  after  that.  Dr.  Phimptre  would  call 
it  Origcncs  Ecclcsuc.  The  word  ads  is,  however, 
used  in  the  sense  of  "memoirs"  or  "biogra- 
phies." The  object  of  the  work  is  to  trace  the 
history  of  the  gospel  from  the  ascension  of 
Christ  to  the  imprisonment  of  Paul  in  Rome,  or 
from  till!  beginning  of  the  earthly  kingdom  of 
Christ  in  the  capital  of  Judaism  to  the  time 
when  tlie  Church  took  hold  in  the  capital  of  the 
world.  This  will  the  more  clearly  appear  when 
we  analyze  the   book.     It   may  be  divided    into 


three  parts.     I.  (Chap.  i.  4- 


2).     The  success 


of  the  gospel  in  .Jerusalem.  Pentecost  with  its 
miracle,  a  day  of  large  ingathering.  The  new 
Cliristian  community  not  se|iarated  from  the  sur- 
rounding ,ruilaisni,  except  in  its  belief  in  Jesus 
as  the  iMessiah,  charactcized  by  a  remarkable 
community  of  gooil  ami  brotherly  love.  Tlie  or- 
dination of  deacons.  The  iireaching  of  .Stephen, 
which  involves  tin!  early  Church  in  conllict  willi 
her  deadly  foes.  II.  (Cliap.  viii.  3-xv.  33).  Dis- 
persion of  the  disciph'.s  conseijuent  upon  tin?  jier- 
.secution  under  .Saul's  leadersiiip.  The  apostles 
remain  together,  ami  <juielly  continue  their  super- 
intendence. Philip  evangelizes  Samaria.  Saul 
the  i)ersecutor  miraculously  converted  on  tiio  road 
to  Damascus.  Peter,  cured  of  ]irejudice  by  a 
vision,  preaches  the  gospel  to  the  Pagan  Coi'ne- 
lius   ami    his   Iriends.     'I'he   gospel   spreij    into 


ACTS. 


23 


ACTS. 


Phenice,  Cyprus,  and  Antioch.  I'.ariiaba8  sent  to 
seek  Saul.  Jaincs  the  brother  of  John  beheaded 
by  Herod  A^rippa  I.  Peter,  arrested  by  the 
same,  miraculously  relea.sed.  'I'lie  first  great 
missionary  journey  of  Paul  and  IJariiabas.  The 
Apostolic  Council  of  Jerusalem.  Uesults:  the 
Mosaic  law  not  laid  upon  Gentile  Christians,  the 
conversion  of  the  Gentiles  perceiv(ul  to  be  the  in- 
tention of  God.  Thus  the  formation  of  Gentile 
Christianity  was  not  the  revolutionary  and  vio- 
lent act  of  Paul,  but  the  natural  and  irresistible 
consequence  of  the  progress  of  the  gospel,  and 
as  such  is  accepted  by  the  mother-church  in  Je- 
rusalem. III.  (Chap.  XV.  3t-eud).  Paul  and 
Barnabas  propose  to  go  upoif  another  missionary 
journey,  but  ditfer  and  separate.  Luke  follows 
the  fortunes  of  Paul  only  from  this  point.  Paul 
traverses  Galatia,  Asia  Minor,  Macedonia,  and 
Greece,  on  to  Corinth,  where  he  stays  in  each 
place  visited,  establishing  a  church,  or  at  least 
collecting  a  nucleus  for  future  work.  After  a  fly- 
ing visit  to  Antioch,  Paul  fi.xes  for  two  years  his 
residence  in  E])hesus.  At  last  he  goes  to  Jeru- 
salem, although  warned;  is  there  arrested,  taken 
as  a  prisoner  to  Csesarasa,  thence  after  two  years 
to  Rome;  almost  shipwrecked  on  the  way.  Con- 
ference with  the  Jews  there.  Luke  abruptly 
terminates  his  book  by  Paul's  declaration  that 
the  gospel  which  the  Jews  rejected  will  be  ac- 
cepted by  the  Gentiles.  The  book's  end  in  this 
fashion  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  another 
volume  was  in  Luke's  mind:  rather  are  we  to 
see  the  completion  of  his  plan,  which  was  to 
show  to  Theophilus,  at  tlie  first  instance,  how  ill 
founded  were  the  insinuations  and  attacks  of  the 
Judaizers  against  Paul,  how  true  were  the  liberal 
doctrines  he  had  received,  and  that  Paul  was 
always  in  harmony  with  the  other  apostles  of 
Christ  and  the  majority  of  the  primitive  church. 
But  this  intention  of  the  book  is  very  dilferent 
from  thorough-going  apology.  There  is  no  war- 
rant for  the  opinion  that  there  was  in  the  apos- 
tolic Church  a  division  into  Pauline  and  Petriue 
parties;  although  it  is  true  that  there  were  Ju- 
ilaizers  who  opposed  Paul,  and  that  in  Corinth 
there  was  strife.  That  Luke,  while  noting  these, 
does  not  go  into  particulars,  was  because  his  ob- 
ject was  different.  But  this  is  quite  another 
thing  from  the  theory  held  by  the  followers  of 
Baur  and  Zeller,  that  the  sole  object  of  the  Acts 
is  to  clear  up  difficulties,  and  heal  disputes ; 
and  to  this  end  all  opposing  facts  are  carefully 
omitted,  e.g.,  the  blaming  of  Peter  at  Antioch, 
related  in  Gal.  ii.'  If  this  were  so,  then  the  Actx 
is  not  history,  but  special  pleading.  The  door  is 
open  to  the  wildest  speculation  as  to  the  character 
of  the  facts  omitted.  Paul,  as  well  as  Peter, 
loses  by  sueli  supposed  suppression. 

These  ideas  about  the  Acts  are  modern.  The 
ancient  Church  had  no  doubt  of  its  authenticity 
and  genuineness  and  consequent  canonicity.  The 
sects  which  rejected  it  did  so  from  dogmatic  mo- 
tives. And  yet,  although  acknowledged,  it  was 
little  used.  Of  this  Chrysostom  complaius.  This 
came  from  its  j)osition  in  the  canon,  between  the 
(iospels  and  the  Apostles,  i.e..  Epistles  and 
Apocalypse.       In     the    ancient    and    medisval 


'  For  tho  diHsciuin;;  vicWB  uf  Kciin  ami  Scbc-ukfl  scu  Al*os- 

TOLIC  Cue.NClL. 


Church  it  was  considered  as  the  first  chapter  of 
church  history ;  i)ut  at  the  Renaissance  the  la- 
cun(r.  \n  the  sequence  of  events  were  remarked, 
and  that  tlio  history  did  not  concern  much  el.se 
than  PetiT  and  Paul.  Grotius  considered  it  to 
be  the  jiarallel  biographies  of  the  two  founders 
of  Christianity.  The  free  handling  of  the  book 
may  be  said  to  have  begun  with  Schnecken- 
burger.  professor  at  Bern,  who  in  1841  published 
his  Ueher  ile.n  Ziceck  tier  Aposli'lr/nsc/iic/ite,  and  ad- 
vocated the  theory  that  the  author  drew  a  paral- 
hd  between  Peter  and  Paul,  matching  every  <iis- 
course  and  miracle  of  Peter  in  the  first  part  by  a 
discourse  and  miracle  of  I^iul  in  the  second  part. 
Then  came  Banr  and  his  school.  AVith  learn- 
ing and  ingenuity,  but  without  proper  fairness  of 
mind,  th<'y  attempted  to  .show  that  Luke  was  an 
unreliable  autiior,  inasmuch  as  he  was  dominated 
by  his  dogmatic  purpose,  and  therefore  made  ar- 
tificial anil  arbitrary  combinations,  —  made  Peter 
talk  like  Paul,  and  Paul  act  like  Peter;  and  so 
to  the  second  century,  when,  as  Baur  thought,  the 
work  was  written,  the  author  presented  a  picture 
of  unity  and  love,  — a  tale  of  the  heroic  age  of 
Christianity,  while  the  reality  was  quite  different. 

But  two  facts  correct  these  errors.  The  Jirsl, 
that  the  third  Gosv>el  and  the  Acts  are  from  the 
same  author,  and  therefore  his  bias  and  character 
will  be  the  same.  If  he  showed  himself  in  his 
Gospel  U)  be  fair-minded,  the  presumption  is  that 
he  will  be  the  same  in  the  Acts.  The  secoml  fact 
is  more  decisive.  The  author,  so  far  from  giving 
rein  to  his  imagination,  carefully  investigated  the 
Sources  before  he  began  his  history.  Here,  then, 
we  have  history  well  based  and  well  matured. 
The  accuracy  of  Luke  descends  to  the  minutest 
particular,  as  has  been  abundantly  verified.^ 

A  very  remarkable,  indeed  unparalleled  fea- 
ture, of  the  Acts,  is  the  use  of  the  first  person 
plural  to  denote  the  presence  of  the  author.  We 
can  thus  tell  exactly  when  Luke  began  to  travel 
with  Paul,  where  he  left  him,  and  where  he  met 
him  again.  Thus  the  we  begins  xvi.  10,  and  ends 
V.  17,  resumed  xx.  o,  and  contiimed  unto  the  end 
of  the  book.  We  can  also  detect  in  the  narrative 
the  vivacity  and  confidence  of  an  eye-witness. 

It  were,  of  course,  very  desirable  to  have  a 
twofold  history  of  the  planting  of  Christianity; 
but,  in  lack  of  this,  we  are  able  to  test  the  relia- 
bility of  Luke  by  the  study  of  contemporary  docu- 
ments. The  Apocalypse,  the  Epistle  of  James, 
and  other  Judaso-Christian  documents  prove  that 
he  reported  correctly  the  state  of  things  in  Jeru- 
salem; and  the  Epistles  of  Paul  show  how  faith- 
fully Luke  presents  the  great  apostle. 

But,  although  faithful  and  reliable,  the  Aclx 
can  make  no  pretensions  to  completeness.  The 
passing  reference  in  2  Cor.  xi.  23-33  contains 
events  not  even  hinted  at  in  tiie  Acts.    The  dis- 


^  E.g.,  The  proconsular  as  distinct  from  the  propraetorian 
status  of  Cyprus  under  Sergius  Paulus,  whose  very  name  has 
heen  recently  discovered  by  Cesnola  on  an  inscription  (.\ct3 
xiii.  7);  the  proconsular  state  of  Acbaiu  under  Gailio  (sviii. 
l:i) ;  the  Roman  colonial  dignity  of  Pbilippi  (.\vi.  12) ;  the  title 
of  "  Politarcbs  "  for  '*  Foliai-ehs"  to  the  rbessaloniau  magis- 
tracy (.\cts  xvii.  6,  S),  which  is  conlirnied  by  an  inscription  on 
an  archway  in  Tbessalonica;  the  minutely  accurate  account  of 
Ejihesus  (chap,  xix.),  as  verilied  and  illustrated  by  the  dis- 
coveries of  J.  T.  Wood,  made  between  1863  and  1ST4  {Pistor- 
eries  at  EpheituSj  London,  1877);  and  the  geographical  and 
nautical  details  in  the  account  of  Paul's  voyai^e  and  shipwreck 
(chaps,  xxvii.  and  xxviii.);  comp.  James  Smith,  The  Voyage 
and  Shipwreck,  of  St.  Paul.    4tb  ed.    London,  18S0. 


ADALBERT. 


24 


ADAM. 


pute  at  Antioch  is  not  mentioned  :  there  is  noth- 
ing about  Paul's  sojourn  in  Arabia.  These 
facts  are  not  damaging  to  tiie  historian  :  they 
only  show  that  he  wrote  his  book  with  discrimi- 
nation; and  some  of  these  events  have  an  impor- 
tance in  our  eyes  they  would  not  have  in  his.  Mis 
fragmentariness  is  therefore  no  argument  against 
his  credibility.  The  time  and  place  of  composi- 
tion was  probably  Rome,  A.D.  63.     See  Luke. 

Lit.  —  See  the  hilmiluctinna  of  Blkkk,  IIil- 
OENKELD,  D.wiDSO.v,  and  others:  also  the  com- 
mentaries on  the  book,  particularly  those  of 
Hackf.tt  and  Meyeu  ;  the  special  works  of 
B.\L'MGAUTEX  (ApostelrjesdiicJile,  1852),  and  of  Le- 
KEBUSCH  (^Die  Compoailion  u.  Entstehunq  der  Apox- 
tel qexchichle  von  neuem  unlersucht,  1854).  Dea.n 
HowsoN :  Eoidenlial  Value  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Aposilcs.     N.Y.,  1881. 

ADALBERT,  Archbishop  of  Hamburg-Bremen, 
101."i-lU7:?;  d.  at  Gosslar,  March  IG,  1072;  a 
Saxon  by  birth,  served  for  some  time  Henry  IIL 
as  his  chancellor,  and  was  by  him  made  arch- 
bishop. His  idea  was  to  form  Germany,  Eug- 
laud.  and  Scandinavia  into  a  great  northern  pa- 
triarchate, independent  of  Rome;  and  at  the 
.synod  of  Mainz  (M.ayence),  1019,  he  first  pre- 
sented his  phin  to  the  church.  Neither  Henry 
III.  nor  Leo  IX.  made  any  great  opposition  ;  but 
both  died  —  tlie  former  in  10.54,  the  latter  in 
1050  —  before  any  thing  had  been  determined. 
During  the  minority  of  Henry  IV.,  Adalbert,  as 
the  teacher  and  tutor  of  the  young  king,  became 
the  actual  ruler  of  Germany,  and  once  more  his 
northern  plans  were  taken  up.  But  in  lOGO  his 
enemies  succeeded  in  driving  him  away  from 
tlie  court,  and  he  was  even  attacked  within  the 
boundaries  of  his  own  bi.sliopric. 

Lit.  —  CoLMAR  Guli.NiiAGEN  :  Adalbert,  Leip- 
zig, 1851. 

ADALBERT  OF  PRAGUE  OVoytech,  "the 
comfort  of  the  host"),  li.  9.50;  d.  April  2;>,  997;  a 
Bohemian  by  birtli;  studied  in  Magdeburg;  w,as 
ordained  priest  in  981,  and  elected  Bishop  of 
I'rague  in  983.  He  w.as  a  severe  and  cnerg('tic 
man;  and  vehement  strife  arose  between  him  .and 
his  wild,  half-heathenish  countrymen,  especially, 
though,  because  he  was  a  stiff  representative  of 
tlie  Germano-Roman  influence,  and  opposed  to 
the  (Jreek  character  and  independent  <levelop- 
ment  of  the  Bohemian  Cliurch.  Twice  he  left  his 
see,  and  retired  to  the  Monastery  of  St.  Boniface 
in  Rome,  and  twice  he  again  returned  to  I'rague. 
Finally,  in  990.  he  went,  with  tlie  suppoit  of  the 
Duke  of  Poland,  Boleslav  Chrobry,  as  a  mission- 
ary to  the  Prussians,  but  was  killed  by  a  Pagan 
priest  before  he  had  acliieved  any  thing.  His 
title  as  the  Apostle  of  the  Prussians  is  merely 
honor.'iry. 

Lit. —  Vita  S.  Adalherli,  Aucl.  Jnh.  Canapnrin 
(999),  and  Vila  S.  Adalbi'rii,  Aurl.  linwniie  (lOO:?) 
in  Peutz  :  Man.  (Jcrm.  Script.  IV'.  531.  and  IV. 
.590;  Tounwai.dt:  Lehen  d.  h.  A'/nlherl,  in  Ill- 
gen  :   ZKil.icliriJl  f.  hist.   'J'/ifnlnr/ie,  1853. 

ADALCAR,  Archbi.shop  of  Hamburg-Bremen, 
888-909,  the;  .successor  of  Rimbi'rt,  became  in- 
volved in  a  long  controversy  witli  the  .Vrclibishop 
of  Cologne,  because,  before  the  estabbshmeiit  of 
the  metropolitan  see  of  Hamburg-MriMnen,  the 
bishopric  of  Bremen  had  formi-d  a  suffragan  see 
under  the  Aiclibishopof  Cologne;  and  us  now  the 


see  of  Hamburg-Bremen  increased  much  tlirough 
the  Scandinavian  mission,  and  the  establishment 
of  the  suffragan  sees  under  it  in  Denmark  and 
Sweden,  the  .\rchbishop  of  Cologne  claimed  his 
former  supremacy  over  the  bishopric  of  Bremen, 
The  controversy  was  carried  on  with  great  vio- 
lence, and  not  decided  in  the  time  of  Adalgar ; 
but  an  e.xhaustive  representation  of  its  course 
and  significance  is  still  wanting.  See  the  Vila 
liiinherii  in  Peutz:  Monumenia  Scrlj>l.  vol.  2; 
Adam  ok  Buemex,  etc.  C.\RL  bektheau. 

ADALHARD,  b.  751 ;  d.  June  2,  82();  a  grand- 
son  of  Charles  JIartel,  and  cousin-german  to 
Charlemagne;  was  expelled  from  the  court,  and 
sent  to  the  Monastery  of  Corbie  by  the  latter,  but 
regained  afterwards  his  confidence,  and  went  in 
790  to  Italy,  whose  government  he  administered 
till  814,  when  Louis  the  Pious  rec.-dled  him,  and 
banished  him  to  Hermontier.  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Loire.  In  821  he  returned  to  Corbie,  where  he 
died.  He  founded  Neu  Corwey  in  Westphalia, 
established  manj'  schools,  and  did  much  to  en- 
courage studies.  Of  his  works,  the  most  impor- 
tant, De  Ordine  Palalii,  is  lost,  though  large  ex- 
tracts of  it  are  given  by  Ilincinar  (0pp.  Paris, 
1045,  II.  200-215).  Ills  St<ilula  AnI.  Ablmtin 
Corb.,  dated  822.  is  found  in  D'Archkuy's 
.Spicile(i.,  I.  580-592;  and  two  letters,  dated  801 
and  814,  in  Epp.  CaraliiKc,  IV.  417. 

Lit.  —  Pascii.\sius  Radhertus,  a  pupil  of 
his:  Vila  S.  Adalhardi  in  Peutz:  Man.  Germ. 
.Script.  II.  .524. 

AD'AM  means  niati,  and  is  the  name  given  by 
God  himself  to  the  first  human  beings  (Gen.  v. 
2).  The  important  place  occupied  by  man,  ac- 
cording to  the  biblical  idea,  is  as  the  close,  the 
.appointed  climax,  of  creation.  Inaniin.ate  nature 
looked  forward  to  man.  To  liis  creation  God 
g.ave  s]iecial  care.  It  was  sufficient  for  him  to 
order  tlie  other  creatuns  into  being;  but  man 
was  moulded  by  the  divine  fingers  out  of  the  dust 
of  the  earth,  and  so  far  forth  he  belonged  to 
the  created  world  :  but  into  him  (Jod  breathed  the 
breath  of  life,  and  thus  put  him  in  an  im'"eas- 
unibly  liigher  j^hice;  for  the  possession  of  ihis 
breatii  made  liim  the  "image"  of  (Jod.  What 
this  "image "was  ^ve  loam  from  the  Bible  (Gen. 
i.  20,  ii.  7)  :  it  was  likeness  to  flod  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  tlie  creatures  and  the  jjosscssion  of 
the  same  spirit.  See  I.m.vge.  (Jod,  the  aUsolute 
]>crsonality.  reflects  himself  in  man.  and  therefore 
the  latter  liecoines  the  lord  of  creati(jn.  Adam 
was  the  representative  of  the  race,  —  humanity 
in  person.  Opposite  to  the  species  and  genera  of 
beasts,  stood  the  single  man.  He  was  not  a  male, 
still  less  a  wife-man:  he  was  man.  Out  of  him, 
as  the  progi'iiitor  of  the  nice.  Eve  was  taken. 
But  we  do  not  comprehend  his  true  position  until 
we  look  at  him  in  relation  to  Christ,  the  second 
man,  as  we  find  it  most  ele:irly  exjircssed  in  Rom. 
V.  12  sr]q.;  1  Cor.  XV.  21-22,  45-19.  By  his  fall, 
sin  and  death  entereil  into  the  world,  altlioiigh  we 
had  not  piTsonally  any  thing  to  do  with  it;  and 
more,  condemnation  has  come  upon  all  through 
him.  But  from  the  second  Adam  has  come  just 
the  opposite,  —  righteousness,  justilioation,  and 
life,  'i'hose  who  by  .sin  are  united  to  the  first 
.■\dam  reap  all  the  con.scqueiK^es  of  siieh  a  union; 
similarly  do  those  who  by  faith  are.  niiitjMl  to  the 
second  .\dani.     Kach  is  a  representative  head. 


ADAM. 


25 


ADAMS. 


Adam  lived  to  be  nine  hundred  and  tliirty 
years  old,  and  died  the  father  of  sons  and  daugh- 
ters, although  mention  is  made  of  only  three  sons 
(Gen.  V.  4). 

Materialism  sees  in  man  a  mere  product  of 
n.ature.  It  is  difficult  to  see  how  it  makes  place 
for  self-consciousness.  The  unity  of  the  race  is 
also  given  up;  and  so  logically  Darwinism  leads 
to  belief  in  a  plurality  of  race-stems.  Theology, 
on  the  other  hand,  holds  fast  to  the  person- 
ality of  man,  but  has,  from  the  beginning  of 
the  science,  wavered  in  regard  to  the  position 
Adam  occupied  toward  the  race.  The  oldest 
Greek  fathers  are  silent  over  this  point.  Ire- 
npeus  is  the  first  to  touch  it;  and  he  maintains  that 
the  first  sin  was  the  sin  of  the  race,  since  Adam 
was  its  head.  Origen,  on  the  other  hand,  held 
that  man  sinned  because  he  had  abused  his  lib- 
erty when  in  a  pre-existent  state.  In  Adam  semi- 
iially  were  the  bodies  of  all  his  descendants 
{Contra  Celsum  IV.  cf.  Kahnis,  Dor/innlik  II.  p. 
107  sq.).  Gregory  Nazianzen  and  Gregory  of 
Nyssa,  and  Chry30stom,  deduce  sin  from  the  fall. 
Tertullian.  Cyprian,  Hilary,  Ambrose,  and  Au- 
gustine represent  the  biblical  stand-point.  Pela- 
gius  saw  in  Adam  only  a  bad  example,  which 
his  descendants  followed.  Semi-Pelagianism 
similarly  regarded  the  first  sin  as  opening  the 
flood-gates  to  iniquity;  but  Augustinianism  upon 
this  point  has  dominated  the  Church  since  it 
was  formulated, — in  Adam  the  race  sinned. 

[The  two  prominent  orthodox  views  are  :  (1) 
The  Augiistinian,  known  as  Itealimn,  is,  that  there 
was  a  real  though  impersonal  and  unconscious 
participation  of  the  whole  human  race  in  the  fall 
of  Adam,  their  natural  head,  who  by  his  indi- 
vidual transgression  vitiated  the  generic  human 
nature,  and  transmitted  it  in  this  corrupt  and 
guilty  state  to  his  descendants  by  ordinary  gen- 
eration. He  sinned  as  an  individual  and  as 
7nankiinl.  This  view  is  taught  by  Anselm,  Peter 
Lombard,  Thomas  Aquinas,  Luther,  Melancli- 
thon,  and  Calvin.  (2)  The  Federal  theory  of  the 
Dutch  divines  Cocceius  and  Witsius  is,  that  the 
representation  of  mankind  by  Adam  was  vicari- 
ous and  in  virtue  of  a  covenant.  This  is  the 
theory  of  Turrettin  and  the  Princeton  theolo- 
gians.    See  Imputation  and  Okiuin.\l  Six. 

Lit.  —  The  Works  of  Augustine  ;  Anselm  : 
De  Cunceplu  Virylnale  et  Oriy.  Peccato ;  Tur- 
rettin ;  Pres.  Edwards  :  Original  Sin  in 
Works,  ii.  303-583 ;  Julius  Muller  :  Origin 
of  Sin.  Translated,  Edin.,  1S68 ;  Charles 
Hodge  :  Essays,  1  vol.,  and  T/ieoloyy,  3  vols. 
S.\MUEL  Baird  :  The  First  Adam  and  the  Second. 
Phil.  1800.]  BUCHRUCKER. 

ADAM,  Melchior,  b.  at  Grotkau  in  Silesia; 
d.  at  Heidelberg,  March  23,  1622,  as  rector  of 
the  city-college  ;  published  between  1615  and 
1620  a  series  of  biographies,  a  hundred  and 
thirty-six  in  number,  mostly  of  German  scholars, 
especially  theologians,  which  in  1653  appeared 
at  Frankfort  in  a  collected  edition  in  five  vol- 
umes, under  the  title,  Diynorum  Laude  Virorum 
immorlalilas. 

ADAM  OF  BREMEN  (d.  about  1076),  the  old- 
est historian  of  Northern  Germany,  is,  according 
to  general  acceptance,  the  name  of  the  author  of 
the  history  of  the  Archbishops  of  Hamburg- 
Bremen  to  the  death  of  .Adalbert  in  1072.     From 


the  work  itself  it  appears  that  the  name  of  the 
author  begins  with  an  .\,  that  he  came  to  Bremen 
in  1008.  and  was  a|ipointed  first  ecclesiw  matricu- 
taritis,  then  canoniciis,  and  that  he  wrote  his  work 
between  1072  and  1076.  This  work  is  the  Gesia 
Hnmmenburyensls  (Hinnhuryensis)  ICcclesiie  I'ontiji- 
cum,  quoted  by  llehnold,  and  by  him  ascribed  to 
Mayister  Adam.  It  is  a  most  valualjle  source  of 
early  Scandinavian  ecclesiastical  history.  Best 
edition  bv  Lai>i>enberg.  in  Pertz:  Mon.  VII. 

ADAMOF  ST.  VICTOR,  the  greatest  Latin  poet 
of  the  middle  age;  l>.  in  England  or  Brittany; 
entered  about  1130  the  abbey  of  St.  Victor,  Paris; 
d.  there  about  1192.  His  poetical  works  were 
called  Sequences,  and  are  remarkable  for  their 
melody,  variety  of  metres,  theological  and  biblical 
lore,  sustained  power  of  the  imagination,  sublimi- 
ty of  diction,  and  fervent  piety.  His  faults  are 
fondness  for  paronomasia,  alliteration,  and  typical 
application  of  tlie  Old  Testament.  The  first 
complete  edition  of  his  poems  w.as  issued  by  L. 
Gautier  (Paris,  1858-59,  2  vols.),  who  prefaced 
them  by  .an  exhaustive  essay  upon  Adam's  life 
and  works.  Kev.  Digby  S.  Wrangham's  transla- 
tion, The  Lituryical  Poetry  of  Ailam  of  St.  Victor 
(London,  1881,  3  vols.),  is  the  first  complete  one 
in  English. 

ADAMANNUS,  or  ADAMNANUS,  b.  iit  Drum- 
hone  in  Ireland,  624,  of  the  same  lineage  as  St 
Columba;  d.  at  Hy,  Sept.  23,  704;  w.as  chosen 
abbot  in  679 ;  visited  King  Aldfrid  of  Northum- 
bria  in  688,  and  was,  during  this  visit,  converted 
by  Ceolfrid,  abbot  of  Jarrow,  to  the  Roman  views 
of  the  tonsure  and  the  celebration  of  Easter:  tried 
in  vain  to  introduce  these  views  in  Hy.  Of  his 
works  are  still  extant,  De  Locis  Sanctis,  in  Mabil- 
LO.v :  Act.  Sand.  III.  part  II.  p.  502;  and  I'ita 
S.  Cnlumlxc,  edited  liy  William  Reeves,  Edin.,  1876. 

ADAMITES,  or  ADAMIANI,  a  sect  which  ori- 
ginated in  Northern  Africa  during  the  second 
and  third  centuries,  and  meant  to  restore  primi- 
tive innocence  by  introducing  nudity  of  both  the 
sexes  into  their  worship  (Epiphanius:  Hcer., 
III.  458  sq.).  The  same  custom,  under  the  same 
name,  appeared  also  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
among  the  Beghards,  or  Brethren  of  the  Free 
Spirit,  in  Bohemia ;  but  the  sect  was  relentlessly 
persecuted  by  the  Hussite  chief  Zisca.  It  re- 
appeared in  1781  and  in  1849,  after  the  proclam.a- 
tion  of  edicts  of  toleration,  but  was  suppressed 
by  the  Austrian  Government. 

ADAMS,  Thomas,  a  Puritan  commentator  and 
preacher.  The  time  of  his  birth  and  death  is 
unknown,  and  only  a  few  scattered  references  of 
his  lite  have  come  down  to  us.  He  was  preach- 
ing in  Bedfordshire  in  1612,  afterwards  in  vari- 
ous localities  ;  was  in  1653  a  "  decrepit  and  neces- 
sitous "  old  man,  yet  living  in  16.58.  Southey 
called  him  "  the  prose  Shakspeare  of  the  Puri- 
tan theologians  ;  "  and  a  writer  in  the  Encyclopm- 
dia  Britannica  (ninth  edition)  says  of  him,  "  His 
sermons  place  him  in  the  van  of  the  preachers 
of  England.  Jeremy  Taylor  does  not  surpass 
him  in  brilliance  of  fancies,  nor  Thomas  Fuller 
in  wit.  His  numerous  works  display  great  learn- 
ing, and  are  unique  in  their  abundance  of  stories, 
anecdotes,  aphorisms,  and  puns."  See  Works, 
London,  1630,  folio ;  Exposition  of  Second  Peter, 
London.  1633,  folio.  Edited  by  Rev.  James  Sher- 
man, Loudon,  1839,  reprint  in  Nichol's  Commen- 


ADAMS. 


26 


ADIAPHORA. 


laries,  1862.  Collected  edition  of  his  irorAvs,  with 
memoir,  edited  by  Rev.  Drs.  Joseph  Angus  and 
Thomas  Smith,  London,  1862,  3  vols. 

ADAMS,  William,  b.  Colchester,  Conn.,  Jan.  25, 
1807  :  d.  Orange  Mountain,  N.J.,  Tuesday,  Auj. 
31,  1880.  He  was  prepared  for  college  under  his 
father,  Jolm  Adams,  LL.D.,  principal  of  Pliillips 
Academy,  Andover,  and  graduated  with  honors 
from  Yale  College,  1827,  and  at  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  1830.  He  was  pastor  of  the 
Congregational  Socijty  of  Brighton,  IMass.,  from 
February,  1831  to  1834,  when  he  was  called  to 
the  Broome-street  (Central)  Presbyterian  Church 
of  New- York  city.  His  success  here  was  remark 
able.  He  gathered,  in  the  course  of  his  twenty 
years  of  service,  a  very  large  congregation,  out  of 
which  was  formed  in  185:5  the  Madison-square 
Presbyterian  Church,  whose  new  edifice  was 
opened  in  November,  1854.  His  church  was  one 
of  the  most  influential  in  the  city,  and  he  was 
regarded  as  the  leading  Presbyterian  pastor  in 
the  country.  In  1873  he  became  president  of  the 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  and  professor  of 
sacred  rhetoric.  He  occupied  this  position  with 
distinguished  ability  and  success  till  his  death. 
In  18.52  lie  was  chosen  moderator  of  the  New 
School  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  and  was  very  active  in  bringing  about 
the  re-union  of  the  New  and  Old  School  branches. 
He  will  be  long  remembered  as  a  fervent,  elo- 
quent, and  persuasive  preacher  of  the  Word;  as 
a  faithful,  aifectionate,  and  jirudent  pastor  ;  as  a 
dignified,  learned,  and  efficient  presiding  officer, 
and  as  a  Christian  gentleman  of  the  liighest 
type.  He  had  a  remarkably  symmetrical  char- 
acter. His  personal  appearance  was  command- 
ing, and  at  once  indicated  him  as  a  prince 
among  men.  "  He  was  greater  than  any  thing 
that  he  did."  He  wrote  much  for  the  reli- 
gious press,  and  issued  the  following  volumes : 
The  Three  Gardens,  Eden,  (Jethsemane,  and  Para- 
dise ;  or,  Man\i  Ruin,  Redemption,  and  Restora- 
tion (N.Y.,  1856);  an  edition  of  Isaac  Taylor's 
Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,  with  a  biographical  in- 
troduction (18G1)  ;  Thanlsi/ivln/; :  Memories  of  the 
Day  and  Helps  to  the  Haliit\lS()'))  ;  In  the  World, 
and  not  of  the  World  (1867) ;  Conversations  of 
Jesus  Chriit  with  Representative  Men  (18(i8).  Per- 
haps the  most  admired  single  effort  of  his  life 
was  the  Address  of  Welcome  to  the  members 
of  the  conference  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance 
Oct.  2,  1873,  a  model  of  its  kind.  He  was  to 
perform  a  similar  service  at  the  General  Council 
of  the  Hefornied  churches,  wliich  met  in  Phila- 
delphia a  few  weeks  after  his  death. 

ADAMSON,  Patrick,  a  Scottish  prelate,  b.  in 
Pertli,  .March  lo,  1543;  d.  in  St.  Andrews,  Feb. 
10,  1592.  He  was  maih;  .Vrclibishop  of  St.  An- 
drews in  October,  1.576,  although  previously  a 
strenuous  opponent  of  prelacy,  saymg,  "  Tliere 
were  three  sorts  of  bishops,  —  my  lonl-bishop,  my 
lord's  bishop,  and  the  ]>ord's  bishoji.  My  lord- 
bishop  was  m  tilt;  jiapistry ;  my  lord's  bishop  is 
now,  wlien  my  lord  gets  the  V)enefice,  and  the 
bishop  serves  for  nothing  but  to  make  his  title 
sure ;  and  tlie  I.,ord's  bishoji  is  tlie  true  minister 
of  God."  His  oppressive  mi^iisures  brought  him 
endless  trouble.  He  was  excommunicated  by  a 
provincial  .synod,  and  only  absolved  on  submis- 
«ion.    At  length,  in  1588,  his  iirchiepiscopal  reve- 


nues were  withdrawn,  and  henceforward  he  lived 
on  charity. 

ADDAI,  one  of  the  seventy-two,  who,  accord- 
ing to  a  legend  dating  from  the  second  half  of  the 
second  century,  was  sent  to  King  Abgar  in  Edessa, 
where  he  preached,  baptized,  and  founded  the 
fii'st  Christian  congregation.  See  Georgk  Phil- 
lips :  The  Doctrine  of  Addai,  London,  1876.  con- 
taining the  Syriac  text,  with  an  English  transla- 
tion and  notes.     See  Abgarus. 

ADDISON,  Joseph,  the  essayist  and  hymn- 
writer,  b.  at  Milston,  May  1,  1672;  d.  at  Holland 
House,  London,  June  17,  1719.  He  was  a  son  of 
the  Dean  of  Lichfield,  a  fellow  of  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford,  from  1699  to  1711.  during  which 
time,  however,  lie  travelled  on  the  continent,  and 
held  various  official  appointments.  He  had  in- 
tended to  enter  the  Church ;  but  his  employment 
as  a  AVhig  writer  altered  liis  mind,  and  he  rose  to 
the  distinction  of  Secretary  of  State  for  a  brief 
jieriod.  In  April,  1709,  Steele  started  the  Taller ; 
for  this  Addison  wrote,  but  his  fame  is  indissolu- 
bly  linked  with  the  Spectator.  In  the  two,  and 
their  successor  the  Guardian,  appeared  the  essays 
afterwards  published  together  under  the  title. 
Evidences  of  the  Christian  Religion,  London,  1790. 
He  also  wrote  several  excellent  hymns.  He 
presented  to  the  age  the  rare  picture  of  a  Chris- 
tian statesman.  The  best  edition  of  his  works 
is  by  Bisho]i  Ilurd,  London,  1811,  6  vols.  8vo. 

ADELBERT,  or  ALDEBERT,  the  powerful  ad- 
versary of  St.  Boniface,  and  leader  of  a  national 
party  in  the  Cliurch  of  the  Prankish  Empire, 
opposed  to  the  introduction  of  the  Roman  consti- 
tution and  the  Romish  liierarchy,  and  supported 
by  the  people,  the  native  clerg\',  and  Carloman. 
Boniface  denounced  him  as  a  Leretic,  ami  sedu- 
cer of  the  people,  accused  him  of  the  grossest 
frauds,  and  brought  him,  in  744,  before  a  synod 
in  .Soissons,  which  condemned  him.  This  con- 
demnation, however,  raised  such  a  storm  of  indig- 
nation, that  the  verdict  remained  a  dead  letter; 
but  the  next  year  Boniface  sent  the  priest  Dene- 
ard  to  Rome,  to  Pope  Zacharias,  with  a  formal 
accusation,  and  documents  of  evidence,  A  coun- 
cil was  held  in  the  I.,ateran,  in  October,  745;  and 
Deneard  appeared  before  it  as  jirosecutor.  Adel- 
bert  was  not  sunnnoned,  nor  was  any  investiga- 
tion instituted,  as  the  jirotocols  still  r'xtant 
evince;  but  he  was,  nevertheless,  unanimously 
condemned  as  a  new  Simon  Magus.  This  time 
too,  however,  the  verdict  seems  to  have  been 
witliout  effect :  for  two  years  later  on,  in  January, 
747,  we  hear  Boniface  and  the  ]i02ie  speak  of 
having  Adelbert  placed  before  a  new  council. 
Perhaps  Carloman,  in  spite  of  his  friendship 
with  Boniface,  still  continued  to  shelter  Adel- 
bert. It  is  at  all  events  a  suggestive  fact,  tliat 
Boniface  triumi>hed,  and  Adelbert  vanished  im- 
mediately after  the  abdication  of  Carloman,  when 
Pepin  became  major  domus  alone. 

Lit. — Uonifacii  Epist.  in  Monumenta  Mofpm- 
lina,  Bibl.  Rer.  Germ.  Tom.  HI. ;  Wehnkk  : 
Jlnni/acius  und  die  Romanisiruny  von  Mitteleurojia, 
187.5,  p.  281  sq.  A.  WEKNEIi. 

ADEODATUS,  Bishop  of  Rome  from  Ajiril, 
072.  In  .Tinii',  676.  Two  letters  of  liis  are  extant 
(M.\Nsr:   Caiiril.,  Tom.  XL,  p.  103). 

ADIAPHORA  (things  indijkrcnt).  The  idea  of 
adiaphora,  thing.'!  indifferent  to  moral  laws,  ori- 


ADIAPHORA. 


27 


ADOPTION. 


filiated  with  the  Stoics.  They  found  between 
virtue  and  vice  a  large  field,  lioth  of  objective 
conditions  and  subjective  actions,  which  were 
neitlier  good  nor  bad,  but  indiiferent,  media, 
neutra,  u6ia(popa ;  as,  for  instance,  to  have  an  equal 
or  unequal  number  of  hairs  on  the  head,  to 
raise  the  finger  in  this  way  or  that,  etc. 

In  the  Bible  the  idea  is  indirectly  rejected, 
tiiough  in  a  different  way,  by  the  Old  and  the 
New  Testament.  The  Old  Testament,  whicli 
declares  it  as  great  a  sin  to  worship  Uod  in  an 
illegal  form  as  to  worship  an  idol,  can,  of  course, 
not  acknowledge  the  existence  of  any  thing  in- 
different to  the  law ;  but,  in  accoi'dance  with  its 
jiedagogical  character,  it  endeavors  to  answer 
this  question  in  details,  commanding  and  for- 
bidding in  each  special  case  as  it  occurs  in  prac- 
tical life.  The  New  Testament  gives  no  such 
prescrijitions;  but  the  idea  of  adiaphora  is  there 
absolutely  e.\cluded  by  the  ideas  of  the  kingdom 
of  heaven,  the  perfection  of  man  in  Christ,  the 
"Christ  in  me,"  thougli  at  tlie  same  time  it 
gives  complete  liberty :  "  unto  the  pure  all  things 
are  pure"  (Tit.  i.  15). 

In  the  Roman  Church,  in  the  middle  ages,  the 
idea  gradually  acquired  great  practical  impor- 
tance. By  tlie  doctrines  of  opera  superero</aloria, 
saints,  etc.,  a  distinction  was  established  between 
that  which  was  necessary  for  the  Christian  hero 
and  that  which  was  necessary  for  tlie  ordinary 
Christian ;  and  by  this  distinction  the  whole 
system  of  Christian  morals  was  put  out  of 
tune.  Theoretically  the  question  was  discussed 
by  the  Thomists  (who  accepted  the  doctrine  of 
adiaphora  m  abstrado,  but  rejected  it  in  concreto) 
and  the  Scotists,  who  thought  that  there  existed  a 
whole  sphere  in  human  life  which  had  nothing  at 
all  to  do  with  morality.  Finally  it  found  a  most 
lamentable  solution  in  the  casuistry  of  the  Jesuits. 

The  Reformation  was  in  this  point,  as  in  so 
many  others,  simply  a  return  to  the  stand-point 
of  the  New  Testament.  On  account,  however, 
of  the  character  which  the  Reformation  very 
early  assumed  in  Germany,  it  is  not  to  be  won- 
dered at  that  the  first  so-called  adiaphoristic 
controversy  should  turn  upon  a  point,  not  of 
morals,  but  of  doctrine.  Against  the  Augsburg 
Interim,  which  satisfied  the  Protestants  as  little 
.as  the  Romanists,  Melanchthou,  Bugenhagen,  and 
others  drew  up  the  so-called  Leipzig  Interim 
(1548),  in  which  several  doctrinal  and  liturgical 
points  were  yielded  as  adiaphora.  This  roused 
the  indignation  of  the  extreme  Lutherans.  —  Fla- 
cius,  Westphal,  and  others ;  and  a  vehement  con- 
troversy broke  out,  which,  however,  lost  its  im- 
portance by  the  peace  of  1555  and  the  Formula 
Concordice. 

The  second  adiaphoristic  controversy,  on  the 
contrary,  which  forms  a  chapter  of  the  history 
of  pietism,  touches  the  very  centre  of  Chi-istian 
ethics.  Spener  protested  that  "a  Christian  shall 
do  nothing  which  he  cannot  do  to  the  glory  of 
God,  in  the  name  of  Christ,  and  for  the  benefit 
of  his  fellow-Christian."  There  are  consequently 
no  adiaphora ;  and  such  things  as  dancing,  play- 
ing cards,  visiting  theatres,  etc.,  must  be  repu- 
diated as  sin.  The  fanaticism  with  which 
Spener's  disciples  followed  out  this  principle 
called  forth  an  equally  passionate  re-action  ;  but 
the  controversy  led  to  no  result.     The  question 


ma»,  oe  said  to  be  still  under  debate;  though  the 
true  basis  for  its  solution  seems  to  have  been 
found  by  the  latest  writers  on  evangelical  moral.s, 
Rothe,  Schmid,  Martcusen,  etc.  Somewhat  after 
the  example  of  Thomas  Aquinas,  the  existence 
of  adiaphora  is  here  accepted  in  (ihslracio,  but 
rejected  in  concreto:  because  the  individuality, 
character,  and  mental  state  of  a  person,  at  every 
moment,  necessitates  a  yes  or  no,  for  which  he 
feels  re.sponsible  in  his  conscience,  even  in  cases 
and  with  respect  to  things  which  objectively  lie 
outside  of  the  moral  law.  UOBERT  KL'UEL. 

ADO,  b.  about  800,  in  the  neighborliood  of 
Sens;  d.  at  Vienne,  Dec.  IfJ,  874;  Archbishop 
of  Vienne  since  860;  was  considered  one  of  the 
principal  supports  of  the  papal  hierarchy  in 
Southern  France,  and  wrote  a  Marlyroloyiutn, 
edited  by  Dan.  Georgi,  Rome,  1745;  aiid  a 
Breriarium  Chronicorum  de  six  Munili  jElalibus 
(Ba.sel,  1.568;  Pkrtz  :  Monum.  II.,  31.5),  from 
the  creation  to  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century, 
consisting  mostly  of  extracts  from  known  sources. 

ADON'AI  (my  Lord),  a  Hebrew  name  of  God 
in  the  Old  Testament.  The  Jews  pronounced 
the  tetragram  Y  H  W  II  by  giving  to  it  the 
vowels  of  Adonai.  The  pronunciation  Jehooah 
resulting  is  never  heard  among  the  Jews,  and 
dates  from  the  sixteenth  century  among  the 
Christians.     See  Jehov.\h. 

ADONI'JAH  {mil  Lord  is  Jehovah).  The  fourth 
son  of  David  by  Haggith,  born  at  Hebron,  heir- 
presumptive  after  the  death  of  his  three  elder 
brothers  ("2  Sam.  iii.  4).  For  pushing  his  claims 
(1  Kings  i.)  when  .Solomon  had  been  designated, 
he  came  near  losing  his  life,  but  was  pardoned 
(1  Kings  i.  52),  and  might  have  lived  in  security, 
but  for  his  asking  the  hand  of  Abishag  :  this 
being  construed  as  a  fresh  attempt  upon  the 
throne,  he  was  put  to  death  (1  Kings  ii.  "25). 

ADOPTION.  1.  Bihiica,.  The  biblico-theo- 
logical  term  for  the  act  which  restores  the  normal 
condition  of  the  sinner  to  God  is  adoption  :  the 
persons  adopted  are  called  the  "children."  or 
"  sons,"  of  God.  This  idea  is  not  original  with 
the  New  Testament,  but  is  found  in  the  Old 
(Deut.  xiv.  1),  although  the  pious  Israelite  re- 
garded himself  rather  as  the  servant  than  the 
son  of  God.  In  the  New  Testament,  however, 
the  idea  is  found  very  clearly  expressed  by  John 
in  his  Gospel  (i.  12)  and  in  his  first  Epistle  (iii.  1 
sq.),  where  the  term  is  not  a  mere  figurative  ex- 
pression, but,  in  closest  connection  with  his  con- 
cept of  the  Christian  life,  is  the  designation  of  a 
mystical  yet  real  fact.  The  child  of  God,  through 
God's  love  (iii.  1),  is  operated  upon  by  the  Di- 
vine Spirit,  and  so  raised  out  of  his  inigodly 
state  into  that  of  divine  grace  (iii.  6).  Paul  is 
equally  clear,  although  he  adopts  a  different 
mode  of  representation.  The  sinner  is  first  par- 
doned, delivered  from  the  bondage  of  sin,  made 
a  new  creature  (Eph.  iv.  24)  by  the  action  of  the 
Spirit  (2  Cor.  i.  22),  and  then  he  is  called  a  son, 
or  child,  of  God  :  he  receives  the  assurance  of 
adoption  (Rom.  viii.  15,  16);  and,  instead  of  fear, 
he  has  a  great  love  of  God  as  his  Father  in 
heaven,  and  follows  God  (Eph.  v.  1),  inspired  by 
a  hope  which  renders  him  patient  in  tribulation 
(Rom.  viii.  17,  18).  According,  then,  to  John, 
the  Christian  life  from  its  very  hei/inning  is  the 
life  of  one  who  is  born  of  God,  is  his  child,  while. 


ADOPTION. 


28 


ADOPTIONISM. 


according  to  Paul,  the  adoption  takes  place  in 
the  course  of  the  Christian's  upbuilding  for  eter- 
nity. In  the  rest  of  the  New  Testament,  while 
the  idea  is  found,  it  is  not  set  forth  with  such  doc- 
trinal precision  as  demands  particular  attention. 
2.  Theoloijical.  The  Church  doctrine  distin- 
guishes the  Johannean  idea  of  "  being  born  of 
God  "  as  the  starting-point  of  the  new  life,  from 
the  Pauline  idea  of  "  adoption  "  as  its  essential 
point.  The  first  idea,  theology  calls  reqenera- 
tion.  Our  attention  will  therefore  be  limited  to 
the  second.  In  ascetic  literature,  adoption,  the 
sonship  of  the  believer,  plays  a  very  prominent 
part.  The  fathers  regard  adoption  generally  as 
a  magical  effect  of  baptism,  and  derive  many  illus- 
trations of  it  from  Roman  jurisprudence.  Thus 
Clement  of  Alexandria  (Aerf.  1,  6).  This  be- 
came the  doctrine  of  the  Greek  Church.  [See 
The  Orthodox  Confession  of  the  Eastern  Church, 
Q.  c.  II.  in  Schaff's  Creeds  of  Christendom,Vo\.  II. 
p.  376.]  In  the  Roman-Catholic  Church,  on  ac- 
count of  the  prevailing  semi-pelagian  denial  of 
the  free  grace  of  God  and  identification  of  justi- 
fication and  sanctification,  the  joyful  state  of 
sonship  with  God  has  not  been  clearly  compre- 
hended, suppressed,  as  its  experience  must  be, 
by  the  wearisome  self-denials  and  works  of  satis- 
faction and  penance.  Hence  the  Roman  Church 
denies  that  the  subject  can  be  certain  of  his  justi- 
fication, and,  consequently,  of  his  being  in  a  state 
of  grace.  Thus  Council  of  Trent,  iVss.  6,  c.  i). 
[Schaffs  Creeds  of  Christendom,  Vol.  II.  pp.  98-9.] 
"  No  one  can  know,  with  a  certainty  of  faith 
which  cannot  be  subject  to  error,  that  he  has 
obtained  the  grace  of  God."  Inasmuch  as  bap- 
tism is  regarded  as  imprinting  the  spiritual  birth 
in  the  form  of  an  indelible  character,  and  as 
working,  not  alone  the  remission  of  original  sin 
and  actual  guilt,  however  enormo\is,  but  a  posi- 
tive infusion  of  grace  ex  opere  operato  (through  the 
act  performed),  it  is  furtlier  regarded  as  render- 
ing the  subject  a  child  of  God.  Catechism  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  [translated  by  Rev.  J.  Donovan. 
Baltimore,  n.d.,  pp.  127,  130].  In  the  Protestant 
Church  opinions  have  varied.  The  older  Lutheran 
divines  preferred  to  treat  adoption  in  connec- 
tion with  baptism.  Regeneration  and  adoption, 
as  also  justification,  they  taught,  involve  each 
other.  Adoption  follows  justification.  Rut,  after 
pietism  entered  the  Church,  th(?  Lutlieran  came 
nearer  to  the  Reformed  type,  and  tlie  doctrine 
of  regeneration  underwent  a  material  change  : 
so  that,  from  being  regarded  as  only  a  form 
of  justification,  it  was  hold  that  it  not  only 
precedes  it,  but,  as  the  first  effect  of  operating 
grace,  takes  its  place.  The  Reformed  theologians 
distinguish  theoretically,  though  not  ]iractically. 
regeneration  and  adoption  ;  and  the  latter  is  ani- 
matedly discus.sed,  because  much  stress  is  laid 
upon  personal  assurance  of  salvation.  The  adop- 
tion of  the  Old  Testament  saints  is  taught.  The 
Methodists  (e.g.,  Wesley,  Watson)  teach  the  Re- 
formed doctrine,  jiutting  jiarticular  value  upon 
repentance  and  the  inner  testimony  of  conversion. 
One  of  the  .services  Schleiermacher  performed  was 
to  restore  adoption,  which  had  become  synony- 
mous with  the  firm  lK)j)e  of  eternal  life,  unto  its 
proper  place.  He  said,  "It  is  not  po.ssible  for 
Christ  to  live  in  us,  uide.ss  we  are  in  the  same 
relation  to  the   Father,  and  consequently  share 


in  his  sonship,  which  is  the  power,  originating 
in  him,  to  become  the  sons  of  God :  and  this  in- 
cludes the  guaranty  of  sanctification  ;  for  it  is 
the  right  of  sonship  to  be  brought  up  in  the  full- 
est household  liberty ;  and  the  law  of  nature  is, 
that  the  community  of  life  develops  in  the  child 
likeness  to  the  father."  For  a  recent  carrying- 
out  of  Schleiermacher's  ideas,  see  A.  Schweizek  : 
Christliche  Glaubenslehre,  11.  2,  p.  236  sq.  It  is 
undeniable  that  there  are  treasures  Ufion  this 
subject  which  lie  as  yet  buried  in  the  Scriptures. 
Theology  should  bring  tliem  out.  guder. 

The  Weslminstfr  Shorter  Catechism  defines  adop- 
tion as  the  act  of  God's  grace,  whereby  we  are 
received  into  the  number,  and  have  a  right 
to  all  the  privileges,  of  the  sons  of  God.  Its 
position  in  the  scheme  of  salvation,  Calvinis- 
tically  conceived,  is  brought  out  very  clearly 
by  Professor  A.  A.  Hodge,  in  his  Outlines  of 
Theolof/i/,  p.  516.  revised  edition.  New  York,  1879. 
'■  Regeneration  is  an  act  of  God  originating  by 
a  new  creation  a  new  spiritual  life  in  the  heart 
of  the  subject.  The  first  and  instant  act  of  that 
new  creature,  consequent  upon  his  regeneration, 
is  faith,  or  a  believing,  trusting  embrace  of  tlie 
jierson  and  work  of  Christ.  Upon  the  exercise 
of  faith  by  the  regenerated  subject,  justification 
is  the  instant  act  of  God,  on  the  ground  of  that 
perfect  righteousness  which  the  sinner's  faith  has 
apprehended,  declaring  him  to  be  free  from  all 
condemnation,  and  to  have  a  legal  right  to  the 
relations  .and  benefits  secured  by  the  covenant 
which  Christ  has  fulfilled  in  his  behalf.  Sancti- 
fication is  the  progressive  growth  towards  the 
perfected  maturity  of  that  new  life  which  was 
implanted  in  regeneration.  Adoption  presents 
the  new  creature  in  his  new  relation,  his  new 
relations  entered  upon  with  a  congenial  heart, 
and  his  new  life  developing  in  a  congenial  home, 
and  surrounded  with  those  relations  which  foster 
its  growth,  and  crown  it  with  blessedness.  Jus- 
tification is  wholly  forensic,  and  concerns  only 
relations,  immunities,  and  rights.  Regeneration 
and  sanctification  are  w  holly  spiritual  and  moral, 
and  concern  only  inherent  qualities  and  states. 
Adoption  comprehends  the  complex  condition  of 
the  believer  as  at  once  the  subject  of  both."  The 
Arminian  view  is  expressed  by  Richard  Watson, 
Theological  Institutes,  Part  II.,  chaj).  24  (New- 
York  edition,  \>.  209).  "  Adoption  is  the  second 
concomitant  of  ju.stification,  an<l  is  that  act  by 
which  we  who  were  alienated,  enemies,  disinher- 
ited, are  made  the  .sons  of  God,  and  heirs  of  his 
eternal  glory.  To  this  state  belong  freedom 
from  a  servile  spirit,  the  special  love  of  God  our 
heavenly  Father,  a  filial  confidence  in  him,  free 
access  to  liiin  at  all  times  and  in  all  circum- 
stances, the  title  to  the  heavenly  inlieritance.  and 
the  spirit  of  adoption,  or  the  witness  of  the  Holy 
S]iirit  to  our  adoption,  wliich  is  the  foundation  of 
all  the  comfort  we  can  derive  from  those  privi- 
leges, as  it  is  the  only  means  by  which  we  can 
know  that  they  are  ours  .  .  .  from  it  Hows  a 
comfortable  persuasion  or  conciclion  of  our  present 
acce]itance  with  (iod,  and  the  hniie  of  our  future 
and  I'tcTiiiil  i;lcprv." 

ADOPTIONISM,  ADOPTIONISTS  (Adoplinni, 
Ailoptini),  a  lieresy  and  sect,  which,  in  tlii>  latter 
part  of  the  eighth  century,  produced  considera- 
ble   commotion    in    the    -Spanish    and    Prankish 


ADOPTIONISM. 


29 


ADRIAN. 


churches.  A  certain  Migetius  who  preached  in 
that  part  of  Spain  whicli  was  liehl  by  the  Moors, 
and  where  the  Christian  Ciiurcli  consequently 
stood  in  a  very  loose  connection  witli  Rome,  gave 
a  very  gross  exposition  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
holy  Trinity;  teaching  tliat  there  were  three  per- 
sons bodily,  and  a  triple  manifestation  in  history, 
of  the  one  God.  Against  him  Kliiiandus,  Arch- 
bishop of  Toledo,  wrote  a  letter  vindicating  the 
orthodox  idea  of  tlie  immanence  of  the  Trinity, 
but  at  the  same  time  establishing  a  very  sharp 
distinction  between  the  second  person  of  the 
Trinity  and  the  human  nature  of  Christ.  Ac- 
cording to  his  divine  nature,  Elipandus  said, 
Christ  is  the  true  son  of  God,  —  "I  and  tlie 
Father  are  one;"  but,  according  to  his  human 
nature,  lie  is  only  adopted  by  (iod,filhts  adopticus, 
—  "The  Father  is  greater  than  I."  This  dis- 
tinction, however,  between  the  two  natures  in 
Christ,  sounded  in  the  ears  of  the  time  as  a  dis- 
tinction in  his  very  personality,  and  was  by  many 
considered  a  relapse  into  the  Nestorian  heresy. 
Its  historical  genesis  is  obscure.  Some  ascribe 
it  to  an  influence  from  the  surrounding  Islamism ; 
others  find  it  in  a  colony  of  Eastern,  perhaps 
Nestorian  Christians  who  came  to  Spain  with  the 
Arabs,  and  whom  Elipandus,  in  a  letter  to  Felix, 
mentions  as  his  good  friends  having  the  right 
faith  ;  while  Alcuin,  in  a  letter  to  Leidrad,  de- 
nounces them  as  the  true  fathers  of  adoptionism. 
Elipandus  was  attacked  by  Abbot  Beatus  of 
Libana,  Bishop  Etherius  of  Osina,  and  a  majority 
of  the  Asturian  clerg}'.  A  vehement  controversy 
broke  out,  and  it  soon  spread  from  vSpain  into 
France,  through  Felix,  Bishop  of  Urge],  which, 
situated  in  the  Pyrenees,  belonged  to  the  Frank- 
ish  Empire,  to  the  diocese  of  Narbonne.  At  the 
synod  of  Regensburg,  702,  Felix  defended  the 
adoptionist  view  in  the  presence  of  Charlemagne. 
But  the  bishojis  condemned  him  ;  and  he  was  sent 
to  Rome,  where  Adrian  I.  kept  him  in  prison  till 
he  drew  up  an  orthodox  confession,  and  took  his 
oath  upon  it.  As  soon,  however,  as  he  had  re- 
turned to  Urge],  he  repudiated  the  confession  as 
made  luider  compulsion,  and  fled  into  the  do- 
mains of  the  Moors. 

Elipandus,  and  those  Spanish  bishops  who  be- 
longed to  his  party,  now  addressed  a  letter  to  the 
Frankish  bishops  and  to  Charlemagne  himself; 
and  the  case  was  once  more  investigated  by  the 
synod  of  Francfort,  794.  The  result  was  four 
letters,  —  from  tlie  Germano-Frankish  bishops, 
from  the  Italian  bishops,  from  Adrian  I.,  and 
from  Charlemagne, — -all  condemning  the  adop- 
tionist movement,  and  exhorting  to  concord  and 
quiet.  ,  But  the  Adoption  ists  were  very  zealous 
in  propagating  their  views,  which  spread  rapidly 
among  the  masses.  Also  in  the  literary  field  the 
controversy  grew  hotter.  In  798  Felix  wrote  a 
book,  and  sent  it  to  Alcuin.  It  was  answered 
both  by  Paulinus  of  Aquileia  and  Alcuin  (Libellus 
adv.  Felicia  Ilccres.),  the  latter  of  whom  received  a 
very  rough  rejoinder  from  Felix.  The  case  began 
to  look  serious,  and  demand  energetic  meas- 
ures. In  798  Leidrad  of  Lyon,  Nefrid  of  Nar- 
bonne, and  the  Abbot  Benedict  of  Aniane,  visited 
personally  the  infected  places  in  France  and 
Spain,  and  preaclied  against  the  heretics.  In 
799  Leo  III.  formally  condemned  Felix  at  a 
synod  in   Rome,  and  in  800  a  disputation  was 


arranged  between  Felix  and  Alcuin  at  the  synod 
of  .\ix-la-Chapelle.  Felix  resisted  for  a  long 
time,  but  at  last  he  declared  himself  beaten,  re- 
tracted, and  wrote  a  circular  letter  to  his  friends, 
admonisliing  them  to  return  to  the  Orthodox 
Church.  This  letter,  the  new  work  by  -Vlcuin 
in  seven  books,  and  the  jireachings  of  I^eidrad 
and  Benedict,  finally  smoothed  down  the  commo- 
tion, and  the  sect  disappeared. 

Lit.  —  Most  of  the  documents  pertaining  to 
this  controversy  are  found  in  Froben's  edition  of 
Alcuini  Opera,  Ratisbon,  1777,  and  in  Mig.ve  : 
Patrol,  vols.  96,  100,  and  lOL  See  also  C.  W. 
F.  Walch:  Historia  Adopt imiorum,  Gottingen, 
17.5.5;  Dorner:  Geschicli/e  iler  Lehre  von  der  Per- 
son Chrlati,  second  edition,  Berlin,  1866,  pp.  424- 
427;  Baur:  Die  chrisltiche  Lehre  von  ikr  JJreiein- 
if/keit  unti  Mensrhwerdun;/  Golles,  Tubingen,  1842, 
vol.  II.  pp.  129-1.59  ;  Scii.\FFin  S.Mrrii  andWACE, 
Did.  Chr.  Biuq.  I.  44-4(5.  W.  MOLLER. 

ADRAM'MELECH  {Adar  is  king).  1.  One  of 
the  gods  of  Sepharvaim  worshipped  by  the  Assyr- 
ians transplanted  to  Samaria  (2  Kings  xvii.  31). 
Children  were  sacrificed  to  it.  The  name  appears 
to  consist  of  Adar  ("ns  or  ■nn  "  lordly:  "  Movers, 
die  Phonizier,  Bd.  1,  1S41,  p.  340,  wrongly  derives 
it  fi-om  the  Persian  azar  •'  fire"),  a  designation  of 
the  god,  and  melek,  Assyrian  malik,  "  king."  which 
is  a  frequent  honorary  epithet.  It  is  uncertain 
whether  any  such  god  has,  however,  been  yet 
read  of  upon  the  Assyrian  monuments.  But 
Atar,  possibly  the  same  as  "ns,  occurs  in  proper 
names,  e.g.,  Atarilu,  '•Afar  is  God."  See 
SciiR.^DER,  Die  assyrisch-hahijlon.  Keilinschr,,  1872, 
p.  148  sq.  The  name  Adramelus  also  indicates 
a  god  Adar.  It  is  very  questionable  whether 
Atar-samain,  "  Atar  of  the  heavens,"  as  a  North 
Arabian  god  in  Assyrian  inscriptions,  should  be 
identified  with  Adar,  as  is  done  by  .Schrader  ; 
much  more  likely  with  Atai'gatis  (Astarte),  which 
see,  whom  Jeremiah  ajijiarently  calls  the  "  queen 
of  heaven  "  (Jer.  vii.  18). 

2.  Son  and  murderer  of  Sennacherib,  King  of 
Assyria  (2  Kings  six.  37;  Isa.  xxxvii.  38),  called 
Adramelus  by  Moses  of  Chorene  (I.  23),  and 
Ardremuzanes  by  Eusebius,  after  Polyhistor  in 
tlie  Armemian  Chronicle  (ed.  Maj.  p.  19). 

Lit.  —  Mekx:  Adrammelech  in  Schenckel's 
Bihel-Leccicon ;  Schr.\der:  ditto,  inlliehm's  Hand- 
worlcrhuck  des  hih.  Alterthums ,  and  the  same: 
Die  Keilinschriflen  u.  das  alie  Teslani.,  1872,  p. 
200.  WOLF  B.iUDISSIX. 

ADRIAN  is  the  name  of  six  popes.  —  Adrian  I. 
(Feb.  9,  772,  to  Dec.  25,795)  leaned  from  the  very 
beginning  of  his  reign  towards  the  Frankish 
fraction  in  Rome,  and  addressed  himself  directly 
to  Charlemagne  for  help,  when  Desiderius,  king 
of  the  Longobards,  invaded  his  territory.  Charle- 
magne came  to  his  rescue  (773),  defeated  Desi- 
derius, confirmed  and  increased  the  donation  of 
Pepin;  and  a  very  cordial  relation  was  estab- 
lished between  the  pope  and  the  Frankish  king. 
Adrian  understood  how  to  draw  the  huge  mass 
of  Charlemagne's  empire  nearer  to  Rome.  He 
labored  in  unison  with  the  king  against  the 
.\doiitionists ;  his  legates  played  a  prominent 
part  in  all  the  many  synods  which  were  held 
under  the  presidency  of  the  king;  he  succeeded 
in  introducing  the  Gregorian  cliant,  first  in 
IMetz,  afterwards   in   other  parts   of   the   realm. 


ADRIAN. 


'60 


ADULLAM. 


etc.  Xevertheless,  in  this  whole  relation,  Charle- 
magne was  the  master.  When  the  decrees  of 
the  Council  of  Xice  of  787,  re-establishing  the 
worship  of  the  saints,  and  sanctioned  by  the 
papal  legates,  were  laid  befoi'e  him,  he  had  them 
refuted  by  the  Liiri  Carolini,  and  rejected  by 
the  synod  of  Franofort  (794),  and  the  pope 
could  do  nothing.  His  letters  are  found  in 
J.\FFE:  Bibliolh.  Rerum  German,  vol.  IV. — 
Adrian-  II.  (Dec.  14,  867,  to  Nov.  25,  872)  inter- 
fered repeatedly,  but  with  very  little  success,  in 
the  affairs  of  the  Prankish  Empire.  In  the  con- 
flict between  the  empei-or  Louis  11.  and  Cliarles 
the  Bald,  King  of  France,  he  sided  with  the 
former,  and  addressed  a  high-handed  and  threat- 
ening letter  to  the  latter.  But  in  the  answer 
which  was  drawn  up  by  Archbishop  Hincmar  of 
Rheiras,  the  king  coldly  declined  to  pay  any 
regard  to  the  pope's  interventions  in  secular  mat- 
ters. In  871  Bishop  Hincmar  of  Laon  was 
deposed  by  the  synod  of  Duziacum,  but  appealed 
to  the  pope,  who,  on  the  authority  of  the  Pseudo- 
Isidorean  Decretals,  claimed  for  himself  the 
right  of  finally  deciding  the  mattei-.  Again 
Archbishop  Hincmar  of  Rheims  was  charged 
with  drawing  up  the  answer;  and  the  pope  was 
informed  that  his  interference  in  the  affairs  of 
the  Gallican  Church  was  unwarranted,  that  the 
Pseudo-Isidorean  Decretals  were  the  offspring 
of  hell,  etc.  ,\drian  now  understood  that  it  was 
necessary  to  change  front  entirely,  and  declared 
that  his  former  harsh  letters  had  been  wrung 
from  him  against  his  will  during  his  illness ;  that 
they  were  probably  falsified,  etc.  In  the  con- 
troversy between  Photius,  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople, and  the  Emperor  Basilius,  Adrian  inter- 
fered with  more  success.  The  Council  of 
Constantinople  (8G9)  deposed  Photius,  and  rec- 
ognized tlie  primacy  of  the  Roman  see.  Never- 
theless the  emperor  protested  that  Bulgaria 
belonged  to  the  Constantinopolitan,  not  to  the 
Roman  patriarchate :  a  Greek  archbishop  was 
settled  in  the  country;  and  the  Roman  priests 
and  missionaries  were  expelled.  Letters  of 
Adrian  H.  are  found  in  M.\.vsr:  Concil.  XY.  p. 
819.— Adui.vx  III.  (.March  1 ,  884,  to  July  8,  88.5) 
was  the  first  pope  wlio  changed  his  name  at  his 
election,  liis  ti-ue  name  being  .\gapetus. — .Vi.itiAX 
IV.  (Dec.  4,  ll.')4,  to  Sept.  1,  1159)  w'as  a  luitive 
of  England  (Xicliolas  IJroakspeare) ;  began  his 
ecclesia.stical  career  as  a  .servant  in  the  monastery 
of  St.  Rufus  near  Avignon,  became  its  abbot  in 
1137,  and  afterwards  Cardin.al-Bishop  of  .\lbano. 
Under  him  began  the  long  and  bitti  r  contest 
between  the  popes  and  the  House  of  Hohen- 
staufen,  tliough  the  first  transaction  between 
Adrian  and  Frederick  liarbarossa  was  very  cor- 
dial. .\rnoI<l  of  Brescia  preached  at  that  time 
in  tlie  very  city  of  Rome  against  the  secidar 
power  of  the  Jiope,  and  made  an  attempt  to  re- 
organize the  government  of  the  city  on  its  ancient 
model.  Adrian  prtjtested,  fled  to  Orvieto,  and 
laid  interdict  on  the  city.  The  senate  then 
compelled  Arnold  to  h'ave  Rome;  and  on  his 
flight  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  Fredcu'ick,  who, 
after  a  successful  campaign  in  Northern  Italy, 
was  slowly  approaching  Rome.  A  bargain  was 
now  struck  between  the  pope  and  the  king. 
Frederick  delivered  up  Arnold,  wlio  w.is  hanged 
and  burnt,  and   Adrian  crowned   Frederick  em- 


peror. The  peace  was  soon  disturbed,  however. 
Adrian  addre.ssed  a  letter  to  the  emperor  and 
the  German  bisliop,  which  was  understood  to  say 
that  the  German  Empire  was  a  fief  of  the  papal 
crown,  Frederick  was  in  a  rage,  the  bishops  felt 
provoked,  and  Adrian  did  not  succeed  in  explain- 
ing away  the  offensive  expressions.  When  Fred- 
erick again  visited  Italy  (1158),  he  convoked  an 
assembly  of  Italian  jurists  to  define  his  right 
and  power  according  to  Roman  law.  This  as- 
sembly agreed  that  tlie  present  emperor  had  the 
same  power  as  the  ancient  Imperalor,  that  is, 
'•quod  Principi  jilacuit,  legis  habet  vigorem." 
From  this  moment  Frederick  began  to  exercise 
his  imperial  authority  very  regardless  of  the 
pretensions  of  the  pope ;  and  Adrian  was  on  the 
]ioint  of  excommunicating  him  when  he  died  at 
Agnani.  The  bulls  and  letters  of  Adrian  IV. 
are  found  in  Migxe:  Patrol,  vol.  188,  p.  1361 
sq.  —  Adrian  V.  (July  12  to  Aug.  18,  1276)  was 
a  native  of  Genoa,  named  Ottobuono  de  Fieschi, 
a  nephew  of  Innocent  IV.,  hehl  as  .Archdeacon 
of  Canterbury  a  synod  in  London  (1268),  which 
issued  the  thirty-six  constitutions  known  as  the 
Ottobone  Constitutions,  He  was  never  conse- 
crated, —  Adrian  VI.  (Jan.  9,  1522,  to  Sept.  14, 
1523),  b.  at  Utrecht,  1459;  the  son  of  a  poor 
mechanic;  became  professor  of  theology  in  the 
L^niversity  of  Louvain,  aiul  tutor  to  Charles 
v.,  who  in  1516  sent  him  as  his  representa- 
tive to  Spain,  where  he  was  made  Bishop  of 
Tortosa,  cardinal,  and,  after  the  death  of  Car- 
dinal Ximenes  (1517),  regent.  He  was  a  pious 
and  honest  man,  of  strong  moral  principles;  but 
his  views  of  the  German  Reform.atiou  were 
utterly  mistaken.  He  believed  that  the  whole 
movement  was  nothing  but  a  re-aetion  against 
the  corruptions  of  the  Church ;  that  the  doc- 
trines propounded  by  the  Reformers  were  mere 
nonsense,  whicli  no  .sensible  m.an  could  seriously 
entertain ;  that  a  reform  of  certain  flagrant  mis- 
uses in  the  Church  would  be  a  sufficient  me.ans 
to  stay  the  commotion,  etc.  Thus  he  spoiled  his 
case  with  his  own  party  by  the  confessions  he 
made  and  the  reforms  he  promised ;  and,  on  the 
otlier  side,  he  made  the  breach  still  wider  by  the 
outrageous  manner  in  which  h<!  spoke  of  the  Re- 
formers, and  in  which  he  wanted  to  have  them 
treated.  In  spite  of  his  good  intentions,  he  ac- 
complished nothing.  His  adversaries  laughed 
at  him;  his  former  pupil  slighted  him;  his 
familiars  hated  him;  his  very  household  was 
bribed,  from  the  confcs.sor  to  the  barber.  The 
cardinals  clamored  around  his  death-be<l  to  as- 
certain where  he  had  concealed  his  money;  and, 
when  lu^  died,  a  wreath  w.as  hung  over  tlie  door 
of  his  physician  with  the  inscription,  "To  the 
liberator  of  the  Fatherland."  Bi'UMAnn  :  lla- 
drianux  VI.  contains  his  letters,  bulls,  and  other 
sources  to  his  life.  See  C.  voN  HiiKi.KU :  Papst 
A'Irian  VI.,  Vienna,  1880;  A.  Lapitkk:  Adrien 
VI.,  Paris,  1880.  11.  ZOPKFKI,. 

AOUL'LAM  {hiding-place).  A  royal  city  of  the 
Canaanite.s  (Gen.  xxxviii.  1),  allotted  to  Judah 
(.Josh.  xii.  15),  fortified  by  Rehoboam  (2  Chr. 
xi.  7),  and  made,  later  cm,  onc^  of  the  abodes  of 
royalty  (Mic.  i.  15),  repeo]ileil  by  the  .lews  after 
captivity  (Neh.  xi.  31)).  It  has  been  proposfcl  to 
locate  tlie  ciifc  of  .\diill(nn,  so  famous  from  its 
connection   with   David's    early    history,    in    the 


ADULTERY. 


31 


ADVENT. 


neighborhood  of  this  city ;  but  it  is  more  usual 
to  suppose  it  was  in  the  iieigliborhood  of  Beth- 
lehem in  the  Wad//  Khureitun. 

ADULTERY,  illicit  intercourse  with  a  married 
woman,  is  in  all  jirimitive  civilizations  consid- 
ered from  a  purely  religions  point  of  view.  It 
is  a  sin,  an  offence  against  God.  in  course  of 
time,  however,  as  civilization  progresses,  the 
social  aspect  becomes  more  and  more  prominent. 
The  sin  becomes  a  crime,  an  offence  against  so- 
ciety. Then,  again,  having  become  a  mere  mat- 
ter of  civil  legislation,  adultery  is  first  treated 
as  a  crime  which  it  is  the  duty  of  society  to 
punish,  and  then  as  an  evil  which  it  is  the  right 
■of  society  to  get  rid  of  by  the  application  of  the 
most  effective  remedies.  This  course  the  history 
of  the  subject  shows  among  the  Hebrews,  the 
Romans,  the  Germanic  nations,  in  short,  every- 
■where. 

That  the  Hebrews  at  one  time  considered  adul- 
tery from  a  purely  religious  pioint  of  view  is  evi- 
dent, both  from  the  admission  of  the  trial  by  the 
bitter  water,  —  the  water  of  jealousy  (Num.  v. 
11-31),  the  only  instance  of  an  ordeal  in  the 
Mosaic  law,  —  and  from  the  figurative  language 
of  the  Old  Testament,  which  over  and  over  again 
represents  idolatry  under  the  image  of  adultery 
(Jer.  iii.  8,  9;  Ezek.  xvi.  32,  etc.).  The  stand- 
point, however,  of  the  Mosaic  law,  is  not  reli- 
gious, but  social ;  though  the  religious  spirit, 
which  is  the  informing  power  in  the  whole  system, 
is  palpably  present  here,  as  at  every  other  point. 
Adultery  is  a  crime,  an  offence  against  society, 
a  violation  of  the  institution  of  marriage  (the 
wife  being  the  property  of  the  husband),  and  a 
violation  of  the  institution  of  inheritance  (prop- 
erty belonging  to  the  blood).  The  crime  is  pun- 
ished with  death  (Lev.  xx.  10) :  both  the  adulterer 
and  the  adulteress  are  stoned  (Deut.  xxii.  22). 
But  here  a  distinction  comes  in.  As  it  is  the  con- 
sequences involved  in  a  certain  act  which  consti- 
tutes this  act  a  crime,  and  as  the  consequences  of 
adultery,  'with  respect  to  the  institutions  wliich 
they  infringe  upon,  vary  with  the  social  position 
•of  the  adulteress,  justice  demands  that  also  the 
punishment  shall  vary.  If  the  adulteress  is  only 
a  slave,  she  is  not  stoned  to  death,  but  simply 
scourged  with  a  leathern  whip.  The  idea  of 
sin,  of  an  offence  against  God,  is  thus  entirely 
left  out  of  view.  The  stand-point  is  social.  Jew'- 
ish  practice  went  still  farther.  First,  adultery  was 
piunished  more  leniently  on  the  man  than  on  the 
woman :  it  became  criminal  only  with  women. 
Then  the  idea  of  crime  was  dropped  altogether; 
and  the  disturbances  which  adultery  caused  in 
the  institutions  of  marriage  and  inheritance 
were  considered  mere  evils,  for  which  a  remedy 
was  sought  and  found  in  the  divorce.  At  the 
time  of  Christ,  divorce  seems  to  have  been  of 
frequent  occurrence  among  the  Jews.  Roman 
society  had  arrived  at  exactly  the  same  point 
when  it  became  acquainted  with  Christianity. 
During  the  first  two  or  three  centuries  of  our 
era  nothing  was  more  common  in  Rome  than  a 
divoi-ce.  But  a  great  change  took  place  when 
Christianity  became  the  religion  of  the  State, 
although  not  by  reason  of  any  direct  command- 
ment. 

Christ  recognized  adultery  as  a  legitimate  rea- 
son for  divorce  (Matt.  v.  32).     But  in  this  in- 


stance, as  always  when  in  contact  witli  real  life, 
he  gently  pushed  aside  the  sliifting  and  fugitive 
forms  of  tlje  surface,  and  applied  his  reform  — 
the  word  that  saves — to  the  very  root  of  the  mat- 
ter. He  condemned  the  evil  jiassion  and  lust- 
ful look  from  which  adultery  springs  (Matt.  v. 
27-32).  Of  adultery  and  divorce,  the  New  Testa- 
ment says  very  little :  it  speaks  only  of  that  in 
which  all  such  details  are  summed  up,  —  of  chas- 
tity. Nevertheless,  the  impre,ssion  which  Chris- 
tianity made  upon  man's  mind,  as  it  gradually 
took  hold  of  the  world,  was  .so  overwhelming,  that 
it  became  impossible  to  look  at  any  thing  from 
any  other  point  of  view  than  a  religious  or  speci- 
fically Christian  one.  As  a  new  beginning,  Cliris- 
tianity  also  has  a  period  of  primitive  civilization. 
Once  more  adultery  became  a  sin,  an  offence 
against  God.  Constantine  defined  it  as  sacri- 
lege, and  punished  it  with  death.  Canon  law 
and  early  ecclesiastical  discipline  point  in  the 
same  direction.  The  Council  of  Ancyra  (314) 
refused  the  encharist  to  the  adulterer,  even  at  the 
moment  of  death ;  and  the  Sixth  Council  of  Or- 
leans deposed  every  clerical  who  had  committed 
adultery,  and  locked  him  up  for  life  in  a  monas- 
tery. First  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century  the  subject  again  breaks  loose  from  the 
religious  ground,  and  becomes  a  matter  purely  of 
civil  legislation.  Compare  the  articles  Marriage 
and  DivoKCK. 

ADVENT  is  a  preparation  for  the  Feast  of  the 
Nativity,  as  Lent  is  a  preparation  for  Easter : 
consequently  no  celebration  of  -Advent  could  be 
instituted  until  the  Feast  of  the  Nativity  was 
fixed ;  and  this  was  not  done  in  the  Western 
Church  until  after  the  fourth  century.  The 
first  traces  of  such  an  institution  are  found  with 
Csesarius  of  Arelate  (d.  5-12).  Two  sermons  of 
his  are  still  extant,  in  which  he  exhorts  his  con- 
gregation to  go  frequently  to  church,  do  good  to 
the  poor,  etc.,  during  the  season  of  preparation 
for  the  great  feast.  Another  evidence,  from  the 
same  time,  gives  a  decree  by  the  Council  of 
Lerida  (524),  ordering  that  no  wedding  shall 
take  place  during  Advent,  as  little  as  during  the 
fast  befoi'e  Eastei'.  The  ancient  Church  consid- 
ered Advent  a  season  of  fast,  exactly  like  Lent, 
during  which  all  amusements  ought  to  cease. 
The  synod  of  Tours  (-OG")  decreed  a  daily  fast 
for  monks  during  Advent;  and  the  synod  of 
Maijou  (581)  ordered,  that,  from  the  day  of  St. 
Martin,  laymen  should  fast  at  least  twice  a  week. 
With  respect  to  the  duration  of  the  season,  no 
general  agreement  was  ever  arrived  at.  If  a 
quadragesimal  fast  shall  precede  Christmas,  as 
it  precedes  Easter,  it  must  begin  with  the  day  of 
St.  Martin  (Nov.  11)  ;  and  such,  indeed,  was  the 
custom  in  France  for  a  long  time.  Later  on, 
however,  the  Fast  of  Advent  was  limited,  and 
began  with  the  day  of  St.  Andrew  (Nov.  30).  At 
present  the  Roman  and  the  Lutheran  churches 
have  only  four  Sundays  in  Advent;  while  the 
Greek  has  six,  the  season  beginning  with  Nov. 
15. 

Besides  being  a  preparation  for  Christmas,  the 
season  of  Advent  has  another  signification :  it 
forms,  since  the  sixth  century,  the  beginning  of 
the  ecclesiastical  year,  which  before  that  tirne 
began  with  Easter,  both  in  the  Orient  and  iu 
the  Occident.    The  occasion  of  the  change  was  the 


ADVENTISTS. 


32 


uSIPINUS,   JOHANNES. 


circumstance  that  tlie  ecclesiastical  year  of  the 
Jews  also  begins  with  Easter.  As  the  Reformed 
Church  has  no  ecclesiastical  year,  properly  speak- 
ing, it  had  no  celebration  of  Advent  either.  The 
minister  being  at  liberty  to  select  his  text,  with 
reference  only  to  the  wants  of  the  moment,  may 
preach  on  the  passion  during  Advent.  In  Ger- 
many, however,  the  Reformed  churches  have 
geneially  adopted  the  practice  of  the  Lutheran 
Church,  which  retains  the  old  texts  from  the 
Epistles  and  the  Gospels,  but  repudiates  the 
Advent  fast,  as,  on  the  whole,  it  recognizes  no 
ecclesiastically  prescribed  fast>days.  The  only 
Protestant  Church,  wliich,  in  harmony  with  the 
Roman  Church,  still  retains  the  quatember  fast, 
is  the  Church  of  England.  II.  .^LT. 

""  ADVENTISTS,  or  the  followers  of  "William 
Miller,  a  fanatical  student  of  prophecy,  who  j3ut 

^tlie'  second  advent  of  Christ  in  the  year  1843. 
The  sect  arose  in  New  England  in  1833,  and 
once  numbered,  it  is  said,  fifty  thousand  per- 
sons ;  but  now,  owing  to  the  repeated  failures 
to  get  the  right  date  for  the  event,  it  has  dwin- 
dled into  much  smaller  [iroportions.  The  Seventh- 
Daj"  Adventists,  as  they  are  now  called,  do  not 
pretend  to  foi-etell  the  exact  day  of  Christ's  com- 
ing; but  they  keep  the  event  continually  before 
them.  They  practice  immersion ;  believe  in  the 
annihilation  of  the  wicked,  and  in  the  sleep  of 
the  soul  from  the  hour  of  death  to  the  day  of 
judgment.  They  are  scattei'ed  throughout  the 
United  States,  and  reported,  on  Nov.  7,  1879,  to 
the  General  Conference  held  at  Battle  Creek, 
Mich.,  144  ministers,  599  churches,  and  14,141 
members.  The  amount  of  moneys  pledged  to 
the  Systematic  Benevolence  Fund"  was  351,714. 
They  bear  an  excellent  reputation.  See  Advent- 
ists, p.  2581  ;   Mii.LER,  William. 

ADVOCATE  OF  THE  CHURCH  (AJrocalus,  or 
Defensor  licdcske),  an  officer  charged  with  the 
secular  alfairs  of  an  ecclesiastical  establishment, 
more  especially  witli  its  defence,  legal  or  armed. 
As  soon  as  the  Church  l)ecame  possessed  of  large 
estates,  it  necessarily  became  implicated  in  many 
proprietary  relations  which  it  was  impossible  lor 
the  clergy  themselves  to  maintain,  prevented  as 
they  were  legally  from  pleading  in  a  civil  court, 
and  morally  from  wearing  arms.  Under  such 
circumstances  it  became  necessary  for  a  church 
or  monast'.'ry  to  have  a  defender.  The  office 
originated  in  Africa,  in  the  beginning  of  the  Jiftli 
century;  and  among  tlie  Germanic  nations  it  as- 
sumed a  peculiar  form  on  account  of  their  pecul- 
iar juridical  ideas.  According  to  German  views, 
only  he  could  hold  jiroperty,  in  the  full  sense  of 
the  word,  who  was  a  free  man,  capable  of  wear- 
ing arms,  and,  in  ca.se  of  necessitj-,  able  to  defend 
his  right  by  force.  Persons  who  were  free,  but 
unable  to  wear  arms,  such  as  women,  children, 
old  and  sick  peoiile,  needled  a  rejiresentative 
under  W'hose  ward  (miimlium,  mnni/ilmnrlimn)  they 
stood.  To  this  category  the  clergy  belonged;  and 
though  at  first  tliey  refu-sed  to  be  considered  and 
treated  legally  as  minors,  they  finally  accepted 
the  situation,  because  it  gave  tfieni  safety  against 
violent  attacks,  and  exemption  from  many  sliock- 
ing  details  of  German  jirocedure.  By  a  decree 
of  783,  Charlemagne  ordered  that  each  church 
or  monastery  should  choose  a  warden  to  act  as 
its  riinmlicuit  before  the  court,  take  oath  in  its 


name,  have  fugitive  slaves  and  alienated  prop- 
erty restoied.  command  Ihe  soldiers  sent  by  the 
establishment  to  the  army,  etc.  Very  often, 
however,  this  advocate  of  the  Church  developed 
into  a  tyrant,  keeping  the  establishment  in  abso- 
lute submission,  despoiling  and  plundering  it. 
He  usurped  the  whole  power  of  administration, 
limited  the  authority  of  the  bishop  to  the  purely 
spiritual  affairs,  absorbed  the  tithes  and  all  other 
revenues,  and  doled  out  to  the  clergy  only  a  mean 
modicum.  Innocent  III.,  however,  succeeded  iu 
checking  the  growing  imjiortance  of  this  institu- 
tion, and  soon  the  office  itself  disappeared. 

Lit.  —  R.  Hopp:  De  Adcocatia  Ecdesiastica, 
Bonn,  1870. 

ADVOCATUS  DEI,  DIABOLI,  the  persons  in- 
trusted with  the  defence  and  the  attack,  respiec- 
tively,  of  the  candidate  for  canonization.     See 

CANONIZATION. 

yCGIDIUS,  b.  iu  Rome  1247;  d.  at  Bourges 
1310  ;  descended  from  the  family  of  the  Colon- 
nas ;  studied  in  Paris  under  Thomas  Aquinas  and 
Boiiaventura ;  became  tutor  to  Philip  the  Fair,  for 
whom  he  wrote  De  Rer/hninc  Principum  (printed 
in  Rome,  1482);  acquired  great  fame  as  a  teacher 
of  theology  and  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Paris,  and  was  styled  Doctor  fundallssimiis,  Tlien- 
lognrum  princep.i ;  Archbishop  of  Bourges,  1295. 
He  was  a  very  prolific  writer,  but  only  a  few  of 
his  works  have  been  printed  i  De  Piccato  Origi- 
nali.  Oxford,  1479 ;  QiKestiones  Melaphyficn^Xfimce 
1501  ;  Liicvhralliines  de  Lnmhardi  Sentcntiis,  Basel 
1023. 

>CLFRIC  is  the  name  of  two  prominent  prel.ates 
in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church, — one,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  990-lOOG ;  the  other.  Archbishop  of 
York,  1023-1051, — but  whether  the  learned  Bene- 
dictine ^Elfric  (r/riimmalicti!:)  is  identical  with 
one  of  these  archbishops,  or  not,  is  a  question  as 
yet  unsolved.  As  Alfred  was  tlie  fovnider,  so 
jElfric  was  the  model,  of  the  S.axon  prose.  He 
wrote  a  Saxon  grammar  and  glossary ;  and  he 
translated  into  Saxon  a  number  of  homilies,  the 
Heptateuch,  etc.  But  of  his  personal  life  noth- 
ing is  known  but  a  few  notices  scattered  about 
in  his  works.  In  his  honor  the  jElfric  Society 
was  formed  in  London,  in  1842,  for  the  purpose  of 
publisliing  his  works  and  those  of  other  Saxons. 
For  this  .society  Benjamin  Thorpe  edited  the 
homilies  in  1844.  The  gr.immar  and  glossary 
were  printed  at  Oxford  in  l(i39  and  1G9S.  See. 
WiiAitTON  :  Aiir/lii-(i  Sacra;  WitionT:  Biiujraph. 
Brll.,  1842. 

>ENEAS  of  Gaza,  a  philosopher  of  the  Neo-Pl.a- 
tonic  school;  convi-rtcil  to  Christianity;  flour- 
ished in  Alexandria  about  487  ;  and  is  the  author 
of  twenty-five  letters,  printed  by  Aldus  in  his 
Episl.  Grac.  Vallecl'w,  \c.\\.,  1499,  and  of  a  dia- 
logue, Tliiopliraxlus,  edited  by  Boissonade,  Paris, 
1830,  and  translated  into  Latin  by  .Vmbrosius. 
Veiiici',  ].'il3. 

>!ENEAS,  r.isho].  of  I'aris,  843-877,  took  p.art  in 
the  controversy  between  the  ICastern  and  Western 
Churches  occasioned  by  I'hotius,  and  wrote  I.ilicr 
adrersiix  Grrrcnx,  found  in  1)'.\cheky:  SpicHeij. 
I.,  pp.  112-149. 

/EPINUS,  Johannes,  b.  at  Ziesar  in  Branden- 
burg, 11911;  d.  ill  lliimliurg,  Jlay  13.  1533;  be- 
came a  ]iu]>il  of  liugenhageii  in  Belbiick,  1517- 
21  ;    studied    afterwards    iu    Wittenberg,    under 


AERIUS. 


33 


AFRICA. 


Luther  and  Melaiiclithoii,  but  was  expelled  from 
his  native  country  on  account  of  his  ardent  ad- 
herence to  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformers,  and 
found  it  even  necessary  to  change  his  name 
(Hoeck) ;  labored  in  the  cause  of  the  Heforma- 
tion  at  Stralsund,  1524-28,  and  was  appointed 
preacher  to  the  Church  of  St.  Petri  in  llanibur<;, 
in  1529,  and  superintendent  in  15:t2.  By  his 
comment  on  the  Sixteenth  Psalm  he  caused  a 
very  violent  controversy  concerning  Christ's  ilc- 
sccnsus  ad  inferus,  which  ended  with  the  deposi- 
tion and  expulsion  of  his  adversaries  from 
Hamburg. 

Lit.  —  Arnold  Greve  :  Vita  ^pini,  Ham- 
burg, 1736.  Fonmda  ConcordicE,  Art.  IX. 
Scii.\ff:   Creeds  of  Christendom,  I.  290-298. 

AERIUS,  in  355  presbyter  and  director  of  the 
hospital  for  strangers,  maimed  and  incapable,  in 
Sebaste,  Pontus;  maintained,  in  accordance  with 
apostolical  tradition  (Phil.  i.  1),  the  equality  be- 
tween bishops  and  presbyters,  and  declared  (ap- 
pealing to  1  Cor.  V.  7)  against  the  retention  of 
the  paschal  meal  in  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's 
Supper, —  a  custom  prevalent  inthose  regions.  He 
also  denied  that  prayers  or  offerings  for  the  dead 
had  any  value,  and  rejected  all  fasts  ordained 
by  the  Church.  He  gathered  quite  a  number  of 
followers,  of  both  sexes,  and  in  3G0  he  gave  up 
his  office.  For  some  time  liis  party,  the  Aerians, 
assembled  in  the  open  fields,  in  forests,  and 
among  the  mountains ;  but,  persecuted  from  all 
sides,  it  soon  melted  away. 

AETIUS,  b.  in  Antioch ;  d.  in  Constantinople 
367  ;  was  successively  "a  slave,  a  travelling  tin- 
ker, a  goldsmith,  a  physician,  a  shoemaker,  a 
theologian,  and  at  last  the  apostle  of  a  new 
Church,"  representing  the  widest^going  section  of 
the  Ariau  party,  and  teaching  that  the  Son  was 
unlike  the  Father,  uvujioio^,  of  another  substance, 
i^  iTcpa^  ovoiac,  created  of  nothing,  H  ova  ovnjv, 
wherefore  his  adherents  were  called  Anomoeans, 
Heterusiasts,  or  Exukontians.  They  were  also 
called  Eunomians,  after  Eunomius,  the  pupil  and 
friend  of  Aetius. 

AFFECTIONS  vary  with  the  individual,  and 
also  with  the  occasion.  Tliey  are,  however, 
largely  a  matter  of  self-control,  and  properly 
ome  under  the  cognizance  of  Christian  ethics. 
'&s  in  the  old  systems.  Viewed  from  a  biblical 
stand-point  it  may  be  granted :  1.  Ailections  are 
natural,  proper,  God  has  them,  and  is  governed 
by  them  ;  therefore  stoicism  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  sickly  piety  of  mystical  pietism,  are  alike 
alien  to  the  practical,  healthy  Christian.  2.  No 
class  of  affections  is  per  se  sinful,  and  hence 
condemnatory.  Christ  ran  the  gamut.  He  was 
sorrowful  (Matt.  xxvi.  38),  grieved  (Luke  xix.' 
41),  agonized  (Luke  xxii.  44),  compassionate 
(Matt.  ix.  36),  indignant  (John  ii.  14),  joyful 
and  delighted  (Luke  x.  21),  and  sometimes  very 
strongly  moved  (Mark  iii.  21).  As  the  Master,  so 
the  disciples,  showed  affections.  Paul  and  Peter, 
James  and  John,  were  men  of  like  passions  with 
ourselves  The  New  Testament  speaks  of  a 
"zeal  of  God  "  (John  ii.  17  ;  Rom.  x.  2),  a  "godly 
sorrow"  (2  Cor.  vii.  10);  and  distinguishes  be- 
tween allowed  (Eph.  iv.  26)  and  prohibited  (Col. 
iii.  8)  anger.  3.  No  Christian  has  the  right  to 
give  rein  unto  his  affections  (1  Cor.  vii.  30  ; 
Eph.   iv.  26;  1  Pet.  iv.  7,  v.   i>).     More  is  de- 

A— i 


manded  of  the  Christian  than  wic-ri.succr/ affections  : 
he  must  be  dominated  by  those  affections  issuing 
from  a  pure  regard  for  the  welfare  of  others,  and 
the  things  of  God  as  the  examples  of  Christ  and 
his  apostles  teach  us  (John  ii.  17  ;  Rom.  ix.  2, 
xii.  15;  2  Cor.  xi.  29);  while  all  iminire  and 
lower  affections  are  to  be  suppre.s.sed  (Matt.  v. 
22-30,  38-47,  x.  37).  Looked  at  from  tliis  stand- 
point many  affectional  emotions  may  be  unchris- 
tian, which  yet  have  a  religious  appearance  ; 
e  g.,  the  zeal  of  the  Boanerges  to  call  down  tire 
from  heaven  as  a  punishment  for  the  insult  of 
some  Samaritans  to  the  Prophet  of  Galilee  (Luke 
ix.  54-56),  or  like  a  pity  which  is  merely  general 
and  wholly  human,  and  yet  would  fain  be  reck- 
oned divine  (Matt.  xvi.  22,  23).  Christianity, 
by  its  moral  discipline  of  the  affections,  may 
therefore,  to  some,  appear  a  refined  stoicism ; 
but  in  reality  it  checks  the  spontaneous  outgo  of 
the  affections,  and  turns  them  unto  higher  uses. 
[See  JoNATH.\N  Edwards  :  A  Treatise  concern- 
ing the  Religious  Ajfections.^ 

H.  PARET  (from  first  ed.  of  Hcrzog). 

AFFRE,  Denis  Augusta,  b.  at  St.  Rome-de- 
Tarn,  Sept.  27,  1793  ;  d.  in  Paris,  June  27,  1848  ; 
was  ordained  priest  in  1816,  and  made  Vicar-Gen- 
eral of  the  diocese  of  Lu^on  in  1821,  of  -Amiens 
in  1823,  of  Paris  in  1834,  and  Archbishop  of 
Paris  in  1840.  During  the  revolution  of  1848  he 
was  led  by  an  anonymous  letter  to  believe  that 
he  could  restore  peace  by  personally  addressing 
the  insurgents,  and,  with  a  green  bough  in  his 
hand,  he  climbed  a  barricade  in  the  Place  de  la 
Bastile ;  but  he  liad  hardly  begun  to  speak,  when 
he  was  struck  by  a  musket-ball,  and  mortally 
wounded.  He  wi-ote  several  treatises  on  histori- 
cal, educational,  and  religious  subjects,  and  an 
Essai  sur  les  Hicroylyphes  Egyptiens,  1834,  declar- 
ing the  system  of  Champollion  insufficient  to 
explain  the  hieroglyphics. 

AFRICANUS,  Julius,  a  learned  Christian  from 
the  latter  part  of  the  second  and  the  tirst  part 
of  the  third  century ;  b.  in  Africa,  perhaps  of 
Lybian  descent,  but  settled  at  Nicopolis  in  Pales- 
tine. Of  his  two  great  works,  —  the  Penlaljililos, 
a  world-chronicle  from  the  creation  to  the  time 
of  the  author,  and  the  Cestus,  a  book  on  natural 
history,  —  only  fragments  have  come  down  to  us 
through  Euseiaius,  Syncellus,  and  others.  But 
two  very  interesting  letters  by  him  —  one  ta 
Origen,  on  the  authenticity  of  the  History  of 
Susannah ;  and  another  to  Aristides,  on  the  dis- 
crepancy between  the  two  genealogies  of  Christ 
in  Matthew  and  Luke  —  are  extant  in  almost 
complete  form.  The  first  of  these  letters  has 
been  repeatedly  edited  and  printed,  as  by  Leo 
Castuius,  Salamanca,  1570,  and  by  Wetstei.v, 
Basel.  1674. 

AFRICA,  the  Church  of,  forms  a  separate  chap- 
ter in  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church  as  an 
individual  development  determined  by  the  pecul- 
iarities of  race,  climate,  and  other  agencies.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  Africa  was 
divided  politically  into  four  provinces, — Africa 
Prucvnsularis,  Xumidia,  and  the  two  Mauritania: ; 
and  these  four  provinces  formed  ecclesiastically 
one  diocese,  in  which  Carthage  gradually  .as- 
sumed the  rank  and  dignity  of  a  metropolitan, 
see,  especially  during  the  occupancy  of  Cyprian. 
Other  celebrated  bishops'  sees  were  Hippo,  Ta- 


AGAPE. 


34 


AGAPETUS. 


gaste,  IMadaurus.  etc.  The  beginnings  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Africa  are  obscure ;  but,  on  account 
of  the  very  lively  intercoramunication  between 
Rome  and  this  province,  it  was  natural  that  the 
new  religion  should  be  carried  thitlier  very  early, 
and.  once  introduced,  it  could  not  fail  to  produce 
an  impression,  either  of  passionate  enthusiasm,  or 
of  fanatical  hatred,  on  a  popular  mind  so  vigorous, 
so  ardent,  and  so  unsophisticated  as  the  African. 
Nowhere  the  persecutions  were  more  severe  and 
cruel,  and  nowhere  they  were  met  with  greater 
endurance  and  heroism.  Witnesses  are  the  Apo- 
lo(/elicus  of  Tertulliau,  written  during  the  persecu- 
tion of  Septimius  Severus  (203),  and  his  epistle 
ad  Scapukim,  written  during  the  persecution  of 
Caracalla(211) ;  the  De  Lapsisoi  Cyprian,  written 
after  the  persecution  of  Decius  ('-51)  ;  and  the 
sublime  example  of  Felix  of  Tabura  (Tubzoca, 
Thibaris)  under  the  persecutions  of  Diocletian 
(313).  It  maj"  be  added  that  nowhere  assumed 
heresies  and  sectarianism  greater  proportions  and 
a  more  aggressive  character.  The  Donatists  actu- 
ally fought,  and  that  not  in  self-defence. 

Compared  with  the  Oriental  churches,  espe- 
cially that  of  Alexandria,  the  .\frican  Church  is 
realistic  and  practical.  Its  heresies,  Montanism, 
Novatianism,  Donatism,  are  moral  rather  than 
speculative;  and  the  speculations  of  TertuUian, 
Cyprian,  Augustine,  are  psychological  rather 
than  metaphysical.  While  the  Gnostics  tried  to 
solve  the  great  problems  of  the  creation  of  the 
world  and  the  origjn  of  evil  by  the  subtle  and 
fantastic  doctrine  of  emanation,  TertuUian,  the 
founder  of  Latin  theologj',  retains  the  biblical 
ideas  of  a  creation  nx  nildlo  and  a  prince  of  evil 
in  their  simplest  and  most  positive  form  :  and, 
disdaining  to  apply  any  dialectical  mediation  to 
metaphysical  contradictions,  he  defines  his  stand- 
point <as  a  milo  quia  absurdum.  While  the  East- 
ern churches,  so  to  speak,  exhau.sted  themselves 
in  the  metaphysical  exposition  of  the  Trinitarian 
and  Christological  doctrines,  Augustine,  the 
greatest  teacher  of  the  Western  Church,  alighted 
on  a  question  whose  psychological  import  gave  it 
an  immediate  practical  bearing,  —  the  question  of 
free  will  and  grace.  After  the  death  of  .Vngus- 
tine,  and  the  invasion  of  the  Vamlals  (430),  the 
African  Churcli  fell  into  decay;  and  the  conquest 
of  the  country  by  the  Saracens  (tj!)8)  completed 
its  ruin.  Hut  through  its  two  great  teacliers, 
TertuUian  and  Augustine,  it  has  set  its  mark 
forever  on  the  theology  of  Latin  Christianity; 
and  through  its  third  great  teacher,  Cyprian,  it 
has  exercised  a  similar  influence  on  the  organiza- 
tion and  policy  of  the  Western  Church.  .See 
the  .separate  articles,  and  Jui.il's  Lloyi>:  The 
Narth  African  C/iurch.  London,  1880. 

ACAPE,  plr.  AGAP/E,  from  the  Oreek  uyuKt;, 
"  love,"  feast  of  love,  a  custom  in  the  primitive 
Church  according  to  which  all  the  members  of  a 
congregation,  even  the  ma,ster  and  his  slaves, 
met  together  at  a  common  meal,  celebrating  the 
Kucharist,  as  luclhren  among  brethren.  It  would 
not  be  ditHcult  to  find  striking  precedents  for 
such  an  institution,  both  among  tiie  Jews  and 
the  Greeks  and  the  Romans.  In  his  letter  to 
Trajan,  Pliny  classes  it  among  the  meetings  of 
secret  societies,  so  well  known  to  the  lionians 
of  the  empire.  It  is  more  probable,  liowever, 
that  it  grew  up  directly  from   the   simple   and 


natural  commemoration  of  the  events  of  "the 
night  in  which  the  Lord  was  betrayed"  (1  Cor. 
xi.  23).  It  is  mentioned  for  the  first  time  in  the 
Epistle  of  Jude  (12)  ;  and  during  the  next  three 
or  four  centuries  it  is  often  spoken  of  by  the 
Fathers :  TertuUian  gives  a  vivid  and  touching 
description  of  it  in  his  Apolorjelicus,  c.  39. 

Originally  the  character  of  the  ai/opm  was 
strictly  devotional :  the  feast  culminated  in  the 
celebration  of  the  Eucharist.  At  the  same  time, 
however,  it  was  a  social  symbol  of  the  equality 
and  solidarity  of  the  congregation.  Here  all 
gave  and  received  the  kiss  of  love ;  here  commu- 
nications from  other  congregations  were  read  and 
answered,  etc.  As  now  the  congregations  grew 
larger,  the  social  differences  between  the  mem- 
bers began  to  make  themselves  felt,  and  the 
aijapce  changed  character.  They  became  en- 
tertainments of  the  rich.  In  Alexandria  "the 
psalms  and  hymns  and  spiritual  songs "  of  old 
(Eph.  v.  19 ;  Col.  iii.  16)  were  supplanted  by 
performances  on  the  lyre,  the  harp,  and  the  flute, 
in  sjiite  of  Clement's  pretest  {Pcedarj.  II.  4).  In 
other  places  the  rich  retired  altogether  from  the 
meetings,  and  the  af/apce  sank  down  into  a  kind 

;  of  poorhouse  institution  (August.  Contra  Faus- 
lum,  XX.  20).  Again,  in  Northern  Italy,  Am- 
brose suppressed  them  altogether,  because  they 
gave  rise  to  disorders,  and  pi-opagated  reminis- 
cences from  the  Pagan  parenlalia. 

Other  circumstances  contributed  also  to  throw 
the  ai/apa;  out  of  use.  The  Third  Council  of  Car- 
thage (391)  decreed  that  the  Eucharist  should  be 
taken  fasting,  and  thereby  separated  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  Eucharist  from  the  aijajnr.  The  synod 
of  LaodicKa,  and  again  the  Third  Council  of 
Carthage,  and  finally  the  Council  in  Trullo  (092), 
forbade  to  hold  the  tii/ap(€  in  the  church-buildings, 
and  bereft  them  thereby  altogether  of  their  devo- 
tional character.  After  the  close  of  the  fourth 
century  they  began  gradually  to  disappear  :  and 
an  attenq.it  made  by  the  Council  of  (iaugra  (about 
380)  to  restore  them  to  their  old  position  by 
anathematizing  all  who  despised  them,  and  kept 
away  from  them,  was  in  vain. 

I  AGAPETUS  is  the  name  of  two  popes.  —  1. 
AoA ri;rrs  I . , .lune 3, .')33, to  April 22, 53(), pawned 
the  holy  vessels  of  the  churches  of  Rome  in 
order  to  procure  money  for  a  journey  to  Constan- 
tinople, ostensibly  for  the  purpose  of  averting 
the  war  with  which  the  Enqieror  Justinian 
threatened  Theodohad,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths, 
but  in  reality  intent  upon  attacking  tlie  mono- 
physitic  heresy  represented  in  the  Eastern  Church 
by  ,\nthimus,  patriarch  of  Con.stantinople,  the 
Emjiress  Theodora,  and  a  large  party  at  the 
Byzantine  court.  In  this  he  was  conqdetely 
successful.  Anthinuis  was  deposed,  and  Mennas 
put  in  his  jilace.  Hut  Agapetus  did  not  enjoy 
his  triumph  very  long:  he  died  during  iiis  visit 
to  ConstantiiKiple.     Five  letters  of  hi.s  an-  fouiul 

I  in  Mansi:  Conril.  VIII. — 2.  Ad.vi'icTus  II.,  April, 

}  946  to  November,  9.").),  owed  his  elevation  to  the 
intrigues  of  .Vlbcric,  in  whose  hands  he  remained 
a  willing  tool  during  his  wliole  reign.  In  France 
Arclibishop  .\rtolil  of  Rheims  lia<i  been  expelled 
from  liis  see  by  Hugo  of  Vermandois,  and  the 
contest  between  the  two  prelates  grew  almost  into 
a  civil  war.  Agapetus  sidecl  first  wilii  the  one 
party,  tlien  with  the  other,  and  had  no  iiifiuenco 


AGATHA. 


35 


AGENDA. 


on  the  final  tlecisioii  by  th(3  synod  of  Ingelheim 
(948).  where  Hugo  was  oxcoMununicated,  and 
Artold  re-instated.  As  weak  and  vacillating  was 
his  policy  in  Germany.  Having  invited  Otho  I. 
to  come  to  Rome  and  be  crowned  emperor,  he 
became  frightened  when  the  king  arrived  at 
Pavia,  and  stretched  his  hands  out  towards  his 
enemies.  R.  zoi'FFEL. 

AGATHA,  St.,  whose  death-day  is  celebr.ated 
by  the  Roman-Catholic  Church  on  Feb.  5,  belongs 
to  that  class  of  saints  of  which  one  does  not 
know  whether  they  ever  have  existed,  or  not. 
See  Dr.  Franz  Goures:  Kritiscke  Uiifersuchurif/- 
■en  Uber  die  liciniaidstche  Christenvt^rfolyunij,  Jena, 
1875.  What  the  acts  and  biographies  contain  is 
such  a  mixture  of  legend  and  fable,  that  hanlly 
the  smallest  particle  of  historical  fact  could  be 
extracted  from  them.  But  although  it  is  proba- 
ble that  St.  Agatha  never  lived,  her  name  has, 
nevertheless,  played  a  conspicuous  role,  espe- 
cially in  Southern  Italy  and  Sicily.  In  several 
places  in  Sicily  she  is  still  worshipped  as  the 
patron-saint  against  the  eruptions  of  Mount 
..Etna  ;  and  the  cities  of  Palermo  and  Catania 
still  contest  the  honor  of  being  her  birthplace. 

AGATHIAS,  b.  at  Myrina  in  iEolis  about  530; 
d.  in  Constantinople  about  594 ;  studied  philoso- 
phy in  Alexandria,  and  law  in  Constantinople ; 
pleaded  in  the  courts  of  the  latter  city ;  and 
wrote,  besides  some  poetry,  a  history  of  the  Byz- 
antine Empire  from  553  to  5.59,  containing  much 
interesting  and  reliable  information  about  the 
character  and  religion  of  the  various  nations 
with  which  the  Byz.antine  government  had  to 
■deal.  Best  edition  by  Niebuhr  in  Corpus  Script. 
Hi.'it.  Bi/zanl.,  with  a  Latin  translation  of  Vul- 
canius. 

AGATHO,  pope  from  678  to  Jan.  10,  68:2,  a 
Sicilian  monk,  succeeded  Domnus  on  the  papal 
throne.  On  the  sixth  oecumenical  council  at 
Constantinople  (680),  he  took  a  decided  stand  in 
the  Monothelitic  controversy,  and  carried  his 
point,  though  his  victory  involved  the  anathema- 
tization of  one  of  his  infallible  predecessors, 
Honorius.  Eight  letters  of  his  are  still  extant, 
—  two  to  tlie  council  and  the  emperor;  Mansi, 
XL  pp.  234,  286  ;  four  granting  privileges  to 
Wearmouth  Abbey,  Bede  :  Hist.  Eccl.  IV.  18,  to 
St.  Peter's,  JMedeshamsted  (Peterborough),  Moti. 
Angl.  I.  p.  06,  to  Ilexhanr  and  Ripon  monas- 
teries, Eddius:  Vit.  Wil/riili,  45,  49,  and  to  St. 
Paul's.  London.  M(jii.  An/;!.  III.  p.  299  ;  one  to 
Theodorusof  Ravenna,  Vit.  Theodori,  4,  in  Mura- 
TORi :  Her.  Itat.  Script. ;  and  one  to  the  universal 
Chui'ch,  claiming  the  authority  of  St.  Peter  him- 
self for  all  papal  decrees,  Gratian  /.  Diet.  19, 
c.  2.  HERZOG. 

AGEi  Both  Church  and  State  require  a  certain 
age  in  those  who  do,  or  have  done  upon  them,  cer- 
tain acts.  Thus  cunfirmation  is  not  to  be  admin- 
istered until  "  years  of  discretion  "  are  reached. 
On  the  Continent,  among  Protestants,  this  is  usu- 
ally understood  to  be  at  fourteen ;  among  Roman 
Catholics,  as  early  as  seven.  il/^nvV/f/e-contracts 
are  declared  void  by  canon  law  if  the  parties  are 
under  seven ;  nor  can  they  be  married  before  the 
man  is  fourteen  and  the  wife  twelve,  and  not 
without  the  consent  of  their  guardians  ere  they 
are  twenty-one.  State  laws  differ  upon  this 
.point,  varying  from  eighteen  to  twenty-five  for 


the  man,  and  fourteen  to  eighteen  for  the  wife, 
as  the  ages  of  permissibility.  The  question  of 
age  enters  into  the  matter  of  ordination.  The 
Roman-Catholic  Church  has  determined  upon 
the  following:  For  the  lowest  orders,  tlie  tonsure, 
etc.,  seven  years  ;  the  di.aconate,  twenty-two  ;  the 
priesthood,  twenty-four;  the  episcojjacy,  thirty. 
The  pope  can,  if  he  pleases,  grant  a  dispensation 
to  allow  ordination  at  earlier  ages,  and  allows 
the  bishops  to  consecrate  to  the  priesthood  a  year 
under  twenty-four.  Monastic  vows  cannot  be 
assumed,  according  to  the  Council  of  Trent, 
before  the  sixteenth  year,  nor  can  a  female  enter 
an  order  before  she  be  twelve;  but  the  majority 
of  orders  demand  a  higher  age.  Thirty  years  is 
also  the  youngest  age  for  an  abbot,  and  forty  for 
an  abbess  or  prioress. 

AGELLIUS,  or  AGELLI,  Antonio,  b.  at  Sor- 
rento 1532;  d.  at  Acerno  1008;  was  a  member 
of  the  institution  of  the  sclwlaxlici,  who  had 
charge  of  the  printing  establishment  of  the  "N'ati- 
can ;  superintended  the  correction  of  the  Vul- 
gate and  the  Roman  edition  of  the  .Septuagint; 
became  Bishop  of  Acerno  in  1.593,  and  wrote 
commentaries  on  the  Psalms,  the  Canticles,  the 
Book  of  Lamentations,  tlie  Book  of  Proverbs, 
Ilabakkuk,  etc.  He  also  edited  Cyril's  Five 
Books  against  Nestorius,  Rome,  1607,  accompa- 
nied by  a  Latin  translation. 

AGENDA,  German  form  Agexde  (Lat.  "things 
to  be  done  "),  describes  divine  worship  in  general, 
and  the  Mass  in  particular.  The  oldest  writers 
use  it  only  in  the  plural.  We  meet  with  ayenda 
did,  the  office  for  the  day;  agenda  mortuorum,  the 
office  for  the  dead ;  aycmla  matutina  and  vcsper- 
tina,  morning  and  evening  prayers.  Very  natu- 
rally the  word  passed  over  from  the  service  to 
the  book  which  contained  the  forms.  In  1287 
Johannes  de  Janua  uses  ar/enda  in  the  sense  of 
the  book  of  forms  for  baptism  and  benediction. 
The  word  in  a  different  spelling,  Ai/i'iide,  is  the 
ordinary  Luther.an  term  for  the  Church  services 
or  liturgy  ;  but  in  the  Roman  Church,  since  the 
sixteenth  century,  the  word  "  Ritual  "  has  been 
used.     See  Liturgy,  IMissal,  Ritu,\l. 

When  Luther  h.ad  broken  with  the  Church  of 
Rome,  he  found  himself  compelled  to  arrange  a 
public  service  which  should  embody  the  ideas 
of  the  Reformation.  The  greatest  difference 
touched  the  Lord's  Supper.  Luther  began  with 
forms  for  the  Wittenberg  Church  (1524)  :  but  these 
books  were  quickly  multiplied ;  the  divided  con- 
dition of  the  empire  necessitated  different  books 
for  each  petty  kingdom  or  duchy.  Though  quite 
different  in  contents,  they  are  all  distinguished 
from  the  Missal  of  the  Roman  Church  by  being 
written  in  the  vernacular,  although  in  some  the 
Latin  text  was  also  printed.  They  retain  the 
older  ecclesiastical  terms,  and  speak  of  ordina- 
tion and  confirmation,  although  the  Episcopal 
office  had  been  abolished.  The  oldest  Agende  is 
of  the  Duchy  of  Prussia  (1525).  As  the  religious 
development  took  these  forms,  —  the  strict  Luth- 
eran, the  Calvinistic,  and  the  Semi-Catholic,  — 
each  form  had  its  distinctive  liturgy.  So  things 
went  on  till  the  Thirty- Years'  ^Var,  that  period 
of  dire  confusion,  destroyed  all  peaceful  church 
life,  and  well-nigh  the  Churcli  itself.  When  the 
distracted  churches  again  could  lift  their  heads, 
they  arranged  new  forms  (1650),  which  differed 


AGIER. 


36 


AGNOSTICISM. 


as  much  as  ever;  and  yet  all  showed  the  new- 
spirit  which  had  arisen,  —  Pietism,  that  striving 
after  greater  devotion  in  worship  and  purity  of 
life.  The  next  century  was  a  decided  falling-otf . 
Pietism  gave  place  to  Rationalism.  The  Iron 
Age  was  followed  by  the  Leaden  Age.  But  in 
the  present  century  reform  has  been  made,  and 
the  matter  is  under  earnest  discussion,  and  many 
are  the  printed  specimens  of  revised  liturgies. 
The  new  epoch  began  with  the  appearance  of  the 
Xew  Prussian  Aijeiide,  1822.  The  desire  is  to 
unite  the  Lutheran  and  the  Reformed  churches 
in  Prussia  in  one  worship. 

The  Refornuil  churches  have  from  the  begin- 
ning manifested  an  equal  interest  in  the  order  of 
worship  :  and  Zwingli  demanded,  as  Luther,  the 
fullest  liberty  of  choice.  The  movement  fol- 
lowed a  course  similar  to  the  Lutheran.  From 
1523  on  appeared,  one  at  a  time,  forms  for  the 
more  important  services,  —  baptism,  marri.age, 
Lord's  Supper,  etc.,- — ^ composed  by  Zwingli  or 
Leo  Judai.  The  name  Ar/eiide  is  rarely  used. 
The  Swiss  liturgy  is  peculiar  in  the  sacramental 
portions,  in  the  announcement  of  the  dead  from 
the  pulpit,  and  in  the  particular  prayers  for  the 
difierent  feasts.  The  Calvinistic  or  French  lit^ 
urgy  follows  that  of  Calvin,  composed  for  the 
Genevan  Church  :  it  sometimes  appears  bound  up 
with  the  New  Testament. 

See  H.  A.  Daxif.l:  Codex  Lituiy/icus  EcdesicB 
Universce,  Lips.,  1817-53,  4  vols.  (vol.  3,  Refor- 
malce  atque  Aru/Iicci}ia')  ;  J.  II.  A.  Ehuard  :  Jic- 
formirtes  Kirchcnbucli,  Zurich,  1847;  [.\.  Nord- 
-MEIER :  Protestantiachc  Agemle,  Gera,  1879.  K. 
A.  Dachsel  :  Af/eiule  f.  d.  evani/elisch.  Kirche 
im  Konif/.  Preu.t.i.  Laiidtv,  Berlin,  1880.  The  An- 
glican Liturgy  requires  special  treatment.  See 
LrrntGY.]  D.-iNIEL  {A.  HARXACK). 

AGIER,  Pierre  Jean,  b.  in  Paris,  Dec.  28, 1748; 
d.  there  Sept.  22,  1823;  studied  law,  and  held 
various  high  positions  in  the  French  courts,  both 
during  the  Revolution  and  tlie  reign  of  Xapoleon 
and  tlie  Bourbons,  but  was,  by  his  intimate  con- 
nection with  the  Jansenists,  early  led  into  com- 
prehensive theological  studies.  His  principal 
■work  is  Les  Pruphhtes  noiwellement  Irailuil.i  de 
I'hihreu  avec  des  explications,  el  des  notes  critiques, 
11  vols.,  1820-1823.  Among  his  other  works 
are  Le  Jurisconsulte  national,  1789;  Vues  sur  la 
Teformalion  des  loi.i  civiles,  1793 ;  Traite  sur'  le 
mariaye,  2  vols.,  1800;  Psaumes,  nouvellement  tra- 
didts,  3  vols.,  1809;  Propheties  concernant  Jesnx- 
Christ  el  I'Er/lise,  1819;  Vues  sur  le  second  avene- 
vvnt  de  Jesus-Christ,  1818. 

AGNES,  St.,  is  commemorated  in  the  Roman 
Church  on  Jan.  21  and  28  (the  Gelasian  lit\irgy 
giving  the  former  dale,  the  Gregorian  the  latter, 
as  lier  death-day),  and  in  the  Greek  Church  on 
.Ian.  14  and  21  and  on  July  5.  But  the  oldest 
(lucumcnts,  the  Caleudariinn  Romanum,  the  Ctden- 
ilnriiim  Africanum,  a.w\  the  (lothic  and  Oriental 
,l/('.s'.«fi/(?,  agree  in  fixing  Jan.  21  as  her  death-<lay; 
.-ind  to  tliat  day  BoUand  has  assigned  the  acts  of 
her  martyrdom  {Act.  Sand.  .Ian.  p.  3.30-303). 
Also  the  year  of  her  death  is  uncertain;  but 
Ruinart  has  shown  (Act.  Marl.  III.,  p.  82)  that 
it  cannot  liave  occurred  until  about  304,  and 
that  the  acts  ascribed  to  .\mbrosius,  and,  in  tlie 
old  editions,  given  among  his  works,  arc  spuri- 
ous.    IJer  name  is  associated  with  a  number  of 


romantic  and  miraculous  legends ;  but  she  was 
probably  a  veritable  Christian  maiden  of  Rome, 
who  kept  her  chastity  under  severe  trials,  and 
suffered  martyrdom  by  the  sword  in  the  Diocle- 
tian persecution.  In  mediteval  art  she  is  gen- 
erally represented  as  followed  by  a  lamb  ;  and 
in  her  church  in  Rome  two  lambs,  of  whose- 
wool  the  archiepiscopal  palliums  are  made,  are- 
annually  consecrated  by  the  pope.  Her  name, 
however,  is  not  derived  from  the  Latin  aqiius,  "a 
lamb,"  but  from  the  Greek  u)r;;,  "chaste." 

AGNOET/E  ('A-jn'orjTai,  from  ayvosu,  ''to  be  ig- 
norant of  ")  is  the  name  of  tw-o  sects. 

I.  The  first  -sv-as  founded  by  Eunomius  and 
Theophronius,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth 
century,  and  called  by  Socrates  (Hist.  Eu.  Y.  24)- 
the  Eunomio-Theophronians.  They  consisted  of 
Arians,  and  maintained  that  God  knew  the  past 
by  memory,  and  the  future  by  divination,  and 
that  his  omniscience  -nas  limited  to  the  present. 

II.  Of  more  importance  was  the  second  sect 
(founded  in  the  sixth  century  by  Themistius, 
de.acon  of  Alexandria),  sometimes  called  the 
Themistians,  and  consisting  chiefly  of  the  Severiaii 
fraction  of  the  Monophysites.  They  maintained 
that  Christ,  according  to  his  human  soul,  was, 
like  one  of  us,  limited  in  every  respect,  in  knowl- 
edge too,  and  referred  to  Mark  xiii.  32,  '•  Of  that 
day  and  that  hour  knoweth  no  man,  no,  not  the 
angels  which  are  in  heaven,  neither  the  Son,  but 
the  Father;  "  and  to  John  xi.  34,  the  question  of 
Christ  concerning  Lazarus,  '•  AA'liere  have  ye  laid 
him '?  "  The  heresy  was  revived  by  the  Adop- 
tionists  in  the  eighth  century. 

AGNOSTICISM  is  a  theory  of  the  L'nknowa- 
ble,  which  assumes  its  most  definite  form  in  the 
denial  of  the  possibility  of  any  knowledge  of 
God.  This  negative  position  is  connected  with 
a  theory  that  we  know  only  the  phenomenal.  It 
may  be  said  to  spring  out  of  this  theory  as  a 
logical  deduction;  though  .-Vgnosticism  has  been; 
favored  by  those  who  do  not  hold  the  phenomenal 
theory  of  knowledge,  but  rest  their  doctrine  that 
the  Infinite  and  Absolute  are  unknowable,  on  the 
limitation  of  human  intelligence,  nuiintaining 
that  the  Infinite  transcends  the  limits  of  our 
knowledge,  and  must,  on  that  account,  remain  un- 
known, while  the  existence  of  the  infinite  God 
must  be  a  matter  of  belief.  There  is  thus  con- 
siderable diversity  as  to  the  grounds  on  which 
Agnosticism  finds  favor;  but  the  prevailing  form 
of  the  theory  is  that  resting  upon  the  assertion 
of  the  exclusively  phenomenal  aspect  of  human 
knowledge. 

Agnosticism  is  of  modern  growth,  and  may  be 
traced  to  Kant's  theory  of  knowledge.  Kant'a 
Critical  l'hil().sii]ihy  was  an  attempt  to  ascertain 
the  conditions  of  knowledgt-  by  determining  how 
2nuch  comes  through  experience,  and  how-  much 
is  contributi'd  by  the  mind,  not  as  actual  knowl- 
edge, but  as  necess.ary  forms  of  knowing,  thus- 
determining  the  possiliilities  of  our  knowledge. 
Kant  attributed  all  our  knowledge  to  three  dis- 
tinct cognitive  faculties,  —  the  sensory,  the  under- 
standing, and  the  reason.  The  sensory  gives  us 
the  observations  or  perceptions  of  the  phenome- 
nal; the  understandnig  givc-s  the  more  advanced 
and  elaborated  knowledge,  groupi'd  undi'r  the  cat- 
egories or  pure  conceptions,  —  (piantily,  quality,, 
relation,  and  modality;   the  reason  gives  us  the- 


AGNOSTICISM. 


37 


AGNOSTICISM, 


ideas  which  are  rcguhitivp  of  the  wliole  system 
of  our  knowledge ;  and  these  are  the  soul,  the 
iiniverse,  and  (iod.  In  prosecntinpf  his  task  Kant 
proceeded  to  sliow  tliat  tliere  are  certain  a  priori 
elements  in  all  knowledge,  whether  given  by 
the  sensory,  the  understanding,  or  the  reason. 
'•  All  our  knowledge  begins  with  sense,  proceeds 
thence  to  understanding,  and  ends  with  reason, 
beyond  which  nothing  higher  can  be  discovered 
in  the  human  mind  tor  elaborating  the  matter  of 
intuition,  and  subjecting  it  to  the  highest  unity 
of  thouglit "  {Critique  of  Pure  Reason,  Meikle- 
john's  Trans.,  p.  212.  Tranxccmliutal  Dialectic. 
Introduction,  IT.  A.).  "  The  matter  of  intuition  " 
describes  the  successive  impressions  received 
through  the  sensory.  This  matter  is  worked  up 
into  systematized  knowledge  under  the  categories 
of  the  understanding,  which  power  m.ay  therefore 
be  described  as  "  a  faculty  for  the  production  of 
unity  of  phenomena  by  virtue  of  rules  "  (/6.  p. 
214).  When  Kant  speaks  of  our  knowledge  end- 
ing with  reason,  he  means  th.at  reason,  "the 
faculty  of  principles,"  supplies  to  the  understand- 
ing principles  for  regulation  of  its  procedure; 
and  this  is  the  highest  reach  of  human  intelli- 
gence. In  this  way  Kant's  theory  of  knowledge 
is.  that  all  the  matter  of  our  knowledge  is  phe- 
nomenal, coming  through  the  senses;  all  the 
form  is  supplied  by  the  mind  itself ;  and  in  this 
way  it  follows  that  space  and  time,  the  categorie.s 
.and  the  ideas,  —  the  Soul,  the  Universe,  and  God, 
—  are  only  regulative  of  mental  procedure,  and 
do  not  afford  any  knowledge  of  real  existence. 
This  latter  conclusion  is  not  a  mere  casual  infer- 
ence from  the  doctine  elaborated  by  Kant,  but  is 
formally  announced,  worked  out  in  detail,  and 
insisted  upon.  There  is,  indeed,  an  important 
and  valuable  corrective  in  Kant's  philosophy, 
that  is,  his  ethical  system,  with  the  categorical 
imperative,  —  the  "  thou  shalt  "  of  moral  law, — 
■carrying  by  implication  the  reality  of  the  divine 
existence  as  the  moral  governor  under  whose 
sway  all  rational  agents  are  placed.  His  theory 
of  knowledge,  however,  remains  essentially  phe- 
nomenal; and  thus  the  higliest  contributions  of 
reason  are  held  to  be  merely  regulative  of  the 
procedure  of  the  nnnd  in  methodizing  the  phe- 
nomena presented  in  our  experience.  They  are 
inevitably  illusive  when  we  attempt  to  apply 
them  as  if  they  might  be  evidence  of  objective 
existence.  If  we  turn  to  the  highest  faculty  of 
our  nature,  that  is,  reason,  it  is  so  obviously  the 
source  of  what  it  brings  into  experience,  that  "  it 
does  not  borrow  either  from  the  senses  or  the 
understanding"  (//'.212);  but  there  is  "n  natural 
<tnil  Hiiiicoiitahle  illusion,  which  rests  upon  subjec- 
tive principles,  and  imposes  these  upon  us  as 
objective"  (///.  211).  From  the  structure  of  his 
theory,  it  becomes  a  necessity  with  Kant  to  insist 
upon  this  illusory  action  of  reason;  and  he  does 
it  resolutely,  as  if  it  were  a  leading  feature  in  his  ; 
scheme.  Tluis  he  urges,  that,  in  our  reason,  there  I 
exist  fundamental  rules  and  maxims  "which 
have  completely  the  appearance  of  objective  I 
principles"  {Hi-).  This  illusion  he  declares  it  | 
impossible  to  avoid,  any  more  than  we  can  help 
the  appearance  of  the  sea  being  higher  at  a  dis- 1 
tance  than  near  the  shore.  His  general  position 
is  indicated  thus:  "I  accordingly  maintain  that  i 
transcendental  ideas  can  never  be  nuiintained  as  '. 


constitutive  ideas,  that  they  cannot  l)e  concep. 
tions  of  objects,  and  tliat,  when  thus  considered, 
they  assume  a  fallacious  and  dialectic  character'' 
(A/i/ienitix  to  Traiise.  JJialectic.  Hi.  p.  39.5).  This 
rapid  sumnuiry  of  Kanfs  doctriiu!  may  suffice  to 
show  how  strenuously  he  denied  that  our  idea  of 
Go<l  is  any  guaranty  for  the  reality  of  the 
divine  existence.  At  the  same  time  it  will  be 
remarked,  tiiat,  according  to  him,  the  ide.a  of  God 
is  illusory,  just  as,  and  not  otherwise  than,  the 
idea  of  self  is.  and  the  idea  of  the  universe. 
Standing  in  these  relations,  his  theory  that  God 
is  unknowable  will  be  disposed  of  under  the  de- 
mands of  ])ractical  life  by  the  rejection  of  the 
suggestion  that  self  and  the  universe  are  equally, 
and  for  the  same  reasons,  unknowable.  But  the 
thorough-going  rejection  of  Kant's  Agnosticism 
is  to  be  found  only  in  the  criticism  of  his  theory 
of  cognition,  and  the  siipplanting  of  it  with  a 
true  tlieory  of  knowledge. 

Hamilton  and  Mausel  may  l)e  taken  together, 
as,  by  their  conjoint  efforts,  they  present  the  next 
phase  of  Agnosticism.  Sir  William  Hamilton, 
influenced  rather  by  the  general  drift  of  Kant's 
thinking  than  by  the  actual  structure  of  his 
theory,  insisted  that  the  Infinite  must  be  "  incog- 
nizable and  inconceivable;  its  notion  being  ouly 
negative  of  the  conditioned,  which  last  can  alone 
be  positively  known  or  conceived  "  (^Discussions  on 
Pkilosophij.  )i.  12).  In  the  following  manner  he 
works  out  his  view :  "  The  mind  can  conceive, 
and  consequently  can  know,  only  the  limited  and 
the  conditionally  limited.  The  unconditionally 
unlimited,  or  the  Infinite,  the  unconditionally 
limited,  or  the  Absolute,  cannot  positively  be 
construed  to  the  mind ;  they  can  be  conceived 
only  by  a  thinking  away  from,  or  abstraction  of, 
those  very  conditions  imder  which  thought  itself 
is  realized:  consequently  the  notion  of  tlie  uncon- 
ditioned is  only  negative, — negative  of  the  con- 
ceivable itself"  {Ih.  p.  13).  Pushing  this  repre- 
sentation to  its  utmost  verge,  he  says,  "  The 
Infinite  and  Absolute  are  only  names  of  two 
counter  imbecilities  of  the  human  mind"  (Ih.  p. 
21).  His  position  as  to  the  divine  existence  is 
brought  into  relation  with  his  doctrine  of  igno- 
rance, or  negative  conceptions  thus:  "  AVe  must 
believe  in  the  infinity  of  God ;  but  the  infinite 
God  cannot  by  us,  in  the  present  limitation 
of  our  faculties,  be  comprehended  or  conceived" 
(Lect.  on  Metaphi/sics,  11.  p.  374).  This  is  not 
the  Kantian  doctrine ;  but  it  is  still  a  theory  of 
ignorance  based  on  the  recognized  limits  of 
human  thought.  It  admits  a  belief,  but  denies  a 
knowledge,  being  explicit  on  the  limits  of  knowl- 
edge, but  far  from  explicit  on  the  limits  of  belief. 
On  this  account,  Kanfs  doctrine  on  its  purely 
intellectual  side  (omitting  the  etliical)  h.is  a 
consistency  which  does  not  appear  in  Hamilton's 
theory.  The  doctrine  of  Hamilton  was  accepted 
by  M.ansel,  and  used  as  a  form  of  defence  for 
theology.  After  the  Edinburgh  philosopher,  he 
repeats,  "The  Infinite  is  merely  a  name  for 
the  absence  of  those  conditions  under  which 
thought  is  possible  "  (Mansel's  Limits  of  Religious 
Thouglit,  p.  72).  His  apologetic  aim  appears  in 
these  words:  "We  learn  that  the  provinces  of 
reason  and  faith  are  not  co-extensive ;  that  it  is 
a  duty  enjoined  by  reason  itself  to  believe  in  that 
which  we  are  unable  to  comprehend  "  (lb.  p.  90). 


AGNOSTICISM. 


38 


AGNOSTICISM. 


This,  however,  leaves  unexplained  the  philosophic 
harmony  of  reason  and  faith ;  that  is,  the  possi- 
bility of  showing  how  our  thoughts  concerning 
God  are  to  be  harmonized  with  our  belief  in  his 
.existence.  The  whole  range  of  this  discussion 
has  been  brought  under  review  by  tlie  present 
writer.  (P/iilosoph)/  of  the  Infinite.)  The  discus- 
sion involves  a  difference  of  words,  which  is  of 
slight  value,  leading  to  debate  as  to  the  true  In- 
finite ;  since  there  is  and  can  be  but  one  Infinite, 

—  not  within  our  thoughts,  but  above  all,  and 
beyond  all.  Its  real  interest  lies  in  the  theory  of 
knowledge  connected  with  the  theory  of  belief, 

—  a  theory  which  must  involve  an  answer  to  the 
question,  '■  Can  the  infinite  God  reve.al  himself 
to  finite  intelligences  ?  And  this  is  a  question 
for  eternity  as  well  as  for  time,  since  it  is  need- 
less to  introduce,  in  the  language  of  Hamilton, 
••  the  present  limitation  of  our  faculties;  "  for  the 
limitation  must  continue  hereafter,  as  it  is  recog- 
nized in  the  present.  That  the  finite  caunot 
comprehend  the  Infinite  is  a  position  which  can 
occasion  no  discussion ;  but,  to  those  granting 
a  belief  in  the  infinitude  of  God,  the  question  is. 
How  far  does  such  belief  imply  knowledge  V 
Hamilton  and  Mansel  both  denied  the  possibility 
of  knowledge,  and  from  their  own  stand-point 
>vere  upholders  of  Agnosticism. 

From  these  two  philosophers  we  find  the  doc- 
trine pass  over  into  the  hands  of  a  different 
school  of  thinkers.  Those  who  trace  all  knowl- 
edge to  experience  naturally  accepted  a  doctrine 
of  Agnosticism  as  to  Infinite  and  Absolute,  and 
specially  hailed  it  as  coming  from  the  opposite 
school  of  thought.  To  them  it  seemed  as  a  sur- 
render of  the  whole  theory  against  which  they 
contend,  and  a  vindication  of  their  favorite 
theory.  Philosophers  of  the  a  priori  school  had 
been  fabricating  a  weapon  which  could  with 
great  advantage  be  turned  against  themselves. 
Discussions  on  the  relativity  of  hiiman  knowl- 
edge were  eagerly  taken  up  by  sensationalists, 
under  the  lead  of  Hamilton's  theory,  as  illus- 
trated in  J.  S.  Jlill's  Examination  of  Hamilton's 
Philosophy,  p.  2.  Mill  was  not  hampered,  as 
Hamilton  was,  with  the  admission  that  "we  must 
believe  in  the  infinity  of  God;"  but  he  could 
state,  "  It  is  almost  superfluous  for  me  to  say 
that  I  am  entirely  with  Sir  W.  Hamilton."  Ac- 
cording to  his  theory  of  knowledge.  Mill  neces- 
sarily rejected  the  doctrine  '•  that  we  have  an 
intuitive  knowledge  of  God,"  saying,  '•  Whatever 
relates  to  God  I  hold  to  be  matter  of  inference; 
1  would  add,  of  inference  a  posteriori"  (11/.  p.  45). 
Mill's  quarrel  with  Hamilton  is,  that  lie  does  not 
carry  out  his  theory  of  ignorance  with  suflicient 
thoroughness,  and  does  not  rigidly  treat  absolute 
and  infinite  as  "unmeaning  abstractions"  (/i. 
p.  70). 

Herbert  Spencer  as  an  Evolutionist  began  his 
system  of  philosophy  with  "  The  Unknowable," 
professedly  "  carrying  a  step  farther  the  doctrine 
put  into  shape  by  Hamilton  and  Jlansd,"  and 
giving  his  adhesion  to  a  belief  in  "an  Absolute 
that  transcends  not  only  human  knowledge,  but 
human  conception  "  (Preface  to  First  Principles). 
He  enters  uiion  the  relations  lictween  religion 
and  science;  admitting  tliat  "religious  ideas  of 
one  kind  or  other  are  almost,  if  not  quite,  uni- 
versal "(//>.  p.  P5),  and  that  religion  "expresses 


some  eternal  fact."  Thus  Herbert  Spencer  es- 
(  capes  the  meshes  of  the  Manichean  theory,  iu 
which  J.  S.  Mill  was  entangled.  Treating  of 
our  forms  of  thought,  he  directs  attention  upon 
general  "symbolic  conceptions,"  such  as  we  have 
of  the  earth.  Such  conceptions  "  are  legitimate, 
provided,  that,  by  some  cumulative  or  indirect 
process  of  thought.  .  .  .  we  can  assure  ourselves 
that  they  stand  for  actualities ; "  but  without 
this  all  such  conceptions  "  are  altogether  vicious 
and  illusive,  and  in  no  way  distinguishable  from 
pure  fictions"  {lb.  p.  29).  As  to  the  origin  of 
the  universe,  he  seeks  to  show  that  the  Atheistic, 
Pantheistic,  and  Theistic  views  are  "verbally 
intelligible,"  but,  when  critically  examined, 
"literally  unthinkable  "  (Pi.  35).  'Nevertheless 
he  allows  "that  we  are  obliged  to  suppose  "  that 
there  is  a  First  Cause,  and  "are  driven  by  an 
inexorable  logic"  to  the  conclusion  that  he  must 
be  infinite  and  independent  (lb.  37,  3S).  Next 
he  quotes  from  Mansel  as  proving  that  the  Infi- 
nite and  Absolute  cannot  be  known,  and  then 
affirms  "  the  omnipresence  of  something  which 
passes  comprehension,"  belief  in  which  is  "that 
belief  which  the  most  unsparing  criticism  of 
each  (religious  system)  leaves  unquestionable, 
or  rather  makes  even  clearer"  (Ih.  45).  "Here, 
then,  is  an  ultimate  religious  truth  of  the  liighest 
possible  certainty  .  .  .  that  the  Power  which  the 
universe  manifests  to  us  is  utterlj'  inscrutable  " 
(lb.  46).  Thus  is  it  admitted  that  the  universe 
manifests  a  Power  beyond  and  above  itself,  and 
at  the  same  time  it  is  maintained  that  this  Power 
is  inscrutable. 

Agnosticism  contemplated  on  its  philosophic 
side  is  a  professed  exposition  of  the  limits  of 
human  knowledge  and  thought,  maintaining  the 
impossibility  of  knowledge  of  the  Infinite,  in 
opposition  to  the  theory  of  a  restricted  but  true 
knowledge  of  the  First  Cause  as  infinite  and 
absolute.  Viewed  from  the  theologic  stand- 
point, it  is  by  implication  an  exposition  of  limits- 
of  the  Infinite,  and  restrictions  on  the  .Vbsolute, 
implying  that  God  cannot  reveal  himself  to 
created  intelligence. 

Psychologically.  —  Taken  on  its  ]'Ositive 
and  philosophic  side.  Agnosticism  is  iiisulfieieut 
as  a  scheme  of  hnman  knowledge.  The  phe- 
nomenal is  not  the  limit  of  the  knowable.  The 
purely  phenomenal  aspect  of  our  knowledge 
cannot  be  upheld  either  as  to  the  univer.se,  or 
self,  or  God.  The  outer  imiverse  is  known  to- 
us  by  impressions  made  on  the  organism,  and 
interpreted  in  intelligence;  but  what  is  thereby 
reached  is  not  merely  a  knowledge  of  phenomena, 
but  a  knowledge  of  things;  for  it  is  impossible 
to  combine  and  interjiret  phenomena  of  expe- 
rience, without  recognizing  at  once  subjective 
experience  and  objective  existence.  And  this  is 
not  a  matter  of  inference  or  thought,  but  of 
knowledge.  So  is  it  as  to  the  knowledge  of  self. 
It  is  given  in  experience,  in  every  act  of  it,  and 
is  the  knowledge  of  self  as  distinct  from  expe- 
rience, and  yet  as  jio-ssessing  experience.  In 
both  cases  knowledge  is  of  more  than  the  phe- 
nomenal. Py  auotlier  line  of  advance,  knowl- 
edge is  wider  than  the  circle  of  experience. 
There  is  much  known  which  never  can  be  en- 
compassed by  experience,  yet  is  recognized  as 
explaining  experience.     The  Infinite  Being  can- 


AGNUS. 


39 


AGRICULTURE. 


not  be  emliraced  in  experience,  cannot  in  this 
way  be  known.  Rut  there  are  trnths  not  derived 
from  experience,  but  daily  implied  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  ex]ierience,  whioli  are  self-evident 
truths,  and  not  mere  forms  of  Hiinking.  Of  those 
the  law  of  causality  is  an  exanijile.  'J'his  truth, 
that  power  exists  adequate  to  tlii^  jiroductiou  of 
phenomena,  is  implied  in  all  interpretation  of 
experience  and  in  all  structure  of  science,  and 
must  carry  us  onward  to  knowledge  of  the  First 
Cause,  since  knowdedge  of  the  effect  is  in  some 
measure  knowledge  of  the  cause.  A  phenomenal 
theory  of  knowledge  stands  in  conflict  with  all 
the  sciences ;  while  theology,  by  identity  of  ra- 
tional data  and  method,  is  in  harmony  with  tliem 
all. 

Ontologically. — From  the  theological  posi- 
tion, proceeding  upon  belief  in  the  Divine  exi.st- 
ence  as  a  certainty,  admitted  as  such  even  by 
some  upholders  of  Agnosticism,  the  theory  is  an 
exposition  of  alleged  limits  or  restrictions  appli- 
cable to  the  One  Infinite  and  Absolute  Being, 
and  inconsistent  as  such.  From  the  stand-point 
of  theology, — taking  finite  existence  as  a  reality, 
and  personal  existence  as  indubitable,  —  there  is 
an  inconsistency  in  supposing  that  God  can  create 
finite  being,  yet  cannot  make  himself  intelligible 
to  an  intelligent  creation.  Any  difficulty  which 
exists  (there  is  a  difficulty  connected  with  the 
application  of  mere  logical  forms)  applies  as 
much  to  the  creation  of  finite  existence  as  dis- 
tinct from  the  Self-existent  One,  as  it  applies  to 
the  knowledge  through  finite  forms  of  tlie  Infi- 
nite Being.  If  there  be  an  intelligent  creation 
and  an  intelligent  Creator,  he  must  assign  to 
finite  intelligence  laws  of  intellectual  action, 
guiding  to  certainty,  so  far  as  that  is  possible 
within  the  limits  of  the  created  intelligence,  and 
specially  to  the  harmony  of  all  in  the  one  great 
Source  of  all.  henry  calderwood. 

AGNUS  DEI  (Lat.  "the  Lamb  of  God"),  an 
old  Latin  hymn,  based  on  John  i.  29  :  Agnus  Dei, 
(jui  toHix  peccata  mundi,  miserere  nobis,  early 
adapted  to  and  incorporated  with  tlie  liturgies, 
both  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches,  and 
introduced  into  the  Mass  of  the  Roman  Church 
by  Sergius  I.  in  680. 

The  name  is  also  applied  to  wax  medallions, 
.  bearing  the  figure  of  a  lamb,  made  from  the 
remains  of  the  paschal  taper,  consecrated  by  the 
pope,  and  by  him  presented  to  distinguished 
persons.  These  medallions  were  often  enclosed 
in  cases  of  costly  workmanship,  and  carefully 
preserved,  almost  as  if  they  were  relics.  One 
said  to  have  belonged  to  Charlemagne  is  among 
the  treasures  of  the  Cathedral  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
The  popes  give  them.  M.  HEKOLD. 

ACOBARD,  b.  in  Spain  779  ;  d.  at  Saintonge 
840;  since  810  Archbishop  of  Lyons;  the  suc- 
cessor of  Leidrad ;  belonged  to  that  group  of 
great  men  which  grew  up  in  France  under  the  re- 
viving and  stimulating  influence  of  Charlemagne. 
In  theological  respects  he  became  known  by  his 
polemic  against  the  Adoptionists  and  the  Jews, 
by  his  liberal  view's  of  the  doctrine  of  inspira- 
tion, by  several  works  on  liturgy,  etc.  ;  but  he 
also  attacked  and  refuted  some  of  the  most  com- 
mon superstitions  of  his  time,  such  as  the  pro- 
duction of  hail-and-thunder-storms  by  bad  men, 
etc.,  and  he  wrote  against  one  of  the  most  hal- 


lowed customs  of  his  age,  the  ordeals  and  ju- 
dicial combats.  His  works  were  edited  by  Pa- 
pimus  Ma.4son,  Paris,  100.");  by  BALLU(iK,  Paris, 
1000;  by  Gali.and:  liililioth.  I'alr.  XIII.;  by 
Mhine:  Pa/roi.  101.  [.Si^e  Leckv  :  /fixlori/ of 
lialionaliam,  180.");  Rkutkk:  Genc/iiclile  dcr  Aiif- 
klnniiiri   ilil  Millelillltr,  187.0.]        IH'NDH.SIIACKN. 

AGREDA,  Maria  de,  b.  KiOL' ;  d.  May  24, 
100.");  su]ierior,  since  1027,  of  the  Franciscan  Con- 
vent of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  which  her 
jiarents  had  founded  on  their  estate  at  Agreda, 
Old  Castile ;  and  author  of  the  Mixlica  Ciudiid  de 
Dins,  Madrid,  1070,  —  a  biograpliy  of  the  Virgin, 
wdiose  romantic  and  fantastic  contents  gave  so 
much  tlie  more  offence  since  the  Franciscans 
introduced  the  book  as  a  divine  revelation.  In 
the  Roman-Catholic  Church  there  arose  a  sharp 
controversy,  both  as  to  whether  the  said  nun  was 
author  of  the  book  or  not,  and  as  to  the  contents 
of  the  book,  which  by  the  Sorbonne  was  declared 
to  be  scandalous  and  offensive,  and  wliich  occa- 
sioned the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  inquisitions 
to  forbid  its  reading.  The  pope,  however,  never 
saw  fit  to  give  a  decision.  ZOCKLER. 

AGRICOLA,  Johann,  b.  April  20,  1492,  at 
Eisleben,  whence  he  was  often  called  Magister 
Islchius ;  A.  in  Berlin,  Sept.  22,  1500.  He  studied 
,in  Wittenberg  under  Luther,  and  was  in  1525 
ajipointed  d  irector  of  the  school  of  Eisleben,  and 
preacher  to  St.  Nicolai.  He  was  a  very  suc- 
cessful preacher;  but  his  aspiration  was  a  chair 
in  the  University  of  Wittenberg,  and  when,  in 
1.520,  Melanchthon  was  preferred  to  him,  his 
vanity  was  deeply  wounded.  The  doctrinal  dif- 
ference between  him  and  the  other  reformers, 
though  not  yet  noticed,  had  also  developed;  and 
in  15ii2  lie  attacked  the  Articuli  of  Melanchthon. 
Dissatisfied  with  his  position  in  Eisleben,  he  sud- 
denly gave  it  up  in  1530,  and  came  to  Witten- 
berg, where  Luther  took  him  and  his  family 
into  his  own  hou.se,  and  procured  a  pension  for 
him  from  the  elector.  But  the  discrepancy  be- 
tween them,  both  in  character  and  doctrine,  was 
now  too  great ;  and  in  the  following  year  Agricola 
directed  an  attack  against  Luther,  and  began  the 
Antinomian  controversy.  Luther  refuted  him, 
and  he  retracted.  New  conflicts  arose,  however; 
and  the  new  reconciliations  proved  too  frail.  In 
1540  he  fled  to  Berlin,  where  he  was  made  preach- 
er to  the  court,  and  afterwards  superintendent  of 
the  Mark.  He  drew  up  the  so-called  Augsburg 
Interim,  and  labored  much  to  have  it  adopted  by 
all  Protestant  countries,  thereby  deepening  still 
more  the  breach  between  himself  and  the  re- 
formers. Besides  his  theological  works,  Anli- 
nomia,  AnlinomiiKe  Theses,  etc.,  he  published  a 
collection  of  German  proverbs,  Magdeburg,  1526. 
[Gustav  Kawerau  :  Johann  Ar/ricola  con  Eisle- 
ben, Berlin,  1881.]  o.  VIATT. 

AGRICULTURE  AMONG  THE  HEBREWS. 
Cain  and  Noah  (Gen.  iv.  2,  ix.  21)  were  agri- 
culturists, and  thus  at  the  very  beginning  of  the 
race  this  pursuit  was  recognized.  The  patri- 
archs, although  essentially  nomads,  now  and 
then  betrayed  an  inclination  for  a  settled  mode 
of  life  (cf.  Gen.  xx.  1  sq.,  xxvi.  6  sq.);  but 
Isaac  and  Jacob  raised  no  more  than  what  was 
absolutely  necessary  to  support  life,  and  were  not 
farmers  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  term  (Geu. 
xxvi.  12,  xlii.  1).     God,  however,  intended  his 


AGRICULTURE. 


40 


AGRICULTURE. 


people  to  cultivate  the  fertile  valleys  and  plains 
of  the  Holy  Laud,  and  to  this  end  arranged  that 
the  descendants  of  Jacob  should  for  many  years 
occupy  the  rich  Goshen,  and  there  be  trained  for 
their  future :  and  thus  the  transition  from  the 
shepherd  to  the  farmer  life  was  easily  made,  —  an- 
other evidence  of  God's  wisdom  and  forethought. 
That  the  growing  people  of  Israel  carried  out 
this  intention  is  manifest  from  the  fact  that  the 
hungry  and  thirsty  tribes  included  in  their  retro- 
spect of  the  attractions  of  Egypt  a  reference  to 
Egypt's  fertility  (Xum.  xx.  5).  The  Mosaic  le- 
gislation was  pre-eminently  adapted  to  agricultu- 
rists (cf.  Michaelis,  Mos.  Rtclil,  I.  §  38  sq.);  and 
it  is  well  known  that  only  the  tribes  of  Simeon 
on  the  west,  and  of  Reuben  and  Gad  ou  the 
east  bank  of  the  Jordan,  were  nomadic.  The 
other  tribes  had  their  fields  and  olive-yards,  and 
jealously  did  Moses  guard  tliem.  At  the  Year 
of  Jubilee,  the  family  property,  even  although 
another  had  bought  it,  reverted  to  its  original 
owner  (Lev.  xxv.  23,  28). 

Canaan  was  "a  land  flowing  with  milk  and 
honey."  Not  only  vineyards  and  orchards,  but 
also  fields  covered  with  abundant  harvests,  glad- 
dened the  eyes  with  promised  plenty.  The 
cereals  —  wheat,  barley,  millet,  and  spelt,  or.  as 
others  saj',  vetch  (  i'icia  saliva),  but  not  rye,  which 
is  unknown  in  southern  countries  —  were  raised. 
Beans  and  lentils,  flax,  cucumbers,  cumin,  and 
onions  were  extensively  cultivated.  From  the 
earliest  times  there  was  flax  (Josh.  ii.  6;  Prov. 
sxxi.  13;  llos.  ii.  9);  and  the  linen  of  the 
Hebrews  enjoyed  an  excellent  reputation. 
Mischna.  bnhaham.  10.  9 ;  Ketuboth,  5.  9 ;  Movers  : 
I'hiin.  III.  1.  p.  21(3  sq. 

Canaan  was  a  land  full  of  water  (Dent.  viii. 
7),  and  in  this  respect  it  is  contrasted  with 
Egypt  (xi.  10-12).  IJut  tlie  labor  not  put  upon 
irrigation  was  required  to  build  terraces,  and 
thus  agriculture  was  about  as  much  laborious 
there  as  elsewhere.  It  is  the  neglect  to  terrace 
which  is  one  chief  rea.son  of  Palestine's  present 
comparative  sterility.  Fertilizers  were  also  u.sed; 
such  as  burnt  stubble  (Isa.  v.  24,  xlvii.  14),  the 
chaff  of  the  threshing-floors,  the  excrements  of 
cattle,  and  dung  prepared  with  straw  (Isa.  xxv. 
10;  cf.  2  Kings  ix.  37;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  10).  The 
ploughing  and  harrowing  were  done  with  oxen 
(1  Kings  xix.  1!);  Job  i.  14;  Amos  vi.  12)  or 
cows  (Judg.  xiv.  18);  sometimes,  also,  with  asses 
(Isa.  XXX.  24,  xxxii.  20),  eitlier  singly  or  in  pairs. 
The  yoke  used  was  a  crosstree  with  two  bows,  to 
the  upper  side  of  which  the  pole  was  fastened  by 
a  cord.  'I'he  animals  were  urged  by  a  goad  some 
six  or  eight  feet  long.  The  plough  was  merely  a 
crooked  stick  liaving  a  wooden  share  siiod  with  a 
triangular  piece  of  iron.  Tlie  land  was  generally 
ploughed  every  winter,  spring,  and  summer.  For 
harrowing,  a  boanl  loaded  with  stones  was  em- 
ployed, usually  before,  always  after,  the  .sowing 
(Job  xxxix.  10;  Isa.  xxviii.  24). 

The  winter  crops,  particularly  the  pulse,  were 
sown  towards  the  beginning  of  November,  just 
before  the  autunni  or  former  rains;  the  barley,  a 
fortnight  later;  and  still  hiter  the  wheat,  which 
was  cast  in  rows  (Isa.  xxviii.  2i")).  In  December 
the  fields  were  green  (John  iv.  35).  The  .sowing 
of  the  summer  crops  —  millet,  beans,  also  of  bar- 
ley—  came  in  January  and  February,  in  time  for 


the  later  rains  of  March  and  early  .-Vpril.  Soon 
after  began  the  harvest-labor,  rendered  dangerous 
by  the  sun's  heat  (2  Kings  iv.  18  sq.).  Barley, 
lentils,  and  vetch  were  first  gathered.  The  wheat 
and  the  spelt  were  harvested  about  the  same  time; 
but  of  course  the  time  was  later  in  the  high  lands 
than  in  the  lower,  and  that  by  from  a  fortnight 
to  a  month.  The  grain  was  cut  by  a  sickle,  jsretty 
close  to  the  liead,  bound,  and  heaped.  Gleanings 
were  left  to  the  poor  (Lev.  xix.  9 ;  lluth  ii.  2). 
The  threshing-floors  were  generally  round,  about 
fifty  feet  in  diameter,  if  possible  placed  ou  high 
ground,  so  that  the  wind  might  carry  oft'  the  chaff. 
Cattle  or  asses  were  driven  npon  the  grain,  and 
so  it  was  threshed  out;  or  else  a  machine  was 
employed.  The  common  kind  was  a  board  three 
feet  wide,  six  or  eight  feet  long,  and  three  inches 
thick.  Holes  were  bored  on  the  lower  side,  and 
stones  fastened  so  as  to  project  through  the  holes, 
thus  acting  as  teeth.  But  there  was  another 
kind,  which  consisted  of  a  heavy  square  fi-ame 
with  rollers,  each  of  which  was  encircled  by  three 
or  four  iron  rings  serrated  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw 
(Isa.  xxviii.  27).  Smaller  quantities  of  grain 
and  tender  cereals  were  beaten  out  by  a  stick 
(Ruth  ii.  17;  Isa.  xxviii.  27).  The  winnowing 
was  accomplished  by  a  broad  shovel,  or  by  a 
wooden  fork  with  bent  tines.  The  grain  was 
thrown  against  the  wind,  so  that  the  chaff  was 
blown  away.  Usually  this  was  done  from  four 
P.M.  until  sunrise  (Ruth  iii.  2;  cf.  Jer.  iv.  11 ;  Ii. 
2).  The  chaff  and  stubble  were  burnt  (Isa.  v. 
24;  Matt.  iii.  12).  Corn  was  sifted  in  a  sieve 
(.\mos  ix.  9),  and  then  collected  iu  great  heaps. 
So  it  remained  until  it  could  be  put  into  holes  or 
into  barns. 

The  scarcity  of  grain  in  spring  and  autumn,  the 
droughts,  sirocco,  the  grasshoppers,  and  attacks 
of  enemies,  rendered  the  crop  a  matter  of  uncer- 
tainty, and  decreased  the  yield.  And  yet  the 
yield  was  considerable.  Some  cereals  gave  two 
crops  a  year.  The  joy  of  harvest  was  proverbial 
(Ps.  ix.  3).  Canaan  was  alw.ays  aide  to  suppily 
the  neighboring  lands  (1  Kings  v.  11;  Ezek. 
xxvii.  17;  Ez.  iii.  7;  Acts  xii.  20). 

The  law  ruled  agriculture  as  everj'  thing  else; 
for  example,  it  was  forbidden  to  plough  with  an 
0.x  and  ass  together,  because  clean  and  uncle.an 
animals  must  not  be  joined  (Deut.  xxii.  10) ;  and 
diverse  seeds  must  not  be  sown  (Lev.  xix.  19; 
Deut.  xxii.  9).  It  was  allowed  to  pluck  the 
he;uls  of  ripened  wheat  while  passing  along  the 
little  path  purposely  made  througli  the  field 
(Deut.  xxiii.  2.5;  Matt.  xii.  1;  Luke  vi.  1). 
The  permission  symbolizi^d  the  beneficence  of 
God,  who  feeds  the  hungry.  The  corners  of  the 
field,  and  gle.anings,  were  alw.ays  to  be  left  at 
harve.st-time  (Lev.  xix.  9;  Deut.  xxiv.  19).  The 
ox  who  trod  out  the  corn  must  not  be  muzzled 
(Deut.  xxv.  4).  The  object  of  these  latter  regu- 
lations was  to  teach  kindness  toward  God's  crea- 
tures. Wo  find  upon  the  Egyiitian  monuments 
examples  of  similar  laws.  The  first-fruits  be- 
longed to  the  Lord ;  the  first  three  years'  fruit  of 
a  young  vineyard  must  not  be  gathered;  the  fruit 
of  th<;  fourth  year  bidonged  to  Jehovah;  and  it 
was  not  until  the  fifth  year  that  the  owner  couhl 
eat  of  it  (Lev.  xix.  23-2.")). 

The  three  principal  feasts  of  the  Jews  were 
connected  with  agriculture,  and  fitted  to  a  people 


AGRIPPA. 


41 


AHAB. 


■whose  chief  support  was  from  their  farms.  On 
the  (lay  after  the  Passover  Sabbath,  tlie  lOth 
Nisan,  a  sheaf  of  tlie  first-fruits  was  brought. 
The  conclusion  of  the  seventh  week  after  Pass- 
over was  marked  by  the  otferina:  of  two  wave 
loaves,  made  out  of  the  new  flour  of  the  year; 
while  the  fruit  and  vine  harvest  was  celebrated 
by  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (Lev.  xxiii.).  Every 
sabbath,  and  especially  every  sabbath-year  and 
year  of  jubilee,  by  its  abstinence  from  out-door 
labor,  taught  the  Israelites  (Jod's  sovereignty 
over  their  time  and  their  land,  and  also  that  the 
highest  good  is  not  the  product  of  earthly  work 
and  wealth. 

Lit.  — IL  G.  Paul-skn  :  Z iwerluxsige  Nachrkld- 
en  vom  Ackcrhau  dcr  Hlorrjcnldnder,  Ilelmstiidt, 
1748.  Nieuuhr:  Beschreihuiu;  Arah.  (original 
edition),  1772.  P.  G.  Pukmaxn  :  B  Prorir.  tie  lie 
Rustica  vet.  Ilebr.,  Franckfort,  1787.  [Blmii.k  and 
AValch  :  Calendar  Palaesl.  (econum.  Gottingen, 
1784.  Reyn'IEr:  L'Economie  rurale  dett  Aral/e.i. 
Bukckuardt:  Travels.  Wilkinson:  jl/anMersn/u/ 
Customs  of  the  Ancient  Eyi/ptians,  London,  18;?7^1, 
C  vols.  Revised  edition  by  Samuel  Hirch,  LL.D., 
London,  1878,  3  vols.  Kitto:  Phi/slad  Geoi/raphi/ 
of  the  lloli/  Land,  1848.  2  vols.  La  yard  :  Nineveh 
London,  1849.  Nineveh  and  Dahi/lon,  London, 
1853.  E.  RoBixsox  :  Biblical  Rcsearclics,  Boston, 
1800,  3  vols.;  the  same:  Physical  Gcoi/rajihi/  of  the 
■Ilobj  Land,  1SG5.]  F.  W.' tf(;ilUI/rz. 

AORIP'PA  is  the  name  of  two  members  of  the 
Ilerodian  family. — Herod  Arjrippa  /. ,  a  son  of 
Aristobulus  and  Berenice,  and  grand.son  of  llerod 
the  Great  and  INIariamne,  was  educated  in  Rome 
together  with  Claudius,  and  obtained  in  38,  from 
Caligula,  the  territory  of  Philip  —  Bataniea,  Tra- 
chonitis,  and  Aui-anitis  —  and  the  tetrarchy  of 
Lysanias,  with  the  title  of  king.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  also  received  the  tetrarchy  of  Anti- 
pas,  Galilee,  and  Peraea,  to  which  Claudius 
added  Samaria  and  Judrea  in  40.  Thus  he 
became  king  of  the  whole  of  Palestine,  and 
reigned  with  great  .splendor,  trying  in  every  way 
to  gain  the  favor  of  the  Jews.  The  murder  of 
James  and  the  imprisonment  of  Peter  (Acts  xii. 
1)  had  simply  this  purpose.  His  liorrible  death 
is  described  in  exactly  the  same  manner  in 
Josephus  :  Ant.  19,  8.  2,  and  Acts  xii.  23. 

Herod  Agrippa  II.,  in  whose  presence  Paul 
declared  his  life,  was  a  son  of  the  preceding,  but 
only  seventeen  years  old  when  the  father  died. 
In  48  he  obtained  the  principality  of  Chalcis,  and 
the  privilege  of  nominating  the  high  priest,  and 
superintending  the  temple  of  Jerusalem.  In  52 
he  further  obtained  the  tetrarchies  of  Philip  and 
Lysanias,  with  the  title  of  king.  But  the  Jews 
never  liked  him;  and,  in  the  rebellion  under  Ves- 
pasian, he  sided  with  the  Romans,  and  fought  by 
the  side  of  Titus  at  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem. 

AGRIPPA,  Heinrich  Cornelius,  b.  at  Cologne 
148G;  d.  at  Grenoble  1536;  studied  in  Cologne, 
and  Paris ;  .spent  then  a  couple  of  years 
(1507-8)  in  Spain;  lectured  in  1.309  (in  the 
University  of  Dole,  Franche-Comte),  on  Reuch- 
lin's  book,  De  Vcrho  Mirifico ;  served  for  some 
time  Margaret  of  Austria,  the  Duchess  of 
Parma,  and  regent  of  the  Netherlands;  went 
thence  to  England  on  some  secret  mission;  re- 
turned to  the  Netherlands,  but  fell  out  with  the 
monks;  went  to  Cologne,  and  lectured  on  quits- 


tiones  quodlihetales ;  served  for  seven  years  in  the 
imperial  army  in  Italy  (1511-1518),  though  at 
one  time  during  this  period  he  was  sent  to  the 
Council  of  Pisa  as  a  theologian,  while  at  another 
he  lectured  on  medicine,  jurispru<lence,  and  Her- 
mes Trismegistus  in  Pavia  and  Turin ;  was  ap- 
pointed syndic  at  Metz  in  1518,  but  was  com- 
pelled to  flee  from  the  Inquisition ;  entered  the 
service  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy;  practised  medi- 
cine at  Freiburg  in  1523,  became  physician  to 
the  queen-mother  of  France,  but  was  expelled, 
and  fled  to  the  Netherlands;  w.is  ajipoiiited  his- 
toriographer to  Charles  V.,  and  lived  for  some 
years  under  the  protection  of  Archbishop  Her- 
mann of  Cologne,  but  returned  finally  to  France, 
where  he  died.  As  his  life,  .so  his  books:  he 
wrote  about  evei-y  thing.  Of  his  two  most  cele- 
brated works,  the  one,  De  Occulta  PhUosophia, 
written  in  1.509,  but  not  printed  until  1531,  is  a 
compilation  from  the  Neo-Platonists  and  the 
Cabbala,  and  gives  a  plan  of  the  world  as  a  basis 
for  the  explication  of  the  art  of  magic;  while 
the  other,  De  Vanitale  .Scienliarimn  (written  in 
152G,  printed  in  1526,  and  translated  into  various 
languages,  into  Engli.sh  in  1684),  is  a  compilation 
from  the  Humanists  and  the  Reformers,  and 
gives  a  sceptical  criticism,  not  only  of  all  sciences 
and  arts,  but  of  life  itself.  But  this  contradic- 
tion is  the  character  of  the  man.  A  devotee  of 
the  old  church,  he  was  always  in  opposition  to 
its  clergy;  a  champion  of  the  spirit  of  the  new 
time,  he  was  utterly  foreign  to  the  Reformation. 
He  was  learned,  but  never  became  clear:  he  was 
active,  but  never  in  harmony  with  himself.  A 
collected  edition  of  his  works  was  published  at 
Lyons,  1600.  .See  Morley:  Life  of  A(/rippa. 
London,  18.56,  2  vols.  C.  WElZfi.iCKER. 

AGUIRRE,  Joseph  Saenz  d',  b.  March  24, 
lO.'lO,  at  Logrogno,  Spain;  d.  in  Rome,  Aug.  19, 
1099;  entered  the  order  of  the  Benedictines; 
became  professor  of  theology  in  the  University  of 
Salamanca,  Abbot  of  St.  Vincenz,  and  secretary 
to  the  Inquisition,  and  was  made  cardinal  in 
1080  by  Innocent  XL,  as  a  reward  for  his  book, 
De/ensio  cathedrce  Sancli  Petri  adversus  Declara- 
tiones  Cleri  Gallici,  1682.  He  was  a  very  prolific 
writer.  The  two  most  important  of  his  works 
are,  Collcctio  Maxima  Conciliorum  omnium  Ilis- 
panicce  et  nooi  orbis  cum  nolis  et  dissertationibus. 
Rome,  1693,  4  vols. ;  17.53,  0  vols.;  and  Theolo- 
(jia  S.  Anschnl  in  3  vols.,  but  unfinished. 

A'GUR.     See  Proverbs. 

A'HAB  (^father  s  brother) .  1.  The  son  of  Omri, 
a  king  of  the  northern  kingdom,  called  in  the 
Assyrian  cuneiform  inscriptions  Acha-abbu 
Sir'lai;  i.e.,  Ahab  of  Israel.  Through  his  wife 
Jezebel,  the  daughter  of  a  Sidonian  priest-king, 
he  \\as  led  into  the  Baal  worship,  and  allowed 
Jezebel  to  persecute  the  Jehovah  prophets  (1 
Kings  xviii.  4).  Instead  of  these,  Ahab  main- 
tained four  hundred  and  fifty  Baal,  and  his  wife 
four  hundred  .\shera  prophets  (1  Kings  xviii.  19). 
But  that  he  was  not  successful  in  killing  entirely 
the  love  for  pure  worship  is  manifest  from  the 
reception  Elijah's  efforts  received,  and  parti«u- 
larly  from  the  facts  that  such  a  man  as  Obadiah, 
who  was  the  governor  of  Ahab's  house,  had  one 
hundred  Jehovah  prophets  hidden  in  a  cave,  and 
that  Jehovah  told  Elij.ah  that  there  were  yet 
seven   thousand  w'ho  had   not  bowed   the  knees 


AHASUERUS. 


42 


AHAZIAH. 


unto  Baal  (1  Kinsrs  xix.  18).  Nevertheless 
Ahab  inflicted  incalculable  injury  upon  Israel 
through  his  idolatry.  In  spite  of  Jehn  and 
Ilosea,  the  nation  fell  under  a  merited  doom. 

Ahab  reigned  brilliantly  for  twenty-two  years, 
for  in  him  the  power  of  the  northern  kingdom 
culminated.  He  built  cities,  beautified  Jezreel 
and  made  it  his  capital,  erected  an  ivory  palace 
(1  Kings  xxii.  39),  and  several  times  waged  suc- 
cessful war  against  Syria  (1  Kings  xx.).  He 
entered  into  alliance  with  Jehoshaphat  (1  Kings 
xxii.),  as  did  later  on  Jehoram,  Ahab's  second  son 
(2  Kings  iii.).  Ahab's  daughter  Athaliah  married 
Jelioshaphat's  son  Jehoram  {2  Kings  viii.  18). 
But,  although  he  thus  exhibited  shrewdness  and 
energy,  Ahab  had  not  the  ability  to  utilize  his 
opportunities  and  advantages.  Indecision  and 
weakness  characterized  him.  He  trembled  be- 
fore Elijah,  wliom  at  first  he  denoimced  :  lie  was 
moved  by  Micaiah's  prophecy,  although  at  first 
he  pretended  to  be  fearle.ss.  His  action  about 
tha  vineyard  of  Naboth  was  childish  (1  Kings 
xxi.).  His  repentance  was  shallow:  he  was 
moved  by  impulses.  And  yet  there  was  a  gleam 
of  virtue  in  him  :  lie  spared  Benhadad  his 
enemy  (1  Kings  xx.  33)  ;  and  he  had  physical 
courage  enough  to  stay  upon  the  battle-field  after 
his  fatal  wound  (1  Kings  xxii.  3.3).  But  upon 
him  and  all  connected  with  him  tlie  curse  of  God 
rested.     He  dragged  Israel  and  Judah  into  ruin. 

2.  A  false  prophet  among  the  exiles  in  Baby- 
lon, who  was  roasted  in  the  fire  by  Nebuchad- 
rezzar (Jer.  xxix.  21,  22).  FR.  W.  SCUULTZ. 

AHASUE'RUS  (mii/hli/  man),  the  name  of  the 
king,  not  an  epitliet,  mentioned  in  Esther,  and 
identified  with  Xerxes,  the  son  of  Darius  Ilys- 
taspes  (B.C.  485^05),  a  Medo-Persian  king,  who 
is  called  upon  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  Khsy- 
arshi,  or  Khsay-arshi  (see  Benfey,  The  Cuneiform 
Inscriptions  of  Persia;  .Schrader,  die  Keilim^chr. 
u.  (Ids  alle  Test.  ji.  215).  The  identification  is 
complete:  not  simply  are  the  names  the  same, 
but  the  characti-is  described,  especially  the  love 
of  splendor  and  bamiueting,  the  tyrannical  dis- 
jiosition,  the  inconsiderateness  and  the  intellect- 
ual dependence.  For  these  as  traits  of  Xerxes 
see  Herod  7.  3.5,  37;  9.  10,  7;  Justin.  2:  12; 
Strabo  H,  al.so  Spiegel,  Eranisrhe  Allerllmms- 
kunde  II.  p.  402  sq.  The  absence  of  Xerxes  at 
the  Greek  war  explains  why  Esther  was  not 
chosen  until  the  seventli  year  of  liis  reign,  while 
Vasliti  was  rejected  in  the  third.  Tlie  Aliasueriis 
of  Ezra  (iv.  0)  is  doubtless  Xerxes,  although 
Camby.ses  was  formerly  thought  to  lie  meant. 
But  it  is  not  defniitidy  settled  who  the  Ali;isuerus 
of  Dani'd  (ix.  1)  is,  but  probably  Astyages.  tlie 
father  of  Darius  the  Jlede,  or  the  Cyaxares  of 
Xenophon.  Aliasuerus  stands  for  Cyaxares  in 
Tobit  xiv.  Vi.  Fu.  w.  t^ciin/rz. 

A'HAZ  ( /lossessor)  was  the  son  and  successor  of 
Jothain,  and  the  elevc-nth  king  of  Ju<lah,  ruling 
for  sixteen  years  (B.C.  711-72.)).  At  the  time  of 
his  accession  lie  jirobably  was  not  twenty  (2 
Kings  xvi.  2),  l)ut  twenty-five,  as  the  LXX.  and 
the  I'esliilo  translate;  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  1):  so  that 
sixteen  y<!ars  latc^r,  his  son  Hezekiah  might  easily 
have  been  twenty-five  year.-i  old  (2  Kings  xviii. 
2).  Ahaz  w.is  the  weak  and  vvickrd  successor  of 
several  exci'llciit  kings,  and  thrrefcjre  could  not 
keep  what   they  had  won.      I'rkali   (if   I.-.rail   and 


Rezin  of  Syria,  who  had  in  the  reign  of  Jotham 
become  allies  (2  Kings  xv.  37),  won  back  the 
East-Jordan  territory,  attacked  Jerusalem,  but 
could  not  take  it.  Rezin  took  Elath.  however, 
and  peopled  it  with  Aramites.  Pekah,  on  the 
other  hand,  slew  in  Judah  one  hundred  and 
twenty  thousand  men,  and  carried  two  hundred 
thousand  into  captivity,  but  was  compelled  to 
give  them  up  by  tlie  threat  of  a  Jeliovah  prophet, 
Oded  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  9-51).  AVhile  thus  weak- 
ened, the  Edomites  and  the  Philistines  tell  upon 
him,  and  robbed  him  of  territory  (2  Cliron.  xxviii. 
17,  18;  cf.  Isa.  xiv.  28  sq.).  Isaiah,  who  had  just 
begun  his  prophetic  career,  told  the  king  that 
Israel  and  .Syria  sliould  occasion  him  no  alarm, 
but  that  the  Assyrians,  to  whom  he  paid  hire, 
were  his  deadly  enemies  (Isa.  vii.  2  sq).  And 
so  it  turned  out.  The  Asfiyrians,  who  already 
had  had  dealings  with  the  northern  kingdom, 
verj'  gladly  embraced  this  fresh  opportunity  to 
mingle  themselves  in  the  affairs  of  the  western 
lands.  Tiglath-pileser,  King  of  Assyria,  took  the 
large  moneys  Ahaz  sent,  came  into  the  Aramaic 
kingdom,  and,  as  also  the  inscriptions  show,  slew 
Rezin,  overran  Israel,  took  several  cities,  and  car- 
ried into  captivity  many  from  "  Gilead,  Galilee, 
and  all  the  land  of  Naphtali  '*  (2  Kings  xv.  29, 
xvi.  9).  But  in  return  for  these  services  Tiglath- 
pileser  demanded  and  received  all  the  treasure 
in  the  liouse  of  the  Lord,  and  other  monej's  be- 
side (2  Kings  xvi.  17;  2  Chron.  xxviii.  21),  and 
then,  according  to  the  inscriptions,  turned  Ahaz 
into  a  vassal.  It  may  well  have  been  to  secure 
the  favor  of  his  lord  tliat  Ahaz  built  the  altar 
mentioned  (2  Kings  x.  10,  11).  This  was  the 
beginning  of  Judah's  dependence  upon  the  great 
heathen  powers  (cf.  Isa.  Iii.  4). 

Keeping  even  jiace  with  tliis  dependence  upon 
worldly  might  was  the  growth  of  superstition 
and  idolatry.  The  prophet  Isaiah  lias  described 
this  deterioration  (ii.  (i  sq.,  iii  15  sq.,  viii.  19). 
Ahaz  set  up  a  Babylonian  sun-dial,  connected  pre- 
sumably with  the  sun-worship  (Isa.  xxxviii.  8), 
kept  horses  and  chariot  dedicated  to  the  sun 
(2  Kings  xxiii.  11),  and  built  a  so-called  "  upper 
chamber"  upon  the  temple  roof,  in  which  he 
could  worsliip  "all  the  hosts  of  heaven"  (2 
Kings  xxiii.  12).  But  he  went  even  farther: 
sacrificed  his  own  son  to  Aloloch,  and  erected 
molten  images  for  B;ialim  in  the  \'alley  of  Ilin- 
nom  (2  Kings  xxiii.  12;  2  Chron.  xxviii.  1-4). 
When  he  died,  he  was  buried  in  the  city,  and  not 
in  the  se])ulclires  of  the  kings  of  Israel  (2  Chron. 
xxviii.  27)  ;  but  this  fact  by  itself  proves  nothing 
against  liiin;  for  the  same  remark  is  niiide  not 
only  of  the  idolatrous  Jehoram  (2  Chron.  xxi.  20), 
but  of  the  better  Joash  (2  Chron.  xxiv.  25)  of 
Asa  (2  Chron.  xvi.  14),  and  even  of  Hezekiah 
!  (2  Chron.  xxxii.  33).  FU.  W.  sclIULTZ. 

'       AHAZ\ A'H  (ir/ioni./i linralt  siixldins).     1.  The  son 
ami  siicce.s.sor  of   .\hab,   as   King  of   Israel  :    he 
rtdgned  two  years  (B.C.  897-890).    Very  few,  but 
very  bad,  things  are  told  of  him.     He  (lid  evil   in 
the  sight  of  the  Lord.     While  ill   from  injuries 
'  received   by  a   fall,  he  .sought  the  lidp  of  liaal- 
I  zebub.      His  messengers  were  met  by  lOlijah,  who 
'sent  them  back  witii  tin;  ]>ropliecy  of  the  king's 
'  death.     Two  companies  of  fifty,  with  their  cap- 
tains, sent  to  take  lOlijah,  W(M'e  dcstroyi'd  by  tire  ; 
but  with  the   third,   whose  captain  had   treated 


AHIMELBCH. 


43 


AILLI. 


liim  respectfully,  he  went,  and  in  person  repeat- 
ed his  prophecy.  So  Ahaziah  died  according  to 
t'.ie  words  of  the  Lord  (2  Kings  i.).  lie  was 
childless.  The  only  event  of  importance  record- 
ed about  liim,  is  his  commercial  expedition  to 
Tarshish  in  connection  with  Jehoshaphat  of  Ju- 
dah.  liut  his  .ships  were  (h-stroyed  (cf.  1  Kings 
xxii.  40;  2  Chron.  xx.  30). 

2.  The  son  and  successor  of  Jehoram,  King  of 
Judah,  reigned  only  one  year,  15. C.  885  (2  Kings 
viii.  25-29;  2  Chron.  xxii.  l-,0),  called  Jehoahaz 
in  2  Chron.  xxi.  17,  an<l  Azariah  in  2  Chron. 
xxii.  6,  either  through  mistake  of  the  scribes,  or 
because  the  names  are  the  .same.  lie  allied 
himself  with  liis  uncle  Jehoram,  King  of  Israel. 
Israel  rebelled  under  Jehu.  The  two  kings  met 
him  in  liattle,  and  Jehu  killed  Jehoram.  Aha- 
ziah  fled,  was  jiursued  and  mortally  wounded  at 
the  pass  of  Gur,  but  escaped,  and  died  at  Me- 
giddo.  In  this  way  the  two  differing  accounts 
of  his  death  (2  Kings  ix.  27  and  2  Chron.  xxii.  9) 
can  be  reconciled.  FU.  W.  SCIIUI/rz. 

AHIM'ELECH  {lirother  of  the  kin;/)  was  probably 
a  son  of  Ahiah,  and  grandson  of  Ahitub,  although 
often  called  his  "son"  (1  Sam.  xxii.  9,  20),  an 
Aaronite  of  the  line  of  Ithaniar,  and  therefore 
a  successor  of  Eli  in  the  priesthood  at  Nob. 
David,  when  fleeing  from  Saul,  was  fed  by  him 
upon  the  shew-bread,  and  furnished  with  Goli- 
ath's sword,  for  which  lie  and  eighty-four  lower 
priests  were  slain  by  Saul  at  the  instigation  of 
Doeg  the  Kdomite  (1  Sam.  xxii.  18). 

AHITH'OPHEL  (brother  of  foolhhni'KK),  a  native 
of  Giloh,  and  therefore  styled  the  Gilonite  in 
2  Sara.  XV.  12,  the  counsellor  of  David,  highly 
valued  because  of  his  shrewdness  and  discretion. 
But,  as  the  issue  showed,  he  was  not  sincere  in 
his  attachment  to  David ;  for  he  offered  to  become 
Absalom's  counsellor,  under  the  mistaken  idea 
that  Absalom's  rule  would  be  pernuinent.  But 
when  he  foresaw  its  downfall,  and  found  his 
counsel  slighted,  he  hanged  himself,  dreading 
David's  revenge  (2  Sara.  xvii.  23). 

AIDAN,  b.  in  Ireland  (505;  d.  at  Lindisfarne, 
Aug.  31,  651 ;  was  educated  in  lona,  and  went  as 
missionary  to  Northumbria  in  035.  He  took  up 
his  residence  in  the  Island  of  Lindisfarne,  where 
he  founded  a  monastery  of  the  Kuldee  fashion 
and  under  Columba's  rules.  He  could  not  speak 
the  Saxon  language  when  first  he  came  to  the 
country;  but  the  king  himself  acted  as  inter- 
preter; and  his  personal  life,  as  well  as  that  of 
his  companions  and  pupils,  made  so  deep  an  im- 
pression on  the  people  that  Northumbria  was 
Christianized  before  he  died.  See  Bkdk:  Hht. 
Ecclt.  III.  c.  osq.  Tno.M.\s  McL.\uchi.ax  :  Earl;/ 
Scottish  Church,  Edinburgh,  1865;  D.\nikl  dk 
Vinne:    Irish  Primilive   Church,  New  York,  1870. 

I.  H.  A.  Ebk.\kd:  Die  iro  - schoUische  Missions- 
kirche,  1873. 

AIGRADUS  (Anf/radus  or  A>i.t;;nrilus),  a  monk 
of  Fontanelles,  near  Rouen ;  wrote,  about  699,  a 
life  of  St.  Ansbert,  Abbot  of  Fontanelles  from 
678  to  695,  which,  thougli  interpolated  by  a  later 
hand,  is  still  of  great  value  (Act.  i'.S.  Bolt.  Feb., 

II.  pp.  347-356).  He  is  also  supposed  to  be  the 
author  of  a  fragment  of  a  life  of  St.  Lautbert, 
given  anonymously  by  M.\billon,  Acta  SS.  Ben. 

III.  2  p.  402-405. 

AILLI,  Pierre  d'  (Pclrus  de  AUiaco),  b.  at  Ailli- 


haiit-clocher,  in  the  department  of  Abbeville, 
13.50;  d.  in  Avignon,  Aug.  9,  1120:  entercil  the 
University  of  Paris  as  a  .student  of  theology  in 
the  College  of  Navarre,  1372;  wroti;  in  1375  his 
first  book,  a  commentary  on  I'etrus  Lombardiis 
((iiurslloni's  .vii/irr  lihros  sentciilidrurn),  which  was 
published  in  1  110;  and  began  to  lectun;  on  )ihi- 
losojihy  in  the  university,  where  lie  soon  made  the 
nominalism  of  Occam  predominate.  In  1380  he 
was  made  a  doctor  of  theology;  ami  his  treatise 
at  this  occasion,  as  well  as  two  other  essays  (JJe 
Lcijitimo  Domlnio  and  Ulriim  indoctus  injure  dlvino 
pnssit  Juste  prodessc  in  ccclcsitn  reijno,  written  at 
the  same  time,  and  published  in  Qcrson.  Opcr. 
edition  Dupin,  Tom.  I.  pp.  011-044,  1706),  show 
his  theological  stand-point.  The  Christian 
Church,  he  said,  is  founded  on  Christ,  not  on 
Peter;  on  the  Bible,  not  on  the  canon  law;  and 
.still  more  directly  he  enters  into  opposition  to  the 
Papists  of  his  time  by  protesting  that  the  pope 
is  fallible  in  matters,  both  of  faith  and  fact,  and 
that  the  true  reiiresentative  of  the  Church  is  not 
the  pope,  but  the  oecumenical  council.  Never- 
theless, in  spite  of  these  advanced  views,  he 
never  transgresses  the  narrow  boundaries  of  the 
medi.neval  Church.  Dogmatically  he  defines  faith 
as  a  knowledge  of  theological  truths,  and 
describes  it  as  a  magically  inifused  inspiration  ; 
politically  he  considered  the  union  of  the  Church 
as  far  more  precious  than  its  purity.  In  1384, 
having  in  the  mean  time  made  a  great  impression 
by  a  series  of  sermons  on  St.  Francis  of  Assissi 
(Traclattis  el  Scrmunes,  Arg.  1490),  he  became 
director  of  the  College  of  Navarre,  where  he  had 
Gerson  and  Nicholas  de  Clemanges  among  his 
pupils;  and  in  1389,  having  two  years  previously 
gained  great  fame  by  ids  defence  of  the  im- 
maculate conception  and  the  defeat  of  the 
Dominicans,  he  was  made  Chancellor  of  the  Uni- 
versity. Thus  at  the  head  of  one  of  the  most 
influential  institutions  in  the  Church,  and  pos- 
sessed of  a  great  fame  as  the  "  Eagle  of  France," 
the  '•  Hammer  of  Heretics,"  his  views  of  eccle- 
siastical affairs,  more  e.specially  of  the  papal 
schism,  became  of  great  consequence,  and  he 
understood  how  to  make  them  felt.  After  the 
death  of  Clement  VII.  (1394),  Benedict  XIII.  was 
elected  his  successor;  and  it  was  due  to  Ailli's 
exertions  that  he  was  recognized  by  France. 
Nor  did  Benedict  XIII.  show  himself  ungrateful. 
In  1395  he  made  Ailli  Bishop  of  Puy,  and  in 
1397  Bisliop  of  Cambray.  Meanwhile  the  vari- 
ous negotiations  made  it  perfectly  plain  to  Ailli 
that  a  general  council  was  the  only  effective 
remedy  against  the  schism  ;  and  this  view,  while 
it  estranged  him  somewhat  from  Benedict  XIII., 
drew  him  nearer  to  John  XXIII. ,  who  in  1411 
made  him  a  cardinal.  His  views  at  last  pre- 
vailed. The  Council  of  Constance  deposed  Greg- 
ory XII.,  John  XXni.,and  Benedict  XIII.;  and, 
though  the  Cardinal  of  Cambray  was  himself  one 
of  the  candidates  for  the  papal  throne,  he  lived 
on  very  good  terras  with  Pope  Martin  V  ,  as 
whose  legate  he  acted  in  Avignon.  Besides  be- 
ing a  very  prolific  writer  on  tlieological  subjects. 
Ailli  also  wrote  on  geograjihy;  and  his  Ima;/o 
Mundi  (1410)  has  still  interest  as  one  of  the 
sources  from  which  Columbus  drew  his  view  of 
the  possibility  of  a  western  passage  from  Spain 
to  India.     His  astronomical  writings  occupy  an 


AILREDUS. 


44 


AKIBA. 


intermediate  position  between  astrological  super- 
stition and  true  science ;  but  his  propositions  to 
the  improvement  of  the  calendar  show  compre- 
hensive and  sound  views.  Tliere  is  a  collected 
edition  of  his  works,  Douay.  1034;  but  it  is  not 
complete.  See  P.\l'L  Tsch.a.ckkrt  :  Ptter  von 
Ailli,  Gotha.  1877.  Paul  tsciiackert. 

AILREDUS,  b.  1109;  d.  1166;  a  native  of 
England,  was  educated  in  Scotland,  entered  the 
order  of  the  Cistercians,  became  Abbot  of  Reves- 
by,  Lincolnshire,  and  wrote  Ilistnria  de  Vila  et 
Miraculis  S.  Edicanli :  Genealni/ia  ller/um  A nr/lo- 
rum ;  De  Bella  Slandardi ;  Hktnria  de  Saiicti- 
moniali  de  Waltham :  all  in  Twisden,  Decern 
Scriptoref,  London,  1652  ;  and  Sennones  de  Tem- 
pore et  Sanctis :  Tractatua  de  puero  Jesu  duodccen- 
ni ;  Speculum  caritalis,  lib.  IIL  ;  De  Spiriluali 
Amicitia,  libri  IIL,  etc.,  edited  by  Gibbon, 
Douay,  1631 ;  and  in  Bibl.  Ciller.  V.  and  Biil. 
Patrum,  XXIII. 

AIMOIN  or  AYMOIN,  monk  in  St.  Germain  des 
Pres,  near  Paris,  d.  about  880  ;  wrote  a  history 
of  saints,  of  which  the  lil/ri  duo  de  S.  G'ermunl, 
episcopi  Parisiensis  miraculis  have  some  historical 
value  (see  B.Xhr  :  Geschichte  der  rOmischen  Lil- 
teraliiT  in  carolingischen  Zeitatler,  p.  242).  Differ- 
ent from  him  is  Almoin,  monk  in  Fleury,  d. 
1008,  who,  on  the  instance  of  Abbo  of  Fleury,  Ids 
patron,  wrote  the  Historia  Francorum,  libri  IV., 
from  253  to  G.54.  The  work  itself  has  no  worth ; 
but  the  continuation  of  it  up  to  727  is  valuable 
(Bouquet:  Script,  rer.  Franc,  III.). 

AINSWORTH,  Henry,  b.  at  Pleasington,  Lan- 
cashire, about  1560;  d.  in  Amsterdam  about 
1623 ;  was  educated  in  the  grammar-school  of 
Blackburn;  studied  at  Cambridge;  adopted  the 
platform  of  the  Independents,  such  as  represented 
by  the  Brownists  ;  and  was  in  loi)3  driven  away 
from  his  native  country.  Fur  the  rest  of  his  life 
he  lived  in  .Vmsterdam,  at  the  beginning  in  great 
poverty,  but  afterwards,  as  teacher  of  the  Brown- 
ist  Church  of  that  city,  in  better  circumstances. 
He  partook  with  great  zeal  in  the  controversies 
of  the  day,  and  wrote,  for  instance,  A  Dc/enre  of 
the  l/oli/  Scriptures  against  Smyth,  16O.0;  but  his 
great  fame  he  aciinired  as  a  Hebrew  scholar. 
His  Annotationes  to  the  Pentateuch,  Psalms,  and 
Canticles  were  collected  in  1627,  and  repeatedly 
reprinted;  latest  edition,  Edinburgh,  lS43,2vols. 
See  Xk.\i,  :  Hislori/  of  the  Puritans;  WiLso.v: 
Diisentin<i  Churches. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE  (German  Aachen,  Latin 
Aquis-Graniini)  received  its  name  from  its  warm 
springs,  wliose  medicinal  qualities  were  very  early 
recognized.  'Die  (Jer:n;in  name,  Aar/icn,  is  not 
a  corruption  of  afjua,  but  derived  from  the  Old 
High  German  ach,  aha,  oh,  •'  water."  The  latter 
part  of  the  I^atin  name  is  .su])posed  to  have  been 
derived  from  .some  proper  name.  The  eastern 
tower  of  the  city  liall  is  still  called  the  tower  of 
(iranus. 

The  city  is  first  mentioned  in  a  letter  by  Pepin, 
7.54  (Baluzk:  Jici/uin  Francorum,  Capitularia  II. 
p.  1391);  but  coin.i,  inscriptions,  l);iths,  aque- 
ducts, .and  other  monuments,  show  that  it  was 
known  to  the  Romans  from  the  time  of  C.Tsar. 
With  the  accession  of  the  Carlovingian  ilynasty 
it  at  once  .sprang  into  great  eminence;  and  witFi 
tlie  fall  of  tliat  dyniusty  it,  too,  lost  its  im)iortance. 
Charhimagne  made  it  his  residence,  unci  built  the 


Church  of  St.  Mary  —  the  only  monument  ot 
Carlovingian  architecture  still  jireserved  com- 
plete—  and  a  magnificent  palace,  which  was  con- 
nected with  the  church  by  a  splendid  colonnade. 
In  this  palace,  or  in  the  Church  of  St.  Mary,  sat 
tlie  diet  of  Charlemagne,  a  mixed  assembly  of 
laj'men  and  ecclesiastics  summoned  by  the  em- 
peror to  pronounce,  both  on  secular  and'  ecclesias- 
tical and  I'eligious  matters.  Generally,  however,, 
the  ecclesiastics  separated  when  discussing  eccle- 
siastic affairs,  and  formed  a  synod  or  council, 
Concilia  Aquisgranensia,  though  not  always  as- 
suming that  name.  We  sliall  briefly  enumerate 
these  assemblies. 

I.  789.  Made  an  extract  from  the  legislation 
of  the  elder  councils  of  the  Roman  Em]iire,  and 
made  it  obligatory,  also,  for  the  Frankish  Em- 
pire. II.  797.  Revoked,  at  least  jiartially,  the 
bloody  laws  which  since  785  had  hevn  imposed 
on  the  conquered  Saxons.  III.  799.  Against 
the  Adoptians.  IV.  801-803.  The  separation 
of  the  bishops,  abbots,  and  secular  knights  into, 
three  benches  or  bodies;  various  laws  concerning 
discipline.  V.  809.  On  the  procession  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  VI.  818.  The  final  enactment  of 
the  canons  of  the  .synods  of  Jlentz,  Rheims,  Tours,. 
Chalons-sur-Saone,  and  Aries.  VII.  816.  Regu- 
lations for  the  life  of  canonlci.  The  rules  of 
Chrodegang,  which  liitlierto  had  been  optional 
only,  were  now  made  obligatory,  besides  being 
much  enlarged.  VIII.  817.  The  reforms  of 
Benedict  of  Aniane.  IX.  819.  Regulations  for 
mij<si  dominici.  X.  825.  Concerning  the  trans- 
ference of  the  bones  of  St.  Hubert  from  Liege 
to  the  Monastery  of  Andoin.  XL  831.  The 
Empress  Judith.  XII.  836.  The  re.storation  of 
those  estates  which  Pepin,  King  of  Aquitanise, 
had  taken  from  the  Church.  Xll.  837.  About 
the  election  of  abbots.  XIII.  842.  Alediation 
between  Lothair,  Louis  the  German,  and  Charle.9 
the  Bald,  which  led  to  tlie  treaty  of  Verdun,  843. 
XIV.,  860,  and  XV.,  862.  Concerning  the  di- 
vorce between  Lothair  and  Tlieutberga.  XVI. 
992.  Concerning  discipline.  XVII.  1105.  The 
canonization  of  Charlemagne. 

From  Otto  I.  (936)  to  Ferdinand  I.  (15.58)  were 
twenty-nine  emperors  crowned  at  .Vix-la-Chapelle. 
See  Qui.K:   Geschichte  vini  Aachen. 

AKIBA  was  the  most  prominent  rabbi  whom 
the  Jewish  people  produced  in  the  period  between 
the  destruction  of  .lerusalcm  (70)  and  the  final 
dissolution  of  tlie  rabliinical  schools  in  Palestine 
(358).  He  excelled  all  his  contemporaries  in 
compass  of  knowledge  and  acut<'ii('ss  of  inter- 
])retation,  on  the  whole  iiehl  of  the  Ilalaeha 
(law-tradition),  which  he  systematized  and  codi- 
fied. III!  found  a  meaning  in  every  word  of  the 
Thora,  even  in  tin;  particles  and  tlie  manner  in 
which  the  letters  were  written.  Under  Domitian 
he  pleaded  the  case  of  his  people  in  Rome.  The 
later  uprising  under  Hadrian  was  chiefly  Ins 
work.  By  journeying  to  the  most  distant  coun- 
tries he  collected  among  his  exiled  countrymen 
the  necessary  means,  and  it  was  he  who  repre- 
sented Bar-Cochba  to  tlie  people  as  the  Messiah. 
He  sujiported  thi'  revolutionary  liero  throughout 
with  his  whole!  influence;  and  when  the  rising, 
which  had  begun  so  successfully  (132)  suddenly 
and  di'»]iicably  collapsed,  he  was  oiw.  of  the 
martyrs.     The  flesh  was  torn  from  his  bones  by 


AKOIMBTOI. 


45 


ALBER. 


iron  combs.  In  ii  definite  literary  form  he  lias 
left  notliing;  bnt  tlie  IMishna  and  the  literature  of 
the  Talmud  and  Jlidrach  contain  numerous  defi- 
nitions, interpretations,  etc.,  which  give  a  striking 
picture  of  the  powerful  man.  See  GitXr/, : 
Geschichle  tier  Juden,  vol.  IV.,  18G0;  Gast- 
frku.n'd:  Biof/raplii/  of  Alcib/i,  Breslau,  1871  (in 
Hebrew);  Lkuki-X'HT  :  Bcllicr,  die  frn;/li'cli(;  SUiilt 
im  hadrinni.ic/i-jurji.icheu  Krieijc,  Berlin,  1877. 

AKOIMETOI.     See  Ac<emet^. 

A'LASCO.     See  La.sco. 

ALAN  US.  Under  this  name  a  considerable 
number  of  mediaeval  writings  on  theology  and 
philosophy  have  come  down  to  us.  A  complete 
list  is  given.  Hist.  litl.  de  la  France,  XVI.,  p.  421 ; 
see  also  Alani.  Opera,  ed.  C.  de  Visch,  Antwerp, 
1654.  They  consist  of  essays  in  verses,  in  rhyme 
-or  elegiac  measure,  on  moral,  philosophical,  and 
■devotional  topics  ;  allegorical  commentaries  to 
various  parts  of  the  Bible;  sermons;  a  short 
Summa  de  arte  pncdicaforia ;  a  Lihcr  pi£niteiiti(dit, 
etc.  But  the  question  is,  who  was  the  author  of 
these  works.  Generally  they  are  ascribed  to 
one  of  the  schoolmen,  —  Atanus  de  Iiixulis,  com- 
monly known  by  the  surname  of  Doctor  tiniver- 
sa/i.f.  Of  his  life  only  little  is  known,  and  this 
little  is  full  of  confusion.  There  were  other 
■writers  of  the  name  x\lanus,  especially  one, 
Bishop  of  Auxerre;  and  another,  Alanua  de 
Padin.  Ondin  {Comment,  de  script,  eccles.  T.  II. 
2i.  1338)  maintains  that  Atanus  de  Insulis  and 
Alanus  of  Auxerie  are  one  and  the  same  pier- 
son,  while  Bulaeus  (Hist.  Acad.  Paris,  T.  II.  p. 
432)  distinguishes  between  them.  The  latter 
holds,  however,  that  they  were  both  natives  of 
Lille,  which  fact  again  is  contested  by  Cave 
{Hist.  litl.  script,  -rcles.  pp.  586,  624),  and  by 
the  author  of  the  Hist,  litle'raire  de  la  France,  T. 
XVI.  p.  396.  Th;_  much,  however,  is  certain  : 
Alanus  was  a  native  of  Lille  or  Ryssel,  Flanders, 
belonged  to  the  order  of  the  Cistercians,  flour- 
ished in  the  twelftl'  century,  and  spent  most  of 
his  life  in  Englanu.  He  is  the  author  of  all  the 
above  works,  with  the  exception  of  the  Summa 
jjuadripartita,  and  perhaps  the  life  of  St.  Bernard, 
which  latter  may  Ixlong  to  Alanus  of  Auxerre. 
The  Summa  qnadripartita  is  evidently  written  in 
Southern  France,  ,"•  d  it  is  more  likely  that  the 
author  was  the  Alr,uus  whose  surname,  de  Padio, 
shows  that  he  descended  from  Provence,  than  the 
Fleming  Alanus,  residing  in  England.  Of 
Alanus  de  Podia  wc  liave  a  moral  tract,  found  in 
manuscript  at  A\ ranches  (Rav.\isson  :  Rapport 
sur  les  hililiollAques  i.c  I'Onest  de  la  France,  Paris, 
1841,  p  1-57),  an;,  another  work,  also  in  manu- 
script and  varion:;ly  titled :  Oculus,  Oraculum 
Scripturce  Sacr(e,  AJi/niroca,  etc.  (Hist.  lit.  de  la 
France.  I.  c.  p.  421).  See  Dupuv:  Alain  de 
Lille,  18.59.  C.  SCHMIDT. 

ALB,  from  the  Latin  alha,  "  white,"  is  a  long 
tunic,  or  vestment,  of  white  linen,  worn  by  the 
Roman  priests  during  service,  and  differing  from 
the  surplice  used  in  the  Church  of  England  by 
fitting  closer,  and  being  held  together  by  a  girdle. 
In  the  ancient  church  the  newly-baptized  wei-e 
dressed  in  white  garments  (in  albis)  as  a  sym- 
bolical expression  of  the  purity  of  their  state; 
and  these  white  garments  were  worn  until  Sun- 
day after  Easter,  called  Dominica  in  albis.  As 
early,  however,  as  the  fourth  century,  we  find  the 


(dh  mentioned  as  a  special  part  of  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal garment.  See  Smith  and  Ciiektiiam  :  Dic- 
tionarij  of  Christ.  Anti(p 

ALBAN,  St.,  tlie  jiroto-martyr  of  England, 
was  boin  at  Verulam,  llerfordshiro;  served  seven 
years  in  the  army  of  Diocletian ;  was  converted 
to  Christianity  by  a  priest,  Amphibohis,  to  whom 
he  had  extended  hospitality ;  and  was  beheaded 
during  the  persecution  of  Diocletian,  in  ■'503.  In 
the  place  where  he  suffered  martyrdom  a  church 
was  erected,  which,  having  been  destroyed  by  the 
Pagan  Saxons,  was  restored  in  793  by  King  Offa 
of  Mercia.  At  the  side  of  the  church  a  monas- 
tery arose,  and  afterwards  the  city  of  St.  Alban. 
But  the  very  existence  of  this  saint  is  doubtful : 
his  name  is  not  mentioned  before  Gildas  (560) 
and  Veuantins  Fortunatus  (580).  His  life  is 
given  at  length  by  Bkd.v:  Hist.  Eccl.  bib.  I  ,  and 
in  Ada  Sanctorum,  June  IV.,  p.  146;  other  Vitce 
and  Acta,  in  verse  and  in  prose,  by  Potthast, 
Bibl.  p.  588. 

ALBANENSES,  a  fraction  of  the  sect  of  the 
Cathari,  derived  their  name  from  Albania,  and 
maintained,  in  opposition  to  the  Bogomiles  of 
Thracia  and  the  Concorezenses  of  Bulgaria  and 
Italy,  an  absolute  dualism,  by  which  good  and 
evil  were  referred  to  two  eternally  opposite 
and  equally  potent  principles.  See  the  article 
on  C.\Tn.\iti. 

ALBER,  Erasmus.  The  date  and  place  of  his 
birth  are  unknown  ;  and  many  jioints  are  unsettled 
in  the  course  of  his  erratic  life,  —  as  a  student  in 
Wittenberg  (1520),  pastor  of  Spredlingen  (1528), 
court-preacher  to  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg, 
reformer  of  the  Church  of  Hanau-Lichtenberg, 
pastor  of  Magdeburg,  etc.  He  died  May  5,  1553, 
as  superintendent  of  Neu-Brandenburg.  In 
Brandenburg  he  came  incidentally  across  a  copy 
of  the  Liher  Conformilatum  S.  Francisci  ad  vitam 
Jesu  Chrhiti,  by  Bartholomajus  Albioius ;  and 
against  this  book  and  some  other  legends  he 
wrote,  Der  Barfusser  Mijnclie  Eulenspieyel  und 
Alcoran,  which  was  published  anonymously,  but 
with  a  preface  by  Luther,  in  Wittenberg,  1542, 
and  afterwards  translated  into  Latin,  French,  and 
Dutch. 

ALBER,  Matthasus,  b.  at  Reutlingen,  Deo.  4, 
1495;  d.  at  Blaubeuren,  Dec.  2,  1.570;  studied  at 
Freiburg  and  Tubingen,  and  received  a  call  as 
second  pastor  to  his  native  city,  where  he  imme- 
diately began  to  preach  the  doctrines  of  the 
Reformers.  The  first  pastor  complained  to  the 
Abbot  of  Kbnigsbronn  and  the  Bishqp  of  Con- 
stance; and  the  two  prelates  remonstrated  with 
the  magistrates  of  Reutlingen,  the  Swabian 
Union,  and  the  Austrian  Government  in  Stutt- 
gart. Alber  was,  nevertheless,  appointed  first 
pastor  by  the  magistrates ;  and  when  he  was 
summoned  before  the  bishop  he  did  not  only  not 
ajipear,  but,  as  if  to  make  the  breach  with  the 
Roman  Church  irreparable,  he  married.  Reut- 
lingen was  now  put  under  the  ban,  both  by  the 
pope  and  the  emperor,  but  nobody  cared;  and 
Alber  went  on  with  his  reforms:  the  mass  was 
abolished,  the  images  were  removed,  and  the 
German  language  was  introduced  in  the  service. 
Dec.  13,  1524,  he  was  summoned  before  the  im- 
perial court  of  Esslingen,  and  he  went,  accom- 
panied by  fifty  citizens  of  Reutlingen;  but,  after 
two  days'  investigation  and  debate,  the  case  was 


ALBERT. 


46 


ALBIGBNSES. 


dropped.  The  dangers  of  the  Anabajitist  iiiove- 
ment  and  the  peasants'  war  he  averted  from 
Reutlingen:  but,  when  the  interim  of  1548  was 
forced  on  the  city,  he  was  coin]H'lled  to  leave, 
and  entered  the  service  of  Duke  Ulricli  of  Wiir- 
temberg.  wlio  first  made  him  preacher  at  the 
principal  church  of  Stuttgai't,  and  afterwards 
Abbot  of  Klaubeuren.  See  Jul.  HARXiMAXX : 
Mtttthoius  Allici:  Tubingen,  1SG3.  wilken. 

ALBERT  OF  RIGA,  d.  Jan.  17,  12-29  ;  is  first 
mentioned  as  Cauou  of  Bremen  in  llbiJ;  took  up 
the  plan  of  Bertliold,  after  his  death  in  119S. 
of  conquering  and  christianizing  Livonia,  and 
went  in  1'200.  at  the  head  of  a  crusading  army, 
from  Lubeck  across  the  Baltic.  In  1201  he 
founded  Riga,  in  1202  the  knightly  order  of  the 
Brethren  of  the  Sword;  and  though  he  experi- 
enced many  troubles  from  the  order,  which 
wanted  to  become  independent  and  operate  on 
its  own  account,  and  from  the  Danes,  who  con- 
quered Esthonia  in  1219,  he  finally  succeeded 
in  establishing  Christianity  in  the  country.  In 
125.5  Riga  was  made  the  metropolis  of  the  Li- 
vonian  and  Prussian  Church. 

ALBERT  THE  GREAT  {Alhertm  Mcupnis),  b.  at 
Lauingen.  in  Bavaria,  1193:  d.  in  Cologne,  Nov. 
15,  1280.  He  studied  at  Padua  and  Bologna ; 
entered  the  order  of  St.  Dominic  in  1223,  and 
served  as  Icclor  in  the  various  convent-schools  of 
his  order  in  Germany,  especially  in  Cologne, 
where  he  had  Thomas  Aquinas  among  his  pupils. 
After  a  .stay  of  three  years  in  Paris  (1245-48),  he 
was  made  re//(>ji.<  of  the  school  of  Cologne;  and 
in  12.54  the  chapter  of  Worms  chose  him  general 
of  the  Dominican  order  in  Germany,  in  which 
capacity  he  traversed  Germany  on  foot  from  end 
to  end,  visiting  the  monasteries,  and  enforcing 
discipline.  In  1260  Alexander  IV.  made  iiim 
Bishop  of  Regensburg ;  but  this  office  was  so  little 
in  harmony  with  his  char.acter  and  habits  as  a 
teacher  and  writer,  that,  after  the  lapse  of  two 
years,  he  was  allowed  to  resign,  and  retired  to  his 
monastery  in  Cologne,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life,  with  the  exception  of  a  short  visit  to 
Paris,  which  he  undertook  when  he  was  over 
eighty  years  old,  in  order  to  vindicate  the  ortho- 
doxy of  his  late  pupil,  Thomas  Aquinas.  As  ;ui 
author  he  evinced  a  m.any-sidedncs.s,  which,  in 
the  learned  world,  procured  for  him  the  suiuame 
of  doctor  uniocr.ialis ;  while  his  knowledge  of  nat- 
ural science,  and  its  practical  applications  mad<! 
him  a  sorcerer  in  popular  estimation.  His  great 
exploit  was  the  introduction  of  the  complete 
system  of  -Vristotle  to  tlu;  understanding  of  his 
age  through  a  kiiul  of  loose  re])roduction.s  (l)c 
Pra:<licami'iili^  ;  Sn/iKr  Ucio  Libros  ]'/it/sirortim ; 
Lihri  XIII.  Melnpli)/siconim,  etc.),  not  of  the 
Greek  originals,  but  of  the  .Vrabic  versions  and 
conimentarit's,  richly  interlarded  with  compila- 
tions from  Plato,  the  Neo-Platonists,  .Vvicenna, 
the  Arabian  philo.sophical  and  medical  writer  of 
the  eleventh  century,  etc.  By  this  scientific 
brokerage,  wiiich  lias  yieldeil  liim  many  an  un- 
deserved compliment  from  nKHlern  .scientists,  he 
furnished  tlie  scholastic  iihiloso))liy  with  means 
for  it.s  highest  development.  His  th('ologieal 
works  comprise :  commentaries  on  various  ]iarts 
of  the  Bible  ;  sermons  ;  moral  and  ascetical 
treatises  (Parailinun  A  nima:  sine  ile  Virlulihus)  ■ 
dogmatical  expositions  (Suiiuiia  Tlieoloyia:),eic. 


Many  of  his  works  have  been  published  sepa- 
rately. A  collected  edition  was  given  by  P. 
Jainmy,  Lyons,  1051.  in  twenty-one  vols.  fol. 
The  best  biography  of  him  is  found  in  Script. 
Ord.  Prmlkut.  Paris,  1719,  Tom.  I.,  pp.  1()2- 
171.  See  Pouchkt:  Histoire.  <kx  Scicncex  Xatii- 
relles  au  Moi/eii-rif/e  ou  Albert  le  Gninrl  r-l  .ion 
Epoquc,  Paris,  1853;  I,  Sigh.\rt  :  Aihirlux  Mai/- 
7tiis.scin  Lebeii  und  seineWisser>xch(ifl,  Regensburg, 
18.57;  O.  d'.\ss.\ii-LY:  Albert  le  Grand.  Paris, 
1870.  Rei.nh.\i:d  de  I av.cmty  :  Albert  le  Grand 
cl  S.   riinmas  irAi/iiin.      Paris,  1880.      F.  NITZSCH. 

ALBERTI,  Jean,  b.  March  6.  1098,  at  Assen. 
Holland;  d.  in  Leyden,  Aug.  13.  1762;  was  a 
minister  at  Harlem,  became  afterwards  professor 
of  theology  in  Leyden,  and  wrote :  Ol.iercotlone.i 
phUoloyiccc  in  .vici'os  Novi  Fctderis  libros.  Leyden, 
1725 ;  Glu.ssarinm  finecum  in  sacro.t  Noci  Fmderi.s' 
libro.<,  Leyden,  1735.  He  also  edited  the  first 
volume  of  Hesychius'  Lexicon,  afterward  con- 
tinued and  completed  by  Ruhnhenius,  Leyden, 
176(5. 

ALBERTI,  Leander,  b.  at  Bologna,  Dec.  11, 
1479;  d.  there  in  1552;  studied  theologj'  under 
Baviatero ;  entered  the  order  of  St.  Dominic  in 
1495;  was  called  to  Rome  in  1525  as  assistant  ta 
the  general  of  the  order,  and  became  afterwards 
inquisitor-general  in  Bologna.  He  wrote:  De 
riri.i  illu.itribu.i  ordinis  Proedicdiornm,  Bologna, 
1517;  also  a  Descrizione  di  tutta  I'ltalia.  Bologna, 
15.50,  afterwards  republished,  and  a  Hi.ttoria  di 
linloi/na,  Bologna,  1541,  continued  by  L'accia- 
nemici. 

ALBERTINI,  Johann  Baptist  vo,n,  b.  at  Xeu- 
wied,  Silesi.-i,  Feb.  17,  1769;  d.  at  Berthelsdorf, 
near  Herrnhut,  Dec.  0,  1831  ;  descended  from  a 
.Swiss  family  of  the  Grisons.  and  was  eilucated 
together  with  Schleierniacher,  with  wliom  he 
formed  a  very  intimate  friendship,  at  Xisky 
(1782-85)  and  at  the  theological  seminary  of 
Barby  (1785-88).  But  while  SchliMcrmaeher 
turiK'd  to  a  penetrating  study  of  i>liilosophy,  and 
attempted  a  reconciliation  between  the  spirit  of 
Christianity  and  the  spirit  of  modern  civiliza- 
tion, Albertini  retained  his  Christian  piety  in 
that  simple  and  childlike  form  in  whicli  it  was 
gained  in  the  Moravian  congregation;  and  his- 
thirst  for  knowledge  I'cuuid  its  gratification  in 
the  study  of  languages,  mathi-matics,  ami  botany. 
Thus  he  wrote,  in  connection  with  Schweinitz, 
a  monograph  on  Fiini/i.  From  1788  to  1810  he 
worked  as  teacher  in  the  seliool  of  Ni.sky,  from 
1810  to  1821  as  preacher  and  bishop  iu  Xisky, 
(inadenberg,  ami  (inadenfn  i  (.Silesia):  iu  1821 
he  became  a  member,  ami  in  1824  president,  of 
the  department  for  cluirch  ;ind  school,  w  Inch  po- 
sition he  occupied  till  his  death.  His  works 
consist  of  I'redii/ten,  1805;  Geixtiiclic  Lieder.  1821  ; 
and  liedcn,  1832.  Some  of  his  spiritual  lyrics 
are  of  rare  beauty. 

ALBERTUS  MAGNUS.  See  Ai.ninT  riiic 
Gkkat. 

ALBIGENSES,  a  si'ct  which  from  the  bi>gin- 
ning  "f  till-  ileviMith  century  sjiread  ra|ndly  and 
widely  iu  Suutheru  France,  and  maintained  itsi^lf 
there  till  tlu!  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century: 
received  its  n:imc^  from  the  city  of  .Vlbi,  Latin 
,4 ////'/((,  the  (iresent  ca|iital  of  the  deparlnienl  of 
Tarn,  which  was  one  of  their  principal  seats. 
The   name   does   not  occur,   however,  until   the 


ALBIGENSES. 


47 


ALBIGENSES. 


time  of  the  Albigeiisiaii  crusade.  Before  that 
time  the  sect  was  spolcen  of  as  the  Poldicants,  or 
Puhlii-aiii,  ]irobably  a  corruption  of  the  name  of 
the  Paulicians,  which  tlie  crusailcrs  liad  brouglit 
back  to  Western  Europe,  or  as  the  Jlos  llum<:t, 
Latin,  Boni  Ilominea,  Frencli,  Bans  IFommnt, 
which  name  they  themselves  gave  to  tliosc; 
among  tliem  who  reached  tlie  higliest  state  of 
perfection,  the  pe.rfc.cli. 

Of  tlie  doctrines  of  the  Albigenses  nothing  is 
known  with  certainty.  They  have  left  no  writ- 
ings, confessional,  apologetical,  or  polemical ;  an<l 
the  representations  which  Roman-Catholic  writ- 
ers, their  bitter  enemies,  have  given  of  them,  are 
highly  exaggerated.  It  is  evident,  however,  that 
they  formed  a  branch  of  that  l)ro;ul  stream  of 
sectarianism  and  heresy  which  arose  far  away  in 
Asia  from  the  contact  between  Christianity  and 
the  Oriental  religions,  and  wliich,  by  crossing  the 
Balkan  Peninsula,  reached  Western  Europe. 
The  first  outflow  from  this  source  were  the  JNIani- 
chseans,  the  next  the  Paulicians,  the  next  the 
Cathari,  who  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries 
were  very  strong  in  Bulgaria,  Bosnia,  and  Dalma- 
tia.  Of  the  Cathari,  the  Bogomiles,  Patoreni, 
Albigenses,  etc.,  were  only  individual  develop- 
ments. In  general  they  all  held  the  same  doc- 
trines, dualism,  docetism,  etc.;  the  same  moral 
tenets,  an  austere  simplicity  bordering  on  ascet- 
icism ;  the  same  oi'ganization,  a  division  into  two 
classes  of  creilenlea,  or  uu<Htores,  'dnd  perfect i;  and 
the  same  policy,  opposition  to  the  Roman-Catho- 
lic Church.     See  the  article  Cathari. 

From  Italy  the  movement  reached  Southern 
France  in  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century; 
and  here  the  soil  was  wonderfully  well  prepared 
for  the  new  seed.  The  country  was  rich,  flourish- 
ing, and  independent;  the  people,  gay,  intellec- 
tual, and  progressing;  the  Church,  dull,  stupid, 
and  tyrannous ;  and  the  clergy,  distinguished  by 
nothing  but  superstition,  ignorance,  arbitrariness, 
violence,  and  vice.  Under  such  circumstances  the 
idea  of  a  return  to  the  purity  and  simplicity  of 
the  apostolical  age  could  not  fail  to  attract  atten- 
tion. The  severe  moral  demands  made  impression, 
because  the  example  of  the  preachers  corresponded 
to  their  words.  The  doctrine  of  an  absolute  and 
original  dualism  naturally  recommends  itself  to 
the  understanding  as  the  easiest  solution  of  many 
a  knotty  problem.  No  wonder,  then,  that  the 
people  deserted  the  Roman-Catholic  priests,  and 
crowded  around  the  Bos  Homes.  In  a  short  time 
the  Albigenses  had  congregations,  with  schools 
and  charitable  institutions  of  their  own.  Then 
they  drove  away  the  Roman-Catholic  priests  from 
the  churches,  took  possession  of  the  buildings, 
and  elected  their  own  priests  and  bishops.  Fi- 
nally the  lords  of  the  land,  the  great  barons  and 
counts,  openly  placed  themselves  at  the  head  of 
the  movement;  and  in  1107  the  Albigenses  held 
an  Albigensian  synod  at  Toulouse  for  the  [uirpose 
of  perfecting  their  organization.  The  Roman- 
,  Catholic  Church,  so  far  as  it  still  could  be  said 
to  exist  in  the  country,  had  become  an  object  of 
contempt  and  derision. 

This  state  of  atfairs  caused,  of  course,  great 
alarm  in  Rome.  As  early  as  1119  a  council  was 
convened  at  Toulouse;  and  the  tenets  of  tlie  Ca- 
thari, such  as  preached  by  the  Bos  Homes,  were 
condemned.     From  time  to  time  the  condemna- 


tion was  repeated  by  the  councils  of  the  Lateran 
(IPW),  of  Rheims  (1118),  of  Tours  (110:5),  etc.,' 
but  w'ithout  any  effect.  Missions  were  sent  out 
among  the  heretics.  In  1117  St.  Bernard  of 
Clairveaux  visited  them  I  and  his  preaching  was 
probably  not  altogether  lost.  In  1100  a  disjiu- 
tation  between  tlie  orthodox  and  the  heretical 
bishops  and  jiriests  was  held  at  Lonibei-s,  near 
AIbi;  but  no  result  was  arrived  at.  In  1178  Car- 
dinal Peter,  with  a  great  retinue  of  prelates  and 
monks,  tried,  for  the  last  time,  jiersuasion  ;  and  in 
1180  Cardinal  Henry,  for  the  first  time,  employed 
force.  He  preached  a  crusade  against  the  .-Mbi- 
gensian  heretics.  Troops  were  (Irawn  together; 
some  strong  places  were  carried  witli  the  usual 
accompaniment  of  massacre  and  carnage;  and 
then  the  case  was  again  allow(?d  to  drag  along, 
until  at  last  Innocent  III.  succeeded  in  finishing 
it  by  employing  measures  which  he  is  said  to  have 
i-epented  bitterly  of  himself.  In  1:.'08  the  papal 
legate,  Pierre  de  Castelnau,  was  murdered;  and 
the  murder  was  ascribed  to  Count  Raymond  of 
Toulouse.  A  new  crusade  was  preached,  to  be 
led  by  Arnold,  Abbot  of  Citeau.x,  as  papal  legate, 
and  Simon  of  Jlontfort,  Earl  of  Leicester,  as 
military  chief;  and  behind  this  line  stood  the 
French  king  waiting  for  an  opportunity  to  rob 
Count  Raymond  of  his  beautiful  lands.  The 
count  humiliated  himself  as  much  as  he  ]iossib!y 
could :  he  paid  a  large  sum  into  the  pajial  treas- 
ury, was  flagellated  by  the  papal  legate,  and  then 
took  the  cross  against  his  own  subjects.  The 
first  place  which  was  taken  was  Beziers,  a  city 
of  between  twenty  thousand  and  forty  thousand 
inhabitants,  and  the  capital  of  Count  Roger,  Ray- 
mond's nephew,  who  had  openly  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  heretics.  When  the  general  asked 
what  to  do  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  captured 
city,  the  papal  legate  answered,  "  Kill  them  all ! 
God  will  know  his  own."  In  this  manner  the 
war  was  carried  on  for  twenty  years.  Town  after 
town  was  taken,  pillaged,  and  burnt;  of  the  in- 
habitants, the  orthodox  were  chained  together, 
and  sent  to  the  Mohammedan  slave -markets, 
while  tlie  heretics  were  massacred  and  burnt. 
Xothing  was  left  but  a  smoking  waste.  But,  as 
the  war  went  on,  its  purpose  changed.  Religious 
fanaticism  had  begun  it:  rapacity  and  ambition 
were  going  to  end  it.  ^Vhen  Raymond  was 
ready  to  hand  over  all  his  movable  property 
to  the  pope,  and  all  his  land  to  the  French  king, 
peace  was  concluded  in  V22',) ;  and,  in  order  to 
purge  the  population,  the  Inquisition  was  estab- 
lished in  Languedoc,  and  soon  extinguished  the 
sect. 

[Lit.  —  Petri:  Hist.  Albigensiu7n,TTev\s,  1G1.5  ; 
Perrin:  Ilisl.  des  Alhii/eois,  Geneva,  1078;  Be- 
xoisT :  Hist,  lies  Albii/eois,  Paris,  lOUl ;  Allix: 
Hist.  oftheAWif/enses,  Oxford,  1821;  ^Iaiti.axd: 
Facts  and  Documents  illustratice  of  the  Ancient 
Alliiijenses  ami  Walrlenses,  London,  1832;  F.^isER: 
Theology  of  the  Vallenses  and  Aihiyenses,  London, 
1S38;  Fauriel:  Croisade  centre  les  Albiyeois, 
Paris,  1838;  B.\rran  and  D.\urogax:  Histoire 
lies  (Jroisades  contre  les  Albifjeois,  Paris,  1S40. 
B.  ILvR^AU :  Bermiril  Delicieux  et  I'lni/uisition 
Alhii/eois,  Paris,  1S77.  Meyeu  :  La  chanson  de  la 
croisade  contre  les  Albii/eois,  commencee  par  Guil- 
laiime  de  Tudila  et  continuee  par  un  poete  anoni/me, 
Paris,  1879.1  C.  SCHMIDT. 


ALBIZZI. 


48 


ALCANTARA. 


ALBIZZI,  Antonio,  b.  in  Florence,  Xov.  25, 
1517:  d.  at  Kenipten,  in  Kavaria.  July  17,  lfi:i6  ; 
•was  secretary  to  the  Cardinal  of  Austria,  but 
embraced  Protestantism;  left  Italy,  and  resided 
afterwards  iu  Augsburg,  lusbriick,  and  Kempten. 
He  wrote :  Sermones  in  MnttluBiini,  Augsburg, 
1609;  Principinm  Christkinorum  slemmata,  1012; 
J)e  principiii  7'eli(/ioni,s  ChristidiiiE,  1612;  Exercita- 
tiones  llieolnfjirr,  Kempten,  1616. 

ALBIZZI,  Bartholomew  (Bartholumeus  Albiciux 
Pixaiiiis).  h.  at  llivi.no,  Tuscany;  entered  the 
order  of  the  Franciscans  ;  became  a  celebrated 
preacher,  and  taught  theology  at  Bologna,  Padua, 
Siena,  Florence,  and  Pisa,  where  he  died  Dec. 
10,  1101.  lie  is  the  author  of  the  famous  book, 
Liber  conffirmilalnm  suncli  Frmicisci  cum  Cliri.tto, 
which  in  1391)  was  accepted  with  great  applause 
by  the  chapter  of  his  order,  and  during  the  fol- 
lowing century  imblished  in  various  editions.  A 
refutation  by  Vergerio,  Diao/rsi  supra  i  Jiorelli  di 
san  Francisco,  was  put  on  the  index,  and  its  author 
declared  a  heretic.  In  1512,  however,  Erasmus 
Alber  published  at  Wittenberg  his  Der  BarfUsscr 
Monch  Eulcnspiciiel  unit  Alcoran,  and  the  follow- 
ing editions  of  the  Llhcr  conformitatum  were  then 
altered,  both  in  contents  and  title  :  Liber  A  uricus, 
1590;  Antiijuitale.i  Franciscanec,  1623,  etc. 

ALBO,  Joseph,  b.  at  Soria,  in  Old  Castile,  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  fourteenth  century  ;  d.  as 
rabbin  at  Montalvan,  in  1128 ;  wjis  one  of  the 
Jewish  representatives  at  the  famous  disputation 
held  in  1112  before  Benedict  XITI.  between 
Jerome  de  Sancta  Fide  and  a  number  of  Jewish 
theologians.  In  1125  appeared  his  Sefer  lia- 
ikkarim,  a  defence  of  the  Jewish  dogmatics  as 
opposed  to  the  Christian.  The  thirteen  funda- 
mental articles  of  Maimonides  he  reduced  to 
three,  (iod.  Revelation,  and  Retribution  ;  an<l 
■while  JMaimonides  maintained  incomiuutaliility 
of  the  law,  Albo  acknowledges  the  possibility  of 
a  new  divine  revelation  similar  to  that  on  Mount 
Sinai.  Of  this  work,  which  has  been  frequently 
reprinted,  .Schlesinger  has  given  a  German  trans- 
lation, Francfort,  1811. 

ALBRIGHT,  Jacob,  the  founder  of  "  the  Evan- 
gelical .\ssociation  of  North  America,"  b.  near 
Pottstown,  Montgomery  County,  Penn.,  Jlay  1, 
1759;  d.  May  8^  1808,  at  Mii'hlbach,  Lebanon 
County,  Penn.  His  parents  were;  Pennsylvania 
Germans  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  and  in  it  he 
was  himself  trained.  He  was  taught  in  the  pre- 
vailing defective  fashion  the  rudimiMits  of  e<luca- 
tion;  but  as  he  grew  up  he  found  his  surromul- 
ings  le.ss  and  less  congenial  to  his  intellectual 
and  spiritual  life.  After  his  marriage,  he  moved 
away  some  seventy  miles,  into  Lancaster  County, 
where  was  a  more  active  pojiulation.  Here  he 
carried  on  a  successful  tile  and  brick  business, 
and  was  on  the  road  to  wealth.  In  1790  several 
of  his  children  died  iu  quick  succession.  The 
keenness  of  ids  grief  and  tiio  faithful  funeral 
addresses  of  the  Rev.  Anton  Ilautz,  a  German 
Reformed  minister,  roused  him  from  his  religions 
indifference,  and  led  to  his  conversion.  He  found 
no  one  to  understand  his  riligious  state  among 
his  German  LullnTan  ni'iglibors;  and  ]irejudice 
kept  him  from  going  to  the  Methodists  until  he 
fell  in  with  a  Methodist  lay-preacher,  Adam 
Kidgel,  who  taught  him  the  way  of  God  more 
perfectly.     Albright  tiieii  desired  to  get  others 


to  share  his  joy,  but  met  \vith'  opposition  :  so 
finally  he  turned  to  the  ^Methodists,  studied  their 
church  government,  w'as  pleased  with  it.  joined 
them,  and  received  an  exhorter's  license;  but  he 
then  had  no  intention  of  becoming  a  minister. 
His  mind  brooded  over  the  spiritual  condition  of 
his  German  brethren,  and  he  prayed  earnestly  for 
their  conversion.  During  a  severe  illness  he 
became  convinced  that  he  was  to  undertake  the 
work  of  reform,  which  he  did  October,  1796. 
He  gave  up  secular  interests,  and  devoted  himself 
to  preaching  as  an  itinerant  wlierever  lie  found 
hearers.  Although  opposed,  lie  persevered,  trav- 
elled at  his  own  expense,  bent  only  on  doing 
good.  He  would  have  remained  in  the  Method- 
ist Church,  but  could  not,  because  it  at  that 
time  did  not  intend  entering  on  the  German 
field  ;  and  so  as  he  was  forced  to  give  some  kind  of 
an  organization  to  the  little  bodies  of  his  con- 
verts; he  separated  himself  and  them  from  the 
Methodist  Church,  and  .so,  entirely  contrary  to 
his  plan,  he  became  the  founder  of  a  new  denom- 
ination called  the  '■  Evangelical  Association." 
By  1800  he  had  organized  three  congregations. 
In  1803  a  council  was  held,  and  an  org.anization 
adopted,  Methodist  iu  general  features,  but  inde- 
pendent of  the  Methodist-Episcopal  Church.  In 
1807  the  first  conference  was  held.  It  was  this 
body  of  laymen  w  hich  unanimously  elected  and 
ordained  Albright  as  their  ])astor  and  bishop,  and 
declared  the  Bible  to  be  tlieir  only  rule  of  faith 
and  practice.  Albright  was  requested  to  compile 
articles  of  faith  and  a  di.scipline  for  the  guid- 
ance of  the  so-called  "  Albright  people  "  Shortly 
after  this  conference  Albright  died.  Bishop 
Yeakel,  wlio  contributes  the  "sketch  of  Albright 
in  the  Lii'en  of  the  Leaders  of  the  Church  Universal 
(Amer.  ed.  by  Rev.  Dr.  Maccracken,  Phila.), 
thus  describes  iiis  personal  appearance  :  "  He  was 
nearly  six  feet  high,  had  smooth  black  hair,  a 
high  clear  forehead,  small,  deeply-.set,  piercing 
eye.s,  aquiline  nose,  mouth  and  chin  well  propor- 
tioned, a  symmetrical  form,  a  white  complexion, 
the  sanguine  and  choleric  temperaments  well 
combined."     See  Evaxoei.ical  Associatiox. 

ALBRIGHT  BRETHREN  (Albrechls-Brwkr). 
See  KvANdKi.icAi,  .Vssociation. 

ALCANTARA,  ORDER  OF.  In  1212  Alfon.so 
IX.  of  Castile  laid  siegi-  to  the  city  of  .Mcantara, 
in  the  Province  of  Estremadura,  on  the  I'ajo. 
In  1218  he  conquered  it  from  the  Moors,  and 
placed  it  under  the  defence  of  the  Knights  of 
('alatrava,  who  .soon  after  transferred  it  to 
Xugno  Fernandez,  third  grand-master  of  the 
order  of  San  Julian  de  Paregro.  I'his  order 
was  founded  in  1150  against  t,he  Moors,  by  the 
brothers  .Suaro  and  (iomez  Fernando  Parrientos, 
while  defending  a  frontier  castle  of  the  above 
name:  it  assumed  the  reformed  rules  of  .St. 
Benedict,  and  was  confirmed  in  1177  and  1183 
by  the  pojies  Ali^xander  III.  and  Lucius  III. 
But  after  the  conquest  of  Alcantara  the  knights 
adopted  the  name  of  that  city,  and  ranged  them- 
selves under  the  grand-master  of  Calatrava  On 
till!  occasion,  however,  of  a  contested  election  of 
grand-master,  the  Knights  of  Alcantara  sepa- 
rat<Ml  from  thosi^  of  t'alatrava,  and  Don  Diego 
Sancte  became  their  lirst  giaiid-mastcr.  I'he 
thirty-eighth  grand-master,  Juan  de  Zuniga,  was 
also  the  last.     Iu  1405  he  resigned  the  office,  and 


ALCIMUS. 


49 


ALDHELM. 


became  Archbishop  of  Seville;  and,  with  the 
■consent  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  King  Ferdinand 
now  united  the  grand-masterships  of  St.  James, 
Calatrava,  and  Alcantara  to  the  crown.  In  its 
days  of  prosperity  the  order  possessed  fifty  coni- 
manderies  ;  but  in  1808  all  its  revenues  were 
•confiscated  by  King  Joseph,  and  only  jiarts  of 
them  restored  in  1811  by  King  Ferdinand.  In 
1873  the  order  was  altogether  abolished,  but 
re-established  in  1871  by  King  Alfonso  XII. 
For  the  elder  history  of  the  order  see  Hei.yot: 
Histoire  i/es  Ordres  monasliques,  T.  VI.,  pp.  o-i-O.j. 

ALCIMUS,  called  also  Jacimus  (Joseph., -l/i^iV/. 
XII.  9,  7),  the  Hebrew  form  of  the  name,  an 
apostate  Jewish  priest  who  attached  liimself  to 
the  Syrians  from  self-interest,  and  w'as  created 
high  priest  by  Demetrius  (B.C.  Hi-),  and  sent 
■with  a  military  escort,  muier  the  Syrian  general 
Bacchides,  unto  Jerusalem.  At  first  he  was 
successful  in  deceiving  many  principal  men  into 
believing  his  peaceful  intentions,  but  quickly 
revealed  his  bloodthirsty  disposition.  Judas  and 
his  party  knew  the  truth  about  him,  and  opposed 
him  so  successfully,  that  he  had  only  tlie  simula- 
crum of  priestly  authority,  and  had  to  call  upon 
the  Syrian  king  for  additional  aid.  Nicanor, 
who  was  then  sent,  was-  killed  by  Judas,  Adar 
13,  161  B.C.  Bacchides  was  then  sent,  and  he 
got  him  into  the  city;  but  Alcimus  died  suddenly 
just  as  he  was  about  to  pull  down  the  walls  of 
the  temple  in  Jerusalem  (Nisan  B.  C.  IfJO). 
See  1  Mace,  vii.,  ix.  51-56.  Joseph.,  Aiiliq.  XII. 
8.  7,  and  10.  K.  WlESELEll. 

ALCUIN  {Ealivine,  Alchwin,  Aldtuin,  Latinized 
Flaccus  Al/)inus),  h.  at  York  about  735;  d.  at 
Tours,  May  19,  801;  received  a  monastic  educa- 
tion in  the  celebrated  school  of  York,  the  repre- 
sentative of  Irisli  Mrning  on  Anglo-Saxon 
ground,  and  became  in  706  the  master  of  the 
school  himself.  In  782,  returning  home  from  a 
journey  to  Rome,  he  met  Charlemagne  at  Pavia, 
and  was  by  him  invited  to  assume  the  leadersliip 
of  this  palatial  school,  in  which  the  sons  of  the 
most  prominent  Frankisli  noblemen  were  edu- 
cated. He  accepted  the  invitation,  and  was  en- 
dowed with  the  abbeys  of  Bethlehem  at  Ferriferes, 
and  St  Lupus  at  Troyes,  to  which,  in  796,  was 
added  that  of  St.  Martin  at  Tours.  Thus  liv- 
ing at  the  court,  giving  instruction  to  the  king 
himself,  and  superintending  the  schools  of  the 
whole  realm,  Alcuin  became  one  of  the  most 
prominent  members  of  that  circle  of  great  men, 
■  which,  with  Charlemagne  as  its  centre,  stood  at 
the  head  of  the  whole  civilizing  movement  of  the 
age.  Charlemagne  employed  him  several  times 
as  a  political  negotiator,  especially  in  transactions 
with  England  :  but  his  proper  place  was  as  the  ec- 
clesiastical councillor  of  the  king,  and  in  this  field 
his  influence  was  decisive  (see  the  articles  on  Lihr-i 
Cavolini  and  Ailoptioril.sm).  Towards  the  close  of 
his  life  he  left  the  administration  of  the  several 
monasteries  under  his  authority  to  his  puj^ils,  and 
retired  into  monastic  seclusion. 

The  ideal  wliich  forms  the  inspiration  of 
Alcuin's  whole  life  is  tliat  of  a  Christian  state 
in  W'hich  every  thing  is  pervaded  by  a  religious 
spirit,  and  regulated  by  the  laws  of  the  church; 
and  he  looked  with  admiration  and  awe  to  the 
realization  of  this  ideal,  which  the  energy  and 
success  of  Charlemagne  seemed  to  piromise. 
5-.T. 


Theology  he  conserpiently  considered  as  the  prin- 
cipal element  of  education.  His  own  theology 
is  wholly  positive,  without  originality,  derived 
from  the  Fathers.  He  wrote  both  on  dogmatics: 
De  Fiile  Suiicl(e  cl  Im/iriilitw  Trinitalls ;  J)e  Trin- 
ilate  ad  Fridir/ifium  Qiuv.tsi ioni's ;  Lllxdlus  dn  proces- 
sione  Spirilux  Saudi,  etc.;  and  on  exegetics.  In 
his  exegetical  writings  the  mystico-allegorical 
metliod  predomiijates.  Classical  learr.ing,  Low- 
ever,  must  not  be  neglecteil  for  theolog}'.  Clas- 
sical and  ecclesiastical  traditions  belong  together; 
and,  by  combining  them,  tiie  Christian  Church 
becomes  the  true  guardian  of  civilization.  The 
Christian  state  wliich  Charlem.agne  is  establish- 
ing shall  be  a  new  Athens,  of  a  liigher  stamp,  — 
an  Athens  in  which  Christ  is  the  master  of  the 
academy,  and  the  seven  arts  an  introduction  to 
the  septuple  fulness  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  In  the 
classical  field,  however,  Alcuin  himself  was  only 
a  compilator.  He  wrote  on  grammar,  rhetoric, 
and  dialectic.  He  was  a  prolific  poet,  but  the 
greatest  success  in  the  literary  line  he  achieved 
by  his  letters.  By  Charlemagne's  orders  he  re- 
vised the  Latin  Bible  in  802,  • —  a  service  for 
which  we  should  be  grateful,  as  lu;  restored 
God's  word  to  a  state  of  comi>arative  purity. 
See  Latin  Vovions  under  Bna.E  Vkrsioxs. 

The  sources  to  Alcuin's  life  are,  his  poem,  De 
Ponlificil/us,  liis  letters,  and  a  vila  written  by  an 
anonymous  author,  but  based  on  communications 
of  Sigulf,  a  pupil  and  companion  of  Alcuin. 
The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  by  Froben, 
Ratisbon,  1777,  2  torn.  fol.  See  also  Jligne,  Pa- 
lm!. Tom.  C.  and  Cl.  The  letters  and  liistorical 
poems  liave  been  publislied  in  Moniuninta  Alcuin., 
by  DuEMMLKit  and  W.\TTE.\n.\cii,  Berlin,  1873. 
See  F.  LoKENTZ  :  Alcuin's  Lcbcn,  Halle,  translat- 
ed into  English  by  Slee;  Monxiek  :  Alcuin  el 
Charlcmai/ne,  2d  edition,  Paris,  1863;  K.  AVer- 
nek:  Alcuin  und  sein  JaJirhundcrt,  Paderborn, 
1876.  [A.  Ebert:  Allgemeine  Gcscliiclile  dcr  Lite- 
ralur  des  Mittelaltcrs  iin  Ahendlande,  Leipzig,  1880. 
Vol.  2,  pp.  12-36.]  MOLLER. 

ALDFRITH,  King  of  Xortliurabria  085-705,  a 
son  of  Aswin,  was  educated  in  Ireland,  or  perhaps 
at  lona,  at  all  events  within  the  pale  of  the  Kuldee 
Kirk,  iiut  was  by  AVilfrid  drawn  over  to  Roman- 
ism. He  continued,  however,  to  entertain  friendly 
relations  with  the  Kuldee  Kirk,  with  Adamuan, 
Aldhelm,  etc.;  and  when  Wilfrid,  who  was  re-in- 
stated as  bishop  in  687,  urged  his  claims  on  the 
estates  of  the  Church,  he  displaced  him  once  more 
in  692,  and  no  reconciliation  took  place  between 
them  afterwards.  See  Smith  and  \V.\CE  :  Christ. 
Bio;/.  1. 

ALDHELM,  b.  in  the  middle  of  the  seventh 
century;  d.  May  25,  709;  belonged  to  the  royal 
family  of  We.?sex,  and  was  educated  by  Maildulf, 
an  Irish  scholar  who  had  founded  a  school  at 
Maildulfi  Burgns  (Malmesbury);  studied  at  Can- 
terbury :  succeeded  Maildulf  at  Malmesbury,  and 
was  made  abbot  of  the  place,  and  in  705  Bishop 
of  Sherborn.  He  acquired  a  great  celebrity  as  a 
scholar,  being  the  first  Englishman  who  cultivated 
the  Latin  language  with  success.  Also  practi- 
cally he  exercised  a  great  influence,  but  his  sj'm- 
pathy  leaned  decidedly  towards  Canterbury.  His 
collected  worlds  have  been  edited  bj^  Dr.  Giles, 
Oxford,  1814.  The  earliest  biography  of  him  is 
that  by  Fabricius,  published  in  Act.  i'.S".  Bull.  May 


ALBANDER. 


60 


ALEXANDER. 


!V.  p.  84:  the  best  is  that  by  AVilliam  of  Malmes- 
bury  ill  tlie  fifth  book  of  liis  (Jesla  Poniificum. 
See  Smith  and  Wack  :   Clirisl.  Bioq. 

ALEANDER,  Hieronymus,  b.  at  Motta,  Feb.  13, 
1480:  <1.  ill  Koine.  Feb.  1,  1542;  studied  first 
medicine,  then  theolojjy,  and  led  a  rather  loose 
life  in  Venice,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Aldus  and  Erasmus;  became  ]M'ofessor  of  Greek 
in  the  University  of  Paris,  l.oOS;  entered  the 
service  of  the  Prince-Bishop  of  Liege  in  151.5  ;  was 
made  librarian  to  the  Vatican  in  1516;  and  in 
1520  sent  as  papal  legate  to  Germany  together 
with  C'araccioli.  At  the  diet  of  Worms  he  .spoke 
three  hours  against  I^uther  (Feb.  13,  1521),  and 
drew  lip  tlie  act  of  the  imperial  Ijan.  He  was  made 
Archbisliop  of  Briudisi,  1524;  a  cardinal,  1538. 
See  Bkiegku  :  Aleander  u.  Luther,  Gotha,  1SS4. 

ALEGAMBE,  b.  m  Brussels  1.592;  d.  in  Rome 
1G52;  entered  the  order  of  tlie  Jesuits  at  Palermo 
in  1613;  was  made  professor  in  theology  at  Gratz 
1029;  accompanied  Ferdinand  II.  on  his  travels 
through  Germany,  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
Italy ;  returned  to  his  chair  in  Gratz,  and  was 
finally  made  secretary  to  the  general  of  the  Jes- 
uits in  Rome,  and  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
German  department.  Of  his  writings  the  most 
remarkable  is  his  Hil/liiillieca  Scriptonim  Socii-fatis 
Jexu,  Antwerp,  1043.  The  work  bears  very  dis- 
tinct marks  of  the  Jesuit  spirit,  —  thus  the  Jan- 
seuists  Marion  and  Servin  are  repre.^ented  as 
heretics,  —  but  at  the  same  time  it  shows  signs  of 
a  certain  freedom  of  judgment.  The  author 
proves  that  various  books  .against  the  royal  power, 
the  episcopacy,  the  Sorbonne,  etc.,  were  written 
by  Jesuit  authors,  though  the  French  Jesuits  had 
tried  hard  to  deny  the  authorship.  A  new  aug- 
mented but  not  corrected  edition  of  the  work  was 
given  ill  Rmne  in  1075  by  (iotuel.  IIERZOG. 

ALEMANNI,  The,  according  to  Asinius  Quad- 
ratus,  the  league  between  men  of  different  de- 
scent; according  to  Grimm,  the  very  best  men. 
They  m;ide  their  first  ap|iearance  in  history  under 
Caracalla,  in  the  beginning  of  the  third  century, 
and  were  first  mentioiieil  by  Dio  Cassius.  They 
were  located  between  the  Neckarand  the  Lake  of 
Constance,  and  during  the  fourth  century  they 
made  frequent  and  devastating  raids  into  (Jaul 
and  I'pper  Italy.  In  the  fifth  century  Aleinannia 
was  tlie  name  for  thc^  whole  region  from  the 
Vcsges  to  the  Iller,  and  from  the  Lower  Maine 
to  the  St.  (iotthard;  but,  after  the  defeat  at  Ziil- 
pich  (490),  the  northern  part  —  the  regions  around 
the  Neckar,  Kocher,  Jaxt,  and  Tauber  —  was 
incorporated  with  the  Frankisli  Empire,  and  the 
southern  and  eastern  parts, as  faras  tlie  Lech, came 
under  the  jiatronago  of  the  Ostro-Goths.  After 
the  deatli  of  Tlieodoric,  howi'Ver,  and  the  disso- 
lution of  the  ().stro-(jlotliic  Empire,  the  whole 
Alemannia  fell  to  the  Franks.  Again,  after  the 
dissolution  of  tin?  Caroliiigian  Empire,  a  duchy  of 
Alemannia  was  formed;  but  towarils  the  end  of 
the  eleventh  century  the  name  AIemaiini:i  gradu- 
ally disapjieared,  ami  was  supplanted  by  tliat  of 
Suabia.  The  Ali'inanni,  especially  those  located 
about  the?  Lake  of  Ziirieh,  worship|ie(l  Wuotan 
and  the  war-god  Ziii.  They  had  idols  of  metal, 
to  which  they  brought  sacrifices  of  beer.  Aga- 
tiiias  (5X2)  mentions  that  they  also  worshipped 
trees,  streams,  hills,  ami  glens. 

Christianity   was  first  introduced    among   the 


Alemanni  about  the  year  300;  but  for  a  long 
time  the  number  of  converts  was  only  small,  and 
the  majority  of  the  people  remained  Pagan  nr.til 
the  seventh  century.  The  foundation,  however, 
in  the  sixth  centuiy,  of  the  bishoprics  of  Con- 
stance, Basel,  and  Strassburg,  shows  that  Chris- 
tianity already  began  to  spread  in  the  country. 
It  was  especially  Irish  missionaries  who  worked 
in  this  field.  The  first  of  them  was  Fridolin, 
who  about  530  founded  the  IMonastery  of  .Siick- 
ingen  on  an  island  in  the  Rhine  between  Basel 
and  Zui'zach.  A  century  later  on,  Columbanus 
and  Gallus  preached  Christianity  in  Northern 
Switzerland,  and  the  latter  founded  the  Monas- 
tery of  St.  Galleii  about  012.  A  Christian  duke. 
Cunzo,  is  spoken  of  at  this  time  as  residing  in 
Uberlingen.  An  itinerant  preacher,  Pirmin.  a 
Frank,  exercised  great  influence,  and  founded 
the  monasteries  of  Reicheiiau, Mirbach,  AVeissen- 
burg,  Mauersraiinster,  Schwarzach.  Gengenbach, 
and  Hornbach  in  724  and  the  following  years. 
The  Alemannian  law,  dating  from  the  period  be- 
tween 540  and  501,  speaks  of  Christianity  as  the- 
religion  of  the  nation,  and  of  the  ecclesiastical 
hierarchy  as  .an  exi.sting  institution.  See  Fkied- 
mcii :  Kircheni/eschickte  Detttschtands,  II.  1,  Bam- 
berg, 1809.  KLUl'FEL. 

ALESIUS,  Alexander,  b.  in  Edinburgh,  April 
2-3,  1.500;  d.  in  Leipzig,  March  17,  1505;  while  a 
canon  at  St.  Andrews,  in  1527,  he  was  employed 
to  bring  Patrick  Hamilton  to  recant,  and  attend 
him  at  the  stake,  but  received  so  deep  an 
impression,  both  of  the  martyr's  arguments  and 
of  his  ardent  conviction,  that  lie  himself  was 
converted  to  the  reformed  doctrines,  and  in  1530 
he  fled  to  Germany.  After  1534  lie  was  invited 
to  England  by  Henry  VIII.,  and  made  professor 
at  Cambridge ;  but  in  1540  he  returned  to  Ger- 
many, where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  as  pro- 
fessor, first  ill  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  afterwards 
in  Leipzig,  and  in  intimate  connection  with  the 
Reformers,  especially  Melanchthon.  Besides 
commentaries  on  various  parts  of  the  Scriptures, 
he  wrote  :  Dn  necessilatu  el  merilo  Imnonim  openim, 
1500;  Di;  jusliJicatUme ;  Dc  Sii)icl<i  Trinilate  ;  Re- 
spiinaio  ail  Irii/hila  et  (/«».<  (irllciilos  tlieohif/nnim 
Ldvenieiisium.  His  original  name  was  Alane. 
He  assumed  the  other  in  exile. 

ALEXANDER  is  Ihi:  name  of  eight  popes. — 
Alexander  I.  occupied  the  Roman  see  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  second  century,  between  Evaris- 
tus  and  Xistus  I.  ;  but  the  dates,  both  of  his 
accession  and  of  his  death,  are  uncertain.  Euse- 
bius  gives  103-114  in  his  Chronicle  and  108-118 
in  his  Ilisl.  ICccl.  ;  Cixkx  IJlierii  gives  10!)-110, 
etc,  Accoriling  to  the  LUier  Pdnli/kalis  and  Acin 
Alfxanilri,  he  suffereil  martyrdom  together  with 
Eventius  and  Theodnlus,  and  was  buried  on 
tlie  Via  Numenlaiai.  —  Alexander  II.  (.Vnselm  of 
Lucca),  Oct.  1,  lOOl-Ajiril  21,  1073,  a  native 
of  Baggio  in  the  Milanese,  became,  in  the 
Monastery  of  Bee,  acipiainted  with  those  ideas 
of  reform  which  at  that  time  spread  from  the 
Monastery  of  Cluiiy,  and  jireaclicd  them  in 
Xorthern  Italy  with  so  much  effect,  that  he  is 
geni'ially  considered  the  spiritual  father  of  the 
.so-ealled  Pataria,  —  a  ]io]iular  movement  directed 
against  the  depraved  clergy,  and  their  allies  the 
arrogant  city  nobility.  Even  after  his  elevation 
to  the  episcopal  chair  of  l^ucca,  liecontiiiu"d  lii,-^ 


ALEXANDER. 


r>i 


ALEXANDER. 


connection  with  tlie  Pataiia,  and  was  twice  sent 
to  Milan  as  pajial  lco;atH  in  its  ail'airs.  Hnt 
conip.  II.  Pack  :  Die  Palaria  in  Miiiiilanil,  Son- 
dersiiausen,  1872,  and  Kuugku  :  Die  I'aliiria  in 
Mdiiildin/,  Breshiu,  1874.  After  tlip  death  of 
Niohohxs  IF.,  Anselni  was  fdected  pope  through 
the  inthienee  of  llildebrand,  and  Ids  reign  shows 
plainly  tlie  spirit  wliicli  ruhxl  liiin.  .\s  tlio  con- 
sent of  tlie  Knipress  Agues  and  her  minor  .son, 
Henry  IV.,  had  not  been  obtained,  ;i  synod  of 
Basel  elected  Bi.sho]i  Cadalus  of  Parma  JKipe, 
under  the  name  of  Honorius  II.  (Oct.  28,  lOlil), 
and  bloody  battles  were  fought  between  tlie  two 
popes  outside  the  walls  of  Koine.  Through  the 
influence  of  Archbishop  Ilanno  of  Cologne,  who 
held  the  young  king  and  with  him  the  regency, 
a  general  council  was  then  convened  at  Mantua, 
and  here  Alexander  was  recognized,  and  Ilonorius 
excommunicated.  But  Ilanno  did  not  earn  niucli 
thanks  for  what  he  had  done.  When  (in  1068), 
on  a  journey  to  Rome,  he  made  a  visit  to  the  ex- 
communicated Cadalus  on  some  secular  errand, 
Alexander  refused  to  see  him  until  he  presented 
himself  before  him  in  the  garb  of  penitence 
and  with  naked  feet.  Still  harsher  the  king 
was  treated.  In  1071  the  Roman  curia  de- 
posed ISisliop  Charles  of  Constance,  though  the 
king  liad  invested  him  with  ring  and  staff.  In 
1072  the  same  measure  was  taken  against  Arch- 
bishop Gottfried  of  Milan ;  and  when  Henry 
IV.,  nevertheless,  had  Gottfried  consecrated,  the 
pope  put  him  in  ban.  Also  in  his  relations  to 
Philip  I.  of  France,  Robert  Guiscard  of  Sicily, 
and  \Villiam  the  Conqueror,  of  England,  Alex- 
ander knew  how  to  vindicate  the  papal  authority. 
The  idea  of  filling  all  the  episcopal  chairs  of 
conquered  England  with  Normans  originated 
with  him,  and  he  raised  Lanfranc  of  Bee  to  the 
ai'chiepiscopal  see  of  Canterbury,  and  made 
him  primate  of  the  Church  of  England.  See 
R.  Baxm.vnn  :  Die  PoUtik  Jer  Pupste  van  Grei/or 
I.  his  Gref/nr  VII.,  Elberfeld,  1800.  —  Alexander 

III.  (Roland),  Sept.  7,  11.59-Aug.  :iO,  1181,  a 
native  of  Siena,  seems  to  liave  taught  /»s  canoni- 
cum  for  .some  time  at  Bologna,  and  is  the  author 
of  the  so-called  Sunima  Maf/istri  liolandi.  In 
ll.oO  he  was  called  to  Rome  by  Eugene  III.,  and 
made  cardinal-deacon;  and  from  1153  he  held 
the  influential  position  as  papal  chancellor,  pla- 
cing himself  at  the  head  of  the  anti-imperial 
party  among  the  cardinals,  and  advocating  a  close 
alliance  with  William  of  Sicily.  After  the  deatli 
of  Adrian  IV.  he  received  all  the  votes  but 
three,  which  were  cast  for  the  cardinal-presby- 
ter, Octavianus.  The  latter,  however,  succeeded 
in  obtaining  the  assent  of  the  clergy  and  the 
people,  assumed  the  name  of  Victor  IV.,  and 
thus  the  scliism  began,  which  lasted  for  nearly 
twenty  years.  The  emperor,  Frederick  I.,  con- 
vened a  council  at  Pavia,  which  confirmed  the 
election  of  Victor  IV.  (Feb.  11,  11(30),  and 
placed  Alexander  III.  under  the  ban  ;  but  Alex- 
ander, who  had  refused  to  be  present  at  a  council 
convened  by  an  emperor,  answered  by  excom- 
municating Frederick.  March  24.  But  two  years 
later  (March  2.3,  1102)  he  was  compelled  to  flee 
from  Italy,  and  seek  refuge  in  France,  where 
Louis  VII.  gave  liim  a  safe  residence  in  Sens, 
and  a  most  liberal  support.     The  death  of  Victor 

IV.  (April   20,   llO-l;   did  not  end  the    schism. 


Reinald  von  Dassel  ininuHliately  established  a 
new  anti-]iope,  Ba.schalis  III.,  without  paying 
any  regard  to  the  canonical  forms  of  election  ; 
aiul,  when  Pasclialis  died  (Sept.  20.  UGS),  the 
imperial  Jiarty  in  Rome  and  tlu^  i)eople  chose 
Calixtus  III.  In  1105  Alexander  III.  made  an 
attempt  to  establish  himself  in  Italy,  and  entered 
Rome  (Nov.  23).  But  in  the  following  year  the 
emperor  arrived  in  Italy  with  a  great  army. 
Rome  was  taken  by  storm ;  Pasclialis  was  re- 
established;  and  Alexander  was  again  compelled 
to  flee.  Nevertheless,  his  authority  was  steadily 
increasing;  and  when,  in  1107,  the  Lombardian 
cities  formed  a  union  against  Frederick  I.,  under 
the  protectorate  of  Alexander  III.,  the  former 
showed  himself  willing  to  open  negotiations. 
These  failed,  liowever,  and  the  emperor  once 
more  marched  an  army  into  Italy  ;  but  this  time 
he  w.as  .so  completely  defeated  in  the  battle  of 
Legnano  (May  29,  117C)  that  he  had  to  submit  to 
all  the  demands  of  the  pope,  and  at  the  congress 
of  Venice  (Aug.  1,  1177)  he  not  only  recognized 
Alexander  III.,  but  conferred  on  him  the  prspfec- 
ture  of  the  city  of  Rome.  A  still  greater 
triumph  he  gained  over  King  Henry  II.  of  Eng- 
land; for  Becket  was  canonized,  and  the  king 
compelled  to  submit  to  a  humiliating  penance. 
The  culminating  point  of  his  succe.ss  is  the 
Lateran  synod  of  1179.  Here  the  Catharists 
were  excommunicated,  and  a  crusade  inaugurated 
against  them ;  and  here  a  change  was  made  in 
the  papal  election,  exelndiiig  the  lower  clergy 
and  the  people,  and  abolishing  the  emperor's 
right  of  confirmation.  The  sympathy  of  the 
Romans,  however,  Alexander  III.  never  obtained. 
Though  Calixtus  III.  formally  abdicated  (Aug. 
29,  li78),  and  acknowledged  Alexander,  a  new 
anti-pope.  Innocent  III.,  was  elected.  Alexander 
was  driven  out  of  Rome  for  the  third  time,  and 
died  at  Civita  Castellana,  an  exile.  See  H. 
Reutek  :  Geschichle  Alex.  III.,  Leipzig,  2d  ed. 
entirely  revised  1800-64,  3  vols.  —  Alexander 
IV.  (llinaldo  de  Coiiti),  Dec.  12,  1254-.May  2.5, 
1261,  was  made  a  cardinal-deacon  in  1227,  and 
cardinal-bishop  of  Ostia  in  1231,  and  succeeded 
Innocent  IV.  in  the  papal  chair,  adopting  the 
policy  of  his  predecessor  and  continuing  the  con- 
test with  the  Hohenstaufens.  On  his  death-bed 
Conrad  IV.  placed  his  son  Conradin,  heir  to  the 
Duchy  of  Suabia  and  the  kingdoms  of  Jerusalem 
and  Sicily,  under  the  guardianship  of  the  pope, 
hoping  thereby  to  change  his  bitterest  enemy 
into  an  ally.  Innocent  IV.  accepted  the  guardi- 
anship with  great  promises,  and  (Jan.  23,  12.55) 
Alexander  IV.  renewed  these  promises.  He  did 
not  keep  them,  however.  On  Feb.  4,  same  year, 
he  advised  the  Suabian  nobles  to  desert  their 
hereditary  duke,  Conradin,  and  espouse  the 
cause  of  Alphonso  of  Castile.  On  March  25  he 
excommunicated  Manfred,  the  uncle  of  Conradin, 
who  had  taken  charge  of  the  kingdom  of  Sicily 
in  the  name  of  his  nephew ;  and  on  April  9  he 
concluded  an  alliance  with  Henry  HI.  of  Eng- 
land, bestowing  on  his  son  the  heritage  of  Conra- 
din, Sicilv,  and  Apulia,  as  papal  fiefs.  At  the 
death  of  William  of  Holland  (Jan.  28.  1250)  he 
forbade  the  Archbishops  of  Cologne,  Mentz.  and 
Treves,  to  place  Conradin  on  the  throne  of  his 
father  ;  and,  in  the  contest  about  the  German 
crown    which    now  arose    between  Alphonso   of 


ALEXANDER. 


52 


ALEXANDER. 


Castile  and  Richard  of  Cornwallis,  he  took  the 
part  of  the  latter  in  a  most  energetic  manner. 
His  interest  in  the  English  alliance,  however, 
■was  merel)'  pecuniary;  for  from  England  came 
the  money  which  enabled  him  to  carry  on  tlie 
war  against  Manfred.  In  August.  12.58,  on  a 
rumor  of  the  death  of  Conradiu,  Manfred  him- 
self assumed  the  crown  of  Sicily;  and,  after  the 
victery  of  Moutaperto  aud  the  conquest  of  Flor- 
ence, he  stood  as  the  acknowledged  head  of  the 
Ghibelliue  party.  The  pope  renewed  the  e.x- 
comnimiication  against  him  Xov.  18,  1260  ;  but, 
in  spite  of  the  reverses  of  Ezzelino  da  Romano, 
tiie  Ghibellines  were  in  the  .ascendency;  and 
shortly  before  his  death  Alexander  experienced 
the  humiliation  to  see  Manfred  elected  into  the 
Roman  senate.  The  last  year  of  his  reign  was 
also  much  troubled  by  the  Flagellants,  whose 
processions  and  preachings  in  Rome  he  su]i- 
pressed.  The  council  which  he  called  at  Vi- 
terbo,  for  the  purpose  of  setting  on  foot  a  cru- 
sade against  the  Tartars,  did  not  convene  until 
after  his  death.  —  Alexander  V.  (Peter  Philargi), 
June  26,  H09-May  3,  1410,  an  orphan-boy  from 
Candia,  educated  in  a  Minorite  monastery,  en- 
tered afterwards  the  order,  travelled  in  Italy, 
England,  and  France,  acquired  a  name  as  a 
teacher  of  rhetoric  in  the  University  of  Paris, 
received  a  notable  appointment  at  tlie  court  of 
Duke  John  Galeazzo  Visconti,  and  was  made 
Archbishop  of  Milan  in  1402,  and  cardinal-pres- 
byter by  Innocent  VII.  The  Council  of  Pisa, 
convened  for  the  purjiose  of  ending  the  schism 
between  Renedict  XIII.  and  Gregory  XII., 
elected  him.  tlien  seventy  years  old,  to  the  clniir 
of  St.  Petef,  having  deposed  the  two  rivalling 
popes.  But  the  measures  adopted  by  tlie  council 
did  not  succeed.  Renedict  XIII.  was  still  ac- 
knowledged by  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Scotland; 
Gregory  XII.,  by  Naples,  Hungary,  and  parts  of 
Germany;  an<l  Alexander  V.,  by  France,  ICng- 
land,  and  parts  of  Germany  ;  and  the  three  popes 
reciprocally  exconunnnieati'd  and  anatliematizi'd 
each  other. — Alexander  VI.  (Rodrigo  Lanzol). 
Aug.  11,  1492-Aug.  18,  l.")0:i,  a  native  of 
Valencia,  was  adopted  by  his  uncle,  Calixtus 
HI.,  into  the  family  of  the  Borgia,  made  Bisliop 
of  ^'alencia,  a  cardinal-deacon,  and  vice-chancid- 
lor  of  the  Roman  curia.  This  remunerative 
position  he  prostituted  to  amass  an  enormous 
wealth,  and  iiis  wealth  he  spent  in  the  most 
appalling  debaucheries.  But  his  scandalous  life 
did  not  impede  his  ecclesiastical  ]ir<imotlon.  He 
was  made  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Porto,  and  after 
the  death  of  Innocent  VIII.  lu;  ascended  the 
chair  of  St.  Peter,  having  bought  a  nuijority  of 
the  votes.  Nor  did  he  change  his  life  after  he- 
coming  pope.  His  adultiM-y  with  Jidia  Farne.se, 
the  wife  of  one  of  liis  nephews,  aud  with  his  own 
daughter-ill-law,  the  wife  of  .lofrc^,  was  noto- 
rious; and  it  was  generally  sai<l.  though  never 
proved,  that  he  had  committed  incest  with  his 
own  daughtiT,  Lucretia  Borgia.  In  vain  the 
secular  powers  remonstrated  ;  in  vain  the  UKU-e 
serious  men  censured:  the  former  were  eluded, 
the  latter  silenced.  Alexander  VI.  knew  only 
two  motives  of  action,  —  the  gratification  of  his 
sensual  passions,  ami  the  elevation  of  his  chil- 
dren to  power  and  wealth.  The  latter  motive 
finally   coucentratcMl    itself    npou  his  son,  Ciesar 


Borgia.  He  had  been  made  Archbishop  of  Va- 
lencia in  1492,  and  cardimil  in  1493;  but  he 
wished  to  leave  the  Church,  aud  found  a  secular 
sovereignty,  and  he  began  the  execution  of  his 
schemes  b_v  murdering  his  brother  Jnan,  Duke 
of  Gandia,  Jime  14,  1497.  In  1499  he  married 
Charlotte  d'Albret,  a  sister  of  the  King  of 
Navarre,  and  was  made  Duke  of  Valence :  and 
while  the  father  continued  his  intrigues  at  the 
courts  of  Najiles.  Spain,  France,  etc.,  —  intrigues 
which,  thougli  they  involved  death  aud  destruc- 
tion to  thousands  of  human  beings,  have  no  real 
interest,  religious  or  political,  —  the  son  w  as  busy 
in  the  Romagna.  expelling  the  ruling  families  by 
open  force,  or  exterminating  them  by  assassina- 
tion and  poi.son.  The  immense  property  of  the 
family  of  Colonna  was  confiscated,  aud  imme- 
diately after  the  despoliation  of  the  Colonnas 
that  of  the  Orsinis  began.  The  old  Cardinal 
Orsini  was  compelled  to  drink  poison.  In  liJOl 
the  Ronuxgna  and  the  Marshes,  these  the  two 
])rincipal  provinces  of  the  papal  dominion,  were 
transformed  into  a  donuiin  of  the  Borgia  family. 
-Vs  the  aims  became  more  daring,  the  means 
became  more  unscrupulous.  The  pope  intrigued 
for  the  acquisition  of  Pisa,  Lucca,  aud  Siena 
from  the  emperor,  and  meditated  the  elevation 
of  the  Romagna  into  a  kingdom,  but  w.as  sud- 
denly caught  in  his  own  trap.  He  intended  to 
poison  the  rich  Cardinal  .\drian  at  a  feast,  in 
order  to  appropriate  his  enormous  wealth  ;  but 
.Vdriau  bought  the  cook,  and  the  poison  was 
placed  before  the  pope  himself,  who  died  from 
its  effects.  See  GoUDOX:  I.ifa  of  Ali'jninler 
VI.,  London,  1729;  Domkxico  Ckkki:  Bari/ia 
(issia  AlcuKniiilro  VI.  P(i/i(i  c  stioi  Conlempormiei, 
Turin,  18.58;  Gunr.oKovius :  Lucretia  Bori/ia, 
Munich,  1870;  V.  Rkmkc;  PupstAlcraiuIrr  \'[. 
Eine  Reclil/'irlii/inii/,  Linz,  1879.  —  Alexander  VII. 
(Fabio  Ciiigij,  April  7,  16.55-May  22,  lt!67, 
partook  as  papal  legate  in  tlie  negotiations  of  the 
peace  of  Westphalia,  but  declared  that  he  would 
enter  into  no  ccimmnnieation  with  heretics,  and 
protested  publicly  against  the  validity  of  the 
treatii^s  of  Miinster  and  Osnabriick.  .Vfter  his 
return  from  Germany  he  was  made  a  cardinal 
and  secretary  of  state,  and  it  was  due  to  his 
influence  that  Innocent  X.  condemned  as  hereti- 
cal the  five  ))ro]iositions  extract.e<l  from  .lanse- 
nius's  Angustinus.  He  was  completely  under 
the  sway  of  the  .lesuits;  and  in  their  controversy 
with  the  Port  Hoyal  he  first  condemned  ;dl  who 
a.sserted  that  the  above  five  propositions  could 
not  be  foniid  in  .lausenius's  book,  and  then  all 
who  doubted  the  infallibility  of  the  pope  also 
with  respect  to  historical  or  matter-of-fact  ipies- 
tioiis.  But  such  over-assertions  are  simply  the 
products  of  weakness,  and  the  waning  vigor  of 
the  papacy  became  very  apparent  at  several  occa- 
sions under  this  pope.  Tlie  French  ambiissador, 
l)uk(^  lie  Crec]ui,  considered  liimseir  insiilt.ed  on 
account  of  a  brawl  between  his  retinue  and  the 
Corsicaii  guard  of  the  jtope,  and  left  Rome.  As 
suflicieiit  satisfaction  was  not  immediately  given, 
Louis  XIV.  ordered  the  papal  nuncio  to  leave 
Paris,  occiijiied  Avignon  aud  Venaissin,  aud 
threatened  with  an  invasion.  In  order  to  obtain 
jieace  tin;  pojie  had  to  subiuit  to  very  hnmiliating 
(■onditions.  Also  in  Portugal  his  policy  nearly 
proved   fatal.      In  1610   Portugal  sejiarated   from 


ALEXANDER. 


ALEXANDER. 


Spain,  and  chose  a  kina^  of  its  own,  of  the  liouse 
of  Hrasanza.  Hut  Innocent  X.  refused  to  recojf- 
nize  tlie  new  king  and  to  confirm  the  Ijisliops 
apjiointed  liy  him  Alexander  VII.  continued 
this  policy;  and  the  result  w.as,  that  King  .lohn 
IV.  left  the  epi.scopal  sees  vacant,  and  employeil 
the  revenues  for  the  army  and  otlu^r  secular  pur- 
poses. Indeed,  he  even  meditated  to  separate 
altogether  from  Home,  and  form  a  national 
church,  in  which  the  right  of  confirming  the 
bishops  should  belong  to  the  archbishop.  This, 
however,  was  prevented  by  Clement  IX.  —  Alex- 
ander Vlll.  (Pietro  Otto'boni),  Oct.  6,  1689- 
Feb.  1,  ItJDl,  under  wliom  the  relation  to  France  so 
far  imi>roved  that  the  king  surrendered  Avignon, 
and  renounced  his  claims  on  the  right  of  asylum 
for  his  ambassador.  The  real  cause  of  the  con- 
troversy was  not  removed,  however.  After  long 
hesitation  the  pope  pronounced  invalid  the  four 
propositions  agreed  upon  in  1082  by  the  king  and 
clergy  of  France,  and  establishing  the  freeilom  of 
the  Galilean  Church,  and  absolved  the  French 
clergy  from  the  oath  which  was  made  on  the 
propositions.  R.  zoi'FFEL. 

ALEXANDER,  patriarch  of  Alexandria  313- 
32(j.  Under  him  the  Arian  controversy  broke 
out  in  319.  Arius  was  condemned  by  a  .synod 
in  Alexandria,  in  320.  at  which  a  hundred  bish- 
ops were  present.  \Vheu  banished,  he  went  to 
Palestine;  and,  as  he  was  well  received  there, 
Alexander  wrote  first  to  certain  bishops  separate- 
ly, then  an  encyclical  letter  to  all  the  bishops  of 
the  church,  setting  forth  the  errors  of  Arius. 
The  interference  of  the  Emperor  Constantine, 
though  intended  to  still  the  rising  storm,  gave 
only  occasion  to  more  debate ;  and  in  32.5  the 
first  oecumenical  council  followed.  Of  Alexan- 
der's letters  two  have  come  down  to  us,  —  one 
having  lieen  preserved  by  Socrates  (I.  ti),  and 
another  bv  Theodoret  (I.  4). 

ALEXANDER,  Archibald,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  the 
first  [irofessor  in  the  Princeton  Theological  Sem- 
inary, and  one  of  the  founders  of  Princeton 
theology;  b.  in  Augusta  (now  Kockbridge)  Coun- 
ty, Va.,  April  17,  1772:  d.  at  Princeton,  N.J., 
Oct.  22,  1851.  At  ten  years  of  age  he  was  sent 
to  the  Liberty  Hall  Academy,  of  which  the  Rev. 
William  Graham  was  principal,  and  where  he 
had  remarkable  men  for  teachers;  at  sixteen  he 
became  a  family  tutor,  but  was  converted  in  the 
"  (ireat  Revival  "  of  1789,  studied  theology,  and 
after  licensure  went  as  missionary  through  the 
sparsely-settled  poi'tions  of  his  native  State,  and 
eventually  became  pastor  of  two  churches.  From 
1796  to  1801  he  was  president  of  Hampden-Sidney 
College.  In  1807  he  succeeded  Dr.  Milledoler  in 
the  Third  Presbyterian  Church  of  Philadelphia. 
In  1812  he  was  called  by  the  General  Assembly 
to  that  great  work  which  has  given  him  an 
undying  reputation,  —  the  organization  of  the 
Princeton  Theological  Seminarj-.  For  the  first 
year  he  taught  all  the  departments,  then  Rev. 
Dr.  Miller  joined  him;  and  to  them  in  common 
belongs  the  glory  of  establishing  the  sshool. 
Dr.  Alexander  was  distinguished  for  practical 
common  sense,  profound  knowledge  of  human 
nature,  keen  sympathies,  and,  above  all,  simple, 
earnest,  Christ-like  piety  ;  which  render  the  study 
of  his  life  a  pleasure,  as  the  life  itself  was  a  joy 
and  an  inspiration.     It  is  not  too  much  to  say 


that  he  gave  tone  to  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
America,  and  the  high-water  mark  to  her  piety. 
Hy  his  lectures  upon  theology  lie  taught  the 
teachers  of  the  Church;  and  so  to-day  his  influ- 
ence is  felt.  In  common  with  men  of  his  class 
and  day,  he  had  a  great  horror  of  German  theol- 
ogy as  necenfnirili/  misleading.  Dr.  Alexander 
wrote  many  book.s,  of  which  the  principal  are: 
Outlines  (if  the  Eviilences  of  C/iristiiuiiti/  (1823, 
often  reprinted);  Canon  oftlie  0.  iind  N.  T.  (182fi); 
lliitori)  of  Loif  ColU'fie  (1846);  and  posthumously, 
Muml  Science  (18.52)  :  all  these  were  published 
in  Philadelphia.  He  prepared,  also,  the  BilAe 
Dictioniiri/  of  the  American  Sunday-school  Union 
(Philadelphia,  1831),  an  excellent  little  book, 
which  served  Christian  families  for  a  generation, 
although  for  purposes  of  instruction  superseded 
by  the  new  Bihle  Dictioniiri/  of  the  Union  (Phila- 
delpihia,  1880).  See  his  Memoir  by  liis  son.  Rev. 
Dr.  .T.  W.  Alexander,  N.Y.,  18.54. 

ALEXANDER,  James  Waddell,  D.D.,  b.  in  Vir- 
ginia. March  13,  1804;  d.  in  the  same  State,  ,Iuly 
31,  1859.  He  was  graduated  at  Princeton,  1820; 
was  pastor  in  Virginia  from  1824  to  1828;  in 
Trenton,  N.J.,  1828  to  1832  ;  professor  of  rhet- 
oric and  belles-lettres  in  the  College  of  New 
Jersey,  1832  to  1844 ;  became  pastor  of  the  Duane- 
street  congregation.  New  York;  again  a  pro- 
fessor, 1849,  this  time  of  ecclesiastical  history 
and  church  government  in  Princeton  Theologi- 
cal Seminary;  but  in  1851  he  returned  to  New 
York  as  pastor  of  the  Fifth-avenue  Presbyterian 
Church,  and  until  his  death  wielded  a  great 
influence.  The  charm  about  his  preaching  was 
its  spirituality.  He  spoke  as  the  ambassador  of 
Christ.  His  zeal  in  Christian  work. was  tirele.ss, 
and  to  pr;u;tical  and  not  scholarly  ends  he  ad- 
dressed his  writings ;  one  of  the  best  of  these  is 
his  Plain  Words  to  a  Young  Communicant,  which 
has  been  of  much  help  to  young  believers.  Of 
great  homiletical  value  is  his  Thoughts  on  Preach- 
ing, "S.Y.,  18G1.  He  wrote  also  some  of  the  best 
translations  of  German  hymns,  which  first  ap- 
peared in  Schaff's  Deutsche  Kirchenfreund .  Some 
of  them,  especially  P.  Gerhardt's  passion  hymn 
"  O  sacred  Head  now  wounded,"  have  passed  into 
many  hymn-books.  See  Forty  Years'  Familiar 
Letters  ot'  Rev.  Dr.  J.  W.  Alexander,  edited  by 
Rev.  Dr.  John  Hall  of  Trenton.   N.Y.,  1860;  2  vols. 

ALEXANDER,  Joseph  Addison,  D.D.,  b.  in 
Philadelphia,  April  24,  1809  ;  d.  at  Princeton, 
N.J.,  Jan.  28,  1860.  He  was  the  third  son  of 
Archibald  Alexander ;  educated  in  Princeton, 
and  was  graduated  there,  from  the  College  of 
New  .Jersey,  with  the  highest  honors,  although 
only  seventeen,  1826.  He  had  already  .shown 
that  taste  for  languages  which  distinguislied  him, 
and  availed  himself  of  a  little  leisure,  after  grad- 
uation, to  carry  forward  his  favorite  studies.  In 
connection  with  Profes.sor  Robert  B.  Patton.  he 
taught  a  classical  academy  at  Edge  Hill,  near 
Princeton,  and  bore  the  heavier  part  of  the  bur- 
den of  preparing  Professor  Patton 's  first  Ameri- 
can edition  of  Donnegan's  Greek  Lexicon.  la 
the  fall  of  1830  he  became  adjunct  professor  of 
ancient  languages  and  literature  in  the  College 
of  New  Jersey,  but  resigned  in  the  spring  of 
1833,  and  went  to  Europe  for  a  year  of  study  in 
Germany.  On  his  return,  he  became  instructor 
in  the  Oriental  languages  and  literature  in  Prince- 


ALEXANDER. 


54 


ALEXANDER. 


ton  Theological  Seminary,  although  the  formal 
acceptance  of  this  chair,  to  which  he  had  been 
elected  in  183.5,  ^Yas  not  given  until  1838.  In 
1852  he  changed  to  the  chair  of  church  history, 
and  1S5S  to  that  of  New  Testament  literature, 
which  lie  held  at  the  time  of  his  death.  He  was 
a  scholar  of  wide  reading,  of  catholic  tastes,  and 
great  industry.  His  mode  of  life  was  peculiar: 
a  bachelor,  he  was  incessantly  occupied  with, 
and  wholly  engrossed  in,  his  worli,  and  lived 
much  to  himself,  took  very  little  regular  exer- 
•cise,  and  by  his  abstracted  ways  won  a  reputation 
for  eccentricity  and  hauteur;  yet  he  was  a  man 
of  tenderness,  modesty,  and  piety.  As  a  preacher, 
he  was  popular  and  brilliant,  and  to  the  inner 
circle  who  knew  him  there  was  no  more  charm- 
ing friend.  He  was  the  most  remarkable  lin- 
guist America  has  produced.  He  read  some  thirty 
languages,  and  with  many  of  these  had  a  critical 
acquaintance,  and  could  speak  seven  :  he  devoted 
himself  chiefly  to  Hebrew.  As  a  commentator, 
he  followed  Hengstenberg,  but  not  slavishly,  for 
he  w'as  a  profound  and  genuine  scholar  ;  yet  the 
everywhere  present  hand  of  his  admired  master 
may  have  somewhat  altered  his  judgment,  as  it 
certainly  detracted  from  the  originality  of  his 
work.  He  published  commentaries  upon  the 
/".>■«/»«,  N.Y.,  3  vols.,  1850;  haiah,  N.Y.,  2  vols  , 
1846-47,  his  masterpiece,  best  edition,  edited  by 
Rev.  Dr.  John  Eadie  of  (Jlasgow,  1875.  Pro- 
fessor Charles  Hodge  and  he  planned  a  series  of 
popular  commentaries  upon  the  New  Testament, 
of  which  he  finished  Mark;  N.Y.,  1858,  and  Acts, 
N.Y.,  1856.  Mattliew  was  posthumously  pub- 
lished, N.Y.,  1860,  besides  two  volumes  of  Ser- 
mons (N.Y.,  1860),  and  Notes  im  New  Testament 
Literature.  His  Hior/rapliy  was  written  by  his 
nephew,  H.  C.  .Vi.kxaxdkh,  N.Y.,  1870,  2  vols. 

ALEXANDER  BALAS,  according  to  his  own 
account  and  that  of  his  adherents,  a  natural  .sou 
of  Antiochus  Epijihanes,  but  by  his  adversaries 
considered  an  impostor,  landed  at  Ptolemais  in 
152  B.C.,  and  conquered  the  Syrian  throne  after 
a  two-years'  contest  with  Demetrius  Soter,  who 
was  defeated  and  killed  in  150.  In  147,  however, 
Demetrius  Nicator,  a  .son  of  Demetrius  Soter, 
raised  a  rebellion  in  .Syria;  and  when  the  Egyp- 
tian king,  Ptolemy,  invaded  the  country,  and 
declared  hinuself  in  favor  of  Demetrius,  Alexan- 
der was  route<i,  and  murdered  at  .Vbae  in  Arabia, 
whither  he  liad  fled,  116.  His  relations  to  the 
Jews,  es|>ecially  to  tiieir  leader,  Jonathan,  were 
very  friendly,  as  appears  both  from  the  first  Book 
of  the  Maccabees  ami  from  Joseplius. 

ALEXANDER  JANN/EUS,  king  of  the  Jews, 
10t-7.s  B.C;  thi-  third  sou  of  John  Hyrcanus  ; 
open-'d  liis  rciiju  by  jiutting  to  death  one  of  his 
brothers,  ami  receiveil  from  his  own  suliji'cts  the 
.surname  ••  Thraci<li-s  "  (as  cruel  as  a  Thracian). 
Besidi's  his  wars  with  fori'ign  provinces,  with 
Ptolemy  Eathyrus,  with  the  Moabites  ami  Am- 
moniti's,  with  Di'nu'trius  Eucierus,  Anitas,  etc  , 
liis  reign  was  an  almost  uninterru[ited  .series  of 
internal  revolts  and  massacres.  He  had  to  sur- 
round the  altar  with  a  screen  of  boards  when  he 
sacrificed,  because  the  pi'opli;  assembled  in  the 
temple  threw  lemons  at  him  ;  and,  wlii'u  he  once 
asked  them  what  he  should  do  to  win  tlieir  good- 
will, they  simply  answered.  "  Kill  yourself." 
After  his  death,  his  widow  Alexandra  gave  liie 


Pharisees  a  considerable  share  in  the  government 
in  order  to  preserve  the  throne  for  her  two  minor 
sons;  and  from  this  occurrence  dates  the  politi- 
cal influence  of  the  Pharisees.  Joseph.  :  Anlii/. 
xiii.     12-16. 

ALEXANDER  NEVSKI,  b.  at  Vladimir  1218: 
d.  Nov.  14,  at  Gorodetz  1263,  a  son  of  the  grand 
duke  Jaroslav ;  ascended  the  throne  1252,  and 
governed  so  wisely,  that,  when  he  died,  the  Ilus- 
si.an  people  inscribed  him  in  their  calendar  as  a 
saint.  On  the  spot  on  the  Neva  where  he  gained 
one  of  his  greatest  victories,  defeating  the  .Swedes 
and  the  Teutonic  knights,  Peter  the  Great  built 
one  of  the  greatest  and  richest  monasteries  in 
Russia,  bearing  his  name;  and  the  day  of  his 
burial  (Nov.  23)  as  W'ell  as  the  day  on  which  his 
relics  were  transferred  to  the  monastery,  are  con- 
secrated by  the  Russian  Church  as  his  festivals. 
Of  the  great  exertions  of  Innocent  IV.  to  make 
him  join  the  Roman  Church  he  seems  to  have 
taken  very  little  notice  ;  but  he  was  very  anxious 
to  procure  toleration  and  respect  for  Christian- 
ity among  the  Mohammedan  peoples  of  Central 
and  Western  Asia. 

ALEXANDER  OF  HALES  (Halensls  or  Alen, 
six,  ahso  Halesitts  or  Alesius)  was  educated  in  the 
Monaster}-  of  Hales,  Gloucestershire,  Eng.,  stud- 
ied in  the  University  of  Paris,  entered  the  ordei 
of  the  Franciscans  in  1222,  acquired  a  great 
fame  as  a  teacher  in  theology,  and  died  in  Paris 
1245.  His  Smmiia  Universce  Theolor/ia;,  first 
printed  at  Venice  (1475),  was  written  on  the  in- 
stigation of  Innocent  IV.,  and  received  his  appro- 
bation. It  is  not  a  commentary  on  the  sentences 
of  Lombardus,  but  an  independent  work,  giving 
a  triple  series  of  authorities,  —  those  who  say  yes, 
those  who  say  no,  and  then  the  reconciliation  or 
judgment,  and  choosing  the  authorities  not  only 
in  the  Bible  and  among  the  Fathers,  but  also 
among  Greek,  Latin,  and  .Vrab  poets  and  philos- 
ophers, and  among  later  theologians.  It  treats 
in  its  first  part  the  doctrines  of  God  and  his 
attributes  ;  in  its  second,  those  of  creation  and 
sin;  in  its  third,  those  of  redemption  and  atone- 
ment ;  and,  in  its  fourth  and  last,  those  of  the 
sacraments.  Among  the  doctrines  which  have 
been  specially  developed,  and,  so  to  speak,  fixed, 
by  .Mexaiuler  of  Hales,  are  those  of  the  l/iesaurus 
supererof/dliiinis  per/ecloniiii,  of  the  clinrarlrr  inde- 
tibelis  of  baptism,  confirmation,  ami  ordination, 
etc.  See  IlAL'liEAU  :  De  la  /ihilosopliie  scolastique, 
Paris,  1850.  I.  ;  StOckkl,  Gischichte  it.  I'hiloso- 
l>hie,  Mainz,  1865,  Bud.  IE,  pp.  317-326; 
UKiiEitwia;,  Hist,  d/'  J'/ii!i>soplii/,  Vol.  I.,  pp.433, 
431. 

ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT,  the  famous  king 
of  iSIaeedonia,  and  eoncpn-ror,  l>.  B.C.  3.")() ;  d.  at 
Babylon  B.C.  323  :  and  was  burieil  at  .\lexandria, 
wliicli  he  had  fonndecl.  B.C.  332.  By  his  con- 
quests he  brought  Europe  and  .Vsia  into  contact, 
niaile  (Jreek  tin-  ruling  languages  of  civilization, 
and  thus  unconsciously  jirepared  the  way  for  the 
spiritual  comiuest  of  the  gospel.  His  name  does 
not  occur  in  the  canonical  books,  but  in 'the 
Apocrypha,  1  Mace.  i.  1-0;  vi.  2,  and  figuratively 
is  mentioned  in  Dan.  ii.  30,  where  he  is  repre- 
sentcil  first  as  the  belly  of  bra.ss  in  Nebuchail- 
nezzar's  image;  then,  vii.  6,  as  a  leopard  with 
tour  wings;  as  a  one-horn('(l  he-goat,  viii.  5-7,  to 
indicate  his  great  strength,  and  the  swiftness  ui 


ALEXANDRIA. 


55 


ALEXANDRIA. 


h\s  conquests;  and  finally  is  direotly  s|ioken  of, 
though  not  by  name,  in  xi.3,  1.  Alexandi'i-  won  his 
ppithet  "The  (ircat "  by  an  un]iai-all('le(l  cai-ccr 
From  the  time  lie  succeednd  his  father  Philip, 
B.C.  336,  until  his  death,  he  was  restlessly  and 
resistlessly  marching  from  place  to  place.  He 
subdued  Egypt  on  the  west,  and  Syria,  Palestine, 
Persia,  and  Babylonia  on  the  east.  He  pushed  his 
way  across  Asia  as  far  as  to  the  Punjab  in  India, 
and  left  a  monument  of  his  presence  in  that  coun- 
try in  the  shape  of  twelve  altars  of  enormous 
size  on  the  Hyphasis,  of  which  remains  exist 
It  is  sad  to  record  that  this  brilliant  man  died 
of  fever  caused  by  intemjierance ;  and  that 
the  empire  which  he  had  gathered  was  divided 
at  his  death  among  his  four  generals.  Josephus 
relates  {Antiq.  xi.  8,  5)  that  after  the  siege  of 
Tyre  Alexander  visited  .Jerusalem,  and  was  so 
much  impressed  with  Daniel's  prophecy  concern- 
ing him,  which  he  allowed  had  been  fulfilled, 
that  he  granted  the  Jews  everywhere  the  most 
important  privileges.  Thei-e  is  no  mention  of 
tliis  incident  in  heathen  historians. 

ALEXANDRIA,  founded  in  3,32  B.C.  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  rose  rapidly  under  the  dynasty 
■of  the  Ptolemies,  and  was,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era,  one  of  the  first  cities  of  the 
world,  with  a  population  of  three  hundred  thou- 
sand freemen.  In  80  B.C.  Ptolemy  Alexander 
bequeathed  it  to  the  Romans;  but  it  did  not  be- 
come actually  a  Roman  possession  until  30  B.C., 
when  it  was  taken  by  Augustus.  He  placed  it 
directly  under  the  imperial  power;  and  it  was 
governed  by  imperial  prefects  up  to  A.I).  IStO, 
when  Severus  restored  its  municipal  freedom. 
Always  turbulent,  and  ready  for  rebellion,  it  was 
treated  with  extreme  harshness  by  some  of  the 
Caesars ;  and  from  the  beginning  of  the  third 
century,  when  in  215  Caracalla  put  to  death 
every  youth  in  the  city  capable  of  bearing  arms, 
it  began  to  decline.  Nevertheless,  when  (in  640) 
it  was  taken  by  the  Arabs,  Aniru  could  write  to 
the  caliph  Omar  that  he  had  conquered  a  city 
with  four  thou.sand  palaces,  four  thousand  baths, 
twelve  thousand  dealers  in  fresh  oil,  twelve  thou- 
sand gardeners,  forty  thousand  Jews  paying  trib- 
ute, and  four  hundred  theatres.  But  greater 
disasters  were  in  store  for  it  from  the  hands  of 
the  pii'ates :  its  commerce  was  disturbed ;  the 
decline  became  decay.  When  Cairo  was  built 
(in  909),  it  lost  its  prestige.  When  the  route  to 
the  East  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  (in  1197) 
was  discovered,  its  commerce  was  completely 
ruined.  At  the  beginning  of  this  century  it  was 
a  mere  village  ;  but  is  now  a  large  and  prosperous 
city  of  two  hundred  thousaiul  inhabitants. 

Commercial  hiijiorlance.  —  The  city  stood  on  the 
narrow  stretch  of  land  which  separates  Lake 
Mareotis  from  the  Mediterranean,  twelve  miles 
west  of  the  Canopic  mouth  of  the  Nile.  A  mole 
one  mile  long  connected  the  mainland  with  the 
Island  of  Pharos,  where  was  the  famous  light- 
house. On  both  sides  of  this  mole  spacious  har- 
bors were  built,  and  the  westernmost  of  these 
harbors  was  by  a  canal  connected  witli  Lake 
Mareotis,  which  again,  by  another  canal,  was  con- 
nected with  the  Canopic  arm  of  the  Nile.  From 
these  two  harbors  the  corn  of  Egypt  was  ex- 
ported; and  for  several  centuries  Rome  and  Con- 
stantinople   depended    on    Alexandria    for    the 


jirincipal  <'Iement  of  their  food.  The  exjinrta- 
tion  of  hreadstutfs,  however,  was  only  one  l)ranch 
(if  the  business  of  the  city.  Alexandria  was 
really  the  mistress  of  the  commerce  of  the 
worlil,  the  common  ]ilace  of  exchange  for  the 
jiroducts  of  Spain  and  India,  Scythia  and  Ethi- 
opia; and  this,  its  cosmoiiolitan  character,  it 
showed  in  its  population,  in  its  very  building. 
It  consisted  of  three  quarters, —  Rhacotis,  Biu- 
cheum,  and  the  Jews'  ward.  In  Rhacotis  the 
Egyptians  lived,  and  here  was  the  famous  Tem- 
ple of  Serapis.  Brucheum  was  occupied  by  the 
Greeks;  and  here  was  the  still  more  famous 
Museum,  with  the  greatest  library  the  antique 
world  ever  saw,  numbering  seven  hundred  thou- 
sand rolls  or  books,  and  representing  the  Latin, 
Greek,  Egyptian,  and  Indian  literatures.  The 
Jews'  ward  was  very  jiopulous.  .Jewish  immi- 
gration to  Egypt  was  frequent  and  of  old  ihite. 
Philo  says  that  at  his  time  there  lived  more  than 
one  million  of  Jews  in  the  country.  After  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem,  Ptolemy  I.  settleil  a  nu- 
merous colony  of  Jews  in  Alexandria,  and  gave 
them  equal  rights  with  the  Greeks.  The  Ro- 
mans confirmed  these  privileges;  and  Augustus 
established  a  Jewish  council  to  administer  .Jew- 
ish affairs  under  the  authority  of  the  imperial 
prefect.  .  But,  by  closer  acquaintance,  the  .Jews 
became  distasteful  to  the  Greeks,  and  hateful  to 
the  Romans.  Under  Caligula,  they  lost  their 
privileges;  under  Vespasian,  their  temple  and 
synagogues  were  closed;  in  415,  when  Cyril  w.-is 
patriarch,  they  were  even  expelled  from  the 
city. 

Lilerarij  Character. — When,  after  the  Mace- 
donian conquest,  the  literary  life  of  Greece  was 
transferred  to  Alexandria,  it  had  already  lost  its 
creative  power,  and  become  essentially  critical. 
Instead  of  poetry,  it  produced  grammars,  rhet- 
orics, archieology,  and  mythology;  instead  of 
philosophy,  it  produced  mathematics,  astronomy, 
medicine,  and  geography.  But  the  physical  and 
mathematical  sciences  are  to  philosophy  exactly 
the  same  as  the  linguistical  and  historical  sci- 
ences are  to  poetry, —  a  dissolvent.  In  the  field 
of  philosophy,  however,  there  arose,  from  the 
peculiar  circumstances  under  which  life  was  led 
in  Alexandria,  a  peculiar  problem  which,  though 
critical  to  all  appearances,  could  not  be  solved 
by  criticism  alone  ;  and  which,  though  forming 
a  new  phase  in  the  history  of  philosophy,  had 
to  leave  philosophy  altogether  in  order  to  find 
its  true  solution.  Here  the  idea  of  scientific 
knowledge  as  tiie  liighest  state  of  the  human 
mind  met  with  the  ideas  of  a  divine  revelation, 
without  which  all  other  spiritual  gifts  are  poor; 
here  the  idea  of  imaginative  reasoning  as  the 
highest  energy  of  the  human  mind  met  with  the 
idea  of  a  prophetic  inspiration,  without  which 
every  mental  exertion  is  blunted  and  blind;  liere 
Greek  philosophy  and  Jewish  religion,  Roman 
positivism  and  Indian  fantasticalness,  the  whole 
West  and  the  whole  East,  met  each  o'lier  face  to 
face,  and  evei-yday;  an  explanation  soon  became 
necessary.  One  attenqrt  to  mediate  between 
these  contrasts  was  made  from  the  Jewish  side 
by  Philo.  His  power  of  appreciating  and  assim- 
ilating Greek  conceptions  is  .admirable,  but  in 
his  speculations  that  which  is  specifically  Jew- 
ish is  lost.     The  strict  and  unconditiona)   sub 


ALEXANDRIA. 


56 


ALFORD. 


mission  to  the  revealed  word  evaporates  into 
arbitrary  allegorical  explanations.  Religion  is 
gone.  Another  attempt  was  made  from  the  Greek 
side  by  the  Neo-Platonists.  Their  expositions 
of  the' relation  between  God  and  the  world,  the 
divine  and  the  human,  spirit  and  matter,  are 
often  ingenious,  and  sometimes,  as  for  instance 
when  Plotinus  touches  the  idea  of  the  beautiful. 
very  striking.  But  in  their  speculations  that 
•v\-hich  is  specifically  Greek  is  lost.  The  subtle 
but  sober  exactness  of  the  inference  nms  astray 
in  the  wildest  dreams  and  vagaries.  Science  is 
gone.  Not  until  the  problem  reached  that  stream 
of  Christian  thought  which  during  the  first  four 
centuries  flowed  with  powerful  current  through 
the  life  of  Alexandria,  not  until  it  presented 
itself  to  the  mind  of  .\than,asius  as  the  very  heart 
of  the  Christian  faith,  found  it  its  true  solution. 

Ecclesiaslical  Injiuence. — Under  such  circum- 
stances arose  the  catechetical  school  of  Alexan- 
dria. The  instruction  which  the  Lord  had  or- 
dered to  be  given  in  connection  with  baptism 
was  in  the  first  days  of  the  Church  always  given 
before  the  sacrament,  with  the  exception  of  the 
few  cases  in  which  infants  were  baptized  together 
with  their  parents.  There  was,  however,  no 
special  office,  either  of  pre.acher  or  of  teacher,  in 
the  primitive  Church ;  though  the  increase  of 
the  congregations,  the  occurrence  of  heresies, 
and  the  more  definite  formulation  of  the  Chris- 
tian doctrines,  soon  made  a  regularly  established 
teaching  necessary.  As  a  simple  and  natural 
consequence  of  circumstances.  Christian  teach- 
ing, very  early  and  for  the  first  time,  assumed 
in  Alexandria  the  form  of  a  regular  catechetical 
institution.  The  frequent  conversion  of  edu- 
cated pagans,  even  philosojihers  and  scholars, 
and  the  rise  of  Gnosticism,  made  it  necessary  for 
the  Alexandrian  bishops  to  intrust  the  instruction 
of  catechumens  only  to  scholarly  educated  Chris- 
tians. They  often  chose  converted  philosophers 
for  the  purpose;  and  the  lectures  and  discussions 
of  the.se  teachers  were  heard  not  only  by  edu- 
cated pagans,  but  also  by  Cliristians  who  wished 
to  have  a  scholarly  exposition  of  Christianity. 
Often  several  cateclii.sts  taught  at  tlie  same  time. 
Ko  pay  was  given  for  the  instruction  ;  but  rich 
catechumens  used  to  offer  presents,  which,  how- 
ever, many  teachers  declined  to  accept.  The 
instruction  was  given  in  the  hou.se  of  the  te.acher, 
■where  the  pupils,  men  and  women,  gathered  from 
early  morning  to  late  in  the  night.  The  method 
of  teaching  was  very  various,  generally  adapted 
to  the  individual  wants  of  the  pujiils,  and  often 
assuming  the  form  of  alternating  questions  and 
answers.  The  origin  of  the  school  is  ob.scure. 
According  to  tradition,  .St.  Mark  the  ICvangelist 
"was  its  founder.  Hut  tlie  first  of  whom  we  know 
■with  certainty  that  ho  filled  the  otlice  of  a 
teacher  in  the  school  was  I'anta^nus.  lie  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  pupil  Clement,  and  in  201!  Clement 
■was  succeeded  by  Origen.  Although  Origen 
■was  only  eighteen  years  old,  lie  soon  raised  the 
school  to  the  highest  point  of  its  prosperity.  In 
2'i2  ho  wa.s  expelled  from  the  city,  and  founded 
another  catochetical  .school  in  Citsarea  in  I'ales- 
tino;  but  the  .school  of  Alexandria  still  contin- 
ued to  flourish  nndor  the  loadershiii  of  his  pupils, 
Ileraclas  aTid  Dionysius.  After  the  time  of 
Dionysiu^t,  the  history  of   the  uchool  again   be- 


comes obscure.  Arius  is  said  to  have  taught  in 
it.  From  340  to  395  the  blind  Uidymus  was 
director.  He  was  followed  by  Rhodon,  and 
Rhodon  by  Philip  from  Sida.  But  having  ex- 
hausted itself  in  the  Origenistic,  Nestorian,  and 
ilonopliysitic  controversies,  the  institution,  once 
the  represeut.ative  of  a  brilliant  and  fruitful 
phase  of  theological  science,  gradually  sank 
down  into  a  school  for  children. 

The  theological  character  of  the  teaching  of 
this  institution,  a  Platonizing  speculation  on  the 
basis  of  an  allegorical  interpretation  of  the 
Bible,  is  a  true  mirror  of  the  whole  literary  life 
of  the  city,  full  of  errors,  and  rich  in  the  sweet- 
est fruits ;  skimming  over  every  thing  with  shal-' 
low  vanity,  and  touching  the  deepest  chords  of 
the  huni.an  soul,  but  always  stirring,  always  sug- 
gestive, greater  in  influence  than  in  results.  See 
the  articles  on  Clemkxt,  Hermeneutics,  Ori- 
GEX,  etc. 

Lit.  —  II.  E.  F.  Guerike  :  De  Sclwla  i/iice 
Alexandrite  floruit  Catechetlca,  Halle,  1824;  C.  F. 
W.  II.\SSELHACH :  De  Schola  ijitce  Alaandrlw 
floruit  Catec/ielica,  Stettin,  1826. 

ALEXIANS,  from  their  patron  Alexius,  or 
Cellit.e,  from  cclla,  a  tomb,  was  the  name  of 
an  association  of  men  formed  in  loOO  at  Ant- 
werp, for  the  purpose  of  nursing  the  sick,  taking 
care  of  the  poor,  and  burying  their  dead.  The 
association  was  simply  a  branch  of  the  Begini, 
or  Begh.\rdi,  which  see.  ' 

ALFORD,  Henry,  D.D.,  Dean  of  Canterbury, 
b.  in  London,  Eng.,  Oct.  7,  ISIO;  d.  Jan.  12, 
1871.  lie  was  one  of  the  most  variously  accom- 
plished clergymen  of  his  day,- — poet,  preacher, 
painter,  musician,  biblical  scholar,  critic  and 
philologist;  and  would  unquestionably  have  been 
f.ar  more  eminent  in  any  one  of  these  lines  if 
he  had  not  tried  to  excel  in  all.  He  was  his 
father's  oidy  child,  and  his  mother  died  at  his 
birth.  His  father,  a  scholarly  clergyman,  took 
the  utmost  paius  with  his  education,  and  was 
i-evvarded  by  his  jirecocity.  After  the  usual 
preparation,  Alford  entered  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  October,  1827,  where  his  career  was 
successful.  He  was  ordained  de.acou  Oct.  27, 
18;53 ;  elected  a  fellow  of  his  college,  Oct.  1, 
1834,  and  priest,  Nov.  0,  1834;  nuirried  his  cousin 
in  the  spring  of  183.")  ;  and  simultaneously  be- 
came vicar  of  Wymeswold,  Leicestershire.  In 
1839-40  he  edited  Dcanlcii's  Mlscellani/,  a  month- 
ly mag.azine.  He  declined  the  bishopric  of  New 
ZeaUnul  in  1838,  and  that  of  New  Brunswick  in 
1844.  In  184{i  he  took  the  post  of  examiner 
in  logic  and  moral  anil  intellectual  philosoi)hy 
in  the  University  of  Loudon.  In  September 
of  18.53  he  became  incumbent  of  Qm-bec  Chap(d 
iu  London  ;  in  March,  1857,  he  was  advanced  by 
Lord  Palmerst«n  to  the  deanery  of  Canterbury. 
He  was  the  founder  and  first  editor  of  Tlic  C<iit- 
teiii/mniri/  Rrriiii;  1 8()(i-7l).  The  great  work  of  his 
life  was  his  edition  ot  the  Gnik  New  Tenlament, 
184!)-til,  (ith  ed.,  revised  and  enlarged,  1808, 
which  had  the  distinguished  merit  of  introdu- 
cing (ierm.an  learning  (Olshausen.  Stier,  De 
Wette,  Meyer,  Tischendorf)  to  Kuglish  readers. 
The  amount  of  patient  labor  expended  upon  the 
four  volumos  of  Ids  work,  as  is  evidenced  by  the 
itujiroveinonts  made  in  each  successive  edition, 
entitle  him  to  llie  lasting  gratitude  of  scholars, 


ALFRED. 


57 


ALLEN. 


alttioucrh  it  will  be  conceded  that  he  was  rather 
a  compiler  than  an  original  commentator.  His 
work  maintains  its  popularity,  and  as  a  digest  of 
German  New  Testament  exegesis  has  permanent 
value. 

Beside  his  Greek  Testament,  there  was  post- 
humously published  in  1872  a  revised  version 
and  explanatory  commentary  of  Genexis  and  part 
of  Exodus,  portions  of  a  projected  commentary 
on  the  Old  Testament.  In  1808  appeared  his 
Neto  Testament  for  En(//ish  Readers,  i  vols.,  8vo; 
in  1869,  a  revision  of  the  A.  V.  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. He  was  largely  instrumental  in  advan- 
cing; the  cause  of  Revision,  and  was  one  of  the 
original  members  of  the  Revision  Committee. 
Besides  these  exegetical  and  critical  labors,  Al- 
ford  published  the  School  of  the  Heart  and  Other 
I'liems,  2  vols.,  1835,  the  Abhot  of  Muehelnaye, 
18-11,  Psalms  and  Hymns,  1814, — -poems  which 
assei-ted  his  claim  to  be  considered  a  genuine, 
though  minor,  religious  poet ;  some  of  his  hymns 
are  likely  to  live,  especially  his  "  Ten  thousand 
times  ten  thousand.  In  spotless  raiment  bright." 
His  little  book  entitled  The  Queen's  Enr/liih,  2d 
ed.,  1864,  had  the  fortune  to  call  forth  a  trenchant 
criticism  from  Mr.  G.  W.  Moon,  entitled  The 
Dean's  English.  In  addition  to  the  volumes 
already  mentioned,  there  came  from  his  hand  at 
various  times  volumes  of  sermons,  lectures,  es- 
says, and  reviews,  translations  from  the  Greek, 
and,  in  conjunction  with  his  niece,  a  novel, 
Nelherton  on  Sea  (1869).  Dean  Alford  was  a 
truly  catholic  man.  On  more  than  one  occasion 
he  publicly  appeared  in  gatherings  of  Dissenters, 
and  sat  with  them.  This  trait  is  not  common 
in  English  deans.  His  private  life  was  very 
lovely.  He  was  an  humble  Christian,  while  en- 
joying a  world-wide  fame.  See  his  Life  and  Let- 
ters, edited  by  his  widow.     London,  1872,  2  vols. 

ALFRED  THE  GREAT,  king  of  England,  871- 
901,  was  born  in  849  at  Wantage  in  Berkshire, 
the  youngest  son  of  ^Ethehvulf  and  Osburgha. 
Although  it  proved  impossible  to  find  among  his 
countrymen  one  who  could  instruct  him  in  Latin, 
he  was,  nevertheless,  possessed  of  an  elevated 
and  distinct  idea  of  what  learning  and  civiliza- 
tion meant;  and  although  his  reign,  with  its  un- 
intermittent  contest  with  the  Danes,  contains 
many  vicissitudes,  he  succeeded,  nevertheless,  in 
realizing  his  ideal  of  reform  and  progress.  He 
remodelled  the  whole  political  and  ecclesiastical 
organization  of  his  realm ;  see  Leyes  jElfreili. 
He  rebuilt  the  churches,  monasteries,  and  schools, 
burnt  down  by  the  Danes,  and  founded  new  ones, 
such  as  the  Monasteries  of  Athelney  and  Win- 
chester, and  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  in- 
vited a  number  of  learned  men  to  his  country, 
and  provided  for  them,  and,  through  the  intimate 
connection  which  he  maintained  with  Rome,  he 
was  able  to  procure  books  and  form  libraries. 
But  of  a  still  greater  importance  were  his  per- 
sonal exertions  to  arouse  among  his  countrymen 
a  desire  of  knowledge  and  culture.  He  trans- 
lated Boethius  :  De  consoUilione  phdosophia;,  ed- 
ited by  J.  S.  Cordale,  London,  1829  ;  and  Orosius, 
edited"  by  Dr.  Bosworth,  Oxford,  1859.  Both 
works  are  treated  with  great  freedom,  especially 
the  latter.  In  some  places  something  is  left  out. 
in  others  something  is  added.  Among  the  most 
remarkable   additions    are   a   geographical    and 


ethnological  review  of  Germany  and  the  adja- 
cent Slavic  countries,  and  a  similar  review  of 
Scandinavia  and  the  Baltic  countries  from  the 
reports  of  Ohthere  and  ^Vulfstan.  Also  the 
paraphrase  of  Beda's  Historia  eccles.  ijenti.t  An- 
(/lorum,  Cantabrig.  1722,  is  the  work  of  Alfred. 
Of  still  greater  importance  is  his  translation  of 
the  Liher  pasloralis  curm  by  Pope  Gregory  I.,  ed- 
ited by  H.  Sweet,  1872,  a  book  well  calculated 
to  influence  the  spirit  of  the  Saxon  clergy.  The 
dialogues  of  Pope  Gregory  were  not  translated 
by  Alfred,  but  under  his  supervision,  by  Wer- 
ferhd.  Bishop  of  Worcester  ;  and  the  soliloquies 
of  St.  Augustine,  as  well  as  the  collection  of 
proverbs  and  the  adaptation  of  the  fables  of 
Esop,  belongs  to  a  later  period.  William 
of  Malmesbury  tells  us  that  Alfred  began  to 
translate  the  Psalms ;  but  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Psalms,  edited  by  Benjamin  Thorpe  in  1835, 
hardly  any  belong  to  the  king.  [Alfred  was 
epileptic,  yet  incessant  and  most  efficient  in 
labor.  Some  recent  English  expositors  (Jowett 
and  Lightfoot)  use  this  fact  in  corroboration  of 
the  theory  that  Paul's  ''thorn  in  the  flesh"  (2 
Cor.  xii.  7)  was  epilepsy.  See  Schafp's  Popular 
Commentanj,  Galatians,  Excursus  on  Chap.  IV., 
13-15.] 

Lit.  —  Annates  rerum  gestarum  JElfredi  aiiclore 
Asserio  Meneoensi  rec,  Wise,  Oxon.,  1722  ;  B. 
Thorpe:  Ancient  Laws  and  Institutes  of  England, 
London,  1840;  Dr.  Reiniiold  Pauli:  KOnig 
Alfred,  1851,  translated  into  English  by  Thorpe, 
London,  1853;  [J.  B.Weiss:  Gesrhichte  Aelfreds 
d.  Grossen,  lSo2;  Thomas  Hughes:  Alfred  the 
Great,  London  and  Boston,  1869  ;  art.  Alfred  in 
Enci/cl.  liriliinnica,  ix.  ed.]  C.  SC'IIiiELL. 

ALGER  OF  LIEGE,  or  ALGER  OF  CLUGNY, 
also  Alger  Scholasticus,  or  Alger  Magister,  b.  at 
Liege  about  1055  ;  d.  at  Clugny  about  1131 ;  was 
educated  in  the  high  school  of  Liege,  —  at  that 
time  the  educational  centre  of  the  whole  north- 
western Germany ;  was  appointed  deacon  and 
scholasticus  at  the  Clnirch  of  St.  Bartholomew 
about  1100,  and  afterwards  canon  at  the  Cathe- 
dral of  S.  Mai'ise  et  S.  Lamberti,  but  retired 
about  1121  to  the  Monastery  of  Clugny.  The 
two  most  remarkable  of  his  works  are  De  sac- 
ramentis  corporis  et  sanguinis  Domini,  lihri  III., 
which  has  been  often  reprinted,  and  occupies  a 
prominent  place  in  the  development  of  the  doc- 
trine of  transubstantiation ;  and  Tractaius  de 
misericorilia  et  justitia,  printed  by  Martene,  Nov. 
anecdot.  Tom.  V.,  Migne,  Patrol.  180th  vol.  See 
A.  L.  Richter:  Alger  von  Luttich,  Leipzig,  1834; 
and  H.  Huffer;  Alger  von  Luttich,  Miinster, 
1802. 

ALLEN  (ALAN,  ALLYN),  William,  b.  in  Lan- 
cashire in  1.532 ;  d.  in  Rome  in  1594  ;  entered  the 
University  of  Oxford  in  1547;  studied  at  Oriel 
College;  was  made  principal  of  St.  Mary's  Hall 
in  Queen  Mary's  time,  and  Canon  of  York  in 
1558.  Among  those  who  hailed  the  return  to 
Romanism,  which  took  place  with  the  accession 
of  Mary,  Allan  was  one  of  the  most  ardent ;  and 
when  Mary  died,  and  Elizabeth  re-established 
the  Reformed  church-order,  he  left  England. 
Concentrating  all  his  energy  and  talent  on  the 
one  idea,  the  maintenance  of  Romanism  in  Eng- 
land, he  settled  at  Louvain  ;  and  soon  this  city 
became  the  centre  whither  all  the  Romanish  ami- 


ALLEGORICAL. 


58 


ALLEGORICAL. 


grants  from  England  gathered.  In  1.565  he  re- 
turned secretly  to  England.  He  took  up  his 
residence  in  the  vicinity  of  Oxford,  and  for  three 
years  his  intrigues  remained  unnoticed;  but  in 
1568  he  had  to  flee  for  his  life.  He  now  founded 
a  college  at  Douay  for  the  education  of  English 
priests;  and  this  institution  was  so  well  supported 
by  France,  Spain,  and  Rome,  that  it  soon  num- 
bered a  hundred  and  fifty  students,  and  eight  or 
ten  professors.  But  as  it  stood  in  close  connec- 
tion with  the  Jesuits,  and  showed  itself  very 
hostile  to  Queen  Elizabeth  and  the  Anglican 
Church,  it  had  to  be  removed  to  Rheims,  where 
Allan  was  appointed  canon.  At  the  same  time 
he  was  al.so  active  in  literature,  and  published  a 
number  of  pamphlets,  apologetical  and  polemical, 
which,  although  without  any  real  literary  value, 
are  striking  for  their  hatred  and  recklessness. 
One  of  the  most  characteristic  is  his  Admonition 
to  the  Nobility  and  People  of  Enyland.  printed  in 
Antwerp,  1588,  and  disti-ibuted  in  England  as  a 
forerunner  for  the  Spanish  .A.rmada.  In  Eng- 
land these  pamphlets  caused  great  indignation, 
even  among  the  Romanists,  and  it  was  made 
treason  for  a  subject  of  the  English  crown  to 
correspond  or  entertain  any  kind  of  connection 
with  Allan ;  but  by  Rome  and  Spain  he  was 
magnificently  rewarded.  Philiji  H.  m.ade  him 
Archbishop  of  Jlechlin,  and  he  lived  in  Rome  in 
princely  style.  He  was  one  of  the  translators  of 
the  Rheims  New  Testament  (15Sl').  g.  lechler. 
ALLEGORICAL  INTERPRETATION  OF  THE 
BIBLE  assumes  a  double  or  threefold  sense  of 
the  Scriptures, —an  obvious  literal  sense,  and  a 
hidden  spiritual  or  mystic  sense,  both  of  which 
were  intended  by  the  sacred  writer.  History  is 
not  merely  history  to  the  allegorist;  indeed,  the 
historic  value  of  a  passage  is  generally  the  least 
interesting  fact  about  it:  what  is  of  most  iinjior- 
tance  are  the  spiritual  lessons  it  conveys.  Thus 
the  Book  of  Joshua  has  quite  recently  been  treat- 
ed, by  a  pojiular  writer,  as  an  allegory  of  the  soul's 
conquest  over  sin  and  self.  This  style  of  biblical 
explanation  finds  a  parallel  in  paganism.  The 
Greek  jiliilosophers  since  Socrates,  scandalized  by 
the  stories  of  their  divinities,  allegorically  inter- 
preted the  poems  of  Hesiod  and  Homer.  In  a 
later  period  the  Stoics,  the  Neo-Platonists,  and 
the  Gnostics  were  noted  for  their  facility  in  find- 
ing in  the  ancient  myths  the  truths  of  the  phil- 
osophy of  nature.  But  the  allegorical  interpre- 
tation of  the  Bible  arose  among  the  .\le.xandrian 
Jews  who  came  in  contact  with  Gi-eek  wisdom, 
and  the  attempt  to  reconcile  the  Mosaic  revela- 
tion with  the  Greek  philosophy.  First  .Vristobu- 
lus  (circa  160  B.C.)  and  the  writers  in  tlie  Apoc- 
rypha, and  next,  and  principally,  Pliilo  {circa  40 
B.C.).  found  all  the  j.hilosopliy  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment by  their  allitgorical  interpretation.  Thus 
the  four  rivers  of  Paradise  were  I'lato's  four 
cardinal  virtues ;  Adam  was  the  lower,  sensuous 
man;  Abraham  w<as  the  human  soul  progressing 
towards  the  knowledge  of  God  ;  Sarah  rejirescnt- 
ed  divine  wisdom;  Hagar,  secular  learning,  etc. 
The  Apostle  Paul  himself  gives  instances  (1  Cor. 
X.  4;  Gal.  iii.  16;  iv.  21-31)  of  the  sacre<l  alle- 
gory, although  his  use  of  it  is  so  exceptional  and 
so  restrained  that  it  does  not  countenance  it  iis  a 
method.  But  tlie  difference  between  the  allegor- 
izing of  Philo  and  Paul  is  very  great.     Philo  put 


his  Platonic  ideas  into  Scripture :  Paul  drew  out 
the  deeper  meaning  of  the  same.  Philo  ideal- 
ized, Paul  spiritualized,  Mosaism.  The  one  left 
nothing  in  it  but  philosophy  and  myth  :  the  other 
drew  from  it  the  gospel. 

Into  the  early  Christian  Church  allegorical  in* 
terpretation  came,  and  first,  as  was  to  be  ex- 
pected, from  the  Jews  at  Alexandria;  for  the 
Christians  there  were  now-  interested,  as  the  Jews 
had  been,  in  reconciling  their  religion  with  Greek 
thought.  Clement  of  Alexandria  {circa  200) 
taught  that  the  verbal  sense  is  merely  for  ele- 
mentary faith  :  the  allegorical  sense  alone  leads  to 
the  gnosis.  But  the  chief  allegorist  of  the  Church 
is  Origen  (185-2.53),  that  fertile,  but  not  well- 
balanced,  writer.  He  taught  a  threefold  sense 
of  Scripture,  corresponding  to  the  three  constitu- 
ent elements  in  man,  —  body,  soul,  and  .spirit. 
Once  introduced,  the  system  more  or  less  devel- 
oped has  maintained  its  hold  on  the  Church.  In 
the  middle  ages  four  senses  were  found  in  Scrip- 
tui'e,  —  historical,  allegorical,  moral,  and  anagogi- 
cal ;  e.g.,  Jerusalem  is  literally  a  city  of  Palestine, 
allei/orically  the  Church,  morally  the  believing  soul, 
anaijoffically  the  heavenly  Jerusalem.  To  this 
fourfold  sense  the  present  Roman-Catholic  Church 
holds.  The  Reformers  returned  to  the  grammati- 
cal sense ;  and  this  may  be  said  to  constitute 
the  basis  of  Protestant  exegesis.  Allegorical  in- 
terpretation has  its  advocates  to-day  in  Protestants 
ism.  Many  sermonizers  and  popular  expositors 
are  allegorists.  Jlany  scholarly  men  h.ave.  in 
this  idea,  followed  the  Fathers.  Bishop  Words- 
worth's is  a  prominent  instance  of  a  commentary 
written  largely  on  this  principle. 

The  system  is  so  easily  learnt,  so  specious  in 
its  promises,  that  it  is  no  wonder  that  it  attracts 
many.  It  seems  to  turn  the  Bible  into  a  "  foun- 
tain of  living  waters."  Everywhere  under  its 
inspiration  Christ  is  seen  :  the  desert  is  gladdened 
by  his  presence,  the  wilderness  is  a  flower-garden. 
Genealogical  tables  by  mere  interpretation  of 
the  names  become  rich  deposits  of  spiritual  truth. 
But  the  allegorical  interpretation  tamjiers  with 
the  \\'ord  of  God.  It  substitutes  human  fancies 
for  divine  facts  and  truths.  As  Calvin,  by  gen- 
eral acknowledgment  one  of  the  ablest  commen- 
tators, s.ays,  by  the  allegorists  Scripture  was 
tortured  away  irom  its  true  sense.  They  "con- 
cluded th.at  the  literal  .sense  was  too  mean  and 
poor,  and  that  under  the  outward  bark  of  the 
letter  there  lurked  deeper  mysteries,  wldch  can- 
not be  extracted  but  by  beating  out  allegories. 
God  visited  this  profanation  by  a  just  judgment, 
when  he  suffered  the  pure  meaning  of  .Scripture 
to  be  buried  under  fal.se  interpretations.  I  ac- 
knowledge lliat  Scripture  is  a  most  rich  and 
inexhaustible  fountain  of  all  wisdom,  but  I  deny 
that  its  fertility  consists  in  the  various  meanings 
which  ;iny  man  at  his  pleasure  may  assign.  lyct 
us  know,  then,  that  the  true  meaning  of  Scripture 
is  the  natural  and  obvious  meaning ;  and  let  us 
embr.ace  and  abide  by  it  resolutely."  This  style 
of  interpretation  is  not  exposition,  but  imposition: 
the  meaning  is  not  read  out,  but  read  in.  His- 
tory, the  grammar,  and  the  dictionaiy  are  the- 
proper  aids  in  Bible  study ;  not  the  subjective 
imagination.  We  must  find  out,  under  the  guid- 
ance of  the  Sjiirit,  what  tlie  holy  men  of  old  were 
by  him  moved  to  say. 


ALLEGORY. 


59 


ALLENITBS. 


The  Swedenborgians  have  as  a  matter  of  reve- 
lation a  modification  of  the  allegorical  method. 
Swedenbors;  laid  it  down  that  "  all  and  every  part 
of  the  Scripture,  even  to  the  most  minute,  not 
excepting  the  smallest  jot  or  tittle,  signify  and 
involve  spiritual  and  celestial  things"  {Arcdiia 
Cieleslia,  I.  No.  2).  This  deeper  sense  is  in  the 
literal  as  the  soul  is  in  the  body,  but  was  lost 
until  revealed  to  Swedenborg.  His  allegorizing 
is  arbitrary,  fanciful,  often  ingenious,  often 
absurd.  Thus  he  considers  the  first  chapter  of 
(ienesis  to  represent  in  its  spiritual  sense  the 
regeneration  of  man,  of  which  process  the  six 
days  are  the  successive  stages;  Adam  in  Paradise 
IS  the  primitive  Church  ;  the  four  rivers  are  good- 
ness, knowledge,  reason,  and  science,  etc.  His 
exegesis  is  critically  worthless. 

ALLEGORY  is  inost  closely  allied  in  the  do- 
main of  art  to  the  symbol,  in  that  of  literature 
to  the  parable.  But  while  in  art  the  symbolical 
representation  leads  the  nund  by  a  natural  and 
necessary  association  from  the  sign  given  to  the 
idea  intended,  —  as  when,  for  instance,  a  lion  vis- 
ing on  his  forepaws  symbolizes  defiant  courage,  — 
in  the  allegory  there  is  only  a  conventional  and 
incidental  connection  between  sign  and  idea, 
and  the  key  to  the  meaning  of  an  allegorical 
representation  is  generally  found  in  its  symboli- 
cal attributes,  as,  for  instance,  when  a  woman  in 
Greek  costume  is  recognized  as  America  by 
means  of  the  flag  she  holds  in  the  hand.  The 
difference  in  literature  between  the  allegory  and 
the  parable  is  soniew'hat  similar.  The  parable 
consists  of  two  parts,  — •  a  plain  narrative  from 
real,  practical,  every-day  life,  to  which  is  added 
a  parallel  from  the  spiritual  or  moral  sphere; 
and  the  relation  between  these  two  parts  is  that 
of  a  strikmg  and  easily  comprehended  illustra- 
tion of  profound  spiritual  teaching.  The  alle- 
gory, on  the  contrary,  consists  only  of  a  fictitious 
and  fantastic  narrative;  but  by  means  of  subtle 
hints  and  allusions  this  narrative  leads  the  read- 
er to  seek  for  a  real  and  substantial  meaning 
beneath  the  fanciful  surface. 

In  Christian  art,  whicli  is  very  rich  in  beauti- 
ful symbols,  —  the  Cross,  the  Lamb,  etc., — the 
allegory  has  always  played  a  somewhat  subor- 
dinate piart;  though  in  the  earliest  times,  and 
on  account  of  the  social  position  of  the  congre- 
gation, it  was  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  in  in- 
genious artificiality  often  approached  the  puzzle ; 
as,  for  instance,  where  Christ  was  allegorically 
represented  by  the  picture  of  a  fish,  because  the 
Greek  name  of  fish,  'ix'^^ii  's  composed  of  the 
initial  letters  of  the  words  'Ir/aovf  Xpiarb^  Qcov 
Tide:  ^uTT)p,  '•  Jesus  Christ,  God's  Son,  the  Sav- 
iour." In  Christian  literature  it  was  often  em- 
ployed in  books  of  devotion  and  moral  teaching, 
and  it  has  produced  at  least  one  lasting  and 
very  prominent  work, —  The  Pitf/rim's  Pror/ress ; 
not  to  forget,  that,  introduced  by  I'hilo  as  a 
means  of  reconciling  Judaism  and  Platonism, 
it  was  adopted  by  the  theological  school  of 
Alexandria  as  the  highest  pirinciple  of  biblical 
exegesis,  and  through  Augustine  transplanted 
to  the  Western  Church,  where  it  flourished  during 
the  Middle  Ages.  CLEMENS  PETERSEN. 

ALLEGRI,  Gregorio,  b.  in  Rome  about  1580; 
d.  there  Feb.  18,  1652 ;  studied  music  under 
Nanini,   and   was   made   director  of    the  papal 


choir  by  Urban  VIII.,  1029.  IIi;  was  one  of  the 
first  who  composed  for  stringed  instruments. 
His  most  celebrated  composition  is  a  Miserere 
for  two  choirs,  still  performed  each  year  during 
Holy  Week  in  the  Sixtine  Chapel.  It  was  for- 
bidden, under  penalty  of  excomnnuncation,  to 
give  or  take  copies  of  this  music.  In  1771,  how- 
ever. Dr.  Burney  procured  a  copy,  and  published 
it  in  London;  but  it  was  soon  discovered  that  the 
effect  of  the  music  depends  upou  a  peculiar 
execution,  of  which  the  papal  choir  alone  has  the 
secret. 

ALLEN,  David  ONver,  b.  at  Barre,  Mass.,  Sept. 
14,  1799;  d.  at  Lowell,  Mass.,  July  17,  18G;i;  was 
graduated  from  Andierst  College  in  1823  ;  and 
from  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1827; 
went  the  same  year  as  a  missionary  to  India;  re- 
turned thence  in  18.)3 ;  and  published  in  1850  India, 
Ancient  and  Modern,  Boston,  1850,  2d  ed.,  1858. 

ALLEN,  John,  b.  in  1470;  murdered  July  28, 
1534,  at  Artane,  near  Clontarf ;  was  educated 
at  Oxford ;  and  by  Archbishop  Warham  sent  to 
Rome,  where  he  staid  nine  years.  On  liis  re- 
turn, he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Wolsey, 
whose  policy  he  adopted ;  and  in  1528  he  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Dublin.  He  wrote  Epistola 
de  Pallii  iii(/iiificatioiie  and  other  minor  pieces. 

ALLEN,  John,  b.  at  Truro,  Cornwall,  1771; 
d.  June  17,  1839,  at  Hackney,  near  London, 
where  for  thirty  years  he  kept  a  private  school. 
He  published  in  1813  a  translation  of  Calvin's 
Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion,  and  in  1816 
Alodrrn  Judaism. 

ALLEN,  William,  D.D.,  b.  at  Pittsfield,  Mass., 
Jan.  2,  1784;  d.  at  Northampton,  Mass,  July 
16,  1868;  w-as  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in 
1802;  studied  theology;  was  licensed  in  1804; 
and  soon  after  appointed  assistant  librarian  of 
Harvard  College.  He  issued  in  1809  an  Ameri- 
can Bioi/ra/>hical  and  Historical  Uiclionarij,  the 
first  work  of  the  kind  in  America.  His  dili- 
gence in  collecting  materials,  as  well  as  the 
growth  of  the  country,  are  evidenced  by  the  in- 
crease of  the  book  from  seven  hundred  titles  to 
eighteen  hundred  in  the  second  edition,  1832,  to 
seven  thousand  in  the  third  edition,  18.57.  In 
1810  he  succeeded  his  father  as  pastor  of  the 
Pittsfield  Congregational  church.  Became  presi- 
dent of  the  university  intended  by  the  New 
Hampshire  legislature  to  supplant  Dartmouth 
College;  this  scheme  failing,  he  afterwards  be- 
came president  of  Bowdoin  College  in  1820,  and 
retained  the  position  until  1839.  He  removed  to 
Northampton,  where  he  carried  on  useful  liter- 
ary labors.  lie  was  the  father-in-law  of  Pro- 
fessor Henry  B.  Smith.  D.D.,  LL.D. ;  and  in  the 
memoir  of  the  latter  (N.Y.,  1880)  will  be  found 
some  notice  of  him. 

ALLENITES,  the  followers  of  Henry  Allen, 
who,  b.  at  Newport,  R.I.,  June  14,  1748,  d.  in 
Nova  Scotia,  in  1784,  began  in  1774  to  propa- 
gate his  ideas  by  preaching  and  by  publishing 
tracts.  He  held  that  all  the  souls  of  the  human 
race  were  emanations  from  one  great  spirit;  that 
they  were  all  present  in  the  Garden  of  Eden,  and 
took  actual  part  in  the  fall;  that  the  human 
body  and  the  whole  material  world  did  not  exist 
before  the  fall,  but  were  created  to  prevent  the 
absolute  destruction  of  the  human  race  by  the 
fall,  etc.     He   made  a  considerable   impressicn. 


ALLEY 


60 


ALLIANCE. 


aspecially  in  Kova  Scotia,  and  feathered  a  num- 
ber of  zealous  proselytes ;  but  after  his  death  his 
party  gradually  dwindled  away. 

ALLEY,  Wifliam,  b.  about  1512  at  Chipping 
^\'ycombe,  Bucks,  Eng.  ;  d.  at  Exeter,  April  15, 
IdTO ;  was  educated  at  Eton,  Cambridge,  and 
Oxford ;  and  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Refor- 
mation, but  kept  himself  in  retirement  during 
the  reign  of  Mary.  Elizabeth  made  him  reader 
in  St.  Paul's,  and  in  15G0  Bishop  of  Exeter.  He 
revised  the  Pentateuch  for  the  Bishops'  Bible, 
and  wrote  an  exposition  of  1  Peter  in  The  Poor 
AJayi's  Library. 

ALLIANCE,  EVANGELICAL.  A  voluntary  as- 
.sociation  of  evangelical  Christians  from  diSerent 
churches  and  countries,  for  the  purpose  of  mani- 
festing and  promoting  Christian  union  and  re- 
ligious liberty. 

I.  Op.igix'axd  Aims.  —  The  Alliance  owes  its 
origin  to  a  ^vide-spread  and  growing  desire  for  a 
closer  union  among  evangelical  Protestants,  both 
for  the  sake  of  union,  and  for  a  more  successful 
conflict  with  infidelity  on  the  one  hand,  and 
superstition  on  the  other.  This  union  is  to  be 
entirely  free  and  voluntary,  and  to  leave  room 
for  great  variety  within  the  limits  of  scriptural 
or  evangelical  belief.  The  object  is,  not  to  create 
tmion,  but  to  acknowledge,  exhibit,  and  strength- 
en that  spiritual  union  which  has  always  existed 
among  true  Christians  as  members  of  Christ's 
body,  but  which  is  sadly  marred  and  obstructed 
by  the  many  divisions  and  rivalries  of  Protestant 
denominations  and  sects.  The  Alliance  aims  not 
at  an  organic  union,  nor  at  a  confederation  of 
churches,  but  simply  at  a  free  Christian  union  of 
individual  members  from  different  churches  who 
hold  essentially  the  same  faith;  although  such  a 
union  will  naturally  tend  to  bring  gradually  the 
churches  themselves  into  closer  fellowship  and 
mutual  recognition.  It  claims  no  official  and 
legislative  authority  that  might  in  any  way  inter- 
fere with  the  internal  affairs  of  the  denomina- 
tional organization.?,  or  the  loyalty  of  its  members 
to  tlieir  particular  communion.  It  relies  solely 
on  the  moral  power  of  truth  and  love. 

The  other  object  of  the  Alliance  is  the  defence 
and  promotion  of  religious  freedom  in  that  sense 
in  which  it  i.s  understood  by  tlie  advanced  sec- 
tions of  Protestantism,  especially  in  Great  Britain 
and  tlie  United  States.  It  is  freedom  as  distinct 
from  mere  toleration,  freedom  of  conscience  as  a 
fundamental  and  inalienable  right  of  every  man, 
and  freedom  of  worship  wliicli  is  tiie  natural 
result  of  the  former,  ami  which  the  government 
is  bound  to  protect.  The  Alliance  is  thi;  only 
Christian  organization  wliich  attends  to  this  im- 
portant interest,  and  comes  to  the  aid  of  all  wlio 
are  persecute<i  for  the  sake  of  religion.  By  its 
unsectarian  character  and  freedom  from  all  jiolit- 
ical  complications,  it  can  accomplish  and  has  ac- 
complislied  a  great  deal  for  the  relief  of  suffering 
brethren  and  the  recognition  of  the  sacred  rights 
of  conscience. 

II.  TlIK     FOU.NDING      OF     THE     Al.LIANCE.  — 

After  a  number  of  preparatory  meetings  and 
conferencefs,  the  Alliance  was  founded  in  a  re- 
markable and  enthusi;istic  meeting  held  in  Free- 
ma.sons'  Hall  in  London,  Aug.  l!)-'j:!,  IsKi.  The 
meeting  was  composed  of  eight  hundred  Cliris- 
tians,  —  Episcopalians,  I'resbyterian.s,  Independ- 


ents, Methodists,  Baptists,  Lutherans,  Reformed, 
Moravians,  and  others,  —  and  included  many  of 
the  most  distinguished  divines,  preachers,  and 
phil.anthropists  from  England,  Scotland.  Ire- 
land, Germany,  France,  Switzerland,  the  United 
States,  and  other  countries.  Sir  Culling  Eardly, 
Bart.,  presided,  and  became  the  first  president  of 
the  British  branch.  Eloquent  addresses  were 
delivered,  fervent  jirayers  offered,  and  nine  doc- 
trinal articles  adopted  ;  not,  however,  as  a  bind- 
ing creed  or  confession,  but  simply  as  an  expres- 
sion of  the  essential  consensus  of  evangelical 
Christians  whom  it  seemed  desirable  to  embrace 
in  the  Alliance. 

III.  The  Doctrinal  Basis.  —  The  nine  arti- 
cles are  as  follows  :  — 

"1.  The  divine  inspiration,  authority,  and  suffi- 
ciency of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

"  2.  The  right  and  duty  of  private  judgment  in  the 
interpretation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

"  3.  Tlie  Unity  of  the  Godhead,  and  the  Trinity  of 
the  Persons  therein. 

"4.  The  utter  depravity  of  human  nature  incon- 
sequence of  the  Fall. 

"5.  The  incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God,  his  work 
of  atonement  for  the  sins  of  mankind,  and  his  media- 
torial intercession  and  reign. 

"  ti.  The  justitication  of  the  sinner  by  faitli  alone. 

"  7.  The  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  conversion 
and  sauctitication  of  the  sinner. 

"  8.  The  immortality  of  the  soul,  the  resurrection 
of  the  body,  tlie  judgment  of  the  world  by  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  with  the  eternal  V)lessedn"ess  of  the 
rijjhteous  ami  the  eternal  jiunishment  of  the  wicked. 

"9.  The  divine  institution  of  the  Christian  minis- 
try, and  the  obligation  and  perpetuity  of  the  ordi- 
nances of  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper." 

Some  regard  this  doctrinal  statement  as  too 
liberal,  others  as  too  narrow  (especially  on  ac- 
count of  Art.  9  which  excludes  the  Quakers), 
while  still  others  woidd  have  preferred  no  doc- 
trinal basis,  or  only  the  Apostles'  Creed,  the 
simplest  and  most  generally  accepted  of  .all 
creeds.  Nevertheless  it  has  answered  a  good 
purpose,  and  maintained  the  positive  evangelical 
character  of  the  Alliance.  The  American  branch, 
at  its  orgjinization  (1807),  .adopted  the  nine  Lon- 
don articles,  with  the  following  important  ex- 
planatory .and  (pialil'ying  preamble:  — 

"  Jlesitlri'd,  That  in  forming  an  Evangelical  Alli- 
ance for  the  United  States  in  co-operative  union  with 
other  branches  of  tlie  Alliance,  we  have  no  intention 
to  give  ri.so  to  a  new  deiKiniination:  ur  to  effect  an 
amalgamation  i>f  chnvehcs,  except  in  the  way  ut 
facilitating  pcrsunal  Cliristian  inlerconrs(''and  a  mu- 
tual good  iindi-istanding;  cir  to  intiTfcre  in  any  way 
whatever  with  the.  internal  atfairs  (if  the  various 
deiKiininations;  hut  simply  to  bring  individual  Chris- 
tians into  I'loser  fellowship  and  co-operation,  on  the 
liasis  of  the  s]iiritual  union  whicli  already  exists  in 
the  vital  relation  of  Clirist  to  the  niembers  of  his 
body  in  all  ages  and  countries. 

'•'llcsnlvcd,  That  in  the  same  spirit  we  propose  no 
new  creed,  but  taking  broad,  historical,  and  evangel- 
ical catholic  ground,  we  solemnly  rc-iitiinii  and  pro- 
fess our  faith  in  all  the  doi'Irincs  of  the  inspired 
word  of  (iod,  and  in  the  r..;i.sc»,sHS  of  doctrines  as 
lield  by  all  true  Christians  from  the  beginning.  And 
we  do  more  especially  atHnii  our  belief  in  tlie  (liriiu-- 
huiium  jierson  ami  atnnhiii  imrk  ul'  'nir  Lunl  iiinl 
tiuvioiir  Jesus  Cltrisl,  as  the  only  anil  sullicient  source 
of  salvation,  as  the  heart  and  soul  of  Christianity, 
and  as  the  centre  of  all  trije  Christian  union  and 
fellowship. 

'•  Ili'sulucil,  That,  with  this  exnlanalion,  and  in  the 
spirit  of  a  just  Christian  liberality  in  regard  to  the 
minor  difToreuccs  of  theological  schools  and  religious 


f 


ALLIANCE. 


CI 


ALLIANCE. 


denominations,  we  also  aiiopt,  as  a  summary  of  the 
ro;i.sf'7i«j(.s  of  the  various  evangelical  Confessions  of 
Faith,  the  Articles  and  Explanatory  Statement  set 
forth  and  agreed  on  liy  the  Evangelical  Alliance  at 
its  formation  in  London,  1K4(>,  and  approved  by  the 
separate  European  organizations,  which  articles  are 
as  follows,"  etc. 


IV.  Branch  Alliances. —  The  Evangelical 
Alliance  tlms  auspiciously  organized  soon  spread 
throughout  the  Protestant  world.  Branch  alli- 
ances were  formed  in  Great  Britain,  Germany, 
France,  Holland,  Switzerland,  Sweden,  and  even 
among  the  missionaries  in  Turkey  and  East  In- 
dia; more  recently  also  in  the  United  States, 
Canada,  Italy,  Australia,  Brazil,  Mexico,  Egypt, 
and  among  the  Protestant  missionaries  in  Japan. 
There  is  no  central  organization  with  any  con- 
trolling authority ;  and  the  General  Alliance  ap- 
pears in  active  operation  only  from  time  to 
time  when  it  meets  in  general  conference,  which 
has  assumed  the  character  of  a  Protestant  oecu- 
menical council,  but  differs  from  the  oecumeni- 
cal councils  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  Churches 
in  claiming  only  moral  and  spiritual  power. 
The  various  national  branches  are  related  to 
each  other  as  members  of  a  confederation  with 
equal  rights.  The  British  organ iz.ation,  being 
the  oldest  and  largest,  and  having  a  house  (in 
London,  No.  7  Adam  Street,  Strand),  and  sala- 
ried officers  who  devote  their  whole  time  to  the 
work,  has  been  heretofore  the  most  influential; 
the  Continental  branches  are  more  elastic,  and 
confine  themselves  to  occasional  work;  the 
American  branch,  which  was  organized  at  the 
Bible  House,  New  York,  in  1867  (a  previous  at- 
tempt having  failed  on  account  of  the  anti- 
slavery  agitation  before  the  Civil  War),  has  in  a 
short  time  become  the  most  vigorous  and  popu- 
lar; for  in  the  United  States,  where  all  Christian 
sects  are  represented  on  a  basis  of  equality  be- 
fore the  law,  there  is  also  the  greatest  apprecia- 
tion  of  religious  freedom,  the  strongest  desire 
for  Christian  union  and  co-operation,  and  the 
widest  field  for  the  realization  of  the  idea  of  a 
universal  Christian  brotherhood  on  the  basis  of 
a  free  development  of  denominational  peculiari- 
ties in  dogma,  discipline,  and  worship.  We  now 
give  a  brief  summary  of  the  history  and  results 
of  the  Alliance. 

V.  The  Annual  Week  of  Prayer.  —  This 
was  originally  proposed  by  the  English  and 
American  missionaries  in  India,  adopted  by  the 
Alliance,  and  has  become  an  institution  and 
means  for  promoting  Christian  union  and  the 
spread  of  the  gospel  at  home  and  abroad.  The 
first  week  of  January  is  set  aside  for  united 
prayer.  A  programme  is  issued  several  months 
before  by  the  British  organization,  and  sent  to 
the  branch  Alliances  for  their  revision  and  adop- 
tion. Each  branch  adapts  it  to  the  condition 
and  wants  of  the  country  wliich  it  represents, 
and  gives  it  a  wide  publicity.  Some  convenient 
church  or  hall  is  selected  in  those  cities  and  vil- 
lages which  observe  the  custom,  and  the  minis- 
ters and  laity  of  different  denominations  unite  in 
praying  for  tlie  common  objects  of  Christ's  king- 
dom, with  special  reference  to  the  conversion 
of  the  world.  This  week  of  prayer  has  become 
almost  an  institution  (like  the  holy  week),  and  is 
very  generally  observed  in  London,  Paris,  Berlin, 


Basle,  Geneva,  Rome,  Cairo,  Beirut,  New  York, 
and  other  large  cities  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific. 
The  following  programme,  issued  by  the  (Vmeri- 
can  Brancli  for  the  year  1881,  is  given  as  a  speci- 
men :  — 

"  Jdniiavti  2.  —  Theme:  Christ  the  only  hope  of 
the  lost  world. 

"  iliDiiJfiii,  ",.  —  Thanksgiving  for  the  blessings, 
temporal  and  spiritual,  of  the  i)ast  year,  and  prayer 
for  their  continuance. 

"  Tiii'xihi!/,  4.  —  Humiliation  and  confession  on  ac- 
count of  individual,  social,  and  national  sins. 

"  Wi'iliiesdiiii,  5.  —  Prayer  for  the  Church  of  Christ, 
its  iniity  and  luirity,  its  ministry,  and  for  revivals  of 
religion. 

"Thursday,  G.  —  ChrLstian  education;  prayer  for 
the  family,  Sunday  schools,  and  all  educational  insti- 
tutions; for  Young  Men's  Christian  Associations,  and 
for  the  press. 

"  Friday,  7.  —  Prayer  for  the  prevalence  of  justice, 
humanity,  and  peace  amoii;;  all  nations;  for  the  sup- 
pression of  intemperance  and  Sabliath  desecration. 

"Saturday,  8.  —  Prayer  for  Christian  missions, 
and  the  conversion  of  the  world  to  Christ. 

"  Sunday,  9.  —  Theme  :  On  the  Ministration  of  the 
Holy  Spirit." 

VI.  Conferences.  —  Another  means  of  pro- 
moting the  objects  of  the  Alliance  are  nation.al 
and  international  Conferences.  The  British  or- 
ganization holds  a  meeting  annually  in  October 
in  some  city  of  England.  The  Irish  and  Scotch 
Branches  do  the  same.  The  American  Branch 
holds  an  American  meeting  every  two  years. 
The  Continental  and  other  branches  meet  less 
regularly.  Far  more  important  are  the  General 
Conferences  which  are  (Convened  at  intervals  of 
from  four  to  six  years  according  to  circumstances. 
They  have  an  international  as  well,  as  interde- 
nominational character,  and  may  be  called  Prot- 
estant oecumenical  coimcils,  with  this  important 
difference,  how^ever,  that  they  do  not  settle  dog- 
mas or  canons  of  discipline,  and  have  no  legisla- 
tive authority,  but  simply  moral  power.  They 
are  held  in  the  great  cai>itals,  and  arranged  by 
the  branch  in  whose  boimds  they  meet,  with  the 
co-operation  of  all  the  sister  branches.  They 
last  from  seven  to  ten  days,  and  are  spent  in 
prayer  and  praise,  brotherly  communion,  and  free 
discussions  of  the  leading  religious  and  social 
questions  of  the  age.  Christians  from  all  coun- 
tries, and  speaking  various  languages,  are  brought 
together  face  to  face  to  become  personally  ac- 
quainted, and  to  encourage  each  other  in  every 
good  work. 

Eight  general  Conferences  have  been  held  thus 
far,  and  others  will  be  held  from  time  to  time 
as  long  as  the  Alliance  has  vitality  and  a  mission 
to  fulfil.  The  first  general  Conference  took  place 
in  London  in  18.31,  the  year  of  the  great  exhibi- 
tion of  the  works  of  industry  of  all  nations  in  the 
British  metropolis;  the  second  in  Paris,  IS.3.3; 
the  thinl  in  Berlin,  1857;  the  fourth  in  Geneva, 
ISGl ;  the  fifth  in  Amsterdam,  1SG7  ;  the  sixth  in 
New  York,  187.3;  the  seventh  in  Basle,  1879;  tlie 
eighth  in  Copenhagen,  1S84.  They  were  well  at- 
tended, and  left  a  most  favorable  impression  ur>on 
the  delegates  and  the  country'  in  wliich  they  were 
held.  See  a  brief  history  of  the  first  five  Con- 
ferences, by  Rev.  James  Davis,  in  the  report  of 
the  New  York  Conference  of  the  Alliance.  New 
York,  1873,  pp.  189,  sqq.  The  Conference  held 
in  New  York  Oct.  2-12,  1873,  is  regarded  by 
many  as  the  most  enthusiastic,  interesting,  ar.^l 


ALLIANCE. 


62 


ALLIANCE. 


useful  religious  ineetiug  in  the  history  of  Ameri- 
can Christianity.  Three  of  the  foreign  delegates 
—  the  Rev.  Professor  Cesar-Louis  Pronier  of 
Geneva,  Rev.  Antonio  Carrasco  of  Spain,  and 
Rev.  Emile  F.  Cook  of  Paris  —  took  passage  in 
the  "  Yille  du  Havre,"  which  was  sunk  at  sea 
Nov.  22,  1873 :  the  first  two  were  drowned,  the 
third  died,  Jan.  29,  1874.  in  consequence  of  his 
exposure.  More  than  twenty  thousand  dollars  (a 
hundred  thousand  francs)  were  raised  for  their 
families  in  New  York  alone.  The  seventh  Con- 
ference in  Basle  wa.s  not  so  large  and  imposing, 
but  in  its  way  equally  interesting  and  successful. 
The  eighth  Conference  in  Copenhagen  was  pre- 
dominantly Lutheran  and  Scandinavian.  The 
Alliance  has  been  the  parent  of  other  Alliances  of 
a  denominational  and  ecclesiastical  character,  as 
the  Pan-Anglican  Synod,  the  Pan-Presbyterian 
Alliance,  the  Pan-Methodist  Conference,  which 
likewise  hold  occasional  meetings,  but  do  not 
supersede  nor  interfere  with  the  Evangelical  Alli- 
ance and  its  general  conferences. 

Vn.  Religious  Liberty. — The  Alliance  as- 
sumed from  the  beginning  that  freedom  of  con- 
science and  Christian  union,  far  from  being 
inconsistent  with  each  other,  are  one  and  in- 
separable; that  freedom  is  the  basis  of  union, 
and  union  the  result  and  support  of  freedom  ; 
that  a  union  without  freedom  is  only  a  dead, 
mechanical  uniformity ;  that  true  union  implies 
variety  and  distinction,  and  a  full  recognition  of 
the  rights  and  peculiar  gifts  and  mission  of  other 
members  and  branches  of  Christ's  kingdom. 
The  Roman  Church  maintains  union  at  the  ex- 
pense of  freedom,  and,  w'hile  advocating  liberty 
of  conscience  and  public  worship  for  herself,  de- 
nies it  t(>  all  others  in  principle,  and,  where  she 
has  the  power,  in  practice  also.  Since  the  for- 
mation of  the  Alliance,  many  cases  of  persecu- 
tion more  or  less  severe  have  occurred,  especially 
in  Southern  Europe,  under  the  operation  of  penal 
laws  against  religious  dissenters;  and  the  united 
efforts  of  the  different  branches  of  the  Alliance, 
through  the  press  and  by  deputations  of  influen- 
tial public  men,  have  had  a  considerable  moral 
influence  iu  bringing  aliout  those  remarkable 
changes  in  favor  of  religious  liberty  which  have 
taken  place  among  the  Latin  races,  especially  in 
Italy,  and  even  in  Russia  and  Turkey,  within 
the  last  twenty  years.  'J'he  .VUiance  successfully 
exerted  its  influence  for  the  release  of  the  Madiai 
family  in  Tuscany  (18o2),  who  were  punished 
for  the  sole  crime  of  reading  the  Bible  and 
holding  religious  meetings;  for  the  release  of 
Matamoras,  Carnisco,  and  their  friends,  who, 
during  tlie  reign  of  Queen  Isabella  in  Spain, 
were  tlirown  into  prison  and  condi'inned  to  the 
galleys  for  the  same  innocent  cause  (IS.j:}).  It 
aided  in  inducing  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  to  abol- 
ish the  death-penalty  for  apostasy  from  Moham- 
medanism in  his  dominions  after  the  Crimean 
War  (18.50).  It  interceded  for  the  .Mi'thodi.sts 
and  Baptists  iu  Sweden  (1858),  which  has  since 
abrogated  the  penal  laws  against  Unman  Catho- 
lics an<i  Protestants  not  belonging  to  the  Luther- 
an Confe.ssion.  It  sent  in  1871  a  large  deputa- 
tion, in  which  ])romiiU'nt  citizens  of  the  United 
States  tfjok  a  leading  part,  to  Prince  (jortscha- 
koff  and  the  Czar  of  Russia  (then  at  Friedriclis- 
haten)  to  plead  for  the  oppressed  Lutherans  in 


the  Baltic  Provinces;  and  the.se  have  not  been 
disturlied  since  that  time.  It  sent  a  similar 
deputation  to  the  embassy  from  Japan,  when 
they  visited  the  United  States  and  the  courts  of 
Europe  in  1872,  to  remonstrate  against  the  per- 
secution of  Christians,  mostly  Roman  Catholics, 
in  that  distant  empire  of  the  East;  and  the  per- 
secution has  since  ceased.  It  has  not  forgotten 
the  Nestorians  in  Persia,  who  appealed  to  the 
.\lli,ance  for  protection  against  the  oppression  of 
a  Mohammedan  government;  and  prepai'ed  a 
memorial  to  the  Czar  on  the  persecution  of  Bap- 
tists in  the  South  of  Russia  (1874).  At  the 
seventh  general'  Conference  in  Basle  (1870),  a 
deputation  was  appointed  to  wait  on  the  Em- 
peror of  Austria  in  behalf  of  certain  Christians 
in  Bohemia,  who  were  debarred  the  liberty  of 
holding  even  family  worship ;  and  the  request 
was  granted  by  the  special  interposition  of  the 
emperor.  The  force  of  public  opinion  on  the 
subject  of  freedom  of  conscience  and  religious 
worship,  as  expressed  by  the  Alliance,  h.as  al- 
ways found  a  respectful  hearing,  and  must 
sooner  or  later  be  obeyed  by  every  civilized  gov- 
ernment on  the  globe. 

Lit.  —  The  Proceedings  of  the  London  meet- 
ing of  1816,  when  the  Alli.ance  was  organized, 
and  the  Proceedings  and  Addresses  of  the  Gen- 
eral Conferences  at  London,  Paris,  Berlin,  Gen- 
eva, Amsterdam,  New  York,  and  B.asle,  were  all 
published  in  English,  and  most  of  them  also  in 
French,  German,  and  Dutch,  in  the  cities  where 
they  were  held,  and  may  be  had  at  the  office  of 
the  British  organization,  7  Adam  .Street,  Strand. 
The  most  important  are  :  Ec<in</(;/ic<il  Alliance 
i  Conference,  1873,  edited  by  Drs.  Schaff  and  Prime, 
j  published  by  the  Harpers,  New  York,  1874,  773 
I  pp.  double  col.  The  American  Committee  dis- 
tributed gratuitously  six  hundred  copies  of  this 
stately  vohime  among  delegates  .and  theological 
libraries  in  Europe  and  America.  Sielienle 
HnupWerxammluny  der  Evcing.  Allianz  gchaUcn  in 
Basel,  1879,  herausfjef/.  ran  Prof.  Dr.  liif/r/enbacli, 
Basel  (Bahnmaier),  1879,  in  2  vols,  of  1.0.54  pp. 
The  same  in  English,  under  the  title,  Tlie  lieli- 
ffi/nts  Conililion  of  Chrislendom  descriheil  in  a  series 
of  papers  presented  to  the  Seventh  Gen.  Conf.  of  the 
Ev.  Alliance  held  in  Basle,  1879.  edited  by  Dr.  J. 
Murr.ay  Mitchell,  Lomlon  (llodder  and  Stough- 
ton),  1880.  To  this  should  be  added  the  report 
of  the  Deputation  of  the  Basle  Conference  to 
the  Emperor  of  .\ustria  in  behalf  of  religious 
liberty  in  Bohemia,  i)ublislird  in  German  and 
French  at  Basle,  1880.  The  British  branch  puli- 
lishes  from  time  to  time  special  papers.  The 
American  branch  has  issued  from  1807  to  1884 
eighteen  documents,  among  them  a  rejiort  on  the 
•state  of  religion  in  the  United  States  for  the 
Conference  iu  .Vmsterdam,  by  the  late  Professor 
Dr.  Henry  B.  Smith  (18<)7),  a  similar  report  pre- 
pared for  the  Conference  m  Basle  by  Dr.  SclialT 
(1879),  and  a  report  on  tlie  Alliance  Deputa- 
tion to  the  Czar  of  Russia  in  behalf  of  religious 
liberty  (1871).  The  .Mliance  has  no  sjiecial 
organ,  but  uses  the  various  religious  periodicals 
friendly  to  the  cause  in  different  countries. 
Th(!  British  organization  reports  its  proceedings 
every  month  iu  the  J'^rani/elirid  Clirlstendom,  ]iul>- 
lishccl  by  William  John  John.son,  in  London, 
Edinburgh,  and  Dublin.  I'lllLll'  scil.M'-l--. 


ALLIANCE. 


63 


ALLIANCE. 


ALLIANCE  OF  THE  REFORMED  CHURCHES 

(popularly  calli'il  "  I'l'csbytrriau  Allianci'"j.  A 
voluntary  organization  formed  in  London  1875; 
somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  Kvaiigelical  Alli- 
ivnce,  but  confined  to  Kefornu!d  churches  holding 
the  Presbyterian  system  of  government,  and  more 
■churclUy  in  the  character  of  its  representation. 
It  realizes  a  desire  strongly  entertained  by  Cal- 
vin (letter  to  Cranmer,  1552)  and  Beza  (confer- 
ence at  St.  Germain,  1501),  to  heal  the  divisions 
among  Protestants  by  the  formation  of  some  gen- 
eral council.  Nothing  came  of  their  efforts,  and 
the  different  Protestant  churches  rapidly  became 
still  farther  separated. 

The  English-speaking  portion  of  the  Presby- 
terians had  their  home  in  Scotland  where  Knox's 
influence  was  paramount;  and  there  the  desire 
for  a  re-union  of  Reformed  Christendom  linger- 
ing in  men's  hearts,  subsequently  found  expres- 
sion in  a  variety  of  ways.  The  Secrmd  Bock  <if 
Discipline  of  the  Scottish  Church  (pub.  1578) 
speaks  of  an  "  Assembly  representing  the  Uni- 
versal Kirk  of  Christ,  which  may  be  properly 
called  the  General  Assembly,  or  General  Council 
of  the  whole  Kirk  of  God; "  while  in  Pardovan's 
well-known  collection  of  Scottish  Church  laws 
{1st  ed.  1709)  there  is  a  section  under  the  title, 
•■  Of  a  General  Council  of  Protestants."  During 
the  eighteenth  century  a  variety  of  controversies 
conducted  too  often  with  great  bitterness  alien- 
ated even  the  Presbyterian  churches  from  each 
other  till  Presbyterian  re-union  seemed  all  but 
hopeless.  In  the  early  part  of  the  present  cen- 
tary.  however,  a  kindlier  spirit  began  to  prevail, 
and  churches  that  were  doctrinally  agreed  drew 
together.  In  1820  the  Bargher  and  Anti-burgher 
churches  united  under  the  name  of  the  United 
Secession  Church.  This  has  been  followed  by  a 
large  number  of  church  unions  in  Scotland,  Ire- 
land, Canada,  the  United  States,  Australia,  and 
elsewhere  ;  while  the  watchword  of  even  those 
churche.s  that  did  not  see  their  way  to  entering 
into  organic  union  with  any  of  their  neighbors 
became  "Co-operation  without  incorporation." 
The  formation  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance 
(London.  18-10)  showing  how  there  might  be  such 
co-operation  without  any  surrender  of  denomi- 
national existence,  the  desire  for  some  form  of 
Presbyterian  union  gradually  became  general. 
At  length  in  1870  'the  Rev.  Dr.  JlcCosh  of 
Princeton,  N.J.,  gave  a  definite  direction  to  this 
desire  by  advocating  a  General  Presbyterian  Al- 
liance. In  Scotland  Dr.  W.  G.  Blaikie  was  espe- 
cially active  in  the  same  direction.  In  1873  the 
first  ecclesiastical  action  on  the  subject  was  taken 
by  the  General  Assemblies  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Ireland,  and  of  that  in  the  United 
States  in  simultaneously  appointing  committees 
to  correspond  with  other  churches.  This  led  to 
the  holding  of  a  meeting  in  New  York  (Oct.  G, 
1873)  during  the  sessions  of  the  Sixth  (jeneral 
Conference  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance,  at  which 
a  committee  was  appointed  to  bring  the  matter 
before  the  Presbyterian  churches  throughout  the 
world  and  to  obtain  their  concurrence  and  co- 
operation. This  coranuttee  issued  an  address  in 
which  they  distinctly  stated  that  what  was  pro- 
posed was  not  that  the  churches  "  should  merge 
their  separate  existence  in  one  large  organiza- 
tion; but  that,  retaining  their  self-government. 


they  should  meet  with  the  other  members  of  the 
Presbyterian  family  to  consult  for  tiie  good  of 
the  Church  at  large,  and  for  the  glory  of  God." 
The  proposal  met  with  such  general  approval 
that  in  July,  1875,  a  conference  was  h(dd  at  the 
English  Presbyterian  College  in  London.  At 
this  meeting,  which  lasted  four  days,  and  where 
nearly  one  hundred  delegates,  representing  many 
churches,  attended,  a  constitution  for  the  pro- 
posed Alliance  was  prepared,  from  whose  basis 
we  extract  the  following  :  — 

"1.  This  Alliance  shall  be  known  as  The 
Alliance  of  thk  Refokmed  Churches 
throughout  the  world  holding  the  pres- 
byterian system. 

"  2.  Any  church  organized  on  Presbyterian 
principles,  which  holds  the  supreme  authority  of 
the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
in  matters  of  faith  and  morals,  and  whose  creed 
is  in  harmony  with  the  consensus  of  the  Re- 
formed Churches,  shall  be  eligible  for  admission 
into  the  Alliance." 

It  was  also  proposed  that  there  should  be  a 
triennial  council  of  delegates,  ministers,  and 
elders,  in  equal  numbers,  to  be  appointed  by  the 
different  churches  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  their  congregations;  and  that  this  council, 
while  at  liberty  to  consider  all  matters  of  com- 
mon interest,  should  "not  interfere  with  the 
existing  creed  or  constitution  of  any  church  in 
the  Alliance,  or  with  its  internal  order  or  exter- 
nal relations." 

The  Alliance  which  was  thus  proposed,  was 
one,  not  of  individual  Christians  nor  of  individual 
Presbyterians,  but  of  Presbyterian  churches,  and 
its  constitution  met  with  great  favor.  It  fur- 
nished an  opportunity  for  the  different  church 
organizations  to  come  into  close  fraternal  rela- 
tions with  each  other  while  retaining  their  sepa- 
rate existence  and  independence  ;  while  the  coun- 
cil, it  was  seen,  might  in  some  measure  inform- 
ally do  duty  for  that  "  missing  link  "  of  a  world- 
wide Presbyterian  Church,  a  General  Assembly. 
In  1870,  therefore,  almost  every  Presbyterian 
organization  adopted  the  constitution,  and  ap- 
pointed delegates,  who  —  to  the  number  of  three 
hundred  and  thirty-three,  and  representing  more 
than  forty-nine  separate  churches,  scattered 
through  twenty-five  different  countries,  and  con- 
sisting of  more  than  twenty  thousand  congrega- 
tions—  met  in  Edinburgh,  .July  3-10,  1877,  and 
constituted  the  First  General  Council  of  the 
Reformed  Alliance.  The  session  lasted  eight 
days,  during  which  papers  were  read  and  dis- 
cussed on  The  Harmony  of  the  Reformed  Con- 
fessions ;  The  Fundamental  Principles  of  Pres- 
byterianisra  :  The  Eldership  ;  Co-opei-ation  in 
Mission  Work,  and  such  like. 

The  Second  General  Council,  composed  of 
nearly  three  hundred  delegates,  was  held  in 
Philadelphia,  Sept.  23  to  Oct.  2,  1S80,  and  was 
an  occasion  of  great  interest.  Papers  were  read 
and  discussed  on  many  vital  Christian  doctrines, 
e.g..  Inspiration;  The  Atonement;  Future  Retri- 
bution, —  expressing  on  the  whole  strong  ad- 
herence to  the  old  doctrinal  positions  of  the 
Reformed  Churches,  while  important  movements 
were  initiated  that  look  to  a  unifying  and  sim- 
plifying of  the  Reformed  Creeds,  and  to  co- 
operation   by   the    whole   Reformed   Church  iu 


ALLIANCE. 


64 


ALMONER. 


enterprises  of  a  missionary  and  benevolent  char- 
acter. The  Third  General  Council  was  held  in 
Belfast,  in  lS8i. 

Lit.  — Report  on  Bicentenary  of  the  Westminster 
Asse)7ib!y,  Edin.,  184.3.  Caxdlish  :  Lecture  on 
The  Relations  in  which  the  Churches  of  Christ  ought 
to  stand  to  each  other ;  in  "Principles  of  Union  and 
Mutual  Duties,"  Glasgow,  1845.  Address  to  the 
Churches  of  Christ  organized  on  Preshyterian  prin- 
ciples throughout  the  world,  N.Y.,  1874.  Minutes 
ot  London  Conference,  1875.  Proceedings  of  First 
General  Council,  edited  by  Rev.  J.  Thomson,  Edin- 
burgh, 1877,  small  4to,  pp.  .382.  Proceedings  of 
Second  General  Council,  edited  bv  Rev.  Drs.  John 
B.  Dales  and  R.  U.  Patterson,  Philadelphia,  18S1, 
8vo.,  pp.  11.54.  Minutes  of  Second  (general  Coun- 
cil of  Reformed  Churches,  Philadelphia,  1881 ; 
Minutes  of  Third  Council,  ed.  Mathews,  Belfast, 
1884.  G.  D.  MATHEWS. 

ALLIANCE,  The  Holy,  was  a  league  between 
Alexander  of  Russia,  Francis  I.  of  .\ustria,  and 
Friedrich  Wilhelm  of  Prussia,  for  the  purpose  of 
maintaining  that  peace  and  order  which,  after 
the  fall  of  Napoleon  I.,  the  congress  of  Vienna 
had  succeeded  to  establish.  In  its  original  inten- 
tion the  Holy  Alliance  no  doubt  was  a  Christian 
effort  with  pure  and  lofty  aims,  professing,  as 
it  did,  to  carry  out  the  princi|>les  of  the  gospel 
of  Jesus  Christ  in  all  relations  between  sovereign 
and  subjects,  and  between  sovereigns  and  sove- 
reigns. In  reality,  however,  the  league  became 
a  most  vicious  instrument  of  suppression  and 
re-action.  The  form  of  the  instrument  was  due 
to  .-Vlexander,  who  at  that  period  stood  under 
the  inspiration  of  Madame  Kriidener:  the  use  to 
which  it  was  put  Mas  determined  by  Austrian 
traditions  and  the  character  of  Prince  Metternich. 

ALLIX,  Peter,  b.  at  Alen<;on,  1641;  d.  at 
London,  1717;  w.as  educated  in  the  Reformed 
theological  seminary  of  Sedan  ;  was  minister  at 
.St.  Agobille,  Champagne,  and  afterwards  at 
Charenton,  but  left  France  on  the  revocation  of 
the  Edict  of  Nantes  and  went  to  London,  where 
James  II.  allowed  him  to  establish  a  French 
church  for  the  numerous  French  fugitives.  He 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  both  from  Oxford 
and  Cambridge,  and  in  l(ii)0  he  was  made  canon 
at  Salisbury.  His  numerous  writings,  in  French, 
Latin,  and  English,  are  mostly  polemical  or 
apologetical.  By  his  two  works.  Same  Rcmar/cs 
upon  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  the  ancient  churches 
of  Piedmont,  London,  1G!)0,  and,  RemarLs  vpon 
the  ecclesitusticid  history  of  the  ancient  churches  of 
the  Albigenses,  London,  l<if)2,  written  against  Bos- 
suet,  in  order  to  show  that  the  Albigenses  were 
not  dualists,  but  identical  with  the  U'aldenses, 
he  contributed  much  to  uphold  tliis  wrong  view. 
A  comjilete  list  of  his  works  is  found  in 
Haag  :    La  Franc,  proleslante.  IIERZOO. 

ALLOCUTION,  a  diplomatinal  term,  denoting 
an  address  from  the  pope  to  tlie  assembled  Col- 
lege of  Cardinals,  (ieherally  these  addresses 
treat  of  the  relations  between  the  Roman  .See 
and  foreign  governments;  but,  more  especially, 
they  are  u.sed  as  a  means  to  explain  the  papal 

{lolicy  in  cases  in  which  the  pope  will  not  allow 
lis  action  to  be  used  as  a  precedent.  Thus  the 
allocution  is,  in  reality,  often  a  reservation,  a 
protest. 

ALL-SAINTS'-DAY.    From  Chrysostom, //om., 


74,  it  appe.ars  that  as  early  as  the  fourth  century 
a  festival  was  celebrated  by  the  Eastern  Church 
in  honor  of  all  the  saints  on  the  Sunday  after 
Whitsuntide,  which,  consequently,  was  called 
"  All-Saints'  Sunday."  In  the  Western  Church 
such  a  festival  was  not  known  until  later  on. 
When,  under  Pope  Boniface  IV.,  608-61.5,  the 
Pantheon  was  fitted  up  for  Christian  worship,  it 
was  dedicated  to  the  Virgin  and  all  the  saints; 
and  its  day  of  dedication.  May  13,  was  annually 
celebrated  as  a  festival  for  the  saints,  .\nother 
Festivitas  Satictorum,  mentioned  by  Ado,  Marty- 
rol.  AijuUej.  ad  Kal.  Novemh.,  originated  from  the 
consecration  by  Pope  Gregory  III.  of  a  church 
In  honorem  omnium  Sanctorum ;  its  day  fell  on 
Nov.  1.  In  835,  Pope  Gregory  IV.  induced  the 
Emperor  Lewis  to  introduce  an  all-saints'  festi- 
val in  the  Prankish  Church  to  be  celebrated  on 
Nov.  1.  In  England  the  festival  was  introduced 
somewhat  later,  about  870,  and  usually  called 
Allhallowmas.  In  the  Anglican  Church  it  is 
still  celebrated,  while  in  most  other  Reformed 
churches  it  lias  fallen  into  disuse.  n.  ALT. 

ALL-SOULS'  DAY,  the  day  following  All- 
Saints'  Day,  Nov.  2,  is  by  the  Roman  Church 
consecrated  to  the  memory  of  the  dead  and  to 
prayer  for  the  souls  suffering  in  purgatory ;  but 
its  celebration  is  a  custom  which  has  become 
genei"al,  rather  than  a  definite  institution.  Since 
the  days  of  Gregory  the  Great  (d.  604),  when 
the  doctrine  of  purgatory  became  generally  ac- 
cepted, it  was  considered  a  sacred  duty  for  all 
Christians  to  piray  for  the  dead;  .and  an  incident 
contributed  to  mould  this  general  duty  into  a 
fixed  form.  .\  pilgrim  returning  from  Jerusa- 
lem reported  that,  on  approaching  Sicily,  he  had 
seen  flames  from  purgatory  bursting  through  the 
eartli,  and  heard  the  wailings  of  the  sutfering 
souls.  They  implored  him  to  go  to  the  JMonas- 
tery  of  Clugny,  and  beg  the  monks  to  have 
mercy  on  their  woes,  and  by  prayers  and  alms 
free  them  ovit  of  purgatory.  From  this  time, 
098,  the  pious  abbot  of  Clugny,  Odilo,  considered 
it  a  duty  for  his  monastery  to  celebr.ite  every 
year  the  day  after  All-Saints'  D.ay  in  commemo- 
ration of  all  deceased  believers,  which  example 
soon  spread  to  other  monasteries.  n.  -\lt. 

ALMAIN,  Jacques,  b.  at  Sens;  d.  in  1515;  as 
prob'ssor  of  tlieology  in  the  college  of  Navarre, 
drew  up  tlie  reply  of  the  faculty  to  the  work  of 
Cajetan  on  tlie  superiority  of  the  pope  to  a  gen- 
eral council,  and  wrote  De  Auctoritale  Eccleslce, 
etc.,  Paris,  1512;  De  Potestate  Ecclesiastica,  etc., 
Paris,  1517;  and  Moralla,  Paris,  1525. 

ALMEIDA,  Emmanuel,  b.  at  Viseu,  Portugal, 
1580;  d.  at  (Ina.  lliKi;  entered  the  Order  of  the 
■Jesuits,  and  worked  for  ten  ye.ars  as  a  missionary 
among  the  Ethio|iiaiis.  Besides  his  Historical 
I.cllcrs,  Rome,  162!),  against  Urreba,  he  left  mate- 
rials for  the  Filiid/iian  lllslory,  edited  by  Bai.tha- 
.SAU  Tf.mj.i:,  Ciiiiiibra,  1660. 

ALMERICIANS.     See  Amai.ric  of  Bena. 

ALMONER  {aumOnier,  elecmnsynarius),  an  offi- 
cer among  tlie  court  clergy  ;  occurs  at  the  Freindi 
court  from  the  thirteentli  century,  and  was  origi- 
nally employed  to  distribute  the  king's  alms. 
Later  on  there  were  several  almoners,  and  from 
the  fifteenth  century  a  grand  almoner  is  men- 
tioneil.  He  stood  at  the  he.ail  of  the  whole  court 
clergy,  made  propositions  for  the  appuintnients 


ALMS. 


65 


ALSTED. 


to  bishoprics  and  other  beneficps,  aiul  pxcrciseil  a 
considerable  influence.  In  tlie  Revohition  th<' 
office  was  abolished.  In  England  the  duty  of 
the  hereditary  grand  almoner  consists  in  distrib- 
uting the  coronation  medals  among  the  specta- 
tors;  and  that  of  the  lord  high  almoner,  in  dis- 
tributing twice  a  year  the  Queen's  bounty,  that 
is,  as  many  silver  pennies  as  the  Queen  has  years 
of  age. 

ALMS  (from  klurjixonivr],  mercifulness).  To  give 
alms  was  a  duty  laid  upon  the  Jews,  who  were 
also  required  to  leave  gleanings  in  the  fields  tluit 
the  poor  might  be  fed  (Lev.  xix.  !),  10,  xxiii.  '22  ; 
Deut.  XV.  11,  xxiv.  19,  xxvi.  2-13;  Kuth  ii.  2). 
Every  third  year  a  tithe  of  the  entire  increase 
was  to  be  divided  among  the  Levite,  the  stran- 
ger, and  the  fatherless  and  the  widow  (Deut.  xiv. 
28,  29).  Alms-giving  was  part  of  'the  Pharisaic 
practice,  "  to  be  seen  of  men  "  (Matt.  vi.  2).  In 
the  temple  there  were  thirteen  boxes  for  this 
purpose  (John  viii.  20).  The  idea  that  there  is 
merit  in  alms  per  se,  has  been  always  fruitful  of 
ill.  Men  think  by  them  to  purchase  salvation  ; 
but  God  asks,  what  is  the  motive?  not,  what  is 
the  amount?  (2  Cor.  viii.  12.)  The  widow's  two 
mites  were  more  precious  than  the  rich  men's 
princely  gifts.  Alms-giving  was  early  recog- 
nized as  a  condition  of  piety,  and  as  a  "  funda- 
mental law  of  Christian  morality ;  "  for  unless 
there  be  benevolence,  there  can  be  no  spiritual 
life ;  and  mention  is  made  in  the  Acts  of  collec- 
tions for  the  poor  as  a  bond  of  Christian  unity 
(Acts  xi.  29;  Ilom.  xii.  13;  Eph.  iv.  28;  1  Tim. 
vi.  18;  Heb.  xiii.  16;  1  John  iii.  17).  It  was  the 
exhortation  of  the  pillar  aposfles  (Gal.  ii.  10), 
and  a  special  care  of  Paul  (1  Cor.  xvi.  1).  Fre- 
quent are  the  exhoi'tations  of  the  fathers;  and  it 
became  an  integral  part  of  the  Church  worship. 
The  money  went,  before  the  fifth  centurj',  into 
the  hand  of  the  bishop,  and  was  distributed  by 
the  deacons.  But  in  the  Western  Church  in  the 
fifth  century  there  was  a  fourfold  division  of 
them:  1,  for  the  bishop;  2,  for  the  clergy;  3,  for 
the  poor;  4,  for  the  fabric  and  sustenation  of  the 
churches.     See  Almoner. 

•  ALOGI,  or  ALOCIANS,  i^ojoi,  a  branch  of  the 
Monarchians,  flourished  in  Asia  Minor,  and  re- 
ceived, according  to  Epiphanius,  Hoeres.  51,  3, 
their  name  from  the  fact  that  they  denied  the 
existence  of  the  Logos,  taught  by  St.  John,  and 
rejected  both  St.  John's  Gospel  and  probably 
also  the  Revelation.  Theodotus  the  currier, 
who  about  200  was  excommunicated  by  the  llo- 
man  bishop,  belonged  to  this  sect,  according  to 
Epiphanius.  54,  1.  heezog. 

ALOMBRADOS,  llluminati,  Ilhimiiies,  a  mystic 
sect,  which  originated  in  Spain  in  the  lirst  part 
of  the  sixteenth  eejitury,  and  appeared  at  the 
same  time  in  the  vicinity  of  Cordova  and  in 
Castile.  The  Inquisition,  however,  was  prompt 
in  its  action.  Among  those  suspected  was  Ig- 
natius Loyola:  twice  he  was  called  before  the 
Inquisition  and  imprisoned.  Also  Juan  d'Avila, 
Luis  de  Granada,  Francis  de  Borgia,  and  others 
among  the  Spanish  theologians,  were  examined. 
(Cf.  McCrie,  Ilislori/  of  the  Reformation  in  Spain.) 
■The  doctrines  of  the  Alombrados,  such  as  they 
are  represented  in  the  acts  of  the  Inquisition,  re- 
mind one  sometimes  of  the  Quakers  on  the  one 
side,  and  on  the  other  of  the  German  Anabaptists 
6-1 


Miinzer,  Schwenkfeld,  etc.  A  report  of  Jan  28, 
1558,  summarizes  them  in  the  following  manner  : 
I.  Only  the  inward  prayer  is  commanded  by  God 
and  meritorious,  while  the  external  praying  with 
tlie  lips  is  a  merely  symbolical  or  sacramental 
action  without  any  religious  worth.  11.  The 
confessor  w)io  recommends  such  external,  bodily 
exercises,  shall  not  be  obeyed.  III.  'J'he  true 
servant  of  God  is  above  practices  of  this  kind, 
nor  is  it  necessary  for  him  to  do  good  works  in 
the  common  sense  of  the  word.  IV.  The  violent 
movements,  cramps,  and  faintings  which  accom- 
pany the  inner  devotion,  are  token  of  divine 
love  and  the  grace  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  V.  In 
the  state  of  perfection  the  secret  of  the  Holy 
Trinity  is  revealed  to  us,  even  while  here  on 
earth,  and  all  which  we  shall  do  or  not  do  is 
communicated  to  us  directly  by  the  Holy  Spirit, 
etc.  (Llorente  :  History  of  tlie  Inquisition).  X  still 
more  complete  record  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
Alombrados  is  found  with  Malvasia:  Ciitolorjus 
omnium  liceresium  et  eonriliorum,  Rome,  1001,  Cen- 
tur.  XVI.,  pp.  269-274,  from  which  it  appears 
that  they  entertained  antinomian  maxims  of  a 
very  doubtful  character.  This  was  more  espe- 
cially the  case  with  a  branch  of  the  Alombrados 
discovered  in  1575  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cordo- 
va, and  founded  by  the  Carmelin  nun,  Caterina 
de  Jesus,  and  a  certain  Juan  de  Willelpando,  from 
Teneriffa;  and  with  another  branch  flourishing 
about  1023  in  the  dioceses  of  Sevilla  and  Grana- 
da. Both  these  sects  were  suppressed  with  great 
severity  by  the  Inquisition,  and  many  of  their 
members  perished  at  the  stake.  Closely  allied  to 
the  Spanish  Alombrados.  and  different  from  the 
German  llluminati  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
were  the  Illumines  of  Northern  France  ;  the  sect 
was  founded  in  1034  in  Flanders  and  Piccardy 
by  Antoine  Bocquet  and  Abbe  Guerin,  pastor  of 
St.  George  de  Roye.  after  the  latter  of  whom  it 
was  often  called  Gnerinets.  Another  sect  of 
French  Illumines  flourished  in  Soutliern  France 
in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
They  seem  to  have  adopted  several  Masonic  ele- 
ments, and  formed  a  transition  from  the  Alom- 
brados to  the  llluminati.  See  J.  H.  Blu.vt: 
Dictionary  of  Heresies,  etc.,  London,  1874  ;  Heppe: 
Geschichle  tier  quietistisclien  Hhjstik  in  iler  Kalho- 
lischen  Kirche,  Berlin,  1875.  ZUCKLER. 

ALOYSIUS  OF  GONZAGA,  b.  at  Gonzaga 
near  Mantua  in  1508;  d.  in  Rome  in  1591;  be- 
longed to  the  princely  family  of  Castiglione; 
distinguished  from  early  youth  by  his  piety  and 
strong  ascetic  leaning,  he  became  a  Jesuit  in 
1587.  He  died  by  the  plague,  sacrificing  himself 
in  order  to  alleviate  the  sufferings  of  the  poor. 
He  was  canonized  by  Benedict  XIII.  in  1720. 
and  is  commemorated  in  the  Roman  Church  on 
June  21.  HERZOO 

ALPHONSUS  MARIA  DE  LIGUORI.      SeeLi- 

GUOUI. 

ALSTED,  Johann  Heinrich,  b.  in  1588;  d.  iu 
1638;  was  professor  of  philosophy  and  theology  at 
Herborn ;  represented  the  Reformed  Church  of 
Nassau  at  the  synod  of  Dortrecht  (Dort),  1018, 
and  became  afterwards  professor  of  philosophy 
and  theology  at  Weissenburg,  in  Transylvania. 
He  was  a  very  prolific  writer,  and  his  works  give 
a  striking  idea  of  the  literary  and  scientific  meth- 
ods of  his  age.     The  most  remarkable  are  his  two 


ALTAR. 


66 


ALTAR. 


great  cyclopedias:  (1)  Cur.^ii-:  pjtilosnphici  Ency- 
cloptedia,  Herborn,  1G20.  o£  which  one  volume,  con- 
sisting of  3,072  quarto  pages,  comprises,  I.  (/ho- 
tuor  pr(BCo;/n(la  pfiilo.ioji/iica:  archetogia,  herllii(/la, 
technolof/ia,  didactka  ;  II.  unilccim  fcicnlUe  philos. 
theoreticm ;  metaphtj^icu,  pneitmatica,  phjsica,  arilh- 
metica,  geomelria,  coamographia,  ura?ioscopia ,  geo- 
(/rapJiia,  optica,  tnunica,  architeclonica ;  III.  qu'mque 
pnulentke  pkiloa.  praclk-m;  elJika,  crconomkce,  po- 
litka,  scho/asdca,  hislorku  ;  the  other  comprises 
"  the  seven  liberal  arts : "  (2)  Enci/clopteilia  stplem 
toink  dktincia,  Herborn,  1630,  containing,  I.  (jua- 
tuor  pracognha  dkciplhiarum ;  II.  philologia,  i.e., 
lexka,  grammalka,  rhetorka,  lugka,  oraturia,  pvet- 
ka;  111.  philo.iophki  iheoretka;  YV.practka;  V. 
tres  facullates  principes:  theolnyki,  Jiirk-prudenlia, 
medkiita ;  VI.  arte!!  mechankce ,  VII.  miscellane- 
ous :  one  section  is  entitled  tahacnlogla,  or  the 
'•  doctrine  "  of  the  use  and  abuse  of  tobacco.  The 
various  theological  disciplines  he  treated  in  sep- 
arate works  :  Theologia  scholastka  didactka,  Ilan. 
1618;  Theologia  pokmka,  1620;  Theologia  casuiim, 
1621;  Theologia  prophetica,  Theologia  moi'alis,  etc. 
He  also  wrote  a  Tractatus  de  mille  annis,  iu  which 
he  fixes  the  beginning  of  the  millennium  at 
1694,  and  a  great  work,  De  maiiducaliune  spirituali, 
etc.  "  ALEX.  SCUWEIZEK. 

ALTAR,  Hebrew.  The  fir.st  altar  was  probably 
no  more  than  a  heap  of  stones,  or  mound  of 
earth ;  similarly  the  altar  which  Moses  was  com- 
manded to  build  was  to  be  made  either  of  earth 
or  stone ;  in  the  latter  case  it  was  expressly  re- 
quired to  be  rough,  the  use  of  a  tool  being 
regarded  as  polluting  (Exod.  xx.  24,  25).  In 
tlie  Jewish  worship  two  altars  were  used.  1. 
The  altar  of  burnt  offering,  or  the  brazen  altar, 
which  was  seven  feet  and  six  inches  square,  and 
four  feet  and  six  inches  high,  and  stood  directly 
in  front  of  the  principal  entrance  of  the  Taber- 
nacle. The  casing  was  of  shittim-wood  overlaid 
with  brass ;  the  interior  was  hollow,  and,  when 
the  tabernacle  was  stationary,  this  interior  was 
probably  tilled  up  with  earth  or  stones,  upon 
which  the  victim  was  laid.  At  each  corner  there 
was  a  wooden  projection  covered  with  brass, 
called  a  "horn."  The  altar  was  required  to  be 
without  steps  (Exod.  xx.  26),  and  was  probably 
approached  by  an  inclined  plane  of  earth.  The 
altar  is  described  in  Exod.  xxvii.  In  the  first 
temple  the  altar  was  of  the  same  proportion.s,  and 
occupied  the  same  relative  position,  but  it  was 
much  larger,  being  thirty  feet  square,  and  fifteen 
feet  high.  It  was  made  entirely  of  brass  plates, 
which  covered  a  structure  of  earth  or  stone 
(2  Chron.  iv.  1).  In  the  third  temple  it  was 
still  larger,  and  more  beautiful.  2.  The  altar 
of  incense,  or  the  golden  altar,  of  the  same  wood, 
but  overlaid  with  plates  of  pure  gold,  with  a 
border  of  gold  above,  stood  within  the  holy 
place,  "  before  the  vail  that  is  by  the  ark  of  the 
testimony  "  (Exod.  XXX.  6,  Ix.  .'3).  It  was  eigh- 
teen inches  square  and  three  feet  high.  Upon 
lliis  altar  incense  was  binriiMl  every  morning  and 
evening.  In  the  first  temple  it  was  maile  of 
cedar,  overlaid  with  gold.  Only  incense  might 
be  put  upon  it,  yet  on  the  Day  of  Atonement 
it  was  stamed  by  blood  (Lev.  xvi.  18,  ID).  The 
altar  of  incense  is  the  only  altar  in  heaven 
(Rev.  viii.  3,  1). 

Christian.     The  New  Testami'ut  has  a  double 


designation  for  the  Christian's  altar,  namely 
dvaiaaTTipiov,  from  Svelv,  "to  sacrifice,"  trans 
lated  "the  altar"  (Heb.  xiii.  10),  and  rpiiTre^a 
Kvpiov,  translated  literally  "  the  Lord's  table " 
(1  Cor.  X.  21),  of  which  the  first  one  is  also 
applied  to  the  Jewish  altar  of  burnt-offerings  iu 
the  Septuagint  and  the  Gospels  (Matt.  v.  23,  24; 
Luke  i.  11).  Both  names  were  afterwards  used 
promiscuously  by  the  Greek  Fathers  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  other  designations,  such  as  i3u/i6(  and 
loxdpa,  which  were  applied  to  the  heathen  al- 
tars only.  The  Latin  Fathers  use  ara  and  altare, 
and  later  on  altarium,  without  making  any  such 
distinction. 

The  Christian  altar  combined  from  a  very 
early  date  two  ideas  or  offices  together,  —  that  of 
the  celebration  of  the  eucharist,  and  that  of  the 
worship  of  the  martyrs.  When,  during  the  time 
of  the  persecutions,  the  eucharist  was  celebrated 
in  the  subterraneous  cemeteries,  the  catacombs, 
the  celebration  took  place  on  the  slab  covering 
the  martyr's  tomb,  which  tomb  stood  under  an 
arch  hewn  into  the  living  rock,  the  arcosolium, 
that  is,  the  grave  of  the  martyr  served  as  an 
altar.  Afterwards,  when  churches  were  built  in 
the  cemeteries,  but  above  ground,  the  altar  was 
placed  just  above  the  martyr's  tomb,  and  an 
aperture  was  made  so  that  the  tomb  could  be 
seen.  Still  later,  when  churches  were  built  also 
outside  the  cemeteries,  the  martyr's  bones  were 
transferred  to  the  new  place,  and  entombed  or 
enshrined  under  the  altar.  This  custom  of  the 
Church  was  by  Felix  I.,  269-274,  made  a  law  in 
the  Church,  and  spread  throughout  all  AVestern 
countries,  so  that  the  martyr's  tomb,  the  martij- 
riinn,  cimfessio,  testimonium,  memoria,  became  a 
part  of  the  altar  itself.  And  so  it  is  still  in  the 
Roman  Church  up  to  this  very  day.  No  altar 
can  be  raised  without  relics ;  and  when  a  new 
church  is  consecrated,  the  consecralio  altaris,  the 
incluxio  of  the  relics  of  the  patron-saint  of  the 
building  in  the  sejtulcru7n,  is  the  principal  point 
of  the  ceremony. 

In  the  combination  of  these  two  olhces,  the 
construction,  position,  and  ornamentation  of  the 
Christian  altar  find  their  explanatiou.  The 
structure  itself  had  the  form  either  of  a  table 
or  of  a  sarcophagus,  and  was  first  made  of 
wood,  afterwards  of  stone,  but  always  highly 
ornamented,  inlaid  with  gold,  silver,  pearls,  and 
jirecious  stones,  or  covered  with  cloths  of  velvet 
and  silk,  vestimenta  altaris,  costly  embroidered, 
over  which  was  spread,  at  the  celebration  of  the 
eucharist,  a  fine  white  linen  cloth,  yj((//(i  or  palUi 
rorporalis  or  eorporale,  symbolizing  the  winding- 
sheet  of  Christ.  Over  the  altar,  and  at  times 
hiding  it  away  from  sight,  rose  the  ciborium  on 
four  colunms,  between  co.stly  embroidered  cur- 
tains. From  the  ninth  century  it  became  cus- 
tomary to  place  the  shrine  with  the  relics  of  the 
saint  on  tlie  top  of  the  altar,  and  as  a  decoration 
around  this  shrine  developed  the  altar-pi(!ce  with 
its  wings,  the  retabulum.  Later  on,  the  shrine  or 
reliquary  was  again  placed  under  or  in  the  al- 
tar, out  the  altar-pii'ce  was  still  retained,  and  in 
the  period  when  Gothic  art  stood  at  its  highest, 
when  wood-carving  was  carried  to  jnufection, 
and  painting  in  oils  ncnvly  invented,  these  altar- 
pieces  were  ofteu  wonderful  works  of  art. 
Among   the   other  accessories  of   the  altar,  the 


ALTAR. 


67 


ALYPIUS. 


lights  were  not  introducoil  until  the  twelfth 
century,  and  the  vases  with  flowers  still  later. 
In  the  middle  of  the  ninth,  I^eo  IV.  decreed: 
Super  altiirc  riiliU  ponotur  nisi  cnpxa  et  reliipiiie 
Sanctorum  nut  forte  quatuor  Evamjelin  al  buxida 
cum  corpore  Domini  ad  viaticum  infirmorum  ("  on 
the  altar  nothing  niight  be  lawfidly  placed  ex- 
cept the  slirine  containing  relics,  or  perchance 
the  codex  of  the  Gospels,  and  the  pyx  or  taber- 
nacle in  which  the  Lord's  body  was  reserved  for 
the  last  sacrament  of  the  sick  ",  [Migne,  Patrol. 
cxv.  077]).  Even  the  crucifix  was  not  placed  on 
the  altar,  but  suspended  above  it. 

Originally  there  was  only  one  altar  in  each 
•church,  placed  in  the  apsis  which  terminated  the 
middle  nave,  and  consecrated  to  the  patron-saint 
of  the  building;  but  just  the  circumstance  that 
the  altar  was  connected  with  the  worship  of  mar- 
tyrs and  saints  gave  rise  to  the  introduction  of 
several  altars  in  the  same  church.  In  the  Apos- 
tolic Constitutions  the  establishment  of  a  new- 
altar  means  the  separation  from  the  old  bishop; 
for  as  yet  the  one  altar  bound  the  bishop  and  the 
•congregation  together  into  one  body,  by  one  faith. 
But,  as  other  relies  than  those  of  the  patron-saint 
•were  introduced  into  a  church,  special  altars 
were  raised  and  consecrated  to  them ;  and  at  these 
altars  private  mass  was  said  at  special  occasions. 
Thus  Paulinus,  from  Nola,  described  the  church 
of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  erected  by  Constantine  in 
Jerusalem,  as  rich  in  "golden  altars;  "  and  Am- 
brose mentions  several  altars  in  the  church  of 
Milan.  Also  the  portable  altar,  ara  ijeslatoria, 
porlatilia,  motoria,  viatica,  itineraria,  etc.,  was  an 
outgrowth  from  the  altar's  office  in  tlie  worshi]*  of 
saints.  As  mass  could  not  be  said  at  an  altar  not 
•consecrated,  and  no  altar  could  be  consecrated 
without  enclosing  some  relic,  princes  on  their 
campaigns,  missionaries  on  their  voyages,  high 
ecclesiastics,  when  travelling,  carried  with  them 
a  portable  altar,  a  box  of  wood  or  metal,  costly 
ornamented,  and  containing  the  relic,  the  hostie, 
and  the  communion  cup. 

It  was,  therefore,  quite  natural  thr.t  the  Ref- 
ormation should  take  offence  at  the  plurality 
of  altars  in  the  same  church,  as  it  completely 
abolished  that  part  of  the  altar's  office  which 
.stood  in  connection  with  the  worship  of  saints. 
Wherever  the  Reformation  became  victorious,  all 
the  by-altars  were  generally  broken  down ;  and 
wiien  in  some  cases,  as  for  instance  in  the  Church 
of  St.  Laurentius,  in  Nuremberg,  they  were  left 
standing,  they  were  bereft  of  all  liturgical  signi- 
fication, and  remained  only  as  monuments.  In 
Lutheran  churches  the  chief  altar  was  generally 
retained  nearly  iu  its  original  .shape ;  the  reli- 
quary disappeared,  but  the  altai'-piece,  the  retalnt- 
tum,  I'emained.  The  Reformed  churches  generally 
went  more  radically  to  work.  In  Switzerland 
the  altar  was  replaced  by  a  plain  communion- 
table ;  and  in  Holland  and  Scotland  even  this 
communion-table  was  not  tolerated  except  when 
communion  was  actually  celebrated. 

Lit. — L.\IB  and  Schw^artz:  Studien  iiher  die 
Geschichte  des  clirisd.  Altars,  Stuttgart,  18.57;  A. 
Sciimid;  Der  christt.  Altar  und  sein  Sch7nuck, 
Regensburg,  1871 ;  C.\HIEU  :  Nouuelles  Melanyes 
d'Archeoioijie,  Paris,  1875;  [and  the  article  Altar 
in  Smith  and  Cheetiiam:  Diet,  of  Christ.  Anti- 
fjuilie.tl.  M.  MKUUKK. 


ALTHAMER,  Andreas,  1>.  about  l.")00  in  Brenz, 
A\'urtenilH'ig ;  stu'lied  in  1518-1!)  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Tul>ingen  and  Leipzig;  was  a  te.acherin 
Hall,  Suabia,  in  lolil,  and  became  minister  iu 
Gmiind  in  1524.  On  account  of  the  feasant 
War  he  fled  from  Southern  Germany,  and  came 
in  1.525  to  Wittenberg.  Here  he  very  soon  be- 
came a  disciple  of  the  Reformers,  attacking  the 
Romanists  in  his  Annotatiotics  in  Jncohi  1-lpistolam, 
1517,  etc.,  and  defending  Luther  in  his  De  Sao 
ramento  Altaris,  etc.  He  also  assisted  at  the  con- 
ferences of  Berne  in  1528.  In  1.520  he  returned 
to  the  South  as  minister  in  Eltersdorf;  in  1527 
he  became  deacon  to  St.  Sebaldus  in  Nuremberg, 
and  in  1528  minister  in  Ansbach.  About  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  nothing  certain  is  known. 
A  biography  of  him,  containing  several  of  his 
letters,  was  written  by  J.  A.  Ballenstadius,  Wolf- 
enbiittel,  1740. 

ALTINC,  (1)  Johann  Heinrich,  b.  at  Emden, 
Friesland,  Feb.  17,  1583;  d.  at  (jroeningen,  Aug. 
25,  1044;  studied  at  Groeniiigen  and  at  Herborn 
under  Piscator ;  travelled  much;  became  in  1008 
tutor  to  the  Prince  Palatine  whom  he  accompa- 
nied to  Sedan  and  to  England,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  dogmatics  at  Heidelberg  (Loci  com- 
munes) in  1013,  and  in  1610  director  of  the  semi- 
nary in  Collerjium  Sapientice.  After  the  capture  of 
Heidelberg  in  1022  by  Tilly,  he  fled  to  Holland, 
where  in  1627  he  was  made  professor  of  theology 
iu  Groeningen.  He  published  nothing  during 
his  lifetime,  but  after  his  death  his  works  were 
published  by  his  son  :  Eieijesis  Auijnstanae  Confes- 
sionU,  Amsterdam,  1652  ;  Script.  Heidelherijens, 
three  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1062,  containing,  I.  Locos 
Communes ;  II.  Prolilcmata  llieolo</ica :  HI.  Ex- 
plicatio  Catecheseos  Palatinas :  Tlieoloi/ia  /listoricir, 
Amsterdam,  1064.  —  (2)  His  son,  Jacob  Alting-, 
b.  at  Heidelberg,  Dec.  27,  1018;  d.  at  Groeningen, 
Aug.  20,  1679;  studied  Oriental  languages,  an^l 
succeeded  Gomarus  as  professor  in  Hebrew  at 
Groeningen,  1667.  His  works  on  Hebrew  lau 
guage  and  literature  were  published  at  Amster- 
dam in  1687,  in  five  folio  volumes,  by  Balthazev 
Becker. 

ALYPIUS,  Saint,  b.  at  Tagaste,  Nuniidia;  was 
a  pupil  and  friend  of  Augustine,  with  whom  he 
went  to  Rome  to  study  law.  For  some  time  he 
held  a  position  in  the  imperial  treasury;  but  iu 
385  he  went  with  Augustine  to  Milan,  was  con- 
verted from  Manichfeism  to  the  Catholic  faith, 
and  baptized  by  Ambrose  on  Easter-eve,  387. 
After  returning  to  Africa,  the  two  friends  settled 
near  Tagaste,  and  lived  in  seclusion  until  391, 
when  Augustine  was  chosen  priest  by  the  people 
of  Hippo.  Shortly  after  Alypius  took  charge  of 
a  monaster}'  in  Hippo,  and  in  394  he  was  elected 
bishop  of  Tagaste.  He  was  present  at  the  coun- 
cil of  Carthage,  403  (see  U().\.\tists),  and  was 
one  of  the  six  Catholic  representatives  in  the 
great  conference  convened  by  Ilonorius.  When 
Augustine  died  in  430,  he  was  still  living,  but 
nothing  is  known  about  the  last  days  of  his  life. 
He  is  commemorated  by  the  Roman  Church  on 
Aug.  15.  See  Augustine,  Con/essiun.  VI.,  7,  8, 
9,  10,  12;  IX.,  6  ;  and  Epist.,  22,  28,  188,  201; 
Buti.eu:  Lives  of  Saints,  Aug.  15. 

There  is  another  St.  Alypius,  the  Stylite,  com- 
memorated by  the  Greek  Church  on  Nov.  26. 
lie  was  boru  in  Adriauople  iu  the  middle  of  the 


ALZOG. 


68 


AMALEKITES. 


sixth  century ;  and,  in  imitation  of  Simeon  the 
Stylite,  he  ascended  a  pillar,  and  remained 
standing  on  its  top  daring  more  than  fifty  years. 

ALZOC,  Johann  Baptist,  an  eminent  Roman- 
Catholic  cliurcli  liistorian,  b.  at  Ohlau  in  Silesia, 
.Tune  29,  1808;  d.  at  Freiburg,  Germany,  March 
1,  1878;  educated  at  Brieg,  Mreslau,  and  Bonn, 
from  1830-33,  he  was  a  private  tutor  at  Aachen  ; 
and  on  July  4,  1834,  he  was  ordained  a  priest  at 
Cologne  ;  in  the  next  year  he  received  from  the 
IMiinster  Academy,  as  the  result  of  a  public  dis- 
putation, the  degree  of  Doctor  in  Theology ;  his 
thesis  was  on  the  principles  of  Roman-Catholic 
exegesis  (^Explicatio  Ciilholkorum  Sijslemalix  ite 
Interprelalionc  Litterarum  Sucrarum,  IMonasterii, 
1835).  Immediately  thereafter  he  was  chosen 
]irofessor  of  church  history  and  exegesis  in  the 
Theological  Seminary  in  Posen,  w-here  he  re- 
mained until  1844.  During  this  time  he  materi- 
ally aided  his  archbishopi,  Martin  von  Dunin,  in 
the  fight  against  the  mixed  marriages,  and  pub- 
li.shetl  hi.s  Handbuch  tier  Univerxal-Kirchenfjeschichle 
(Mainz,  1841).  In  1844  he  was  called  to  a 
.similar  position  at  Hildesheim ;  but  at  length 
his  great  desire  to  be  a  professor  in  a  university 
wa.s  gi-atified  by  his  call  to  Freiburg  in  1853. 
From  then  until  his  death  he  led  the  quiet, 
active,  useful  life  of  a  scholar.  Nor  was  he 
without  recognition  by  the  secular  authorities 
in  the  way  of  titles  and  medals;  but  what  he  val- 
ued most  highly  was  the  confidence  manifested 
in  him  by  his  peers.  In  18C4  he  attended  the 
memorable  congress  of  Roman-Catholic  scholars 
held  at  Munich  ;  and  in  18G9  he  was  summoned 
by  the  Pope  to  Rome  to  take  part  in  the  prepara- 
tion for  the  Vatican  Council.  He  died  of  apo- 
plexy. 

Alzog  was  not  only  respected  by  Roman  Catho- 
lics, but  also  by  Protestants.  He  was  no  narrow 
l>artisan,  but  a  broad-minded  student  of  history. 
Accordingly  his  works  are  deservedly  popular  in 
the  best  sense.  In  his  Maniiiil  of  General  Clmrch 
Ili.tlori/,  the  tenth  edition  of  which  appeared  in 
1882.  he  endeavored  to  do  for  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics what  Hase  did  for  the  Protestants,  —  present 
a  brief  yet  full,  readable,  and  reliable  church  his- 
tory. It  has  been  translated  into  French,  Span- 
ish, Italian.  Portuguese,  Bohnmian,  Polish,  Arme- 
nian, finally  into  English  by  Messrs.  Pabish  and 
Byrne,  Cincinnati,  1874,  sqq.,  3  vols.  But  the 
English  translation  skilfully  removes  the  manly 
candor  of  Alzog,  and  turns  him  into  the  conven- 
tional Roman-Catholic  apologist  who  sees  no  good 
in  Protestantism  and  no  bad  in  Romanism. 
The  unfairness  of  this  may  be  judged  by  the 
following  extracts  of  a  letter  of  Dr.  Alzog,  dated 
Freiburg,  Sept.  15,  1868,  to  his  Protestant  fellow- 
historian.  Dr.  Schaff :  "  The  correspondence  with 
a  colleague  of  the  Protestant  Church  of  such 
excellent  .spirit  is  to  me  of  inestimable  value. 
I  shall  soon  give  expression  to  my  joy  and  grati- 
tude by  sending  you  a  copy  of  the  latest  edition 
III  my  Cnm/jeiiil  of  Churcit  Ilislori/.  anil  of  my 
Oralio  (ipoloijelicn  ih  fwja  of  Gregory  Nazianzen, 
now  in  the  pre.ss.  lour  interesting  and  valu- 
al.)le  communications  from  America  give  me  new 
ligiit,  and  induce  me  hereafter  to  pay  greater 
attention  to  tiiis  part  of  cliurcli  history,  availing 
myself  of  your  suggestions,"  etc. 

Alzog  wrote  also  Dun  katlwUnche  Gebtt-GefoiKj- 


und  Betrachtungshuch,  Mainz,  1849  ;  Handbuch  der 
Pairologie,  Freiburg  im  Breisgau,  1866,  3d  ed. 
1876 ;  Grundrks  der  universal  Kirchengeschtchle, 
Mainz,  1868  (an  abridgment  of  his  larger  work); 
besides  many  special  treatises. 

See  F.  X.  Kraus  :  Geddchtnixsrede  auf  Johannes 
Alzog.     2d  ed.,  Freiburg  im  Breisgau,  1879. 

AMALARIUS,  deacon  and  then  priest  in  Metz, 
and  afterwards  abbot  of  Hornbuch,  near  Metz  ; 
d.  in  837 ;  wrote  about  820  a  book.  De  ojjirio 
ecclesiaxlifo,  or  as  he  calls  it  himself.  Liber  ojfi- 
cialin,  which  he  dedicated  to  Lewis  the  Pious 
(Mar.  Bihl.,  T.  XIV.,  p.  934,  sqq.).  The  book 
is  a  curious  instance  of  the  allegorizing  tendency. 
The  author  finds  a  symbolical  meaning,  even  in 
the  smallest  details  of  the  garment  of  the  priest. 
Nevertheless  it  contains  much  information  con- 
cerning the  spirit  and  characters  of  the  age.  He 
also  wrote  a  work,  De  ordine  imliphonarii  or  De 
online  psalmorum  (Max.  Bill.,  T.  XIV.),  in  which 
he  criticised  Agobard's  improvements  of  the 
church  song ;  but  Agobard  not  only  refuted  the 
censure,  but  went  on  and  attacked  Amalarius, 
Lilicr  officiedis  (Liher  Ae/ohardi  contra  liliros  (jiialuor 
Am.  ahhalis.     M.  B.,  T.  XIV.,  p.  325). 

AM'ALEK  (dweller  in  a  vallei/)  was  the  grand- 
son of  Esau  (Gen.  xxxvi.  16),  but  was  not  the 
founder  of  the  Amalekites,  because,  according  tO' 
Gen.  xiv.  7,  they  existed  before  his  birth. 

AM'ALEKITES,  "the  first  of  the  nations,"  as 
Balaam  called  them  (Num.  xxiv.  20),  and  the 
only  one  of  the  peoples  outside  of  Canaan  who- 
were  put  under  the  ban  of  total  extinction  (Exod. 
xvii.  14).  The  reason  of  this  cause  was  Ama- 
lek's  cowardly  attack  upon  Israel's  rearguard, 
"  even  all  that  were  feeble,"  while  the  host  was 
faint  and  weary.  The  battle  was,  however, 
turned  against  them  by  the  miracle  of  JNIoses' 
prayer  (Exod.  xvii.  8-16).  The  origin  of  the  .\ma- 
lekites  is  not  known  ;  but  from  the  fact  that  in 
the  time  of  the  judges  (Judg.  xii.  15)  there  was 
a  hilly  district  in  Ephraim,  called  by  tliis  name, 
it  is  reasonable  to  conjecture  that  once  they  lived 
there,  and  that  gradually  they  took  up  a  nomadic 
mode  of  life,  perhaps  even  before  Abraham's 
emigration,  until  they  had  moved  southwards 
and  westwards  into  the  wilderness  between  Pal- 
estine and  Egypt,  where  they  were  found  iu 
Moses'  time  iu  alliance  with  the  Amorites 
(Num.  xiii.  29).  But  it  is  equally  probable 
that  the  district  took  its  name  from  some  inva- 
sion of  the  Amalekites.  Chedorlaomer  and  his 
allies  smote  their  country  (Gen.  xiv.  7).  In 
Moses'  day  they  were  the  chief  people  of  the 
Sinaitic  peninsula.  They  come  frequently  into 
notice  as  the  foes  of  Israel.  When  the  people 
were  discouraged  by  the  report  of  the  spies,  they 
were  discomfited  by  Anialek  (Num.  xiv.  45). 
Later  the  Amalekites  were  defeated  by  Ehud 
(Judg.  iii.  13-30);  Gideon  (vii.);  by  Saul  (1 
Sam.  xiv.  48,  xv.).  But  Saul's  failure,  while  he 
had  the  oi>portunitv.  to  utterly  destroy  them,  and 
(■specially  his  s)«iring  their  king  Agag,  brought 
upon  him  the  Lord's  curse  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  18), 
and  strange"ly  enough  he  met  his  death  by  an 
Amalekite  (2  Sam.  i.  8).  David,  even  before  he 
became  king,  .set  himself  to  tlie  work  of  their 
extermination  (1  >Sam.  xxvii.  8),  and  while  at 
Ziklag  conducted  a  terril)ly  deadly  attack  upon 
them    (1    Sam.    xxx.    16),  and   subsecpiently  as 


AMALRIC. 


69 


AMBO. 


king  (2  Sam.  viii.  \2.)  At  length,  however,  in 
the  days  of  Ilezekiah  they  were  completely  de- 
stroyed (1  Chron.  iv.  V-i).  Fr.  W.  8CHULTZ. 

AMALRIC  OF  BENA  (French,  Amaun/),  b.  at 
liena  in  the  diocese  of  (Jhartres,  in  the  middle  of 
the  twelfth  century  ;  taught  theology  and  [iliilos- 
ophy  in  the  University  of  Paris,  and  enjoyed  a 
great  reputation  as  a  subtle  dialectician ;  but 
■was  accused  of  heresy  in  120i,  and  called  to 
Rome  to  defend  himself  before  Innocent  III. 
The  pope  decided  against  him  ;  and,  soon  after 
his  return  to  Paris,  he  dicil  of  grief.  It  was  not, 
however,  until  after  his  death  that  the  sect  which 
he  had  founded  was  discovered ;  though  in  Paris 
itself  not  less  th,an  thirteen  ecclesiastics  belonged 
to  it,  and  it  numbered  many  members  in  the  dio- 
ceses of  Paris,  Longres,  Troyes,  and  Sens.  In 
order  to  suppress  the  sect,  a  synod  assembled  in 
Paris  in  1209.  Amalric's  doctrines  were  con- 
demned, he  himself  excommunicated,  his  bones 
•exhumed,  and  scattered  over  the  fields.  Nine 
ecclesiastics,  and  Wilhelm  the  goldsmith,  one  of 
the  seven  prophets  of  the  sect,  perished  at  the 
stake  :  the  four  other  priests  were  imprisoned  for 
life.  The  same  synod  condemned  also  a  book 
by  David  of  Dinaut,  the  metaphysical  works  of 
Aristotle,  several  theological  works  in  the  ver- 
nacular tongue,  etc.  At  the  fourth  council  of 
the  Lateran  in  121.5,  Innocent  III.  confirmed  the 
condemnation  of  Amalric's  doctrines,  which  he 
characterized  as  mere  craziness. 

Only  three  propositions  can  with  certainty  be 
referred  back  to  Amalric  himself:  the  rest  of  his 
system  is  known  to  us  only  through  his  disciples. 
Xevertheless,  as  he  founded  the  sect  himself,  and 
the  sect  was  discovered  immediately  after  his 
death,  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  the 
doctrines  of  his  disciples  originated  with  him. 
The  three  above-mentioned  propositions  read  : 
I.  God  is  all;  II.  Every  Christian  must  believe 
that  he  is  a  member  of  the  body  of  Christ,  and 
this  belief  is  as  necessary  to  salvation  as  faith 
in  the  birth  and  death  of  the  Saviour ;  III.  He 
who  remains  in  love  can  commit  no  sin.  These 
three  propositions  form  the  basis  of  the  whole 
system,  but  are  further  developed  by  the  doc- 
trines ascribed  to  the  sect.  God,  they  said,  re- 
revealed  himself  thrice,  and  each  time  more  per- 
fectly. With  the  incarnation  in  Abraham  the 
epoch  of  the  Father  begins  ;  with  the  incarnation 
in  Mary,  that  of  the  Son;  with  the  incarnation 
ill  the  Almericians,  that  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  As 
now  the  Mosaic  law  was  abolished  by  the  com- 
ing of  Christ,  so  the  sacraments  of  the  new  dis- 
pensation are  abolished  by  the  coming  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  The  Almericians  denied  that  the  sacra- 
ments or  any  other  act  or  regulation  of  the 
Church  had  any  saving  efficacy.  They  called 
the  worship  of  saints  idolatry;  the  Church,  the 
Babylon  of  the  Revelation;  the  pope,  Antichrist; 
their  own  community,  the  only  true  medium 
through  which  the  Spirit  reveals  himself:  and 
this  revelation  takes  the  place  of  baptism,  yea,  it 
is  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  the  kingdom  of 
heaven ;  no  other  can  be  expected,  nor  is  there 
any  hell  outside  of  the  consciousness  of  sin. 
Still  more  direct  utterances  of  the  latent  panthe- 
ism of  the  system  are  found  in  propositions  like 
these  :  God'  is  the  body  of  Christ ;  God  has 
spoken   in   the   same   manner  through  Ovid   as 


through  Augustine  ;  Christ  was  not  God  in  any 
other  sense  than  every  man  is,  etc.  Their  doc- 
trine of  the  impossibility  of  sin  to  believers,  i.e., 
Almericians,  was,  according  to  contemporary  rec- 
ords, a  cover  for  manifold  excesses,  as  it  aiter- 
wards  became  among  the  Brethren  of  the  Free 
Spirit.  .See  Pukgek:  Gescliichle  der  (leuhchfii 
Mi/slik  im  MitU'lalter,  I.  167,  173.  PllEGER. 

AMANDUS,  missionary  among  the  Franks  in 
the  reigns  of  Dagobert  1.  and  Sigbert  HI.  ;  bish- 
op of  Miistricht,  and  a  zealous  champion  of  the 
interests  of  Home;  was  ordained  priest  at  the 
tomb  of  St.  Martin  ;  and  visited  Rome,  where 
St.  Peter  appeared  to  him  in  a  vision,  and  sum- 
moned him  to  go  and  convert  the  pagan  Franks. 
Laboring  in  the  vicinity  of  Ghent,  he  obtained 
from  Uagobert,  about  C2G,  a  law  making  baptism 
compulsory:  and  he  succeeded  in  converting  the 
wealthy  Alluwin,  afterwards  called  Bavo,  who 
furnished  him  with  means  to  found  two  monas- 
teries. Nevertheless  the  chief  result  of  his  labor 
was  a  conflict  with  the  Iro-.Scottish  missionaries, 
who  worked  with  great  success  in  these  regions ; 
and  Dagobert  finally  banished  him.  In  647  he 
was  made  bishop  of  Miistricht;  but,  unable  to 
govern  his  clergy,  he  abdicated,  and  took  up  once 
more  his  missionary  work  on  the  Lower  Danube, 
in  Spain,  and  on  the  .Scheldt,  though  nowhere 
with  success.  The  date  of  his  death  varies  be- 
tween 061  and  684.  According  to  Roman  rec- 
ords, he  did  many  miracles,  and  is  styled  the 
"  Apostle  of  Belgium."  See  S.medt  :  Vie  ile  Si. 
Amand,  1861;  GossE  :  E.isai  sur  St.  Amand,  1866; 
Ebr.\kd:  Ii-oschottinche  Missionskircke,  1873. 

AM'ASA  (<(  burden),  a  son  of  Jether  and  Abi- 
gail, sister  of  David,  and  therefore  David's 
nephew  ;  commanded  the  army  of  Absalom  ;  was 
completely  defeated,  but  was  nevertheless  ap- 
pointed by  David  Joab's  successor;  and  eventu- 
ally died  by  Joab's  hand  (2  Sam.  xvii.  25,  xviii., 
xix.,  XX.  10).     See  Jo.\B. 

AMAZI'AH  {whom  Jehooah  strengthens),  son  and 
successor  of  Joash  as  king  of  Judah,  B.C.  838- 
809  ;  slew  Joash's  murderers;  defeated  the  Edom- 
ites;  attacked  Jehoash,  king  of  Israel,  and  was 
defeated;  Jerusalem  was  taken  and  pillaged. 
But  he  reigned  for  fifteen  years  after  the  death 
of  Jehoash,  and  was  at  last  murdered  (2  Kings 
xiv.). 

AMBO  (Greek  uuSw,  from  uraiiaivo,  "  to  ascend." 
not  from  the  Latin  ambire,  ••  to  circumvent,"  or 
from  ainbd,  "both"),  denoted  generally  the  plat- 
form, wliich,  raised  a  few  steps  above  the  ground 
and  surrounded  with  rails,  cancelli,  stretched  from 
the  altar-place,  .sandunrium,  presbyterium,  to  the 
west  into  the  nave  of  the  church,  and,  during 
service,  was  occupied  by  the  lower  clergy,  espe- 
cially the  singers  and  readers.  In  a  more  special 
sense,  the  name  was  applied  to  a  scaffolding 
erected  at  the  northern  and  southern  extremities 
of  the  railing  of  the  saiaiuarium,  of  a  considera- 
ble elevation,  provided  with  two  flights  of  steps, 
and  sustaining  a  desk  from  which  the  Scriptures 
were  read  and  the  furmuke  solemnes  were  spoken. 
If  there  were  two  ambones,  one  on  each  side, 
that  to  the  right  of  the  altar  was  higher  and 
more  richly  decorated,  because  it  was  destined 
for  the  reading  of  the  Gospels;  while  the  lower 
and  plainer  one  to  the  left  was  destined  for  the 
reading  of  the  Epistles.     When  there  was  only 


AMBROSE. 


JO 


AMBROSE. 


one  ambo,  it  contained  two  desks,  one.  more  ele- 
vated, for  the  Gospels,  and  another,  lower,  for  the 
Epistles.  The  deacon  preached  from  tlie  ambo, 
while  the  bishop  preached  from  his  tlirono.^  behind 
the  altar,  or,  if  the  church  was  too  large,  from  the 
faldhtorlnm  before  the  altar.         C.  BROCKHAUS. 

AMBROSE  OF  ALEXANDRIA,  the  friend  of 
Origen,  held  some  government  office  in  the  city 
of  Alexandria;  was  perhaps  a  deacon  in  the 
Christian  Church,  and  became  a  confessor  during 
the  persecution  of  Maximin,  in  235.  Origen 
calls  him  his  "  taskmaster,"  because  he  was  the 
first  to  encourage  him  to  become  an  author,  and 
ever  afterwards  stimulated  him  to  the  under- 
taking of  new  works.  He  was  rich,  maintained 
seven  stenographers  and  seven  copyists  at  the 
disposal  of  his  friend,  and  spared  no  expense, 
when  Origen  was  making  preparations  for  the 
Hexapha,  to  procure  copies  for  him  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint  and  other  Greek  translations  of  the  Old 
Testament.  See  Euseb.  :///*•/.  iJec7cs.,  VI.  18; 
Epipiunius:  Hares,  c.  64,  3;  Jerome:  De  Viris 
lllusl.  c.  .50. 

AMBROSE  (Latin  form,  Ambrosius),  Saint, 
b.  at  Treves,  340;  d.  at  Milan,  April  3-4,397; 
one  of  the  great  leaders  and  teachers  of  the 
Church.  Belonging  to  a  noble  and  rich  Roman 
family,  he  was  educated  in  Rome  for  the  bar ; 
and  was,  about  370,  appointed  consular  prefect 
of  Liguria  and  Emilia.  He  took  up  his  residence 
at  Milan ;  and  when  in  374,  after  tlie  death  of 
Auxentius,  a  fierce  contest  arose  between  the 
orthodox  and  the  Arian  party,  concerning  the 
election  of  the  new  bishop,  he,  as  the  first  magis- 
trate, repaired  to  the  church  to  maintain  order. 
While  he  was  here  addressing  the  ciowd,  a  child 
suddenly  cried  out,  '^Ambrosius  episcopus."  The 
idea  struck  the  multitude,  and  by  an  unanimous 
and  urgent  vote  he  was  transferred  from  the 
judicial  bench  to  the  episcopal  chair.  He  was 
as  yet  only  a  catechumen ;  but  he  was  immedi- 
ately baptized,  and  eight  days  afterward,  Dec.  7, 
374,  he  was  consecrated  bishop,  having  bequeathed 
all  his  property,  money,  and  estates  to  the  Church 
whose  servant  lie  had  become. 

As  a  leader  of  the  Church,  .Vmbrosius  has  done 
much  more  good  than  the  three  bishops  who.  dur- 
ing his  time,  occupie<l  the  papal  chair,  —  Liberius, 
Daniasus,  and  Siricius.  He  saw  that  the  Koinan 
state  was  hastening  towards  dissolution.  The 
problem  then  became,  to  organize  the  Church  so 
tliat  it  would  outlast  the  destruction  of  the  State, 
and  be  a  saving  ark  to  human  society.  For  this 
purpose  the  Church  must  be  one,  and  in  concord 
with  itself.  Though  not  personally  intolerant, 
Ambrosius  opposed  the  spread  of  lieresy  in  the 
church  with  all  his  might.  In  37!)  he  succeeded 
in  establishing  an  ortliodox  bishop  at  Sirmium 
in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the  Arian  empress  Jus- 
tina.  In  38'>-0  he  refu.sed  to  deliver  up  a  basili- 
ca in  Milan  to  the  emi>ress  for  Arian  worship. 
These  contests  witli  ,\rianism  he  has  reported 
himself  in  his  llttte^s  to  Marcellina  (/i/'/*.  'M  and 
2J),  anil  to  Valcntinian  H.  (/i'/A  21).  and  in  his 
oration  JJe  Jkisiliris  I'mitetidis.  Also  witli  the 
Roman  monk,  Jovianus,  he  had  a  sharp  con- 
troversy (A/^  42).  The  Church,  however,  sliould 
not  only  be  one  and  authoritative  :  it  should  also 
be  powerful.  I'aganism  must  find  no  support  by 
the  state.     In  the  senate-liall  in  Rome  stood  an 


altar  to  Victory,  on  wliich  all  oaths  were  taken. 
Gratian  had  this  altar  removed,  but  in  384  it  was 
restored.  At  the  urgent  demand  of  .\mbrosius, 
Valeutiuian  had  it  once  more  removed;  but  in 
369  it  was  again  restored  ;  until,  shortly  before 
the  death  of  .\mbrosius,  Theodosius  had  it  I'e- 
moved  forever  {Epp.  17  and  18).  On  the  other 
hand,  the  State,  though  interfering  with  pagan- 
ism, must  not  interfere  with  the  Church.  In  389 
the  Christians  burnt  a  synagogue  at  Calinicum, 
in  Mesopotamia  ;  and  Theodosius  ordered  the 
synagogue  to  be  rebuilt  at  the  expense  of  the 
bishop  of  the  place.  In  370  the  people  of  Thessa- 
lonica  murdered,  during  a  riot,  the  military  gov- 
ernor ;  and  Theodosius  did  not  prevent  the  soldiers 
frour  retaliating  with  a  fearful  massacre.  In 
both  cases,  Ambrosius  addressed  himself  to  the 
emperor,  and  in  the  latter  he  counselled  him  to 
make  public  penance  in  the  Church  of  Jlilan 
(Ep.  51). 

Also  as  a  teacher  of  the  Church,  Ambrosius 
exercised  a  great  and  beneficial  influence;  and 
his  writings,  though  not  distinguished  by  any 
great  oi-iginality,  are  rich  in  striking  practical 
remarks.  Of  his  dogmatical  works  the  De  Mys- 
teriis  reminds  the  reader  of  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 
and  the  works  De  Fide  and  De  Sj)irilu  Sanetu  fol- 
low Basil  very  closely.  Also  his  exegetical 
works  are  mostly  founded  on  Basil ;  but  they, 
as  well  as  his  sermons,  are  chiefly  characterized 
by  their  practical  tendency.  Among  his  moral 
and  ascetic  works  are,  De  Ojficiis  Minislmniin, 
formed  after  Cicero,  De  Viri/inilms,  De  Viiluis,  De 
Virfiinitatc,  etc.  The  ascetic  views  of  Ambro- 
sius have  often  been  misunderstood.  He  does 
not  speak  against  marriage.  He  places  marriage 
and  virginity  on  a  level  with  each  other;  but 
he  recommends  virginity  and  separation  from 
the  world  as  an  easier  and  surer  way  to  purity 
and  holiness.  In  the  field  of  liturgy  Ambrosius 
introduced  a  comjirehensive  reform  in  the  church- 
music  (see  the  article  on  Ami!Rosi.\n  Music),  and 
gave  the  Church  of  Milan  a  new  liturgy,  which, 
if  it  had  come  down  to  us  without  any  modifica- 
tions from  the  Roman  Missale.  would  liave  been 
the  oldest  liturgy  in  existence.  From  Ambro- 
sius we  also  have  a  juridical  work.  Lex  Del  sice 
Mosalcdnim  el  linmunaniin  Lcf/uiit  ( 'tttlntin. 

Immediately  after  his  death  .Ambrosius  was. 
interred  in  the  .Vmbrosian  basilica  in  Milan, 
under  the  altar,  and  between  tlie  martyrs  I'rotas- 
sius  and  Gervasius.  In  824  his  bones  were  laid 
in  a  sarcojihagus  of  porphyry  by  Archbishop 
Angilbert  II.;  and  his  sarcophagus  was  found 
Jan.  18,  1864,  though  not  opened  until  Aug  8, 
1871  (HiUAGlli:  /  Ire  Sepolcri  Siinlnmhrosiani, 
Milan.  1804).  The  best  editions  of  the  works 
of  Ambrose  are  :  the  liemdwline,  Paris,  1086-90, 
often  reprinted,  e.g.,  in  Migne,  I'alrol.  Lai.,  XIV; 
and  that  by  Ballerini,  Milan,  1875,  sqq.  The 
sources  of  his  life  are,  besides  his  own  works, 
especially  liis  letters,  Augustin<'"s  C<iii/'i ssimn s  and 
De  Cirilnl.  Dei,  wliiletlie  I'lla  by  I'aulinus  proba- 
bly dates  from  the  eightli  century. 

Lit.  —  Hkuma.nt  :  Vie  dc  S.  Amtiroise,  Pari.s, 
1678;  Tili.emo.vt;  /./two/re.s  Paris,  1705,  Tom. 
X.  ;  J.  P.  SiMiKitT:  Ldieii  lies  hi.  Anilirosiiis, 
Wien,  1841  (critically  worthless);  Pkuner;  Die 
Thiiilof/ie  dis  Id.  /Iminw/Hv,  Eichstiltt.  1862;  Bau- 
.NAUu:    llisluiie    de    .S".    Amiiruise,    Paris,     1871  ; 


AMBROSE. 


71 


AMEN. 


Ebert  :  Geschkhte  der  Lileratur  iles  MitlekiUcrs 
im  AheiuUande,  Leipzi,e^,  1874  (vol.  i.);  [Furstf.k: 
Amhrosiuf,  Ilallp,  ISst],  TlIEdH.  I'l.I'I'T. 

AMBROSE  THE  CAMALDULE,  or  AMBRO- 
SIUS  CAMELDULENSIS,  [.ruixrly  Tiavei-.s.aii, 
b.  at  I'ortico,  near  Florence,  in  138(J ;  entered 
the  order  of  the  Camaldules  in  1400;  became  the 
general  of  the  order  in  1431,  and  distinguished 
himself  as  reformer  of  his  order,  as  legate  and 
defender  of  Eugene  IV.  in  Basel,  Ferrara,  and 
Florence,  as  leader  of  the  negotiations  for  the 
union  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  C'hurches,  and  as 
a  writer.  He  translated  many  Greek  works  into 
Latin,  and  wrote  himself  on  history.  His  letters 
liave  considerable  interest  for  the  history  of  his 
time.  1).  1439.  Amur.  C.\m.  ;  Epp.  et  Oration., 
ed.  C'annetus,  Florence,  1759,  Tom.  II. 

AMBROSE,  Isaac,  Puritan  divine,  author  of 
Lookinq  unto  Jestis ;  b.  1(303-4  ;  d.  1004.  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  w.as  vicar  of  Gar- 
stang,  when  the  Act  of  Uniformity  compelled 
him  to  leave  his  charge,  and  retire  to  Preston. 
"  As  a  religious  writer  he  has  a  vividness  and 
freshness  of  imagination  possessed  by  scarcely 
any  of  the  Puritan  Non-conformists.  He  is 
plaintive  as  Flavel,  and  as  intense  as  Baxter. 
Many  who  have  no  love  for  Puritan  doctrine,  nor 
sympathy  with  Puritan  experience,  have  ajipre- 
ciated  the  pathos  and  beauty  of  his  writings, 
which  have  never  been  out  of  print  from  their 
original  issue  until  now."  His  publications  ap- 
peared in  London,  I(i4t)-G2  ;  LookirKj  unto  Jesus, 
his  most  famous  work,  was  published  in  1058. 
There  is  an  edition  of  his  Complete  Works,  Dundee, 
1759,  fol.  :  and  another,  London,  1829,  8vo. 

AMBROSIAN  MUSIC.  Before  the  reform 
which  was  introduced  by  Ambrose,  the  singing  in 
the  Christian  churches  of  the  West  was  per- 
formed by  choirs,  rantores,  to  which  the  congre- 
gations gave  only  short  responses  ;  and  this  sing- 
ing consisted  of  a  monotonous,  unregulated,  and 
artless  recitation  of  the  psalms  and  prayers,  with 
only  a  slight  raising  of  the  voice.  After  the  ex- 
ample of  the  Eastern,  more  especially  the  Syrian 
Church,  Ambrose  introduced  measured  time,  regu- 
lar rhythms,  and  varied  melody  in  the  singing  of 
the  Church  of  Milan,  employing  the  Dorian,  Phry- 
gian, Lydian,  and  Mixo-Lydian  keys  of  the  musi- 
cal system  of  the  Greeks,  and  also  the  form  of 
alternation,  male  and  female  choirs,  single  choirs, 
and  the  whole  congregation  taking  up  the  melody 
successively.  The  effect  of  this  new  method  of 
singing  is  described  by  Augustine  as  very  sweet, 
and  often  moving  the  audience  to  tears  ;  Confess. 
IX.  7,  and  X.  33.  From  Milan  the  reform  spread 
rapidly  ;  and,  during  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries, 
the  Ambrosiau  music  was  ruling  throughout  the 
West.  But  in  course  of  time  an  artificial  and 
profane  manner  crept  in,  which,  towards  the  close 
of  the  sixth  century,  called  forth  the  Gregorian 
reform;  and  thus  the  singing  in  the  Church  was 
once  more  confined  to  the  choirs  or  the  deans. 
As  text  Ambrose  used  tlie  Greek  and  Latin 
'  hymns  already  existing,  by  Ephraim  (d.  378), 
Hilary  of  Poitiers  (d.  308),  and  others.  They 
were  generally  divided  into  strophes,  either  with 
or  without  rhymes  ;  and  often  they  were  distin- 
guished by  sublime  simplicity.  But  Ambrose 
also  composed  a  number  of  hymns  himself,  the 
so-called  Ambrosian  or  Roman  hymns,  generally 


without  rhymes,  liut  well  adapted  to  the  melo- 
dies. ,\bout  thirty  such  hynms  have  been  as- 
cribed to  him,  but  only  twelve  with  certainty, 
among  whicli  are,  Deus  creator  omnium ;  U  lux 
betita  Trinitas;  Veni  redemptor  r/enliuni:  yEterne 
rerum  conditor,  etc.  The  celebrated  hymn  Te 
Deum  Laudamus,  generally  called  Ilijmnus  S.S. 
Ambrosii  et  Atu/ustini,  is  a  translation  in  part, 
probably  by  Ambrose,  of  an  older  Greek  hymn. 
Other  hymn-writers  were,  Prudentius,  Ccelius, 
Sedulius  (d.  459),  Ennodius,  bishop  of  Pavia  (d. 
521),  Fortunatus  (d.  600),  etc. 

See  Fortlage:  Gesanye  christlicher  Vorzeit,  Ber- 
lin, 1844  ;  ScHLOSSER  :  Die  Kirche  in  iliren  Liedern, 
Mentz,  1851 ;  Mone  :  Die  Ilijmnen  des  Mittelalters, 
1853.  M.   HEROLI>. 

AMBROSI ASTER,  or .PSEUDO-AMBROSIUS, 

is  the  name  now  applied  to  the  author  of  those 
Commenlaria  in  XIII.  Epistolas  Beati  Pauli,  which 
are  published  among  the  works  of  .Ambrose. 
The  first  who<]UOted  these  commentaries  over  the 
name  of  Ambrose  was  Hincmar  of  Rheims,  about 
870;  then  Ivo  of  Chartres,  d.  1115;  then  Petrus 
Lombardus,  d.  1104,  etc.  The  first  who  doubted 
the  autliorship  of  Ambrose  was  Erasmus.  1.527  ; 
and  now  all  agree  that  they  do  not  belong  to  him. 
The  style  is  another,  the  treatment  of  the  text  is 
different,  many  views  are  in  direct  opposition  to 
those  of  Ambrose,  and  the  author's  knowledge  of 
Greek  is  very  imperfect,  while  Ambrose  was  com- 
plete master  of  that  langu,age.  Various  other 
authors  have  been  guessed  at;  but  it  is  entirely 
in  vain  to  ask  who  the  author  is,  because  the 
work  cannot  possibly  be  the  product  of  one 
single  man.  The  treatment  of  the  several 
Epistles  is  wholly  different :  short  and  pithy  in 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  lengthy  and  vague  in 
the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  and  Colossians. 
.\nd,  again,  the  text  of  Scripture  from  which  is 
quoted,  varies  continually.  AVhile  Ambrose 
always  quotes  from  the  Itala,  the  quotations  of 
these  commentaries  are  taken  now  from  the  Itola, 
now  from  the  Vulgate,  and  sometimes  from 
another  version  of  tlie  ItaUt  than  that  used  by 
Ambrose.  The  work  is  evidently  a  compilation, 
of  which  the  oldest  part  dates  from  about  380, 
the  commentary  on  1  Tim.  iii.  15  pointing  di- 
rectly to  the  time  of  Damasus ;  while  the  latest 
part  dates  from  about  800,  the  commentary  on 
Phil.  ii.  9-11  containing  an  allusion  to  the  Adop- 
tionist  controversy.  THEOD.  PLITT. 

AMEN  (true,  faithful)  expresses  an  energetic 
affirmation  and  confirmation  of  the  truth  of  a 
statement ;  accordingly  a  repetition  of  the  word 
had  the  force  of  a  superlative.  In  the  Old 
Testament  "amen"  is  the  public  assent  to  a 
sentence  (Deut.  xxvii.  15-20),  and  to  a  judge's 
charge  (Num.  v.  22) ;  the  solemn  closing  word 
to  several  books  of  the  Psalms  (Ps.  xli.  13.  Ixxii. 
19,  Ixxxix.  52,  cvi.  48).  It  was  frequently  uttered 
by  Christ,  although  the  Authorized  Version  gen- 
erally translates  "verily,"  as  in  Matt.  v.  18; 
Mark  iii.  28;  Luke  iv.24.  Also  by  the  apos- 
tles as  an  appropriate  word  (Rom.  xvi.  24; 
Rev.  xxii.  20,21).  Jesus  calls  himself  the  Amen 
(Rev.  iii.  14).  In  tlie  synagogue  and  in  the  early 
Christian  Church  it  was  customary  to  say  "  amen  " 
to  the  prayers  of  the  rabbin  or  pastor.  To  this 
day  it  is  also  usual  in  liturgical  churches.  See 
Webek;  Comm.  in  A  men  Ecani/elicum,  Jena., 17'H. 


AMERICAN. 


72 


AMMIANUS. 


AMERICAN  AND  FOREIGN  CHRISTIAN 
UNION.  This  society,  as  its  name  denotes,  is 
tlie  Union  of  the  '■  Ajuerican  Protestant  Society," 
founded  in  1843 ;  the  "  Foreign  Evangelical  So- 
ciety," instituted  in  1839  as  the  expansion  of  the 
"French  Association"  of  1835;  and  the  "  CAWs- 
tian  Alliance "  of  1842.  The  A.  and  F.  C.  U. 
was  organized  May  10,  1849,  to  do  in  a  more 
efficient  way  the  work  of  the  three  societies 
named,  which  was  to  convert  Roman  Catholics, 
or  to  quote  its  constitution,  "  by  missions,  col- 
portage,  the  press,  and  other  appropriate  agen- 
cies, to  diffuse  the  princijiles  of  religious  liberty, 
and  a  pure  and  evangelical  Christianity,  both 
at  home  and  abroad,  where  a  corrupted  Chris- 
tianity exists."  The  society  was  for  a  number  of 
years  very  prosperous,  and  spread  its  influence 
over  Europe,  Xorth  and  South  America,  and  the 
adjacent  islands.  From  1849  to  18.59  its  yearly 
receipts  averaged  'fliCOUU.  But  it  was  compelled 
gradually  to  contract  its  operations.  It  with- 
drew from  France  in  1866,  from  Italy  and  Europe, 
and  other  foreign  stations  generally,  in  1873. 
It  has  now  (1886)  as  its  chief  missionary  interest 
the  support  of  the  American  Church  in  Paris. 
Tlie  Christian  World  (ceased  November,  1884),  its 
monthly  organ,  gave  a  sunnnary  of  news  about 
Koman-Catholicism,  and  the  work  done  to  evan- 
gelize Roman  Catholics. 

See  the  April  number  (1880)  of  The  Christian 
World  for  a  historical  sketch  of  the  first  thirty- 
years'  work  of  the  Union ;  and  the  June  number 
of  1884,  for  the  3otli  annual  report. 

AMERICAN  AND  FOREIGN  BIBLE  SOCIETY. 

See    BlHLK    SOCIKTIES. 

AMERICAN  BIBLE   UNION.      See  Bible  So- 

CIETIKS,  A.MKRICAN. 

AMERICAN    BIBLE    SOCIETY.      See    Bible 

Soc I K.  r  1 1 : s,   .V M  i: i; I c .\  \ . 

AMERICAN  BAPTIST  MISSIONARY  UNION. 
See  MissiiiNs,  Baptist. 

AMERICAN  BAPTIST  PUBLICATION  SO- 
CIETY.     S,f   IIAPTIVIS. 

AMERICAN  BOARD  OF  COMMISSIONERS 
FOR     FOREIGN     MISSIONS.        .Sec     .Missk.xs, 

A.MKIMCAN     I'lllAKJ). 

AMERICAN   HOME   MISSIONARY  SOCIETY. 

See  .Mis.MD.Ns,  A.Mi' i:i(  AN  IIkmk  .Socikty. 

AMERICAN    REFORM    TRACT   AND    BOOK 

SOCIETY.        Sr,.   'I'iiACT     SOCIKTIKS. 

AMERICAN      SUNDAY      SCHOOL       UNION. 

See  SrMiAV  Scnoor.s. 

AMERICAN  TRACT  SOCIETY.  See  Tkact 
•SociK  rn;s. 

AMES,  William,  b.  at  Norfolk,  Eng.,  1.576;  d. 
in  Kott'-i'dam,  Xov.  14,  1633;  oduoateil  in  Clirist's 
College,  Cambridge;  was  appointed  cliaplain  to 
the  University,  but  being  a  rigid  Puritan,  and 
without  hope  of  preferment  in  the  Church  of 
England,  ami  having  given  great  offence  by  a 
sermon  on  the  irregularities  of  the  students,  he 
left  his  nativ(!  country,  settled  at  Leyden,  and 
was  by  Sir  Horatio  Vere,  commander  of  the 
Knglisn  troops  in  the  Netherlands,  and  a  great 
patron  of  the  Puritans,  maile  ]ireachi>r  to  the 
garrison  in  the  Hague.  He  imnuMliately  entered 
into  the  Arminian  controversy,  and  published  Dc 
Arminii  Smtnnlia,  1<)I3;  R''.icri/>tio  Schnlaslica, 
1616;  an<l  ( 'orunis  ad  Collalioni-in  Hitf/ienscni,  ntc, 
1618.     Shortly  after  the  opening  of  the  Synod  of 


Dort  in  1618,  Sir  Horatio  Vere  was  compelled  by 
eiiiscopaliau  intrigues  to  dismiss  Ames ;  but  the 
States  gave  him  a  pension  to  settle  at  Dort  and 
assist  the  president  of  the  synod,  and  in  1622 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  theologj*  in  the 
Academy  of  Franeker  by  the  influence  of  Prince 
Maurice.  In  1623  he  published  Medulla  Ttieohi- 
(/ica,  and  in  1630  De  Conscienlia,  his  two  princi- 
pal works,  the  former  dogmatical,  the  latter 
etliical,  and  though  on  Protestant  ground,  and 
with  a  sound  practical  purpose,  a  continuation 
of  the  old  scholastic  science  of  casuistry.  Of 
his  other  works,  which,  both  in  Latin  and  Eng- 
lish, enjoyed  a  great  reputation,  especially  in 
the  Netherlands,  are  Piirilanismus  Anylicauiis. 
1610;  Anti-S>/noilalia,  1629,  against  the  Remon- 
strants; Belkirminus  Enerratns,  against  the  Ro- 
manists; and  .4  Fresh  Suit  aj/ninst  Ceremonies  in 
God's  Worship,  1633,  which  latter  book  made  a 
Non-conformist  out  of  Richard  Baxter.  Shortly 
before  his  death  he  removed  to  Rotterdam,  as 
pastor  of  the  English  church  of  the  Brownists 
(Independents),  there.  He  had  great  influence, 
though  an  Englishman,  upon  Continental  thought, 
and  under  his  Latinized  name,  Amesius,  is  well 
known  on  the  Continent  to-day.  A  collected 
edition  of  his  Latin  works  was  published  in  five 
volumes  at  Amsterdam,  1658.  See  Neal:  His- 
tory  of  I'iiril(uis.  I.;  BnoOKS  :  Lires  of  Puritans,  II. 

AM  LING,  Wolfgang,  b.  at  Miinnerstadt,  Fran- 
conia.  in  1.342;  d.  at  Zerbst,  May  18,  1606;  stud- 
ied at  the  universities  of  Tubingen,  Wittenberg, 
and  Jena;  was  appointed  rector  of  the  school  of 
Zerbst  in  1566,  minister  at  Koswig  in  1573,  and, 
shortly  after,  minister  at  St.  Nicolai  in  Zei"bst, 
and,  superintendent.  He  was  vehemently  op- 
posed to  the  formula  concordite,  and  stood  at  the 
head  of  the  movement  which  led  the  population 
of  Anhalt  from  Lutherisni  to  Calvinism.  _His 
adherents  were  called  the  Amlingites.  He  wrote 
the  Cimfessio  Anhaldina. 

AMMIANUS  MARCELLINUS,  a  native  of  An- 
tioch,  pursued,  wliile  a  youth,  philosophical  and 
rhetorical  studies ;  entered  tlie  army  under  Cou- 
.stantius,  accompanied  Julian  in  the  war  against 
the  Persians,  and  took  part  under  his  succes.sors 
in  the  wai-s  both  of  the  Orient  and  the  Occident; 
but  retired  afterwards  to  Rome,  devoted  himself 
to  historical  studies,  and  died  there  about  100. 
His  Roman  history.  Hi  rum  i/istarum,  lihri  XXXI., 
exti'iidcd  from  Nerva,  96,  to  the  death  of  \'alens, 
378 ;  but  the  first  thirteen  of  the  thirty-one  books 
are  lost.  The  remainder,  beginning  witii  the 
year  353,  is  of  groat  interest  for  the  history  of 
the  Christian  Church,  as  it  gives  much  valuable 
inform.ation,  not  only  of  the  general  state  of  the 
Church,  but  of  many  important  particulars :  the 
character  of  Julian,  his  proceedings,  etc.  The 
best  edition  is  that  by  Wagner  in  three  volumes, 
Leipzig,  I.SOS.  An  English  translation  was  pub- 
lished by  Philemon  Holland,  ]>ondon,  1609.  The 
(juestion,  whether  .\mmianus  was  a  Cliristian  or 
not,  has  often  been  mooted.  Claud.  CliilHet, 
De  Ainniiiini  M.  vita,  etc.,  Lovan.,  1627,  answers 
in  the  aflirmative;  Guil.  Ad.  Cart,  (luestiones  Am- 
iniiinew,  Berol.,  1868.  pp.  23-42,  in  the  negative. 
The  general  opinion  is,  however,  that  he  was  not 
a  Christian.  Throughout  lii,s'work  he  speaks  of 
Cliristianity  as  an  outsider,  reporting  and  ex- 
plaining; and  the  sympathy  aua  appreciatiou  he 


AMMON. 


lo 


AMOLO. 


shows  are  ttie  natural  results  of  liis  rcliRioiis 
staiK-lpoiiit,  —  a  vaguG  (h'isni,  to  which  a  subli- 
inatecl  pa.gaiiism  and  a  Christianity  deprived  of 
every  tliinff  speciiicaliy  Cliristian,  may  not  ap- 
pear to  he  irreconcilable.  WOLFFLIN. 

AMMON,  Christof  Friedrich  von,  b.  at  Bay- 
renth,  Jan.  10,  17(j(i;  d.  in  Dresden,  Way  21, 
1850;  studied  at  the  University  of  Erlangen, 
and  became  professor  of  philosophy  there  in 
1789,  and  of  theology  in  1700;  moved  in  1794  to 
Gottingen  as  professor  of  theology,  preacher  to 
the  university,  and  director  of  the  theological 
seminary;  returned  in  1801  to  Erlangen,  but 
went  in  1813  to  Dresden  as  preacher  to  the  court, 
and  member,  afterwards  vice-president,  of  the 
consistory.  One  of  his  earliest  and  also  one  of 
his  principal  works  is :  ICnlamrf  einer  rein  lii- 
hlisdien  Tkeohtiiic,  1792,  in  which  he  treats  the 
dogma  of  inspiration  as  a  Jewish  conceit,  and 
makes  common-sense  the  test  of  revealed  truth. 
In  1791  followed  Handlnich  der  chrisl/ichfn  SUlen- 
lelire  ;  in  1803,  Stimiiid  Iheulmjicii :  and  these  works 
made  their  autlior  one  of  the  leaders,  or  at  least 
one  of  the  lights,  of  the  rationalistic  school. 
Hut  in  1817  he  completely  surprised  liis  readers 
by  his  Billere  Arzenci  far  die  GInuhensschicuche 
ilfr  Zeit,  a  defence  of  tlie  famous  Thexes  of  Claus 
Harms.  His  engagement  in  Dresden  had  brought 
him  in  rather  perplexing  relations  with  the  min- 
ister Einsiedel,  wlio  w.as  influenced  by  the  Mora- 
vian Brethren,  and  as  Schleiermacher  expresses 
it.  "So  laveers  the  boat,  so  winds  the  eel." 
But  the  revolution  of  1800  compelled  Einsiedel 
to  retire;  and  in  1833  Amnion  jniblished  Fi>rl- 
bildunr/  des  Cfirixleiilliums  zur  Wi'llreliijion,  4  vols.  ; 
the  current  had  poured  back  to  its  old  bed.  In 
1842  followed  Lehcn  Jesu ;  in  1849,  Die  wahrc 
unil  fa/xhe  Orthodoxie,  etc.  ;  but  these  later  works 
failed  to  attract  any  attention  in  the  theological 
world. 

AM'MONITES.  The  descendants  of  Ammon, 
the  incestuous  son  of  the  younger  daughter  of 
Lot,  Ben-ammi,  "my  folkson,"  to  indicate  that 
he  was  born  of  no  strange  father  (Gen.  xix.  38). 
The  name  appears  upon  the  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions, first  under  Shalmancser  TI.  (B.C.  858-823), 
last  under  Assur-haddon  (B.C.  681-668),  as  liil 
Amman  (house  of  Ammon).  The  Anniionites 
were  one  of  the  three  peoples  allied  to  the  Isra- 
elites by  blood  and  speech,  which  formed  the 
barrier  on  the  south-east  to  the  wild  tribes  of 
the  desert.  By  destroying  the  Zamzumraini, 
they  occupied  land  spreading  from  the  Arnon 
lliver  to  the  Jabhok  and  the  Jordan.  They  were 
territorially,  as  well  as  by  blood,  related  to  the 
Moabites,  and  shared  with  them  in  fortunes. 
They  appear  together,  as  hirin";  Balaam  (Deut. 
xxiii.  4),  and  as  possessors  of  the  land  above 
mentioned  (Judg.  xi.  12-18,  25).  The  Israelites 
drove  out  the  Amorites,  and  the  Ammonites  oc- 
cupied this  territory  (Num.  xxi.  21-2G),  which, 
though  small,  was  rich,  as  is  evidenced  by  the 
plain  of  the  vineyards  (Judg.  xi.  33),  and  the 
abundant  harvests  (2  Chron.  xxvii.  5;  Ezek. 
xxvii.  17;  cf.  xxv.  4). 

The  Ammonites  were  the  foes  of  Israel.  In 
religion  they  were  gross  idolaters:  their  god  was 
Molech  or  Alilconi  (1  Kings  xi.  5,  7),  which  was 
substantially  the  same  as  Chernosh  (Judg.  xi.  24). 
For  their  conduct  in  joining  Moab  to  hire  Balaam 


they  were  excluded  from  the  citizen.ship  in  Israel, 
but  not  from  the  sjiiritnal  privileges  (l)cut.  xxiii. 
3-6;  Xeh.  xiii.  1,2).  Tlieir  attacks  upon  Israel 
were  repulsed  with  great  slaughter  by  J(']ihUiah 
(Jud.  xi.  33)  and  Saul  (1  Sam.  xi.  11,  xiv.  47). 
David  levenged  upon  them  the  insult  offered  to 
his  ambassadors  ;  their  capital,  Ilabbah,  was  de- 
stroyed, and  the  people  subjected  (2  Sam.  xii. 
26-31).  In  Jehoshaphat's  reign  tliey  and  tho 
Moabites  rebelled;  but  .so  utter  was  their  over- 
throw tliat  it  took  three  days  to  collect  tlie  spoil 
(2  Chron.  xx.).  They  were  obliged  to  pay  tril> 
ute  to  Uzziah  and  to  Jotham  (2  Chron.  xxvi. 
8,  xxvii.  5).  They  took  advantage  of  the  over- 
throw of  Israel  to  take  the  cities  of  Gad  (Jer. 
xlix.  1-6;  Zeph.  ii.  8,  9).  They  made  common 
cause  with  the  Chaldeans  and  Syrians  against 
Jelioiakim  (2  Kings  xxiv.  2),  wherefore  Jere- 
miah and  Kzekiel  in  their  prophecies  di'clare. 
against  them  (Jer.  ix.  25  sq.,  xxv.  21,  xxvii.  2; 
Ezek.  xxi.  25  sq.,  xxv.  1-10);  and  after  tho 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  their  king  Baal  is  em- 
ployed Ishmael  to  murder  Gedaliah,  in  order  to 
hinder  the  reconstruction  of  the  Jewish  state 
(2  Kings  xxv.  25;  Jer.  xl.  14).  They  opposed 
Nehemiah  (Neh.  iv.  7)  Judas  ]Maccab;cus  had 
to  fight  many  battles  with  them  till  they  wero 
discomfited  (1  Mac.  v.  7).  They  shared  with 
the  Jews  the  change  of  masters,  from  Greek  to 
Egyptian  and  to  Syrian  lords.  An  Hellenic 
colony,  named  Philadelphia,  aftcV  Ptolemy  Phil- 
adelphus,  w.as  made  out  of  their  capital  city 
Kabbah.  This  city  enjoyed  great  splendor  for 
a  while,  and  fell  under  the  Romans  as  ]iait  of 
the  province  of  Syria,  B.C.  04.  Justin  JMartyr 
(d.  106)  mentions  the  Ammonites  as  in  his  day 
a  numerous  people.  But  afterwards  they  are 
lost  to  sight,  becoming  a  part  of  the  gi.'ueral 
Arab  population.  FK.  \Y.  SUIIULTZ. 

AMMONIUS  OF  ALEXANDRIA,  a  Christian 
philosopher,  who,  about  the  middle  of  the  third 
century,  prepared  a  harmony  of  the  Gospels,  or  a 
Dialesseron.  in  which  he  divided  the  Gosjiels  into 
sections,  to  this  day  known  as  the  Amiiiiminn  yec- 
tionK,  and  found  indicated  upon  most  M.S.S.  See 
BiBLK  Text,  New  'J'ef^lnment.  A  translation  of 
this  Diatesseron  into  Latin  was  made  by  Victor, 
Bishop  of  Capua  (d.  544),  and  has  often  been 
reprinted,  e.g.,  Mayence,  1524,  ami  by  Migne. 
Eusebius  (H.  E.  vi.  19)  mentions  his  woi'k,  'J'/ie 
llarmunij  of  JMuses  and  Jecus,  but  this  is  entirely 
lost. 

AMMONIUS,  called  Sacca.i  (a,  sack),  because  ii» 
his  youth  Ik,'  was  a  porter,  and  therefore  carried 
sacks,  lived  in  Alexandria  in  tho  second  century, 
and  became  the  founder  of  the  Alexandrian 
school  of  philosophy.  Plotinus  and  Longinus 
were  among  his  disciples,  but  he  wrote  no  books. 
Porphyry  tells  of  him  that  he  was  born  of  Chris- 
tian parents,  but  deserted  Christianity;  and  when 
Eusebius  (H.  E.  vi.  19)  denies  this  statement,  he 
seems  to  mistake  Ammonius  Saccas.  the  pagan 
eclectic,  the  reconciliator  of  Plato  and  Aristotle, 
for  the  Christian  philosopher  of  the  same  name, 
who  is  mentioned  aliove. 

AMOLO,  or  AMULO,  educated  in  the  school 
of  Lyons  imder  the  tuition  of  .\gobard,  and, 
since  840.  his  succes.sor  in  the  archi-episcopal 
chair;  d.  8.32;  represents  the  strong  hierarchical 
views  of  his  time,  but  seems  to  have  been  entirelo 


AMPHIBALUM. 


74 


AMOS. 


free  from  its  credulity  and  superstition.  A  pecu- 
liar case  of  rt'lic-worship  and  its  eftVcts  -n-as  laid 
before  him  by  Bishop  Theutbold  of  Langres ;  and 
without  hesitation,  he  desiajnated  it  as  a  piece  of 
Iraud  and  avarice  (J/.  Blhl.,  T.  XIV.,  f.  3-_M). 
He  also  wrote  airainst  the  Jews,  and  against 
Gottschalk  (.1/.  Btld.,  T.  XIV.,  f.  33-^-330). 

AMPHIBALUM,  a  word  of  Greek  origin,  but 
used  only  1\V  Gallican  writer.s,  was  the  name  of 
a  peculiar  kind  of  ra.s-u/((,  without  sleeves  and 
with  a  hood,  which  the  Gallicau  clergy  of  the 
eighth  and  ninth  centuries  wore  in  offices  of  holy 
ministration. 

A'MON  (the  hidden).  1.  An  Egyptian  and 
also  a  Lybian  and  Ethiopic  divinity,  originally 
and  particularly  worshipped  in  Upper  Eeypt,  and 
had  his  principal  temple  in  Thebes  (No-Amon, 
the  ilirellinr/  of  Amon)  with  a  numerous  and 
learned  priesthood;  here  was  also  a  famous 
oracle :  both  destroyed  by  Cambyses.  The  divini- 
ties of  the  nature-religions  are  related  to  light 
as  the  source  of  fruit  and  life.  The  Egyptians 
distinguished  between  Anion,  as  the  original  sun- 
]iower  personified  was  called  in  Up>]ier  Egypt, 
but  Ptah,  in  Lower  Egypt,  or  11a,  the  general 
name,  and  Osiris,  the  representative  of  the  be- 
neficent activity  of  the  sun :  i.e.,  they  distin- 
guished between  the  sun  and  the  effects  of  the 
sun.  But  Anion  v.as  not  allowed  to  stand  alone. 
He  was  the  head  of  the  Theban  triad,  associated 
with  JMut,  i.e.,  the  original  material  out  of  which 
he  came  and  upon  which  his  power  was  exerted, 
as  mother  and  spouse,  and  with  Chunsu.  Under 
the  name  of  Amon-Ka  he  eventually  became  the 
great  god  of  all  Egypt.  He  was  addi-essed  as 
"  the  King  of  all  gods,"  as  "  the  husband  of  his 
mother,  his  own  father,  and  his  own  son,"  as 
"  the  beneficent  and  lovely,  but  also  tlie  invinci- 
ble foe  and  destroyer  of  evil."  The  Greeks 
identified  him  with  Zeus.  In  later  times  he 
occupied  a  higlu'r  place,  and  was  worshipped  as 
the  all-filling  and  all-disposing  divine  Intelli- 
gence. As  Anion  Num,  the  binding  one,  i.e.,  day 
and  night,  in  the  Great  Oasis  and  in  the  temple 
of  Jupiter  Amon,  ho  was  represented  with  a  ram'.s 
head;  but  generally  as  a  man  clad  in  a  linen 
tunic,  gathered  about  the  waist  by  a  belt.  In 
one  hand  he  holds  the  symbol  of  life,  in  the 
other  the  .staff  of  authority;  and  on  his  head  is 
a  cap  with  two  high  plumes.  He  was  .also  wor- 
shi)iped  as  Amen-Ka-Ka  mut-ef, "  Amen-Ua,  who 
is  both  male  and  female,"  or  the  generative 
principle.  In  the  latter  form  he  is  accomiianied 
by  sacred  trees,  similar  to  the  "groves"  of  the 
Cild  Testament ;  and  thus  he  is  connected  with 
Baal.^ 

2.  The  son  and  successor  of  Manassos,  and 
king  of  Ju.l.ah  B.C.  (il3-(J41  ^(iI2-(J10),  cf.  2 
King.sxxi.  l!)-2fl  ;  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  21-2,5.  He 
was  twenty  years  old  wlien  he  began  to  reign, 
and  lie  reigned  two  years.  Zephaniah's  proph- 
ecy contains  ,a  saddening  picture  of  the  times. 
Anion  wearied  himself  to  commit  ininuity.  He 
worshipped  the  host  of  heaven,  revelling  in  the 
gro.s.sest  idolatry.  At  last  liis  own  servants  slew 
him,  and  with  Josiali  issue<l  a  better  day  for 
Judah. 

3.  A  governor  under  Ali.-ib,  1  Kings  xxii.  2fi. 

4.  'i'he  name  of  an  ancestor  mentioned  in  Neli. 

vii.  .'/).  V\\.   \V.  SCIIULTZ. 


AM'ORITES  (inhabilant.i  of  the  htf/h  hmlts).  The 
name  distinguishes  them  from  the  Canaanites, 
"the  inhabitants  of  the  low  lands."  and  the  Per- 
izzites,  "the  inhabitants  of  the  flat  lands."  The 
Amorites  (the  word  is,  however,  always  singular 
in  the  Hebrew)  were  one  of  the  chief  Canaanit- 
ish  tribes.  The  description  of  their  size  and 
strength  given  by  Amos  ii.  9,  need  not  be  taken 
literally,  but  was  probably  an  echo  of  the  spies' 
report  (Num.  xiii.  32,  33).  At  one  time  the 
,A.morite  territory  took  in  "  all  Gilead  and 
Bashan"  (Deut.  iii.  10),  but  it  varied :  thus  iu 
.\braham's  time  it  was  about  the  Dead  Sea; 
shortly  before  the  exodus,  the  Amorites  crossed 
over  the  East  Jordan  conntiy,  and,  when  the 
Israelites  invaded  the  laud,  they  inhabited  that 
fertile  district  bounded  by  the  Arnon,  the  Jabbok, 
and  the  Jordan.  They  opposed  the  Israelites, 
but  were  defeated  (Deut.  ii.  3G),  and  their  terri- 
tory divided  between  Reuben  and  Gad,  and  the 
half  tribe  Jlanasseh  (Josh.  xiii.  8  sq.).  The 
Gideonites,  inluibitants  of  an  Amorite  city,  con- 
trived, through  fraud,  to  avert  from  them.selves 
the  doom  which  fell  upon  their  clansmen  (Jo,sh. 
ix.).  Joshua  fought  and  defeated  five  Amorite 
kings  (Josh.  s.  5).  They  were  so  successfully 
exterminated  as  a  tribe,  that  they  never  again 
were  numerous  and  powerful,  and  are  rarely 
mentioned.  F.  W.  SCIIULTZ. 

AMORTIZATION.     See  iMonTMAix. 

A'MOS  ((I  Junrif),  the  third  of  the  minor 
prophets,  originally  a  herdmau  and  farmer  of 
Tekoa,  a  town  twelve  miles  south-south-east  from 
Jerusalem  (vii.  10),  and  destitute  of  a  prophetical 
education.  Although  tlius  a  native  of  Judah, 
under  divine  inspiration  he  prophesied  against 
the  sins  of  the  northern  kingdom.  The  Fathers 
wrongly  identified  him  with  tlu^  father  of  Isaiah 
(.\moz).  because  his  name  iu  the  EXX.  is  iden- 
tical with  that  of  Isaiah's  father.  Amos]irophe- 
sied  in  the  northern  kingdom  some  time  between 
807  and  709,  during  tlie  reigns  of  Uzziah  in 
Judah  (807-755)  and  Jeroboam  II.  in  Israel 
(822-769),  when  Israel  was  at  the  very  height 
of  its  splendor.  His  prophecies  were  apparently 
all  given  in  one  year,  specified  as  "  two  years 
before  the  earthipiake,"  a  momentous  but  undat- 
able event.  His  plain  speaking  led  to  the  charge 
of  conspiracy  against  the  government,  because 
he  alienated  the  jieople;  and  therefore  he  was 
compelled  to  return  to  Judah  (vii.  10-17).  Xoth- 
ing  more  is  known  of  him. 

The  Book  of  Amos,  after  the  opening  verse,  is 
divisible  into  three  parts.  1.  chaps,  i.  2-ii.  10. 
The  Judgments  of  God  upon  Damascus  (vs. 
3-5),  Philistia  (vs.  0-8),  Tyre  (vs.  9,  10),  Edom 
(vs.  11,  12),  Ammon  (vs.  13-1.5),  JMoab  (ii. 
1-3),  Judah  (vs.  4,  5),  Israel  (vs.  0-16).  II. 
chaps,  iii.-vi.  Three  di.scour.ses  upon  Israel's 
wickedness.  1.  chap,  iii.;  2.  chap.  iv. ;  3. 
chaps,  v.,  vi.  3  is  divisiVile  into  three  parts, 
(n)  V.  1-17,  (/')  18-27,  (<■)  chaji.  vi.  In  the.se 
discourses  he  sets  forth  in  liis  usual  rhetorical 
manner  the  moral  and  religious  degeneracy  of 
the  people,  their  voluptuousness  ami  banqueting 
(iv.  1.  vi.  4-6,  8)  ;  their  uiichastity  an<l  vicious- 
ness  (ii.  7),  their  unrighlcousiiess  iiiid  dishonesty 
(iii.  9,  10,  iv.  1,  v.  7,  11,  12.  cf.  ix.  4-0).  their 
idolatry  (v.  26),  and  especially  the  union  of  ealf 
worship  and  the  .leliovah  cultus  at  Bethel,  (iilgal, 


AMPHILOCHIUS. 


75 


AMULETS. 


Dan  and  Beersheba  (iv.  4,  5,  v.  fi,  cf.  viii.  14). 
Instead  of  this  mere  external  worship  of  Jehovali, 
Atnos  called  the  people  to  a  practical  service  in 
ri,a;hteousness  and  goodness  (v.  21-!i5).  He  con- 
siders it  to  be  possible,  but  unlikely,  that  Israel 
will  rejient  (cf.  iv.  0  sq.,  v.  (J,  14,  15),  and  there- 
fore he  sets  forth  the  impending  dangers  (iii.  12, 
14,  1.5,  iv.  2,  3,  V.  5,  vi.  7,  8,  0,  cf.  vii.  3,  8.  11, 
17,  viii.  2,  ix.  1).  III.  chaps,  vii.-ix.  This 
jiart  contains  the  three  successive  threatening 
visions  (vii.  1-3,  4-6,  7-0).  These  were  made 
the  basis  of  the  comjilaint  of  Auiaziah,  the  high 
priest  at  Bethel,  to  the  king,  Jeroboam  II.,  and 
iience  resulted  his  lianishnicnt  (vs.  10-13).  But 
l>elore  he  goes  he  insists  ui>on  the  reality  of  his 
call  (vs.  14,  1.")),  and  foretells  the  sad  fall  of  the 
hiirh  priest  and  his  family  (vs.  IG,  17).  Chaps. 
viii.  and  ix.  contain  two  visions  *and  their  ex- 
])lanations.  The  first  i»  of  threatening  contents, 
but  tlie  second  (ix.  1-7)  looks  tov,-ards  the  con- 
cluding promise  of  salvation  for  a  faithful  rem- 
nant, and  of  the  universal  sv\ay  of  religion  and 
prosperity  (vs.  8-15).  The  arran gcment  of  tho 
book  is  clear,  and  implies  mature  consideration, 
leading  to  tho  supposition  that  Amos  wrote  it 
after  his  return  to  Tekoa.  The  style  of  Amos  is 
rhetorical ;  his  figures,  analogies,  and  similes  are 
excellent,  though  at  times  surprising  (cf.  iii.  3-0, 
iv.  2,  V.  7,  viii.  11-14).  The  notion  that  Amos  bor- 
rows his  similes  chiefly  from  his  early  mode  of  life, 
and  thus  betrays  his  extraction,  is  generally  ac- 
cepted, but  hardly  well  founded  w  hen  the  variety 
of  iheni  is  observed  (see  ii.  13,  iii.  4,  5,  8, 12,  vi.  12, 
viii.  8,  ix.  .5,  and  the  visions  of  vii.  1  and  viii.  1). 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Hebrew  of  Amos  is  ab- 
normal both  in  pronunciation  and  orthography. 
The  book  is  quoted  in  the  New  Testament  by 
Stephen  in  his  defence  before  the  Sanhedrin 
(.'Vets  vii.  42,  43,  see  Amos  v.  25-27),  and  by 
James  (Acts  xv.  16,  see  Amos  ix.  11).  Amos 
shows  himself,  and  presumes  his  hearers,  to  have 
a  good  acquaintance  with  the  Pentateuch.  It 
lias  been  conjectured  that  the  book  gives  only  an 
outline  of  his  addresses. 

[1^1  r.  —  ISeside  the  general  connnenfaries  upon 
the  minor  prophets,  for  wliich  see  art.  MiNOii 
rnnpiii.,TS,  there  are  special  works:  El.  Scii.\- 
UAiii:  Ciimm.  in  Amos  I'ruphdain,  Argent.,  1588; 
Jt).\.  Gkuhaudi:  Ailnii!.  in.  Pruph.  Amos  etJonaiii, 
etc.,  Jena;,  1GG3  and  1076;  Amos  I'roj'lieta  Ex- 
posilus,  etc.,  cura  Jo.  Ca.  Hakexbekgii,  Ludg. 
Batav.,  1763  ;  J.  C.  W.  Dahi,  :  Dcr  Prnph.  Amos 
iibersetzt  u.  crkldrt,  Gottingen,  1795 ;  G.  .\  L.  Baur  ■ 
Der  Proph.  Amos  erlii'trt,  Giessen,  1847;  T.  W. 
C'liA.Miiiciis:  t'uminenluri/  on  Amos  (enlarged  from 
Sc/imollcr's'),  in  the  American  edition  of  Lange's 
Commentarv,  X.Y.,  1«75.]  A.  KOHLER. 

AMPHiLOCHiUS,  Saint,  a  native  of  Cappado- 
cia;  was  educated  for  the  bar,  and  practised  tor 
some  time  as  an  advocate  in  Constantinople,  but 
retired  afterwards  to  Ozizala,  near  Nazianzus, 
where  he  led  an  ascetic  life.  In  375  he  was  elect- 
ed bishop  of  Iconium,  the  metropolitan  see  of 
Lycaonia ;  in  381  he  was  ])resent  at  the  second 
ecumenical  council  of  Constantinoiile,  and  in 
383  he  presided  over  a  synod  at  .Sida,  Pampliylia, 
against  the  j\Iessalians.  He  was  ardently  opposed 
to  the  Ariaiis,  and  persuaded  the  emperor  to  ffjr- 
bid  all  public  debate  of  the  controversion al  points 
(Socrates:    Hist,    cedes.  7,  6).     With   Basil   the 


Great  and  Gregory  Nazianzen,  he  lived  in  very 
intinnite  intercourse,  and  it  is  from  notices  iu 
their  works  we  know  what  we  know  with  certainty 
of  him  ;  his  life,  as  given  in  JVIigne,  J'atr.  Orcec. 
xxxix.  p.  14.  being  a  mere  monkish  fiction.  The 
year  of  his  death  is  uncert;uii,  but  falls  after  392, 
as  in  this  year  Jerome  published  his  Dc  Vir.  III., 
in  which  Amphilochius  is  mentioned  (133)  as 
still  living.  His  day  is  given  both  in  the  Greek 
and  Latin  calendars  as  Kov.  23.  Of  the  works 
ascribed  to  him,  some  are  decidedly  spurious; 
thus  the  legendary  biography  of  Basil  would  not 
have  been  written  by  a  friend  and  contem])orary 
of  him.  Others  are  of  doubtfid  authenticity. 
They  have  all  been  collected,  together  with  frag- 
ments of  works  which  are  lost,  and  edited  by 
Cambf.kis,  Paris,  1044.  Genuine  is  the  Epistola 
S>/no(licii  iu  defence  of  the  orthodox  conception  of 
the  Holy  Trinity  (CoTKLiicit:  Mon.  cccL  r,r.,  'V. 
II.  ;  and  Tiiu.o  :  Bib.  vat.  //>:  <lo/piiiit.,  vol.  II.). 

AMSDORF,  Ni!-.olau3  von,  b.'  Dec.  3,  1483; 
d.  May  14,  1505;  studied  theology  in  Witten- 
berg, and  was  ayipointed  pastor  in  jMagdeburg, 
1.524,  bishop  of  Naumburg-Zeiz,  1541,  and  super- 
intendi'ut  iu  Eisenach,  1548.  He  was  one  of 
Luther's  stanchest  adherents  and  mo.st  intimate 
friends,  accompanied  him  to  Woi-nis,  knew  of  his 
abduction  to  the  \Vartburg,  received  him  in  Ids 
house  on  his  secret  visits  to  Wittenberg,  partook 
in  the  translation  of  the  Bible,  was  consecrated 
bishop  by  hiur  Jan.  2U,  1.542,  and  superintended 
the  JeiKi  edition  of  his  works.  He  was  a  man  of 
sharp  but  narrow  imderstauding.  somewhat  har.sh 
and  unyielding,  and  in  his  polemics  he  often 
overleaped  the  goal.  Thus  in  a  controversy  with 
Jlenius  he  was  led  to  say,  iu  a  pamphlet  reprint- 
ed in  Baumgarten,  Gescliichtr-  da-  J!<lii;io)isjHij-:cicii, 
1172-78,  that  good  works  were  detrimental  to 
salvation.  After  the  death  of  Luther  he  became 
comjiletely  estranged  from  Alelauchthon  and  the 
Wittenbergers.  A  biography  by  I.  INIeier  is 
found  in  Mkureu  :  Lehen  d.  Altviitcr  d.  luth. 
Kirche,  vol.  III. 

AMULETS  consist  of  gems  or  small  bits  of 
some  natural  object,  —  for  instance,  a  root,  or  tick- 
ets of  parchment  or  metal,  —  in.scribed  with  some 
word  or  sentence  of  Holy  Writ,  or  with  some 
mystical  sign,  and  ai-e  w'orn  on  a  string  generally 
aroimd  tlie  neck,  as  a  means  of  protection  against 
witcherv,  ill-luck,  etc.  The  word  first  occurs 
iu  Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.  29,  4,  19;  30,  15,  47  ;  and 
is  derived  by  some  from  the  Latin  omoliri,  "  to 
avert,"  by  others,  from  the  Arab  hamalo,  "to 
carry."  The  superstition  was  almost  universal 
in  ancient  times,  and  especially  among  Kasteru 
people.  It  arose  naturally  from  the  idea  that 
human  life  is  influenced  by  the  stars,  by  spirits, 
etc.  ;  and,  where  there  is  a  belief  in  witchcraft, 
there  must  also  be  a  belief  in  the  remedy  against 
it.  Among  the  Jews  anudets  were  much  used, 
though  the  law  forbade  them,  and  the  whole 
spirit  of  the  Old  Testament  excludes  the  idea  on 
which  they  rest.  Nevertheless  the  Jews  were 
firm  believers  iu,  and  skilful  makers  of,  amulets 
of  all  kinds,  from  the  idolatrous  earrings  which 
Jacob  hid  under  the  oak  at  Shechem  (Cien.  xxxv. 
4),  to  the  cabalistic  charms  known  as  '•  David's 
shield"  and  "Solomon's  seal."  Also  among  the 
Christians  the  super.stition  crept  in ;  and  the 
Council  of  TruUo  excommunicated  the  makers  of 


AMYOT. 


76 


ANABAPTISTS. 


amulets,  and  branded  the  whole  custom  as  a  hea- 
then superstition,  A.  1).  692.  can.  C>'2.  Hekkle  : 
Conciliemjesckickte,  vol.  III.  p.  308.  See  Phy- 
lacteries. 

AMYOT,  Joseph,  b.  at  Toulon,  171S  ;  entered 
the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  and  went  in  1750  as  a 
missionary  to  China,  where  he  labored  forty-four 
years,  and  died  in  Peking:.  1794.  He  wrote  a 
life  of  Confucius,  Paris,  1789.  a  Manchoo-Tar- 
tary-French  dictionary,  and  a  Alanchoo-Tartary 
grammar,  and  gave  much  valuable  and  interesting 
information  on  Chinese  customs,  laws,  religion, 
and  historv,  in  Letlres  Eilifiuntai  el  Curiemeg. 

AMYRAUT,  Moise  (M'osi-.t  Am;jnil<hi.^),  b.  at 
Hourgueil,  1596;  d.  at  Saumur,  1664  ■  descended 
from  a  distinguished  family  belongnig  lo  the 
Reformed  Church,  and  studied  jurisprudence  at 
Poitiers,  but  was,  by  the  reading  of  Calvin's 
Inslitutio,  induced  to  devote  himself  to  the  study 
of  theology,  and  entered  the  academy  of  Sau- 
mur. Appointed  professor  here  in  1633,  togeth- 
er with  Josue  de  la  Place  {Placceus)  and  Louis 
Cappel  (Cappeltus),  he  soon  brought  the  academy 
in  a  most  flourishing  condition,  and  students 
from  foreign  countries,  especially  from  Switzer- 
land, gathered  to  its  halls.  The  teaching  of  the 
academy,  however,  was  somewhat  out  of  the  com- 
mon route,  and,  in  dogmatic  respects,  the  time 
was  very  irritable.  It  was  believed,  especially  in 
Switzerland,  that  Amyraut's  exposition  of  the 
doctrines  of  grace  and  predestination  differed 
materially  from  the  formulas  of  the  Synod  of 
Dort.  His  Traili  de  la  PreiJexlmalion,  published 
in  1634,  caused  a  great  sensation,  and  was  fiercely 
attacked  by  Pierre  du  Moulin  (^MdUhiku,^),  profess- 
or in  the  orthodox  academy  of  Sedan,  by  Andre 
Kivet  of  Leyden,  and  others.  Formally  accused 
of  heresy  at  the  national  synod  of  Alenijon, 
1037,  and  again  in  that  of  Charenton,  1644,  he 
was  both  times  aoijuitted;  but  the  controversy 
was,  nevertheless,  kejit  up,  especially  by  Fried- 
rich  Spaidieim  of  Leyden,  and  he  was  accused 
and  acquitted  a  third  time,  in  the  synod  of  Lou- 
dun,  1659.  Though  most  of  the  prominent 
French  divines,  even  Piei  re  du  Moulin,  in  course 
of  time,  became  reconciled  to  liim,  the  Swi.ss 
students  were  recalled  from  Saumur,  and  the 
last  symbolical  work  of  tlie  Reformed  Church, 
the  P'ormula  Consensus,  was  drawn  up  against  his 
views  in  Geneva,  1675.  His  works  relating  to  this 
controversy,  besides  the  above-mentioned,  are  the 
lichuntilUm  de  la  iJuctrine  de  Calnin  sur  la  Predes- 
tinalion,  1637;  J)e  Ai  Jusn/iration,  1638;  Be  Prii- 
videntia  Dei  in  Muto,  1638;  De/'cKsio  I.  Culvini 
Duclrina  de  Absolul.  Jie/)roh.  yA'tre/«,  1641 ;  Dis- 
sertaliones  TlieolM/icce  QiuUuor,  1645 ;  Decluratio 
Fidei  contra  Krrnrem  .i4n;ii'nian.,  1646 ;  Disputa- 
tio  de  Libero  Arhilrio,  1647;  and  .Specimen  Ani- 
nifidver.  in  JCxcrcil.  de  Gratia  Univers.,  1648 
(1,856  pagesl),  directed  especially  against  Spaii- 
ht;im.  Among  Amyraut's  other  works,  are.  La 
Morale  C/irelienne,  (i  vols.  1652-60;  Traild  des 
llelii/ions,  1631,  translated  into  Lnglish,  London. 
1660,  etc.  A  complete  list  is  found  in  Haao:  /,ri 
France  I'riitestanic,  I  ,  72.  A.   WllWKlZHU. 

ANABAPTISTS  (from  tlie  Greek  iva,  "again," 
and  (iaTTTi^ctv,  "to  ba]iti/.e  ")  is  the  naiim  of  a 
violent,  mystical  sect  winch,  representing  the 
ileepest-goiiig  radicalism,  broke  away  fr<jm  the 
general  reformatory  iiiuvoiiiuut  uf  the  sixteenth 


century,  and  soon  became  lost  in  fanaticism  and 
excess.  The  general  character  is  an  absolute 
break  with  the  e"xisting  order  of  things,  ecclesi- 
.astical,  political,  and  social.  While  the  Re- 
formers wished  everywhere  to  respect  the  forms 
of  real  life,  wantins  only  to  correct,  improve  and 
develop,  with  the  Bible  as  their  guide,  the  Ana- 
baptists rejected  every  thing  they  found  estab- 
lished in  Church  or  State,  and  proposed  to  create 
an  entirely  new  order  according  to  their  own 
inspirations.  But  the  special  point  from  which 
they  started  w,as  a  rejection  of  infant-bap- 
tism, on  the  ground  that  an  infant  is  unable  to 
a.ssuine  the  responsibility  of  the  sacrament. 
Questions  concerning  the  proper  administration 
of  baptism  had  already,  before  this  time,  ap- 
peared in  the  history  of  the  Christian  Cliurch. 
During  the  third  and  fourth  centuries  there  were 
people  who  declared  baptism  invalid  when  per- 
formed by  a  heretic.  In  this  form,  however,  the 
question  soon  died  out,  while,  as  a  doubt  with 
respect  to  the  validity  of  infant-baptism,  it  re- 
appeared every  now  and  then  during  the  middle 
ages.  In  the  sixteenth  century  it  then  became 
the  watchword  of,  and  gave  the  name  to,  one  of 
the  wildest  and  fiercest  sects  ever  bred  within 
the  pale  of  the  Christian  Church. 

The  sect  originated  in  Zwickau  in  Saxony. 
Here  Thomas  Miinzer  gathered  a  great  crowd, 
"specially  of  mechanics,  by  his  fanatical  preach- 
ing, .and,  in  conventicles,  the  membeis  boasted  of 
divine  revelations,  and  spoke  openly  of  the  over- 
throw of  the  whole  social  order.  Expelled  from 
Zwickau,  some  of  the  adherents  of  Miinzer  at- 
tempted to  get  a  foothold  even  in  the  very  centre 
of  the  Reformation,  in  Wittenberg.  Nikolaus 
Storch  and  two  others  appeared  there  as  prophets 
(the  so-called  Zwickauer  prophets)  sent  by  God 
to  preach  the  truth.  Not  to  the  letter,  but  to 
the  spirit,  should  one  listen  ;  infant-baptism  must 
be  rejected,  as  only  personal  faith  can  save  ; 
God  is  now  about  to  found  a  new  holy  congre- 
gation, etc.  The  powerful  preaching  of  Luther, 
however,  soon  destroyed  the  impression  they 
made;  and  Miinzer  now  endeavored  to  realize  his 
radical  ideas  in  Miililhausen.  at  that  time  a  free 
city  of  the  empire.  .V  kind  of  peasants'-war. 
kindled  by  haU'-demagogical,  half-theooratical 
tendencies,  broke  out  and  spread  through  a  great 
part  of  Thuringia,  till  the  massacre  at  Frank- 
enhausen  put  an  end  to  the  whole  movement. 
The  adherents  of  Miinzer,  hovvevei',  did  not  prac- 
tise re-ba]>tism,  and  did  not  form  a  congregation  ; 
but  they  all  wore  the  marks  of  a  peculiarly  som- 
bre mysticism,  speaking  of  the  "bitter  "  Christ  as 
the  exaiuph^  to  follow,  and  scolding  Luther  as 
an  easy-going  fraud. 

Quite  another  character  the  sect  exhibited 
in  Switzerland.  Several  of  Zwingle's  co-worker.s, 
Wilhelm  Reublin,  Simon  Stumi>f,  Ludwig  Ilet- 
zer,  Felix  Manz,  and  Konrad  tirebel,  gradually 
separated  from  him  and  the  congregation,  and 
began  to  worship  in  private  houses  surri>uii<li'd 
by  crowds  of  excited  mechanics.  The  aiHistoli- 
cal  congregation  was  the  iih-al  of  these;  convi'iiti- 
cles,  an  ideal  with  which  tht;  state-establishment 
of  Zwingle's  church  did  not  harmonize  ;  and  tlio 
formation  of  a  congregation  of  true  Christians 
in  strict  accordance  with  this  ideal  became  an 
object  most  ardently   pursued.      Soon   arose   a 


ANACHORITES. 


77 


ANAMMELECn, 


doubt  of  the  validity  of  infant-baptism  :  some 
parents  refused  to  liave  tlicir  cliildrcii  liajitizcd  ; 
the  nia.ijistrati?  threatened  with  expulsion  ;  and, 
just  in  this  moment  of  excitement  and  anxiety, 
Jacob  lilanrock,  a  former  monk  from  Chur, 
asked  Grebel,  at  one  of  the  meetings,  to  give 
him  the  true  Cliristian  baptism.  Hlaurock 
then  baptized  others ;  and  thus  the  first  Ana- 
bai)tist  congregation  was  formed,  re-baptization 
being  the  common  bond  between  its  members. 
The  general  character,  however,  of  this  whole 
movement,  was  peaceful,  in  spite  of  the  jirevail- 
ing  excitement.  Nobody  thought  of  carrying 
out  the  new  ideas  by  force.  In  striking  contrast 
to  the  Miinzer  uproar,  meekness  and  sufferings 
were  here  understood  as  the  most  essential  ele- 
ments of  the  Christian  ideal.  From  Switzer- 
land the  movement  spread  to  Southern  Germany. 
Zealously  projiagatpd  by  its  itinerant  missiona- 
ries, it  found,  during  the  gener.al  excitement  and 
fermentation  of  the  times,  ready  acceptance,  es- 
pecially among  the  lower  classes,  though  also 
among  the  higher.  Augsburg,  Nuremberg,  and 
Nicholsburg  in  !Moravia,  became  its  centres. 

Then  began  the  persecution  in  autumn,  1527, 
both  from  the  lloman-Catholic  and  Protestant 
side.  Most  of  the  leaders  were  killed,  hundreds 
of  the  members  were  expelled,  thrown  into  dun- 
geons, and  massacred.  1'his  persecution  was 
followed  by  an  inner  transformation  of  the  whole 
spirit  of  the  movement.  A  few  of  JMiinzer's 
aillierents  W'ho  had  escaped  at  Frankenhausen 
brought  the  ideas  of  a  soci.al  revolution  to  the 
Anabaptists  of  Southern  Germany;  and,  though 
at  first  rebuked,  the  fiendish  spirit  soon  found 
foothold.  Apocalyptical  dreams,  expectations 
of  a  divine  judgment  near  at  hand  and  full  of 
revenge,  and  finally  the  ideas  of  establishing  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  by  means  of  the  sword,  took 
hold  of  men's  minds,  and  caused  unspeakable 
confusion,  and  even  great  danger.  Melchiur 
Iloifmaun  appeared  in  Strassburg  as  the  prophet 
of  the  Anabaptists,  announcing  the  speed}'  es- 
tablishment of  the  kingdom  of  New  Zion.  In 
Miinster  Jolin  of  Leyden  (Johann  IJockhold, 
see  title)  gained  supremacy,  actually  assumed 
the  title  of  king,  and  led  tiie  population  into  the 
most  frightful  excesses.  At  many  other  places 
in  Germany  and  Holland,  great  disturbances  took 
place.  The  grapple  with  the  secular  power  was 
short,  however,  and  fearful  revenge  was  taken 
The  movement  was  completely  suppressed ;  and 
the  few  members  who  were  left  .scattered  about 
ill  various  places  were  organized  into  small  con- 
gregations by  Menno  Simmons.  See  BocKiiOLD, 
Mennonitf.s,  MiJNSTEU,  Mlnzer,  and  ISaptists. 

Lit. — -Ottius:  Amiules  Auahaptisiici,  Basel, 
1072  ;  ScHYN  :  Hlsloria  Chrkiiunnrum  <]iii  in  ISelijii) 
l'\€ileraloMennonilceaj>eU.,1723;  I.  Mast:  Geschich- 
tc  der  Wiedertaufer,  Miinster,  1H;!6;  Corxelius: 
Gem-hirhlc  der  mUnsterischen  A  ufruhrs,  Leipzig, 
1855-(i0,  2  vols  ;  [L.  Keller  :  Ocxchiclile  der 
Wiec/erlciiifer,  18S0;  NlTSCUL:  D  Wirderlnnfer  in 
d.  Schweii,  Einsiedeln,  1SS5].  G.  UUUIORX. 

ANACHORITES.    See  Anchorites. 

ANACLETUS  is  the  name  of  two  popes. — 
Anacletus  I.  occupied  the  Roman  see  at  the  close 
of  the  first  century  ;  but  the  order  of  succession 
is  uncertain,  some  sources  ascribing  the  third 
place  after  Peter,  othi^rs  the  fourth,  to  him.     By 


later  writers  his  life  has  been  adorned  with  mira- 
cles, the  building  of  tlie  Church  of  St.  Peter, 
martyrdom,  etc.  ;  while,  on  the  other  side,  hi.s 
very  existence  has  been  doubted  :  but  there  is 
no  reason  either  for  the  one  or  for  the  other 
extreme.  —  Anacletus  II.  (Peter  Pierleoni),  Feb. 
14,  ll:iO-Jan.  2.'),  IIMS,  descended  from  a  wealthy 
.lewish  family,  and  spent,  successfully,  his  fortune 
on  his  aud.iition.  After  the  death  of  IIonoriuB 
II.,  one  party  declared  for  the  cardinal-deacon 
Gregory  (liniocent  II.),  and  another  for  the  car- 
dinal-presbyter Peter  Pierleoni  (Anacletus  11); 
and  by  using  his  own  enormous  resources  as  well 
as  the  treasures  of  the  Church  for  bribery,  the 
latter  succeeded  in  gaining  over  the  lower  clergy 
and  the  populace  of  Rome.  Innocent  II.  was 
expelled  from  Rome,  and  fled  to  France;  but  by 
the  powerful  aid  of  Bernard  of  Clairveaux  he  was 
recognized  by  England,  France,  Germany,  and 
.Siiain,  wdiile  Anacletus  II.,  though  in  possession 
of  Rome  and  tlie  papal  dominion,  was  recognized 
only  by  the  city  of  Milan  and  King  Roger  of 
Sicily.  Lothar  of  Germany  made  two  cam- 
paigns to  Italy,  1133  and  1136,  to  unseat  him; 
ancl  the  last  time  he  was  accompanied  by  Ber- 
nard, who  succeeded  in  separating  not  only  the 
city  of  Milan,  but  also  many  of  the  most  promi- 
nent Roman  families,  from  his  party.  Even  with 
Roger  negotiations  were  opened.  But  at  this 
moment  Anacletus  II.  died.  is.  ZOl'FFEL. 

ANAGIMOST.     See  Lector. 

ANALOGY  OF  FAITH.  See  Faith,  IIerm.e- 
neutics. 

ANAM'MELECH,  a  divinity  in  whose  worship, 
as  in  tliat  of  Adrammelech,  which  see,  the 
Sepharvites  burnt  their  cliildren  (2  Kings  xvii. 
31).  In  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  the  name  is 
A  nu-m(dik,  =  King  Ann.  In  the  Babylonian-Assy- 
rian pantheon,  Anu  occupied  the  first  place  in  tlie 
first  triad,  Anu,  Bel,  Nisroch.  It  is  not  at  pres- 
ent decided  whether  the  gods  of  the  first  triad 
represent  the  powers  of  nature,  as  those  of  the 
other  triads  do.  Perhaps  they  were  heavenly  or 
sun  divinities;  at  all  events,  there  is  mention  of 
the  "wide  heavens  of  the  god  Anu"  (George 
Smith,  Assyrian  Discoveries,  187o,  p.  309).  Nor 
is  the  description  of  him  upon  the  inscriptions  as 
a  "fish-god"  against  such  a  designation,  because, 
the  heavenly  divinities  were  also  the  marine,  with 
numy  peoples,  inasmuch  as  the  heavens  wert. 
thought  to  be  a  sea  joining  with  the  earthly 
ocean  :  thus  the  Hindoo  divinity  Varima  (=:  Biipa- 
voc)  was  a  sea-god.  Anu  is  represented  as  a  man 
who  bears  a  fish's  head  for  a  tiara,  and  along 
his  back  the  fish's  body.  He  is  identical  with 
the  Oannes  of  Berosus,  who,  half-man  and  half- 
fish,  at  daybreak  arose  from  the  sea,  and  began 
his  instruction  of  men  in  science  and  art,  but 
at  night  returned  to  the  sea ;  even  as  the  sun 
was  fancied  to  sail  through  the  ocean  at  niglit 
as  it  sails  through  the  heavens  by  day. 

The  female  divinity  corresponding  to  Anu  wa."' 
Anatuv.  The  name  is  fouml  in  the  Old  Test-v- 
ment  towns  Beth-anath  (.losh.  xix.  38;  Judg.  i. 
33)  or  Beth-anoth  (Josh.  xv.  59),  i.e.,  the  '■house 
of  Anath  ;  "  also  in  the  proper  name  Anath  (.ludg. 
iii.  31,  V.  G).  See  Scmroi>er:  P/iuniz.  Sjiraclie, 
18G9,  pp.  121-127.  The  n.une  appears  as  'AiVj/in 
upon  Greek-Phosnician  inscri]>tions.  Upon  Piup- 
nician  coins  Anatuv  is  drawn  aa  riding  upon  ^ 


ANANIAS. 


78 


ANASTASIUS. 


lion,  holding  a  bow  and  arrows,  showing  lier  con- 
quering power,  while  above  her  he.ad  shines  a  star. 

Lit.  —  Dk  Voguk  :  Milantjcs  (farchcolw/ie  orien- 
tale,  186S;  Schroder;  Phouiz.  Sprnclie,  1860; 
Gf.okgf.  S^riTii ;  Assi/rian  D'mcoveriex,  London  and 
N.Y.,  187.3;  2d  ed.,  1881.       WOLF  BAI'DISSLV. 

ANANIAS  (the  Greelc  form  of  Ilananiah,  whom 
Jehova/i  has  t/raciotisly  given).  The  name  of 
three  per.soiis  mentioned  in  the  Acts.  1.  Tlie 
Jewish  Christian  of  Jerusalem,  who  with  his 
wife  Sapphira  was  miraculously  killed  for  lying 
unto  God,  in  trying  to  conceal  the  real  selling 
price  of  property  nominally  consecrated  (Acts  v. 
1-11).  2.  The  Jewish  Christian  of  Damascus 
who  visited  .Saul  in  his  blindness,  and  restored 
his  sight,  and  baptized  him  (.Vctsix.  10-18).  3. 
A  Jewish  high-priest,  appointed  by  Herod  of 
Chalcis,  A.D.  48;  sent  to  Rome  to  answer  a 
charge  of  oppression  preferred  by  the  Samari- 
tans, but  was  acquitted,  and  returned  A.D.  52. 
Paul  was  tried  before  him,  A.D.  .58  ;  and  accused 
him  before  Felix  and  Festus.  He  was  deposed, 
A  D.  50,  and  was  murdered,  A.D.  G7.  (.Ioskpiius  : 
Anliij.  XX.  5.  2;  vi.  2;  Jewish  War,  ii.  17,  0.) 

ANAPHORA  ('AraOopri,  that  which  is  lifted  np, 
offering)  coi-res]>onds  in  the  Greek  liturgy  to  the 
canon  viissce  in  the  Latin,  and  denotes  that  jiart 
of  the  eucharistic  office  which  includes  the  conse- 
cration of  the  elements  and  the  oblation.  Books 
containing  the  whole  celebration  of  the  holy  eu- 
charist  are  also  sometimes  called  Anaphorce,  as, 
for  instance,  that  by  Johannes,  bishop  of  Bostra, 
Arabia;  d.  G50.  .See  Kenaudot:  Collections  uf 
Or.'i-nial  Lilurf/iei,  1710,  vol.  II. 

ANASTASIUS,  whose  true  name  was  Aslric,  b. 
in  France  in  9.54;  d.  in  Hungary,  Sept.  10.  1044; 
entered  the  order  of  the  Benedictines  at  Rouen, 
went  to  Rome;  .accompanied  .\dalbert  to  Prague; 
fled  witli  him  to  Hungary,  and  was,  by  Duke  .Ste- 
phan.  made  abbot  of  St.  Martin,  and  afterwards 
bishop  of  Colocza.  Well  acquainted  with  the 
jiapal  court,  he  was  sent,  in  lUOO,  to  Rome,  to  pro- 
cure the  sanction  of  the  ecclesiastii;al  organiza- 
tion, which  tlie  duke  had  establislied  in  Hungary, 
and  the  elevation  of  tlie  country  into  a  kingdom. 
lie  was  sucee.ssful  in  his  nii.ssiou,  and  brought 
back  a  crown  of  goM,  and  a  bull  conferring  on 
Stephan  the  title  of  the  Apostle  of  Hungary, 
and  acknowledging  him  as  the  he;id  of  the  Hun- 
garian Church. 

ANASTASIUS  SINAITA.  It  is  a  question 
wln'tli'T,  ;ioei)rr|iiig  to  .N'icephorus  and  his  follow- 
ers, there  w.as  only  one  of  this  n.ame,  or  whethi'r, 
according  to  some  recent  critics,  there  were  .sev- 
eral. According  to  N'icephorus,  Anastasius  lived 
as  a  hermit,  on  Mount  .Sinai;  was  elected  bishop 
and  patriarch  of  Antioch  ;  was  banished  in  572, 
on  account  of  his  o]>position  to  tlw;  doctrine  ot 
the  incorruptibility  ot  the  body  of  Clirist,  and  d. 
in  .509.  Among  tin"  works  ascril)ed  to  him  are: 
Anrir/or/icre  ciinlempldtioncs  in  dicini  ofjirii  Hexniimc- 
ron,  /ill,  XL  (in  ,Uti//iia  liihl.,  /'air.  Colon.,  Tom. 
VL,  P.  I.;  Hook  XIL  has  been  edited  by  Allix, 
London,  18(il);  and  Mvyk  •"'''  ''"f  ''(Vc  adnrr.iiis 
Acepha/iis.  od  Gretser,  Ligolstadt,  1800,  in  wliicli 
the  doctrine  of  tlie  incorrnptil)ility  of  the  body  of 
Christ  is  attacked.  These  works,  however,  are 
sometimes  a.scribed  to  another  .Sinaitic  hermit  of 
the  same  name,  who,  according  to  some,  d.  before 
OOi),  according  to  others  after  078.     Tliere  is  still 


a  third    Anastasius   Sinaita  who  succeeded  the 
first,  and  was  slain  by  the  Jews  in  a,  riot  in  609. 

ANASTASIUS  is  the  name  of  four  popes,  and 
one  antipope.  —  Anastasius  I.,  398-402.  I'nder 
Siricius.  Rutinus  of  Aquileia  had  translated 
Origen's  ircpi  upx'ji',  and  introduced  the  work  in 
Rome;  but  Marcella,  a  friend  of  Jerome,  now 
arraigned  him  before  Anastasius,  accusing  him 
of  introducing  heresies;  and  the  pope  condemned 
the  works  of  Origen,  and  broke  off  all  ecclesias- 
tical community  with  Rufinus.  though  the  hitter 
sent  in  a  perfectly  orthodox  confession.  —  Anasta- 
sius II.,  Nov.  496-Kov.  498,  a  native  of  Rome, 
w;is  very  anxious  to  end  the  schism  which  the 
monophysitic  controversy  had  caused  between 
the  Eastern  and  Western  churches.  The  .situa- 
tion was  this:  in  482,  the  emperor  Zeno  issued 
the  Ilenotikou  which  denied  the  authority  of  the 
synod  of  Chalcedou  ;  and,  two  years  later  on, 
the  pope,  Felix  II.  (or  III.)  excommunicated  the 
patriarch  of  Con.stautinople,  Acacius.  because  he 
had  sanctioned  that  decree.  Anastasius  II.  now 
sent  two  bishops  to  the  emperor  with  letters  de- 
claring himself  willing  to  recognize  the  conse- 
crations which  Acacius  liad  jierformed,  on  the 
condition  tliat  his  name  (Acacius)  should  not  be 
mentioned  in  the  prayers  of  the  service;  and  at 
the  same  time  Photiuus,  deacon  of  Thessalouica, 
arrived  at  Rome,  and  was  very  friendly  received 
by  the  pope,  though  he  held  the  views  of  Aca- 
cius, and  consequently  w.as  a  heretic  in  the  eyes 
of  Rome.  The  Liher  Pontificalis  states  that,  in 
this  point,  the  clergy  disagreed  with  the  pope, 
and  even  withdrew  their  allegiance  to  Ins  authoi'- 
ity;  and  from  Gr.atian,  who,  in  a  decree,  desig- 
nated Anastasius  1 1,  as  "one  thrown  off  by  the 
Church,"  and  down  to  the  sixteenth  century,  he 
was  consld'Ted  a  heretic  by  all  ecclesiastical 
writers.- — Anastasius  III.,  011-913,  a. native  of 
Rome.  —  Anastasius  IV.,  July  1 1,  11.5o-I)ec.  3, 
1153,  remained  in  Rome  as  the  vicar  of  Inno- 
cent II.,  when  tlie  latter  fled  to  France.  In  iiis 
short  reign  he  succeeded  in  ending  a  liar.assing 
controversy  with  Friedrich  L,  concerning  the 
appointment  to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  M.agde- 
burg,  by  declaring  himself  convinced  of  the 
leg:ility  of  the  election  of  Bishop  Wichmann  of 
Naumburg,  and  allowing  him,  in  an  assembly 
of  many  prehites  in  the  Church  of  St.  Peter,  to 
take  the  pallium  with  his  own  hands  from  the 
alt.ar.  A  similar  controversy  in  England  he 
decided  by  conferring  the  pallium  on  Archbishop 
Williiim  of  York,  who  liad  alternately  been 
acknowledged  and  deposed  by  Innocent  II., 
('(vlestino  11.,  Lucius  IL,  and  Eugene  HI. — ■ 
Anastasius,  anti]iope  to  Benedict  HI.,  854,  was  a 
c.irdinal  presbyter,  but  w.as,  on  account  of  in- 
snbordinatiou,  excommunicated,  Dec.  10,  850; 
anathematized,  IMay  29,853;  and  finally  bereft 
of  his  sacerdotal  fnnctions.  Nevertlieless,  when 
Leo  IV.  died,  855,  .and  Benedict  HI.  was  elected 
]iopc,  Anastasius  succeeded  in  forming  a  party 
among  the  lower  clergy,  gained  over  to  his  side 
the  imperial  amb.assador,  penetrated  into  the 
Lateran  Palace,  seized  Benedict,  stripped  him  of 
the  pontifical  robe,  ill-treated  and  imprisoned 
him.  These  proceedings,  however,  caused  great 
indignation  in  Rome.  Not  only  the  higher 
clergy,  but  also  the  populace,  sided  with  Bime- 
dict,  who  was  liberated  and  consecrated    Sept 


ANASTASIUS. 


79 


ANATOLIUS. 


29,  856  ;    and  a  council   held   in  Rome  deposed 

AtlilstMsiu.s.  R.  ZOEI'FFHL. 

ANASTASIUS,  bishop  of  Laodicea,  in  Syria,  b. 
in  Alexandria  about  230  ;  acquired  extensive 
knowledge  of  the  liberal  arts;  travelled  about 
264  in  Syria,  and  was  ordained  bishop-coadjutor 
by  Theotecnus  of  Cinsarea,  and,  in  209,  bisliop  of 
Laodicea.  Of  his  work  on  the  paschal  question. 
a  fragment  has  been  preserved  by  Eusebius  {Ilisl. 
eccle.t.,  VII.  ;j2).  The  Latin  translation  of  the 
entire  work.  Canon  Pa^c/ialix,  published  by  Agi- 
dius  Bucherus,  Amsterdam,  1634,  has  been  proved 
spurious  by  Jdeler  (/Iniiilhuch  der  C/iroiiolu;/ie). 
Some  fraijnieiits  of  his  mathematical  works  were 
publislu^d  in  I'ai'is,  in  1543. 

ANASTASIUS  was  a  presbyter  of  Antioch,  and 
accompanied  Nestorius  to  Constantinople  in  428. 
He  was  a  friend,  or,  as  Theophanes  calls  him,  the 
syncellus,  that  is,  confidential  secretary,  of  Nes- 
torius ;  and  it  was  he  who  caused  the  jealousy 
and  rivalry  which  existed  between  the  schools  of 
Antioch  and  Alexandria  to  burst  forth  in  open 
hostilities,  by  his  attack  on  one  of  the  favorite 
terms  of  the  Alexandrian  school,  "  Mary,  the 
mother  of  God."  In  a  sermon  he  said,  "Let  no 
one  call  Mary  diorunoc.  She  was  but  a  human 
being.  It  is  impossible  for  God  to  be  born  of  a 
human  being."  Troclu.s,  the  representative  of 
the  Alexandrian  theology  in  Constantinople,  and 
the  unsuccessful  competitor  of  Nestorius  for  the 
patriarcliate,  made  a  furious  attack  on  Anasta- 
sius.  Nestorius  placed  liiniself  by  the  side  of  his 
friend,  and  the  controversy  began.  It  seems,  how- 
ever, from  one  of  Cyril's  letters  (Epixl.  VIII.),  that 
Anastasius  in  430  made  an  attempt  to  reconcile 
Nestorius  and  Cyril.  After  the  banishment  of 
the  former,  he  still  labored  for  his  cause  in  Con- 
stantinople. The  date  of  his  death  is  not  known. 
See  Smith  and  "\V.\ce  :  Christ.  Biog.,\.  sub  voce. 

ANASTASIUS,  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
was  a  native  of  Alexandria,  came  to  Constanti- 
nople as  the  apocrisiarius  of  bishop  Dioscurus. 
and  was,  through  his  influence  with  the  emperor, 
made  patriarch  in  449,  after  the  deposition  of 
Flavian  by  the  Robber-synod.  He  presided  over 
the  synod  of  Chalcedon  together  with  the  Roman 
legates;  and  by  the  famous  canon  XXVIII.  he 
obtained  rank  of  patriarch  and  next  the  bisliop 
of  Rome,  extension  of  his  jurisdiction  to  the  dio- 
ceses of  Pontus,  A.sia,  and  Thrace,  right  to  ordain 
bishops  in  barbaric  countries,  etc.  On  his  acces- 
sion to  the  patriarchal  see,  he  had  shown  great 
adroitness  in  destroying  every  suspicion  with 
respect  to  his  orthodoxy;  and  he  now  proved  him- 
self equally  dexterous  in  calming  down  the  jeal- 
ousv  of  Rome,  lie  d.  in  4oS.  A  letter  by  him 
to  Leo  I.  is  still  extant  (Com.  T.  IV.,  p.  905). 

ANASTASIUS,  abbot  of  St.  Maria  Trans-Tibe- 
rine  in  Rome,  and  librarian  of  the  Vatican,  was 
present  at  the  Council  of  Constantinople,  in  SG9, 
and  ti'anslated  its  canons  into  Latin.  He  is  also 
the  author  of  an  Ilisloi-ia  ecdesla.'sltca,  mostly  ex- 
tracted from  Nicephorus  and  Syncellus,  and  of 
the  so-called  Lihcr  jjonH/ictilis  (see  title),  a  series 
of  biographies  of  the  popes,  from  Peter  to  Nico- 
las I.  He  d.  in  S80.  See  Migne,  Patrol.  Tom., 
127,  8,  9. 

ANATHEMA  (nvu&rna,  in  the  Greek  classics 
synonymous  with  uvudij/m,  from  uvaridiiiu')  denotes 
properly  any  thing  laid   up  or  suspended,  and 


then  any  thing  placed  apart  in  the  temples,  and 
consecrated  to  the  gods.  In  the  New  Testament 
uwii>£fM  corresponds  to  tin;  H(4)rcw  D?n,  anil  is 
the  proper  term  for  excommunication  (1  Cor. 
xvi.  22),  implying  an  exclusion,  not  only  from 
the  sacraments  and  the  congregation,  but  also 
from  the  grace  of  God,  conse(|uentIy  a  direct 
delivering-up  of  the  person  to  S.atan  (1  Cor.  v.  5), 
which  last  idea  is  ]irominent  in  (jal.  i.  8,  and 
Rom.  ix.  3.  The  term,  and  the  ideas  counecti^d 
with  it.  were  adopted  by  tlie  language  and  usage 
of  the  Church.  The  Council  of  Klvira,  303,  can. 
52,  and  the  Council  of  Laodicea,  307,  can.  29, 
ajiply  it  to  offences  against  the  Church;  and  the 
Council  of  Nioosa,  325,  lays  the  anathema  on  any 
one  who  holds  or  teaches  the  Ariau  view  of  the 
relation  between  the  Father  and  the  Son.  In 
later  ecclesiastical  practice  this  anathema  was 
the  heaviest  form  of  excommunication,  the  ex- 
cnmmunicatiu  major,  as  a]ipears  from  the  acts  of 
numerous  councils,  especially  from  those  of  the 
Council  of  Trent. 

[See  on  the  Hebrew  anathema,  Skldex,  DeJure 
Nat.  el  Gent.  4:  8,  De  !Si/nci/r.;  Gii,DE,'\iEisTF.ii: 
Blemhcerlcc  des  vidijiXren  Jialionatismus  zur  lieseiti- 
fiun'j  des  panlinisclien  Anathema,  Bremen,  1841; 
EwAi.D  :  Altcrtliumer  des  VolLi  Israel.  3d  ed.,  Got- 
tingen,  1SG6.  p.  101  sq.;  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1876, 
pp.  75-79  ;  FKiTzscnEonRoni.ix.3;  Tiioluckou 
Rom.  ix.  .3  ;  Wieseleu  on  Gal.  i.  8.]     liEiiZoo. 

ANATOLIUS,  b.  in  Alexandria,  aliout  230;  d. 
about  2S2.  He  was  the  successor  in  269  of  Euse- 
bius, bishop  of  Laodiciea,  in  Syria  Prima.  Euse- 
bius the  historian  (II.  E.,  VIL,  32)  says  that  he 
attained  the  highest  eminence  in  mathematics, 
])hilosophy,  and  rhetoric.  He  journeyed  about 
264  from  Alexandria  to  CaDSarea  in  Palestine, 
and  was  there  ordained,  and  made  bishop-co- 
adjutor of  Theotecnus;  but  on  passing  through 
Laodicrea  he  was  constrained  to  become  bishop 
there.  Eusebius  says,  that,  although  he  did  not 
write  much,  he  left  a  solid  reputation  for  elo- 
quence and  erudition  ;  and  gives  us  an  extract  of 
Anatolius'  work  on  the  Paschal  Fcsiiral.  What 
pur]iorted  to  be  a  Latin  version  of  this  work  was 
]iublished  by  Buciieiuus  :  Doct.  Temp.  Antw. 
1633,  but  Ideler  (I/amlb.  dcr  Chronolorjic,  ii.  266) 
pronounces  it  a  forgery.  Fragments  of  a  work 
upon  mathematics  have  been  jiublished,  Pari.s, 
1543;  and  by  FAUiiicics:  Ijibl.  Gracn,  iii.  462. 

ANATOLIUS,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  conse- 
crated 449  ;  d.  458,  after  being  the  '-apocrisiarius" 
(see  title)  of  Dioscurus,  patiiarch  of  Alexandria, 
at  Constantinople.  He  found  his  new  position  by 
no  means  easy.  He  M'as  more  than  once  accused 
of  heresy,  of  ambition,  of  injustice;  but,  not- 
withstanding, seems  to  have  been  innocent  of  the 
more  serious  charges.  The  Council  of  Chalce- 
don, held  at  his  request  in  part,  in  its  twenty- 
eighth  canon  decreed  that  equal  dignity  be 
ascribed  to  Constantinople  as  to  Rome;  because 
it  was  the  New  Rome,  and  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment. Hefele  :  Concilienr/eschichte,  2d  vol.,  p. 
509.  Anatolius  crowned  the  Emperor  Leo,  the 
first  performance  of  the  ceremony  (Giubon:  in 
loco).  He  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  some 
very  sweet  hymns,  piarticularly  the  one  begin- 
ning "  Fierce  was  the  wihl  billow,"  which  have 
been  transl.ated  by  John  Jl.ason  Neale  (//^7«ns  of 
the    East.    Ch.).      See    Schaif's    Church   History, 


ANCHIETA. 


80 


ANDERSON. 


vol.  III.,  pp.  5S3-58.5,  where  these  hymns  are 
reprinted. 

ANCHIETA,  Jos6  de,  the  Apostle  of  Brazil,  b. 
at  Laguna,  1.53-3;  d.  at  Revitibia,  June  9,  1597; 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  1500  ;  went  to  Bra- 
zil as  a  missionarj'  in  1553,  and  labored  with 
great  success  among  the  Brazilian  Indians,  of 
whose  language  he  gave  an  admirable  grammar, 
1595. 

ANCHORITES  or  ANACHORITES  (uvaxupdv, 
to  retire,  tcilli(lraiv).  From  the  Old  Testament 
Elijah  and  Elislia  may  be  taken  as  typical  in- 
stances of  anaclioritism,  and  afterwards  John  the 
Baptist,  who  by  Jerome  is  called  princeps  anaclio- 
relarum.  Jerome  also  calls  the  Therapeutes  of 
Egypt,  who  prob.ibly  simply  had  taken  up  the 
example  of  tlie  Essenes,  a  community  of  Chris- 
tian monks  (Calal.,  c.  11).  Anchorites,  properly 
speaking,  were  persons  who  retired  from  the 
world,  and  practised  their  devotional  exercises  in 
solitude  in  order  to  fight  out  the  sjiiritual  battle 
with  so  much  the  more  prospect  of  success ;  the 
persecutions  of  the  second  and  third  centuries 
gave  a  special  impulse  to  the  movement.  An- 
chorites were  also  called  uuitTiTai,  d9?.riTai,  iiovu^ovtcc, 
or  philosophers,  as  many  of  them  wore  the  phi- 
losopher's mantle,  and  lived  according  to  the 
rules  of  Epictetus.  They  lived  in  caves,  avoided 
all  intercourse  with  their  fellow-men,  abstained 
as  much  as  possible  from  food,  spoke  no  word, 
but  prayed  in  silence.  One  stood  in  a  temple  for 
years  with  his  liands  U]ilil'ted  to  heaven,  never 
bleeping.  Others  stood  motionless  on  high  cliffs 
or  tall  columns  (^Sli/liles),  in  wind  and  snow. 
They  were  numerous,  especially  in  Egypt,  Syria, 
Pontus,  and  Tlirace;  and  during  the  ecclesiastical 
controversies  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries 
tliey  sometimes  appeared  suddenly,  in  the  very 
midst  of  the  noise  and  bustle  of  the  large  cities, 
rebuking  both  the  prince  and  the  people;  a.s,  for 
instance,  St.  Anthony  (.\th.\na8.  :  Vila  iSt. 
Anton.,  c.  4(5,  GS).  In  370,  bishop  Ac.acius  of  Beroea 
■brought  Julian  Sabas  to  Antioch  to  employ  his 
'help  against  Arianism.  At  the  same  time 
Thraates  stepped  before  tlie  emperor,  Valens, 
.and  warned  liim  not  to  do  any  harm  to  the 
Church.  In  470  the  stylite  U.miel  went  to  Con- 
stantinople to  defend  orthodo.xy  against  the  em- 
peror Basiliseus.  In  course  of  time  it  became 
•customary  for  several  anchorites  to  unite  and 
(form  small  communities  {Anvimi),  the  cells  being 
•built  in  a  circle  around  a  chapid  ;  and  thus  the 
itrausition  was  made  from  anchoi'it;s  to  coeno- 
bites. St  Chariton  is  said  to  have  built  the  first 
Jaura,  atioul  310,  at  I'liaran,  near  the  Dead  Sea; 
St.  Euthymus  the  next,  near  Jerusalem,  in  the 
^fth  century;  then  followed  St.  Sabas  and  St. 
Quiriakus,  and  in  Egypt  Antonius,  Pachomius, 
Alacarius,  and  others.  Nevertheless,  in  spite  of 
!the  rapid  development  of  monastical  institutions, 
anclKU'iles  still  continued  to  occur.  The  Trullan 
Ojuncil  of  (192  ordered  (ran.  41),  that  a]ier.son  who 
wished  to  become  an  anchorite,  .should  first  go 
through  a  kind  of  novitiate  in  a  monastery. 
Charlemagne  wislied  to  have  all  anchorets  sent 
to  the  moinisteries.  Nevertheless,  they  occurri'd 
even  ill  WeHteni  Europe,  at  a  very  late  date  ;  ami 
on  Mount  -Vtlios  tln-re  slill  live,  ancliorets  and 
hermiUs  independently  of  the  monastery  pro|)i!r. 
•See  J.  Ckwit:  Uriijinea  el  Cuasw  MunacUalun,  (jot- 


tingen,  1363;  Zocklf.r  :  Kritisclie  Gcfchichle  rlcr 
Jtikese,  Frankfort,  1S03.  ZOCKLER. 

ANCILLON,  David,  b.  at  Metz,  March  17,  1017; 
d.  in  Berlin,  Sept.  3,  1092;  a  great-grandson  of 
president  Ancillon,  who,  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
preferred  to  resign  his  position  at  the  head  of  one 
of  the  highest  courts  of  France,  rather  than  re- 
nounce his  evangelical  faith ;  a  grandson  of 
Georg  Ancillon,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  in  Metz ;  and  a  son  of  Abraham 
Ancillon,  an  eminent  lawyer.  lie  was  educated 
in  the  Jesuit  college  of  his  native  city,  but  with- 
stood all  the  attempts  of  his  teachers"  to  convert 
him  to  the  Roman  faith.  lie  then  studied  the- 
ology at  Geneva,  and  was  appointed  preacher  at 
Meaux,  in  lUll,  and  at  Metz  in  1053.  In  1057 
a  conference  on  the  tradition  of  the  Church  was 
held  between  him  and  Dr.  Bedaciar,  the  suffra- 
gan of  the  bishop  of  IMetz ;  and,  as  a  false  report 
of  this  conference  was  sjn-ead  by  some  monk, 
.\ncillon  published  his  celebrated  Truilc  de  la 
tradition,  Sedan,  1057.  In  1060,  he  wrote  an 
apology  of  Luther,  Zwingli,  Calvin,  and  Beza. 
By  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  he  w.as 
compelled  to  leave  France,  and  settled  first  at 
Frankfort,  then  at  Berlin,  where  the  elector 
Friedrich  Wilhelm  ajipointed  him  preacher  to 
the  French  congregation.  The  Vie  dc  Furel 
which  appeared  at  Amsterdam,  1091,  under  his 
name,  is  only  a  mutilated  and  bungling  coiiy  of  a 
manuscript  which  he  had  not  destined  for  publi- 
cation. See  CiiARLics  Ancillon:  Melanges  cri- 
tiques et  litlcniireti,  Basel,  1698,  3  vols. 

ANCILLON,  Charles,  son  of  the  preceding,  b. 
at  Metz  in  1059:  d.  in  Berlin  in  1715;  was  judge 
and  director  of  the  French  colony  in  Brandenburg, 
and  liistoriographer  to  Friedrich  I.  Of  his  writ- 
ings the  following  have  interest  for  the  church 
historian  :  Hejhxioiis  Potitiques,  Cologne,  16S5  ; 
Irrevocabilite.  de  I'edil  de  A'antc.s,  Anistei'dam, 
1088;  Hi.-:loire  de  PHluhlisseynept  dex  Frtmfois  re'fti- 
ijih  dans  lis  ilals  de  Branded  ■omi/,  Berlin,  109(). 

ANCILLON,  Jean  Pierre  Frederic,  great-grand- 
son of  David  Ancillon,  b.  in  Berlin,  A]n'il3(),  1707; 
d.  there  April  19,  1837;  studied  theology,  liistory, 
and  jihilosophy  ;  visited  Cieneva  and  Paris;  w.as 
appointed  teacher  in  the  military  academy  of 
Berlin,  and  preacher  to  thi!  French  congregation; 
attr.acted  niueh  attention  by  his  .sermons;  was 
made  tutor  to  the  crown  ]irince  in  1800,  and  in 
1825,  minister  of  state,  which  position  he  held  to 
his  death.  In  1818  he  published  two  volumes  of 
sermons  at  Berlin.  C.  SCHMIDT. 

ANDERSON,  Lars  (f.anrenlins  Andrcti),  b. 
probably  at  Stre.ngniis,  1'18();  d.  in  the  same 
place,  .\pril  29,  1552;  waschaiu^cdlorof  the  realm, 
and  tlui  most  intimate  councillor  of  the  king 
from  1523  to  1510,  and  stood,  together  with  Olans 
and  Laurentius  Petri,  at  the  liead  of  that  move- 
ment which  introduced  thc^  Ueformation  in  Swe- 
den, on  the  diet  of  Westi'raas,  1.527.  He  also 
partook  with  Olaus  Petri  in  the  translation  of 
the  Bible  into  Swedish,  of  which  the  New  Test- 
ament appeared  in  152<),  tin;  whole  in  1511.  In 
1540  he  was  accused  of  being  cognizant  of  n  con- 
siiiracy  against  the  life  of  the  king,  and  con- 
demned to  deatli.  Thi^  king  pardoned  him,  but 
he  was  dismi.sscd  from  all  lii.s  oflices,  and  lived 
afterw.irds  iu  retirement  iu  StreiignJiH.  Si-e 
SwiiuiiN. 


ANDERSON. 


81 


ANDOVER. 


ANDERSON,  Rufus  (I).l).,  LLD.).  for  thirty- 
fnur  years  (lie  corres|u>n(liiia"  secvptary  of  tlie 
American  lioanl  of  ('oiinnissioiiers  for  Foreii;ii 
Missions,  b.  Alia;.  17,  ITIIli,  at  North  Yarmouth, 
Me. ;  d.  M.ay  30,  1880,  at  Boston,  iM;uss.  He  was 
graduated  at  Bowdoiii  Collei;;e,  Me.,  where  his 
uncle  was  the  first  jiresident,  in  1818;  studied 
in  Andover  Theological  Seminary  1819-1822. 
AVhile  in  the  senior  class,  he.  aided  in  conductinc^ 
the  correspondence  of  the  Board,  during  the 
absence  of  Mr.  Kvarts;  and  after  graduation  he 
•was  made  assistant  secretary,  and  in  1832  cor- 
responding secretary,  which  position  he  held 
until  ISfJIi,  when  he  resigned  because  he  was 
convinced  that  seventy  years  form  "  a  limit  be- 
yond which  it  would'  not  be  wise  for  him  to 
remain  in  so  arduous  a  position."  He  was  then 
elected  a  member  of  the  prudential  committee  ; 
but  failing  health  compelled  his  resignation,  after 
nine  more  years  of  service.  He  visited  officially 
a  part  of  the  Mediterranean  missions,  1828-29, 
and  another  part,  1813-44;  the  India,  IS.'Ji-SS; 
and  the  Sandwieh-Tslaml  missions,  18G3.  He  was 
a  prolific  author  upon  his  favorite  theme  of  mis- 
sions.  Being  requested  by  the  Board  to  prepare 
a  history  of  its  operations,  he  wrote  one  on  its 
work  in  the  Sandwich  Islands  (1870),  another  on 
ini.ssions  to  India  (1874),  and  two  on  the  missions 
to  the  Oriental  Churches  (1872).  But  more  than 
foreign  missions  claimed  his  attention.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  Mount  Holyoke  Seminary  ; 
was  president  tor  a  number  of  years  of  the  trus- 
tees of  Bra<lford  Academy  ;  a  member  of  the 
board  of  trust  of  Andover  Seminary;  was  active 
in  benevolence.  "In  every  position  and  place 
the  wisdom  of  his  counsels  seldom  failed  to  com- 
mand respect ;  liis  hopeful  habit,  resulting  from 
a  deeply  settled  trust  in  the  jiromises  and  provi- 
dence of  God,  carried  with  it  an  abiding  power 
of  inspiration." 

ANDOVER  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY.  In 
the  year  1807  a  ]ilan  was  formed  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  theological  seminary  in  Andover, 
Mass.  The  Seminary  was  to  be  connected  with 
I'hillips  Academy,  an  institution  founded  at 
Andover  in  the  year  1778.  While  the  project- 
ors of  this  tlieol(>;;ical  seminary  were  maturing 
their  plan,  they  heard  of  another  and  similar 
institution  which  was  to  be  established  at  New- 
bury, Mass.  It  seemed  undesirable  that  two 
such  schools  should  be  established  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  each  other,  and  therefore  an  attempt 
was  made  to  unite  the  two.  The  union  was 
effected  after  an  arduous  and  prolonged  struggle. 
The  main  controversy  was  between  the  "  moder- 
ate Calvinists  "  so  called,  and  the  men  who  styled 
themselves  "  consistent  Calvinists,"  and  were 
generally  denominated  "Ilopkinsians."  The  two 
parties  united  on  the  basis  of  a  creed,  which  is 
like  the  Westminster  Assembly's  Catechism  in 
substance,  but  is  considerably  different  in  form. 
The  united  seminary  is  under  the  immediate 
care  of  the  trustees  of  Phillips  Academy ;  is 
incorporated  as  a  branch  of  the  academy,  but 
is  under  the  general  supervision  of  a  board  of 
visitors.  The  institution  was  formally  opened 
for  the  reception  of  students  on  the  28th  of 
September,  1808.  A  sermon  was  preached  on 
the  occasion  by  President  Dwi;;ht  of  Yale  Col- 
lege. The  number  of  students  who  entered  the 
7-1 


.seminary  at  its  opening  was  thirty-six.  The 
number  who  have  been  connected  with  it  during 
all  the  seventy-two  years  of  its  existence  is  not 
far  from  three  thousand.  Of  these  a  large  pro- 
jiortiou  liave  been  presidents  and  professors  of 
colleges  and  theological  seminaries;  and  an  un- 
commoidy  large  proportion  have  been  mi.ssion- 
aries  to  the  heathen.  Tlie  most  conspicuous  of 
the  men  who  projecte<I  the  seminary  of  the 
"  moderate  Calvinists  "  was  Rev.  Eliphalet 
Pearson,  LL.I).  ;  and  the  most  conspicuous  of 
those  who  projected  the  seminary  of  the  "  Ilop- 
kinsians "was  Ilev.  Samuel  Spring,  D.D.  The 
two  men  who  were  most  influential  in  uniting 
the  two  parties  were  Dr.  Pearson  and  Dr.  Leon- 
ard Woods.  Dr.  Pearson  was  the  first  professor 
of  sacred  literature  in  the  seminary.  He  re- 
mained in  office  oidy  one  year,  but  was  a  trustee 
of  the  seminary  eighteen  years,  and  of  the 
academy  forty-eight  years.  Dr.  Woods  was  the 
first  professor  of  Christian  theology,  and  re- 
mained in  office  thirty-eight  years.  Rev.  Ed- 
ward Dorr  (iriffin,  D.D.,  was  the  first  professor 
of  sacred  rhetoric  ;  Rev.  James  Murdock,  I)  D., 
the  first  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history.  Rev. 
Muses  Stuart  succeeded  Dr.  Pearson  in  the  chair 
of  sacred  literature,  remained  in  office  thirty- 
eight  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  Dr.  B.  B. 
Edwards.  Dr.  I^dward  Robinson  was  professor 
extraordinary  of  sacred  literature  from  1830  to 
1833.  During  these  three  years  he  gave  instruc- 
tion in  the  Hebrew  department,  to  which  a  distinct 
professorship  is  now  devoted.  Other  professors 
now  deceased  have  been  Rev.  Ebenezer  Porter, 
D.D  ,  Rev.  Ralph  Emerson,  D.D.,  and  Rev. 
Thomas  II.  Skinner,  D.D.  Besides  the  five  chairs 
of  instruction  already  named,  the  institution  has 
a  professorship  of  elocution,  also  of  the  relatioua 
of  Christianity  to  science,  also  of  theology  and 
homiletics  in  a  special  course.  The  most  emi- 
nent contributors  to  the  funds  of  the  seminary 
have  been  Madam  Phoebe  Phillips,  Hon.  John 
Phillips,  Samuel  Abbot,  Esq.,  Hon.  William 
Bartlett,  Hon.  John  Xoriis,  Moses  Brown,  Esq., 
Lieut. -Gov.  William  Phillips,  John  Smith,  Esq., 
Peter  Smith,  Esq.,  John  Dove,  Esq.,  Samuel  A. 
Hitchcock,  Esq.,  Frederic  Jones,  Esq.,  Henry 
Winkley,  Esq.,  Madam  Valeria  G.  Stone,  and 
Miss  Sophia  Smith.  The  donations  from  each 
of  these  benefactors  have  ranged  from  fifteen 
thousand  dollars  to  one  hundred  and  sixty  thou- 
sand dollars.  The  edifices  belonging  to  the 
seminary  are  two  dormitories,  a  chapel  for  morn- 
ing prayers,  lecture-rooms,  etc.,  a  chapel  for 
sabbath  worship,  a  library .  building  containing 
thirty-eight  thousand  volumes,  eight  houses  for 
the  professors,  etc.  The  institution  is  within  an 
hour's  distance  by  railroad  from  the  most  flour- 
ishing cities  and  towns  of  Eastern  Massachusetts. 
The  liistory  of  Andover  Theological  Seminary 
—  the  oldest  theological  seminary  in  the  laud  — 
has  been  identified  with  many  religious  and 
philanthropic  movements  of  the  day.  The 
"  American  Education  Society,"  the  "American 
Tract  Society,"  the  "  American  Temperance  So- 
ciety," the  plan  of  the  oldest  religious  newspaper 
in  America,  had  their  origin  on  Andover  Hill. 
The  "  Andover  Press "  has  been  noted  in  tli3 
religious  communitv  during  the  last  seventy 
years.     The  works  of  Drs.  Porter,   Woods,  and 


ANDRADA. 


82 


ANDREA. 


Appleton  were  printed  here,  as  were  the  vari- 
ous editions  of  Professor  Stuart's  Hebrew  Gram- 
mar and  his  Commentaries.  Two  other  Hebrew 
grammars,  one  Hebrew  lexicon,  one  Greelv  lex- 
icon, three  grammars  of  the  Xew  Testament 
Greek,  two  Greek  liarmonies  of  the  Gospels, 
various  commentaries  of  Ellicott,  Henderson, 
Mui'phy,  Lightfoot,  Perowne,  Hackett,  on  the 
Greek  and  Hebrew  Scriptures,  are  from  the  And- 
over  Press  [see  Catalogue  (\V.  F.  Draper)  1881]. 
As  early  as  1822  it  issued  Dr.  Thomas  Brown's 
Menial  Philosophi/  in  three  octavo  volumes ;  also 
his  Essay  on  Cattse  and  Effect.  The  "  American 
Biblical  Repository "  was  printed  at  Andover 
from  1831,  the  time  of  its  commencement,  until 
1838.  The  "  Bibliotheca  Sacra  "  has  been 
printed  here  from  1814  until  the  present  time 
(1S81).  It  is  now  in  the  tliirty-eightli  year  of 
its  existence.  In  18.31  it  united  with  itself  the 
"American  Biblical  Repository,"  and  in  view  of 
this  union  n;ay  be  said  to  have  existed  fifty 
years,  and  to  embrace  fifty  octavo  volumes.  If 
the  numbers  of  the  "Biblical  Repository,"  from 
1843  to  1850,  be  talcen  into  the  account,  the  united 
periodical  embraces  fifty-seven  octavo  volumes. 
[See  Woods:  Hist.  And.  TIteol.  Sem.,  Bost.,  1885.] 

The  term  "Andover  Theology"  has  been  in 
local  or  provincial  use  during  the  last  seventy- 
years.  It  originated  from  the  fact  that  the 
"  creed  "  which  lies  at  the  basis  of  the  semi- 
nary includes  various  expressions  which  are  dis- 
tinctively Hopkinsian,  and  excludes  various  ex- 
pressions which  are  distinctively  Calviuistic;  but, 
on  the  whole,  adopts  the  substance  of  Calvinism 
as  well  as  the  substance  of  Hopkinsianism,  and 
has  satisfied  the  majority  of  the  New-England 
Calvinists  as  well  as  the  majority  of  the  IIop- 
kinsians.  Some  of  the  Calvinists  would  have 
preferred  the  catechism  unmodified  ;  some  of  the 
Hopkinsians  would  have  preferred  a  larger  modi- 
fication of  the  catechism  :  on  the  whole,  both  par- 
ties were  satisfied  with  the  compromise.  The 
"creed,"  representing  the  compromise,  represents 
the  "  Andover  Theology."   Edwards  A.  park. 

ANDRADA,  Antonio  d',  b.  at  Villa  de  Oleiros, 
near  .M'-nbJo,  Portugal,  hi  1580;  d.  at  Goa,  .\ug. 
20,  1()33 ;  entered  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  at 
Coimbra  in  15!)(5;  went  in  1001  as  a  missionary 
to  India,  and  was  appointed  superior  of  the  mis- 
sions of  Mongolia.  Hence  lie  muCe  two  jour- 
neys to  Tliibet,  tlie  first  of  which  he  has  v'^sriribcd 
in  his  A^oro  Descubrimenio  do  (irao  Calnijo  ox,  <los 
Retfrios  de  'L'/ihel,  Lisbon,  102(5,  translated  ihlo 
Pr"n<-li  in  1020. 

ANDRADA  (Diego  Pai/m  d'Andrnde).  b.  at 
Coimbra.  Portugal,  ih  1528;  d.  in  Lisbon,  in  1575  ; 
was  a  member  of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  and 
one  of  the  Portuguese  delegates  to  the  Council 
of  Trent.  Martin  Chemnitz's  attack  on  the 
Jesuit"),  —  Tlicolof/i(c  Jesuilnrum  priccipua  capita, 
1502,  —  he  answered  by  his  Libri  ortliodoxarum 
exposilionum  de  conlroversis  reliyioni.t  capilibus;  but 
this  book  gave  Chemnitz  occasion  to  write  his 
celebrated  work,  Exnminis  Concilii  Tridentini  opus 
inte>/rum,  1505-73,  to  wliieh  Andra<ia  made  only 
a  feeble  reply  in  his  iJefensio  Trident  I  no:  Jiitei 
Cal/ioliae.  —  His  brother  Thomas  de  Jesus,  an 
Augustinian  monk,  was  taken  prisoner  in  llie  bat- 
tle of  Alcac'T,  .'Vug.  4,  1578.  and  confined  in  a 
dungeon  to  his  death,  .\pril  17, 15ii2.     While  here 


he  wrote  in  Portuguese  his  celebrated  book.  The 
Labors  of  Jesu<,  which  was  translated  into  Span- 
ish, llnlian,  and  French. 

ANDREA,  Jakob,  b.  at  Waiblingen,  Wiirtem- 
berg.  March  25,  1.528;  d.  at  Tubingen.  Jan.  7, 
1590 ;  was  educated  at  the  expense  of  his  native 
city  in  the  Pajdatrogium  of  Stuttgart,  and  studied 
theology  in  Tubingen  1541-1516.  On  leaving 
the  university  he  was  made  a  deacon  in  Stuttgai't; 
and  during  the  occupation  of  the  city  by  Spanish 
troops,  in  1547,  as  a  consequence  of  the  .Smalcald 
war,  he  was  the  only  evangelical  minister  who 
was  allowed  to  remain  in  the  city:  the  rest  were 
expelled.  Returning  to  Tubingen  in  1518,  he 
was  made  chaplain  to  the  hospital,  and  preached 
the  Protestant  faith  in  one  of  the  aisles  of  the 
Collegiate  Church,  at  the  same  time  as  an  Inte- 
rim-priest said  mass  in  the  choir.  In  1.553,  he 
was  ajipointed  superintendent  general  at  Goppin- 
gen,  and  in  1502  professor  of  theology,  provost, 
and  chancellor  of  the  university  of  TUljingen. 
The  activitv  which  he  developed  in  the  cause  of 
the  Reformation,  during  the  tliirty-seven  years  he 
spent  at  Goppingen  and  Tiibingen,  was  truly 
stupendous.  He  felt  that  there  lay  a  great  dan- 
ger to  the  success  of  the  Reformation  in  the 
division  of  the  Protestant  party  into  minor  fac- 
tions; and,  though  he  was  an  ardent  champion  of 
Lutheranism  pure  and  undefiled,  he  undertook  to 
reconcile  the  various  parties  among  the  Luther- 
ans, and  unite  them  into  one  bodjf.  His  first  plan 
was  to  neutralize  the  diflierences  by  means  of 
formulas  so  general  that  they  could  be  accepted 
by  all.  Two  )'ears  he  spent  in  travelling,  visit- 
ing every  university,  and  conferring  with  every 
theologian  of  any  consequence  from  Geneva  to 
Copenhagen.  But  neither  the  Flaciaus  nor  the 
Philippists,  tiie  two  extreme  parties  among  the 
Lutherans,  h;id  full  confidence  in  him;  and  on 
the  convention  of  Zerbst,  May,  1570,  the  attempt 
proved  a  failure.  Andreit,  however,  did  not  give 
up  the  plan ;  he  only  changed  the  method  of  its 
execution.  He  now  proposed  to  unite  all  Lu- 
theran congregations  in  Germanj'  into  a  firm 
alliance  by  drawing  a  sharp  line  of  ilistinctioii 
between  them  and  the  adherents  of  Zwingli  and 
Calvin,  and  thus  destroy  the  Philippists  and 
every  other  individual  sliade  of  Liitherauism. 
In  1573  he  sent  a  paper  under  the  name  of  the 
Suabian  Concordia,  to  the  theologians  of  Ncu'th 
Germany,  for  examination  and  criticism.  May 
28,  1.570,  a  convention  assemliled  at  Torgau  to 
compare  and  harmonize  the  Suabian  Concordia 
with  tliose  answers  to  it  which  had  com(!  in,  — 
theSuabian-.Saxonian  C'oixviri/in.andthe.Maulbron 
Formidd.  The  result  of  this  convention  was  the 
.so-called  Lihcr  Tortjenscs ;  and  then  followed.  May 
19-28,  1580,  three  final  conferences  betwei-n  .Vn- 
dreii,  Chemnitz,  Sehu-kker,  Chytriius,  Musculus, 
and  Kbrner.  In  June  25,  1580,  the  Formula  Con- 
an-difc  apiieared,  and  was  aceeiited  by  all  Lutheran 
governnii'iits  as  one  of  the  .symbolical  books  of 
the  denomination.  The  works  of  Andreii  number 
more  than  a  hundred  and  fifty,  and  belong  to  the 
most  characteristic  from  tlie  closing  jieriod  of 
the  Reforin.-ition.  'I'liey  consist  of  sermons  and 
essays,  ]iolemical,  dogmatical,  and  praclic;il. 
.Some  of  the  most  y>romineiil.  are,  Uifulalio  Crimi- 
nalioHum  Hosii,  150O;  De  dioditis  Noliiris  In  C/iristo, 
'505;  UcriclU  von  dcr  UbiiiuilUt,  1580;  Lk:  Instau- 


ANDREA. 


83 


ANGELA. 


ration/^  Slud.  TlitoL,  etc.  A  collected  edition  does 
not  exist.  See  J.  V.  Andrka  :  Fama  Andremm, 
Strasslnircf,  1G30,  containiiiaf  all  the  pvincipal 
sources  to  his  hiography,  among  which  is  an  aiito- 
biof^raphy,  written  in  lo(JJ,  and  a  caliil<i(/us  Srrip- 
lonim.  ..  WA(iENM.\NN'. 

ANDREA,  Johann  Valentin,  a  grandson  of 
Jacob  Andrea;  b.  at  Ilerrenberg,  AVurtcnilx-rg, 
Aug.  17,  158G;  d.  in  Stuttgart.  June  27,  IGol; 
studied  theology  at  the  University  of  'J'iibingen, 
1601-7  ;  travelled  from  1007-14  in  Switzerland, 
France,  and  Italy,  as  tutor  for  some  young  noble- 
men, and  was  in  the  latter  year  ajipointed  deacon 
at  Vailiingen.  In  1020  he  moved  to  Cahv  as 
minister  and  superintendent,  and  in  1G39  he 
became  court-preacher,  and  member  of  the  consis- 
tory of  Stuttgart,  from  which  offices  he  retired  in 
1647,  on  account  of  ill  health.  Ilis  numerous 
writings  consist  mostly  of  small  pamjihlets,  gen- 
erally written  in  Latin;  and  many  of  them  are 
very  rare,  they  having  never  been  published  in  a 
collected  edition:  De  C/iristinni  Kosmoxeni  f/cni- 
/Hro,  1012  ;  Turbo,  1G1.5;  Menippus  sive  inanilatinn 
nnsirarum  speculum,  1G18;  ]\Iylhologia  C/irisliana 
and  Clirisliauapolis,  1G19 ;  Apappradhus,  1031 ; 
Tlieop/tilus,  1(!19,  etc.  They  contain,  on  the  one 
side,  a  deep  love  of  the  Christian  ideals,  and  a 
strong  enthusiasm  for  their  realization  in  prac- 
tical life,  and,  on  the  other  side,  a  humorous 
and  sarcastic  polemic  against  the  dead  scholasti- 
cism and  barren  dogmatism  of  the  Lutheran 
theology  of  his  time.  See  (he  article  on  Kosi- 
cnuciAN.s;  his  Autohlograph;/,  edited  in  Latin  by 
Kheinwald,  1819,  and  in  German  by  Seybold, 
1799;  IIossiiACH :  Andrea  und  seiii  Zeiudlcr, 
1S19.  V.  Fr.  Oeiilkr  published  translations  of 
two  of  his  works,  Tlicnplulus  and  Der  chriatliche 
liUri/er.     IIiMlbronn,  1S7S,  2  vols. 

ANDRE/E,  Abraham,  a  native  of  Angermann- 
land,  Sweden,  the  son-in-law  of  Laurentius  Petri ; 
came  in  conflict  with  King  John,  who  wished  to 
restore  the  Roman-Catholic  Church  in  Sweden, 
and  was  compelled  to  flee  to  Germany  in  1580, 
but  was  elected  Archbishop  of  Upsala  by  the 
Swedish  clergy  immediately  after  the  death  of 
King  John  (in  1593),  and  confirmed  by  King 
Sig'ismund.  lie  afterwards  aroused  the  suspi- 
cion of  Duke  Charles,  regent  of  Sweden,  who 
imjirisoned  him  in  the  castle  of  Gripsholm,  where 
he  died  in  1007.  During  his  residence  in  Ger- 
many he  partook  in  the  theological  controversies 
of  the  day,  and  wrote,  among  other  works.  Forum 
Adiapliororum,  Wittenberg,  1587. 

ANDREAS  CRETENSiSjb.  at  Damascus,  spent 
some  time  in  Jerusalem,  so  he  is  sometimes 
styled  'lipomAv/ilTT/c;  was  .sent  by  Bishop  Theodore 
of  Jerusalem  to  the  Sixth  Council  of  Constanti- 
nople (080) ;  was  ordained  a  deacon  there,  and 
made  guardian  of  orphans,  and  became  finally 
Archbishop  of  Crete.  His  works,  consisting  of 
homilies,  canons,  and  hymns  (of  which  several 
became  very  celebrated,  and  are  still  sung  in  the 
Greek  Church),  were  edited  by  Cojihefis,  Paris, 
1644;  by  Gallaxd  :  Bild.  Pair.  XIII.,  689;  and 
by  Wifi.vE,  Palrnl.  XCVII. 

ANDREAS,  ISishop  of  Caesarea  in  Cappadocia, 
wrote  towards  tlie  close  of  the  fifth  century  a 
commentary  on  the  Book  of  Revelation.  Noth- 
ing more  is  known  of  his  life.  Of  his  work,  a 
Latin  translation  by  Peltanus  was  published  at 


Ingolstadt,  1574,  but  the  Greek  text  not  vnitil 
lo9(i.  at  Heidelberg,  by  Sylburg.  It  was  after- 
wards several  times  printed  together  with  the 
commentary  by  Arethas,  which  see.  Smith  & 
Wace:   Clirliit.  Bioip:  I. 

ANDREAS  OF  GRAIN,  a  singular  phenomenon 
among  tlie  predecessors  of  tlie  Rel'ormation, 
tliough,  pro]>erly  speaking,  not  one  of  them  him- 
self; was  a  Slavonian  by  birth  ;  entered  the  order 
of  the  Dominicans,  and  was  made  Archbishop  of 
Carniola  by  the  emperor,  Friedrich  III.;  in  1482 
he  re[)aired  to  Switzerland,  and  was  very  active 
to  get  a  new  general  council  convened  at  Basel. 
With  letters  of  recommendation  from  Bern,  he 
addressed  himself  to  the  magistrates  of  Basel, 
and  after  delivering  a  pompous  speech  in  the 
cathedral,  in  which  he  did  not  conceal  his  ani- 
mosity against  Pope  Sixtus  IV.,  he  nailed,  on 
July  21,  a  formal  ari'aignment  of  the  pope  on 
the  doors  of  the  cathedral,  accompanying  it  with 
a  demand  for  a  general  council.  The  pope  ex- 
communicated him,  and  put  the  city  under  the 
interdict;  and  finally  Andreas  was  arrested  by 
the  local  authorities,  and  placed  in  a  prison, 
where,  on  Nov.  13,  1484,  he  w  as  found  strangled, 
he  having  probably  connnitted  suicide.  His 
death  was  kept  secret  for  some  time.  His  corpse 
was  put  in  a  barrel,  and  thrown  into  the  Rhine. 
Ilis  own  secretary,  Peter  Numagen  of  Treves, 
considered  him  crazy  (ccrchro  kesus).  See  Gesta 
ArcIiie/)lscoj>i  Cnii/nenxis  in  J.  II.  Hottingkr: 
IJisl.  Fcrl.'x.,  S»c.  XV.  pp.  403-412. 

ANDREWES,  Lancelot,  b.  in  London,  1.555; 
d.  at  Wincliester,  Sept.  25,  1026  ;  was  educated  in 
Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  after- 
wards became  master;  was  appointed  chaplain  to 
the  queen,  and  Dean  of  Westminster,  by  Eliza- 
lieth,  and  by  James,  Bisliop  of  Chichester  in 
l(i0.j,  of  Ely  in  1009,  and  of  Winchester  in  1618. 
He  was  a  man  of  great  learning  and  fervent 
devotion,  and  enjoyed  reputation,  both  as  a  theo- 
logian and  as  a  preacher.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Hampton  Court  Conference  (1604),  at  which 
the  present  authorized  version  was  proposed,  and 
was  appointed  head  of  the  first  company  of  trans- 
lators to  whom  were  assigned  the  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  as  far  as  2  Kings.  He  published 
ninety-six  sermons,  of  which  an  edition  in  five 
volumes  was  given  in  the  Anglo-Catholic  Libra- 
ry, Oxford,  1841-43;  wrote  torlura  Torti,  1009, 
against  Bellarmine,  who  had  attacked  King 
James's  Defence  of  the  Il'ujhts  of  Kings;  Prcccs  Pri- 
vatie  (in  Greek  and  Latin,  translated  by  Dean 
Stanhope,  London,  1826);  The  Pattern  of  Cate- 
cliislicnl  Doctrine  (an  exposition  of  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments), 3d  ed.,  London,  1075,  modern  ed., 
Oxford,  1840,  etc.  See  Isaacson:  Life  of  Bishop 
Andrewes  (in  FuWer's  Abel  Reilevivus,  ed.  Nichols, 
London,  1867,  2  vols.);  Cassan  :  Lives  of  the 
Bishops  of  Winchester,  London,  1820. 

ANGARI/E.     See  Fasts. 

ANGELA  MERICI,  also  called  Angela  of  Bres- 
cia, b.  at  Desenzano,  on  Lake  Garda,  March  21, 
1470;  d.  at  Brescia,  Jan.  27,  1540;  felt  herself 
from  early  youth  drawn  towards  a  life  of  solitude 
and  devotion,  and  entered  a  Franciscan  convent, 
but  returned  afterwards  to  the  world,  and  began 
to  teach  small  children,  in  which  she  succeeded 
so  well  tliat  she  was  called  for  the  same  purpose 
to  Brescia,  where  she  spent  the  rest  of  her  life. 


ANGELIC. 


84 


ANGELS. 


On  Nov.  25,  15.3.5.  in  the  Church  of  St.  Afra.  in 
Brescia,  she  and  eleven  other  maidens  formed 
an  association,  under  the  patronatreof  .St.  Ursula, 
for  the  purpose  of  teaching  small  cliildren,  aiding 
the  poor,  and  nursing  the  sick.  It  was  original- 
ly not  a  strictly  religious  order  (the  members 
liiade  no  vows,  did  not  live  together,  adopted  no 
common  dress,  etc.);  but  it  soon  developed  in 
that  direction.  On  March  IG.  1537,  the  number 
of  members  had  increased  to  seventy-six,  and 
Angela  was  elected  superior.  In  1544  the  order 
was  confirmed  by  Paul  III.  See  UiiSULiXEs  ;  Da.t 
l.rhtn  (1.  h.  Angela  Merici,  Augsburg.  1811,  and 
M.  Sintzkl:  'Leben  d.  h.  Anrjcla;  llegensburg, 
1842. 

ANGELIC  ORDER,  The,  also  called  the  Guas- 
lillinex,  was  founded  (in  1530)  by  the  Countess 
Torelli  of  Guastalla,  who  at  that  time  was 
twenty-five  years  old,  and  widow  for  the  second 
time.'  The  order  was  destined  for  maidens  who 
.should  live  in  angelic  jiurity  (whence  the  name), 
and  was  confirmed  in  1534  by  Paul  III.,  on  the 
rules  of  St.  Augustine.  It  was  exempt  from 
<]iiscopal  jurisdiction,  but  subordinate  to  the 
liarnabites  of  Milan,  in  which  city  it  liad  its 
first  house.  In  the  beginning  the  nuns  accom- 
panied the  Barnabites  on  their  missions;  but  in 
^pite  of  the  coarse  garment,  the  wooden  cross  on 
the  bosom,  the  hempen  string  around  the  neck, 
to  which  was  sometimes  added  a  crown  of  thorn, 
the  easy  mannei-s  of  the  nuns  gave  offence,  and 
in  many  places  the  order  was  dissolved.  The 
cure  for  the  scandals  was  found  in  giving  up  the 
joint  missions,  and  secluding  the  nuns. 

ANGELIS,  Girolamo,  b.  at  Castro  Giovanni, 
Sicily,  in  1557;  d.  in  Japan,  Dec.  4,  1G23;  en- 
tered the  order  of  the  Jesuits  in  1585,  and  went 
in  1002  to  Japan.  When  in  1014  the  Jesuits 
were  expelled  from  that  country,  Angelis  re- 
mained, disguised  in  Japanese  dress,  and  was 
not  discovered  until  after  the  laps(!  of  nine  years, 
when  he  was  imprisoned,  and  burnt  alive.  His 
Jlelazione  del.  Rcrjno  di  Yczo  was  published  in 
Home,  1025.    He  was  canonized  by  Pope  Pius  IX. 

ANGELS,  ISihlical.  The  commonest  name  in 
the  Old  Testament  for  tliese  creatures  who  are 
represented,  in  ]irophetic  vision  and  poetic  fancy, 
as  surrounding  thi^  throne  of  (iod,  is  "the  sons  of 
God,"  which  brings  out  their  near  relationship  to 
their  Creator  (Job  i.  0,  xxxviii.  7;  Dan.  iJi.  25; 
Ps.  xxix.  1,  Ixxxix.  G).  They  had  other  names, 
"the  saints"  (Job  v.  1  ;  Ps.  Ixxxix.  5,  7;  Dan. 
viii.  13)  ;  in  Jew  isli  theology,  "  the  family  above  " 
(cf.  Kph.  iii.  15);  in  the  Septuagint,  in  several 
places,  two  of  which  are  cited  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment (Heb.  i.  G,  ii.  7),cl<Mm,  "gods:"  neverthe- 
less a  sharp  distinction  is  drawn  between  them 
and  (jod,  to  whom  they  pray;  but  they  are  not 
prayeil  to  by  any  creature.  The  Kpistle  to  the 
Hebrews  (i.  14)  designates  them  "spirits;"  but 
the  Old  Testament  does  not  recognize  any  such 
epithet. 

Before  the  exile  they  were  not  known  by  name, 
save  tho.se  called  in  general  cherubim  and  sera- 
j)hini;  but  they  properly  form  a  class  by  them- 
selves. Angels  bore  a  iniman  figure,  and  to 
paint  them  with  winga  is  erroneous,  but  is  de- 
rived from  the  fal.se  rendering  of  the  Vulgati" 
(cilo  volanf)  in  Dan.  ix.  21.  The  assertioji  that 
angels  arc  mere  personifications  of  natural  powers 


is   answered   by  saying  that  it   is   not   God   in 

nature,  but  God  in  history,  whom  they  assist. 
And  this  idea  dominates  in  every  part  of  ttie 
Bible;  and  thus  the  further  idea,  that  the  salv.a- 
tion  of  man  must  be  accomplished  by  some  being, 
holy,  and  related  to  God,  was  instilled. 

The  so-called  !' angel  of  Jehovah"  first  ap- 
pears Gen.  xvi.  7,  and  often  afterwards,  but 
must  be  distinguished  from  the  "angel  of  Je- 
hovah" spoken  of  2  Sam.  xxiv.  16;  2  Kings  xix. 
35,  who  was  evidently  a  creature ;  whereas  the 
w.ay  in  which  the  "angel  of  Jehovah  "  is  spoken 
of  in  the  other  passages,  as  in  the  Pentateuch, 
Joshua,  and  Judges,  raises  a  question  in  regard  to 
his  n.ature.  A  fair  interpretation  of  Scripture 
does,  however,  compel  the  creature-view  of  this 
being;  for,  as  he  was  the  same  who  appeared  in 
the  visions  of  Zechariah  (i.  12,  iii.  1),  he  is 
plainly  distinguished  from  Jehovah,  and  subordi- 
nated to  him.  And  so  the  "angel  of  the  cove- 
nant" (JIal.  iii.  1)  is  not  identical  with  the  Lord, 
but  is  his  messenger.  This  angel  is  called  God's 
"  presence  "  or  face  (Exod.  xxxiii.  14)  ;  not,  how- 
ever, that  dreadful  face  on  which  no  one,  not  even 
Moses  (Exod.  xxxiii.  20)  and  Elijah  (1  Kings 
xix.  13),  could  gaze,  but  rather  an  angel  who 
revealed  that  face  (Gen.  xxxii.  30);  who  was 
called  Jehovah  and  Elohim  and  Eli,  i.e.,  God 
(Gen.  xviii.  33,  xxxii.  24  sq.  cf.  xxxi.  13),  be- 
cause (jod's  "  name  "  was  in  him  (Exod.  xxiii. 
21),  but  who  yet  is  as  little  God  as  tlie  angel  who 
declared  "  I  am  Alpha  and  Omega  "  (Rev.  xxii. 
13),  and  yet  rebuked  John  for  worshipping  him 
(xxii.  9).  The  angel  of  Jehovah  calls  himself 
the  "Captain  of  the  Lord's  host"  (Josh.  v.  14. 
15  cf.  Exod.  iii.  5). 

in  the  term  the  "  angel  of  the  presence " 
(which  can  mean  cither  the  angel  in  whom  Je- 
hovah allows  himself  to  be  seen,  or  the  angel 
who  sees  Jehovah's  face)  may  bo  found  the 
connecting  link  between  the  primitive  simple 
conception  of  angels  and  the  later  idea  of  an 
heavenly  hierarchy,  i.e.,  a  division  not  only  accord- 
ing to  quality,  but  according  to  rank.  The  post- 
exilian  writings,  both  canonical  and  niicanonical, 
exhibit  this  altered  view.  Thus  in  Dan.  vii.  10 
we  read:  "Thousand  thousands  ministered  unto 
him,  and  ten  thousand  times  ten  thousand  stood 
befon;  him."  At  their  head  were  princes,  of 
whom  Michael,  the  protector  of  Israel,  was  chief 
(x.  13,  21,  xii.  1),  and  at  his  sidi;  was  Gabriel 
(viii.  10,  ix.  21).  Going  into  the  region  of  fiction 
and  mere  e;irthly  wisdom,  we  find  that  the  later 
Jewish  theology  made  seven  archangels:  chief  of 
them  were  Michael,  Gabriel,  Raphael  (Tob.  iii. 
17),  and  Uriel  (Enoch,  and  2  Es.l.  iv.  1,  30). 
But  here  is  an  unquestionable  derivation  from 
lh(^  Persian  doctrine  of  the  seven  Amcsha  f/ienia ; 
and  in  the  Babylonian  theology  there  are  "great 
Lords"  who  adore  the;  Divinity  by  prostrating 
themselves.  See  Schraiier,  Ilollcn/alirt  dur  Jsltir, 
p.  100;  Leuormant,  JClndes  acradiennes  11.  1,  p. 
140.  The  latter  explains  the  words  "gri'at 
lords"  by  "celestial  archangels." 

In  Daniel  we  read  of  angels  who  are  the  pro- 
tectors of  iiarlicular  peojiles  (cf.  Sinich  xvii.  17 
also  Ps.  xxxiv.  7);  in  'i'obit,  of  the  archangel 
l!a]iliael  .Mccompaiiying  T(d)ias;  in  (he  ICpistle 
of  Juile  (0),  of  Miehaid  conteiuling  witli  S;itan 
about  the  body  of  Moses :  but  the  idea  of  guardian 


ANGELS. 


85 


ANGILRAM. 


(ii\^els  caiiDot  be  deduced  from  Scripture ;  for 
Matt,  xviii.  10  is  inconclusive,  and  Acts  xii.  15 
jrives  only  a  popular  opinion.  The  "  niorninc; 
stars"  (i.e  ,  the  stars  of  the  niornin";  of  creation) 
and  the  "sons  of  God"  (i.e.,  anj^els)  are  cla.sscd 
tofjether  in  Job  xxxviii.  7.  The  jihrase  the 
"  host  of  heaven  "  is  apivlied  both  to  the  stars  and 
to  the  angels  (cf.  Deut.  xvii.  ;J;  1  Kini;s  xxii.  19_). 

But,  besides  the  good  and  favored,  there  are  bail 
and  cursed  anjjels.  Cliief  is  Satan,  who  is  men- 
tioned, it  is  true,  in  only  four  cauouical  books  of 
tliti  Old  Testament,  1  Chroniclers,  Job,  Zecha- 
riah,  and  once  in  the  Psalms  (cix.  G),  and  in  none 
with  any  reference  to  the  fall,  but  stran^ifely 
enough  in  heaven,  among  the  sons  of  (iod.  The 
serjient  of  Gen.  iii.  is  identified  with  him  by  Paul 
(2  Cor.  xi.  3).  but  not  by  Mo.ses ;  nor  is  there 
any  explanation  of  how  he  came  to  be  there :  the 
general  impression  simply  is,  that  sin  existed 
before  the  creation  of  mai\.  According  to  the 
Hebrew  conception,  idolatry  was  demon  worship 
(cf.  1  Cor.  X.  20,21),  because  the  Hebrews  called 
the  idols  a  name  corresponding  to  demon.  Bad 
angels  in  the  biblical  sense  are  not  always 
morally  bad.  Thus  the  spirit  of  madness  which 
came  over  Saul  is  called  an  evil  siiirit  (1  Sam. 
xix.  9)  ;  and  evil  angels  are  said  to  have  plagued 
Egypt  (Ps.  lxxviii.'4i)).  Job  and  Paid  (2'Cor. 
xii.  7)  both  testify  that  (iod  sends  morally  bad 
angels  to  test  and  torment  the  righteous,  and 
morally  good  angels  to  punish  the  wicked. 

Angels  have  playeil  a  prominent  part  in  the 
world's  providential  history-  They  were  the 
ministrators  of  the  law,  the  heralds  of  the  go.s- 
pel,  the  servants  of  the  saints  (Ileb.  i.  14). 
Two  of  them  led  Lot  and  his  daughters  out  of 
Soilom  (Gen.  xix.  17)  ;  many  of  them  swarmed 
about  the  little  city  in  which  a  prophet  was  (2 
Kings  vi.  17).  They  were  commissioned  to  an- 
nounce to  a  childless  wife  the  birth  of  a  son 
(Judg.  xiii.  3  sq.),  and,  much  more  remarkable, 
to  tell  a  virgin  that  she  should  be  overshailowed 
by  the  power  of  the  Highest,  and  be  the  mother 
of  the  Son  of  Goil  (F^uke  i.  3.")).  And  if  any 
would  learn  how  different  the  Pible  treatment  of 
angels  is  from  the  fanciful  andexaggerated  ideas 
of  the  rabbins,  consult  such  a  book  as  lirecher's 
7'irmscendenlale  I^Lkjic  hit  Talmud,  IS.jO.  —  See 
Cherui!,  and  the  art.  Eiu/el  by  Franz  Delitzsch,  in 
Riehm's  Hii'idirorlirlincli  di's  hihlischen  Ailerltims. 

Lit. — There  are  few  monographs.  O.  Cas- 
m.vn:  Anr/elor/raphia,  Frankfort,  1503.  The  most 
exhaustive  work  is  J.  Odio:  Cammrnlarius  de  Aii- 
(/eli.i,  Traj.  ad  Rlieu.,  1739.  In  English.  Law- 
uknce:  Communion  and  Warre  with  Anijels,  1G46. 
C'ajifieli>:  Discourse  uf  Amjeh,  London,  1G7S. 
Matiieu:  ArKjdofjraphy,  Boston,  IGOo.  —  I\Iod- 
eru  Works.  (J.  1).  Br.i.i. :  An;jr:lic  Dcinr/s:  Their 
Nature  and  Minislrij,  London,  n.d. ;  J.  F.  Beug: 
Abaddon  and  Mahanaim  ;  or  Demons  and  Guardian 
An<jels,  Philadelphia,  1S5G;  Trios.  Wills:  An- 
f/eJs  and  Heaven,  London,  1872;  II.  II.  Duke: 
The  Iloh)  Angels;  their  Nature  and  IJniploi/mevIs 
(IS  reeorded  in  the  Word  of  Cod,  London,  1875; 
L.  R.  DuN.\:  The  Angels  of  God,  New  York, 
1881. — -Jewish  angelology.  Elsenmexgeu:  /i)!(- 
decktes  Judeidkum,  ii.  370-4G8;  KoiiUT :  Ueber 
die  JUdisehe  Angelolofjie  u.  Ddmonologie  in  Hirer 
Ahhdngigkeit  vom  Parsismus,  1806;  Nicholas: 
Des  doetrines   religieuses  des  JuiJ's,  2d  ed.,   1S60. 


Art.  Angel  in  Encyclopcedia  Drilannicn  (9th  ed.) 
by  W.  Ilobert.son  Smith,  provoked  much  discus- 
sion and  adverse  criticism.  The  variou.s  treatises 
on  biblical  theology  and  theology  in  general  may 
be  consulted,  espircially  lliat  of  Martensen. 

ANGEL  OF  THE  CHURCH  (Rev.  ii.  1  etc.) 
is  the  jiri'siding  elder  of  tin'  city,  an  office  which 
eventually  developed  into  the  (q)iscopate.  These 
officers,  as  rulers  and  teachers  of  tlieir  congregii- 
tions,  would  naturally  be  the  recipients  of  such 
messages  as  the  Saviour  should  send.  They  are 
with  2iropriety  called  '•  angels,"  '•  messengers,"  bo- 
cause  by  tlii-m  the  word  of  life  is  conveyed.  Tho 
Iloraan-Catholic  and  Anglican  view  is,  that  these 
officers  were  really  and  fully  bishops  in  the  pres- 
ent sense  of  the  term,  and  in  proof  is  advanced 
(1)  the  analogy  of  Gal.  i.  8,  iv.  14;  (2)  tlieir 
representative  position  toward  the  several 
churches;  (3)  the  fact(?)  that  John  appointed 
bishops  i:.i  the  cities  of  this  very  region;  (4) 
the  current  interpretation  of  the  term  from  very 
early  times,  as  by  Augustine  (^ICp.  43,  c.  8,  §  22 
in  Mig'ne,  torn.  II.,  col.  170),  Jerome  and  Am- 
brose. Other  views,  are  that  the  angel  of  the 
chui'ch  was  (1)  really  an  angel;  (2)  corre- 
sponded to  the  deputy  of  the  synagogue ;  (3) 
figurative  personifications  of  the  churches  them- 
selves. See,  for  discussion  of  this  interesting 
point.  Scm.vi'F:  Hist.  Apost.  Ch..  pp.  537-511. 

ANGELS  AND  ARCHANGELS  IN  CHRIS- 
TIAN ART.  The  earliest  Christian  representa- 
tion of  angels  dates  from  before  the  fourth 
century:  afterwards  they  were  very  common. 
On  the  various  monuments  which  have  been  pre- 
served, we  see  that  these  attributes  were  popu- 
larly given  to  them  in  early  ages.  1.  The  hu- 
man form,  masculine  (the  sex  of  most  dignity 
and  power).  2.  Wings,  representing  their  abil- 
ity to  ascend  or  descend,  or  to  move  very  swiftly. 
This  representation  is  found  in  other  religions, 
e.g.,  Assyrian,  Egyptian,  Greek,  and  Roman.  3. 
clothing,  before  seventh  century,  white;  later 
colored,  red  and  blue.  4.  The  nimbus.  5.  In 
the  first  eight  centuries  it  was  exceptional  to  por- 
tray angels  with  any  thing  in  their  liauds:  but 
archangels,  later  on,  held  swords  and  spears,  and 
other  angels  often  carried  nuisical  instruments. 
Four  archangels  are  named  Michael,  Gabriel, 
Raphael,  Uriel.  See  art.  "  .Vngcls  and  Archan- 
gels" in  Smith  and  Ciieetiiam  :  Dictionarg  of 
CJiristian  A  nti'/uitics. 

ANGiLCERT,  St.,  a  Frank  of  noble  cxtr.ic- 
tion,  was  the  friend  and  counsellor  of  Charle- 
magne, and  was  used  by  him  in  many  difficult 
negotiations.  By  Bertha,  the  daughter  of 
Charlemagne,  he  was  father  to  Nithard  and  sev- 
eral other  sons.  In  790  he  retired  from  public 
life  to  the  Convent  of  Centule,  the  present  St. 
Riquier,  of  which  he  became  abbot  in  794.  He 
wrote  a  history  of  the  abbey,  and  several  poeti- 
cal works,  on  account  of  which  ho  was  styled  tho 
Homer  of  his  time.  D.  Eeb.  18,  814.  See  Act. 
Hanct.,  Feb.  18. 

ANGILRAM,  Bishop  of  Metz,  768,  arch- 
chaplain  to  Charlemagne,  784,  since  787  styled 
archbishop  (d.  791),  has  in  some  unaccountable 
manner  got  his  name  entangled  with  tho  Pseudo- 
Isidorian  decretals,  most  codices  of  which  con- 
tain a  minor  collection  of  statutes,  consisting  of 
seventy-one   or   seventy-two   or  eighty   chapters 


ANGLO-SAXONS. 


86 


ANGLUS. 


relatinsj  to  suits  against  clergymen,  especially 
against  bishops,  and  generally  bearing  the  name 
of  Capilula  Ariffilramiii.  The  introduction  to 
these  capilula  tells,  in  some  manuscripts,  that 
Angilram  presented  them  to  Pope  Adrian  ;  in 
others,  that  the  pope  presented  them  to  Angil- 
ram. But  in  either  of  these  versions  the  story 
is  very  improbable.  In  the  controver.sy  between 
Hincniar  of  Rheinis  and  Hincmar  of  Laon,  the 
collection  is  quoted  by  both  as  CupHula  Hudriani, 
not  Awi'dranini,  and  in  the  earliest  works  on 
canon  law,  such  as  those  by  Burchard  of  Worms 
and  Gratian,  it  bears  the  same  name.  It  is  most 
probable  that  Angilram  has  had  nothing  at  all 
to  do  with  these  capilula,  but  that  they  were 
■written  by  the  author  of  the  Pseudo-Isidorian 
decretals  liimself.  See  Pseudo-Isidok  DiiCiiE- 
TALS;  lIiNSCHius:  Decretales  Pseudu-Isid.,  heip- 
zig.  IS*!:;. 

ANGLO-SAXONS,  their  Conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity. When  Christianity  was  introduced  to 
Kngland  is  unknown  :  certain  it  is  that  it  took 
root  among  the  old  Britains  in  the  second  or  third 
century,  and  that  it  was  suppressed  but  not  de- 
stroyed l)y  the  Anglo-Saxons,  who  invaded  the 
island  in  the  sixth  century,  and  introduced  by 
force  their  own  worship  of  Odin.  The  British 
Christians  were  powerless  to  labor  among  their 
fierce  and  hated  conquerors.  They  retreated  be- 
fore them;  and  where  the  light  of  the  gospel  had 
shone  there  were  the  lurid  fires  of  superstition. 
To  Gregory  the  Great  belongs  the  credit,  under 
God,  of  conveiting  the  Anglo-Saxons;  for  he  sent 
out  Augustine  (d.  605:  see  title),  the  first  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  who  landed  on  the  Isle  of 
Thanet,  590,  and  in  597  restored  to  its  original 
worship  the  old  Christian  Church  of  St.  Salvador 
in  Kent,  by  permission  of  Ethelbert  the  converted 
king.  In  OOO  the  bishopric  of  Rochester  was 
founded.  As  in  Kent,  so  in  Esxcx,  royal  women 
played  a  prominent  part.  The  king,  who  was  a 
nephew  of  the  King  of  Kent,  after  his  baptism, 
granted  to  Jlellitus.  whom  Augustine  had  nomi- 
nated bishop,  the  old  Diana  temple  in  his  capi- 
tal, Lon<lon,  with  a  large  plot  of  ground,  for  a 
Christian  cathedral.  The  faith  thus  established 
remained  in  these  places  during  the  reigns  of 
Pagan  princes,  altliough  jiersecution  drove  out 
the  bishops,  and  ujiset  their  altars.  In  Norlhum- 
herlanil,  Kadwin,  induced  by  the  entreaties  of 
his  Christian  wife  from  Kent,  and  by  the  cajoler- 
ies an<l  ]iresents  of  Pope  Boniface  V.,  allowed 
Bishop  Paulinus  to  carry  on  missionary  hibors. 
iMeanwhih;  he  studied  the  Christian  system  for 
himself,  was  at  lengtii  converted,  and  solemnly 
renounced  the  Pagan  gods,  in  the  National 
Council,  in  the  presence  of  his  chieftains  (U-'T). 
St.  Pet(;rs  in  York  was  cliosen  for  the  cathedral, 
and  Paulinus  the  bishop.  In  East  Arir/lia  Sigedes 
(d.  0;j5)  introduced  Christianity,  to  which  he  was 
converted  in  France.  Oswald,  King  of  North- 
umberland, in  (J;J5  introduced  (Christianity  in  its 
Scotch  form,  and  made  Lindisfern  a  bishopric 
(whicli  did  not  come  under  Konum  jurisdiction 
until  001).  About  the  same  time  Pope  Ilono- 
rius  sent  Birinus  to  nnike  himself  a  bishopric  by 
earning  it  out  of  the  Pagan  Knglish.  Kynegii, 
King  of  Wc.isej:,  was  bajitized  by  him,  and  the 
Bi.'iliopric  of  IJorchrster  en-ctrd  (Oiifi);  then 
came    Winchester   (000)  and  Sherburne    (703). 


Fifty  years  were  destined  to  pass  ere  heathenism 
was  supplanted  in  the  Southern  Saxons.  As  yet 
Mercia  held  out  for  heathenism.  Penda  the 
king  considered  himself  the  invincible  champion 
of  Paganism,  but  his  hour  came.  In  the  great 
battle  at  Leeds  he  was  defeated  and  killed,  and 
his  kingdom  thrown  open  to  the  gospel.  As  has 
been  noticed,  the  conversion  to  Christianitj'  was 
by  the  mass  rather  than  by  the  individual.  If 
the  king  went,  his  whole  people  followed  :  hence 
the  baptisms  were  by  thousands  at  a  time. 
There  seem  to  have  been  no  compulsory  meas- 
ures, either  to  advance  or  to  retard  the  new  faith. 
While  these  conversions  were  going  on,  the  Scotch 
missionaries  came  into  Northumberland  and 
Mercia,  preaching  the  doctrine  of  Columba;  but 
differences  in  the  young  church  were  averted  by 
King  Oswin's  promi't  calling  of  a  synod  at 
Streaneshalch  (Sinus  Phari,  ^Vhitby)  in  York- 
shire (604),  which  decided  in  favor  of  the  Roman 
form  of  faith  and  worship.  This  settled  the 
matter.  England  was  a  part  of  the  Roman 
Universal  Church:  the  pope  was  her  spiritual 
head.  Hitherto,  as  Kemble  says,  there  had 
been  churches  in  England;  but  henceforth  there 
was  only  one.  But  Rome  was  not  able  to  make 
the  sturdy  Anglo-Saxons  her  faithful  sons  in  all 
things.  Down  to  the  Norman  invasion  Anglo- 
Saxon  w-as  the  ecclesiastical  language;  the  bap- 
tismal form  was  Anglo-Saxon  ;  the  Bible  existed 
in  Anglo-Saxon  ;  and  in  the  vulgar  tongue  homi- 
lies were  circulated.  Papal  supremacy,  canon 
law,  ecclesiastical  celibacy,  was  not  recognized. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings  and 
nobles  vied  with  each  other  in  building  monas- 
teries and  abbeys;  and  the  longing  for  holy  quiet 
was  found  among  this  class  as  nouhere  else. 
They  also  were  fond  of  going  upon  long,  toil- 
some pilgrimages,  true  to  the  Norse  blood  which 
flowed  in  their  veins.  To  these  days  before  the 
Norman  Conquest,  which  so  completely  revolu- 
tionized the  Church,  and  made  it  a  limb  of  the 
body  of  Rome,  without  any  independence,  be- 
longs the  first  foreign  missionary  enterprise  of 
English  Christianity.  Bishop  \\'ilfrid  (d.  709, a'(t. 
seventy-si-x)  has  the  high  honor  of  being  the  first 
to  set  such  work  on  foot ;  for  he  sent  the  gosjiel  to 
Friesland.  See  Augusti.ne  (.Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury) E.VCI.ANT),  tCnUliCIl  OF.  0.  SCIIlil.L. 

[Lit.  —  Bkda  Venerabilis:  Ecclesiastical  Ilis- 
torij,  which  along  with  the  Anijio-Saxon  Chri>nlcU\ 
translated  by  Sleiiliens  is  in  Bohn's  .Vntiquarian 
Library,  London,  1S19.  Aitiiiuu  Wr.sr  IIad- 
DAN  and  Wii.i.i.vM  Srunns  :  Councils  mid  Eccle- 
siaslictd  Documcnls  relutiiii/  to  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  Oxford,  1809  sqq.  Wii.i.lAM  BiiKinr: 
Chapters  of  Earl ij  Enijlish  Clturcli  llistori/,  Oxford, 
1878.  John  Pkvce:  History  of  the  Ancient  Urit- 
is/i  Chnrrli,  London,  1878.] 

ANGLUS,  Thomas,  whose  true  name  was 
Thomas  Whiti',  but  who  also  called  himself 
All/us,  Albius,  Caudidus,  Jlianclii,  etc.,  was  born 
in  Kngland  in  1582,  but  spent  most  of  his  time 
on  the  Continent,  as  teaclier  in  the  Rnman-C;dlio- 
lic  seminaries  for  Englishmen  in  Lisbon,  Douay, 
I'aris,  and  Rome,  and  wrote  against  Descartes, 
the  .Moliuists,  the  Jansenists,  etc.  -Vmong  his 
philosophical  works  are  De  Mitii'lo.  I'aris,  lOlJ; 
Iiistitutititu'S  I'eripatetica',  Lyons,  Hi  IS;  Instilu- 
liuncs  T lieuloijicie,  1052.     1).  I070. 


ANICBTUS. 


87 


ANIMALS. 


ANICETUS,  Bisliop  of  Rome,  succeeded  Pius 
I.,  and  occupied  the  papal  cliair  from  157  to  1G8, 
accordiufj  to  Eusebius  (lli.il.  Eccl.  IV.  11,  19). 
About  100  Polycai-p  cauie  to  Rome,  and  one  of 
tlie  questions  discussed  by  him  and  Anicetus  was 
the  difference  between  the  Church  of  Rome  and 
tliat  of  Asia  Minor  witli  respect  to  the  celebra- 
tion of  Easter.  No  agreement  was  arrivinl  at. 
but  no  discord  ensued.  Polycarp  celebrated 
Easter  in  Rome  according  to  the  traditions  of  liis 
Church  (Eus.  IliM.  Eccl.  IV.  24).  Anastasius 
Bibliothecarius  tells  that  Anicetus  introduced 
the  tonsure  as  a  rule  for  all  clergymen;  and 
Isidorus  Mercator  gives  a  letter  from  him  to  that 
end,  but  the  letter  is  evidently  spurious.  The 
Roman  Church  commemorates  him  as  a  saint  on 
April  17. 

ANIMALS.  I.  llc(iu!ations  respectinrj  Clean  and 
Unclean. — 1.  For  Food.  According  to  the  lists 
(Lev.  xi.  1-31,  46;  Deut.  xiv.  1-19),  the  clean 
animals  (ie.,  those  whose  flesh  could  be  eaten) 
were  ruminant  quadrupeds  which  parted  the 
hoof,  were  cloven-looted,  and  chewed  the  cud; 
aquatic  animals  that  had  fins  and  scales;  all 
birds  except  the  nineteen  species  specified;  only 
those  flying  insects,  which,  like  the  grasshopper, 
have  two  long  legs  for  leaping.  No  vermin  was 
clean,  nor  was  the  carcass  of  any  clean  animal, 
if  it  had  died  naturally,  or  been  torn  to  death. 
Every  thing  was  unclean  that  touched  the  un- 
clean :  so  was  the  kid  seethed  in  its  mother's 
milk,  the  heathen  sacrifices  in  all  their  parts. 
The  object  of  this  regulation  was  to  separate  the 
Hebrews  from  all  peoples  (Lev.  xxii.  24-20),  and 
daily  remind  them  of  their  separation.  But  this 
was  accomplislied,  not  by  the  mere  fact  that  they 
made  the  separation  (because  heathen  nations  did 
that),  but  by  the  strenuous  prohibition  of  all  that 
concerned  idolatrous  worship.  We  find,  in  natu- 
ral aversion  to  certain  kinds  of  animals,  the 
rationale  of  tliis  division  of  them  into  two  classes, 
and  of  its  wide  spread.  The  Jew  of  the  present 
day  shows  most  prominently  his  aversion  to 
swine's  flesh.  In  this  he  is  true  to  the  traditions 
of  his  race,  who,  in  the  days  of  the  Maccabees, 
died  rather  than  defile  themselves  by  eating  the 
swine  (1  Maoo.  i.  47,  cf.  ver.  03 ;  2  Mace.  vi.  18, 
19,  vii.  1). 

Christianity  has  abrogated  these  regulations, 
inasmuch  as  it  sets  forth  cleanliness  of  heart  as 
the  desirable  thing.  So  spake  Jesus  (Matt.  xv. 
11,  17-20).  Peter  by  a  vision  was  instructed  in 
the  essential  cleanliness  of  all  God's  creatures 
(.\cts  x.  11-16.).  Paul  expresses  himself  clearly 
upon  this  point  (Rom.  xiv.  ;  Col.  ii.  16;  Tit.  i. 
l,j;  so  lleb.  xiii.  9).  It  was,  however,  a  partial 
return  to  the  old  Jewish  law  when  the  apostolic 
council  in  Jerusalem  put  among  the  "  necesxarii 
things"  that  the  Gentile  converts  abstain  "from 
blood  and  from  things  strangled,"  putting  these 
on  a  par  with  "  meats  offered  to  idols,"  and  with 
'•fornication"  (.\cts  xv.).  Thus  the  council 
imposed  the  same  things  as  the  law  for  proselytes 
of  the  gate  (cf.  1  Cor.  viii.  1  so.,  x.  19  sq. ;  Rev. 
ii.  14,  20,  24).  « 

2.  For  Sacrifice.  The  general  rule  was,  that 
only  the  clean  animals  could  be  offered :  this 
dates  back  to  the  pre-.Mosaic  period  (Gen.  viii. 
20).  Asses,  camels,  and  liorses  were  not  ottered 
by  the  Hebrews.     But  only  the  lauie  among  even 


the  clean  animals  could  be  sacrificed:  therefore, 
no  animal  of  the  chase.  Doves  might  .seem  to 
be  an  exception  ;  but  they  were  so  generally  used 
as  food  by  the  poor,  an<l  were  so  easily  caught, 
that  they  were  not  regarded  as  wild.  Every 
animal  offered  must  be  without  blemish  (Lev. 
xxii.  20),  at  least  seven  days  old  (ver.  27;  Exod. 
xxii.  30),  because  too  young  fiesh  is  disgusting, 
and  therefore  unclean.  Nor  must  it  be  too  old: 
for  bovines  three  years,  for  small  cattle  one,  was 
usual  (Exod.  xxix.  38;  Lev.  ix.  3;  Num.  xxviii. 
9;  Lev.  i.  5,  "bullock,"  a  young  ox).  What 
man  would  not  eat,  it  was  an  insult  to  sacrifice. 

3.  The  Moral  Aspect.  Animals  shared  in  the 
consequences  of  the  fall.  Instead  of  being  man's 
friend,  many  became  his  enemy,  and  in  regard 
to  all  he  was  obliged  to  cultivate  their  friend- 
sliip.  The  apostle  Paul  has  been  supposed  by 
many  to  refer  to  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  brute 
creation  for  a  restoration  to  their  original  con- 
ilition,  when  he  says  that  "the  earnest  expecta- 
tion of  the  creation  waiteth  for  the  revealing  of 
the  sons  of  God.  .  .  .  For  we  know  tliat  the 
whole  creation  groaneth  and  travaileth  in  pain 
together  until  now"  (Rom.  viii.  19,22).  To  a 
like  purpose  has  the  beautiful  de.scription  of 
Isaiah  (xi.  and  Ixv.  25),  of  the  docility  and 
tameness  of  all  animals  in  the  day  of  the 
Messiah,  been  adduced. 

But  it  is  a  question  how  far  this  idea  of  the 
participation  of  the  animal  kingdom  in  the  Fall 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  Restoration  on  the  other, 
should  be  pushed.  Certainly  the  dominant  scrip- 
tural conception  is,  that  the  dumb  animals  occujiy 
a  passive  position  in  morals.  They  are  acted  upon, 
and  do  not  act.  Thus,  in  cases  of  unnatural  lust, 
the  beast  was  killed,  as  well  as  the  human  being. 
But  the  beast  had  done  no  wrong:  it  was  its 
being  used  for  such  a  ]iurpose  that  rendered  it 
unclean  and  by  imputation  guilty  (Lev.  xx.  15, 
10).  The  law  inculcated  great  kindness  towards 
tlie  lower  animals.  Man  was  placed  at  their 
head  (Gen.  i.  20,  28).  It  was  declared  to  be 
like  God  to  be  humane  (Prov.  xii.  10,  cf.  1  Cor. 
ix.  9).  The  same  spirit  showed  itself  in  the 
order  to  give  the  beasts  a  weekly  rest  (Gen.  xx. 
10,  xxiii.  12),  and  in  the  prohibition  to  muzzle 
the  ox  when  he  trod  out  the  corn  (Deut.  xxv.  4). 
And  how  tender  is  this  :  "  And  whether  it  be  cow 
or  ewe,  ye  shall  not  kill  it  and  her  young  both  in 
one  day"  (Lev.  xxii.  28).  Ritualistic  rather 
than  moral  considerations  forbade  the  sjianning 
of  different  species  of  animals  (Deut.  xxii.  10) ; 
but  the  two  were  combined  in  the  law  against 
castration  (Lev.  xxii.  24  "and  this  ye  shall  not 
do  in  your  land."     Ileb.  texl). 

II.  The  Emhlematic  Une  of  Animal.i  in  tlie  Bible 
and  the  Church.  —  1.  In  the  Old  Testament, 
locusts  were  used  as  the  symbol  of  the  divine 
judgments.  "  Scorpion  "  was  the  name  given  to 
a  kind  of  whip  (1  Kings  xii.  11).  The  cherubim 
were  used  in  ornamentation  of  sacred  places. 
Thus  at  divine  command  a  pair  were  placed  on 
the  mercy-seat  (Exod.  xxv.  IS  sq.)  in  the  taberna- 
cle, and  a  larger  pair  standing  on  the  floor  of  the 
Holy  of  holies  in  Solomon's  temple  (1  Kings  vL 
23).  They  were  also  blazoned  on  the  doors, 
walls,  curtains,  etc.,  of  the  tabernacle  and  tem- 
ple. They  were  composite  figures  of  man,  lion, 
ox,  and  eagle.     See   Chkuubi-m.     Besides  them 


ANNA. 


88 


ANNATS, 


there  were  the  t'.velve  oxen  whicli  Iwre  the  brazen 
sea  in  the  court  of  the  temple  (1  Ivinjjs  vii.  25)  ; 
also  in  prophetic  vision  animal  shapes  appeared 
(Ezek.  i.  10,  x.  4). 

2.  In  the  New  Testament  Peter  uses  a  lion 
as  the  emblem  of  Satan  (1  Pet  v.  8):  on  the 
other  hand,  a  lion  is  the  enihleni  of  Christ  (Rev. 
V.  5).  The  ass  symbolizes  peace  (Matt.  xxi. 
5)  :  the  dove,  innocence  and  the  Holy  Ghost :  the 
swine,  uncleanness  and  vidararity  (Matt.  vii.  6; 
2  Pet.  ii.  22).  But  the  emblematic  use  of  beasts 
is  much  greater  in  the  Revelation  than  in  all  tlie 
other  books  of  the  Bible  combined.  Constant 
mention  is  made  of  the  four  living  creatures 
(iv.  6,  etc.),  who  were  from  the  fifth  century  con- 
sidered as  symbolizing  the  four  evangelists. 
Christ  is  constantly  called  the  Lamb;  the  Devil, 
the  dragon  (xii.  3,  etc  ).  There  are,  besides,  a 
beast  who  comes  out  of  the  bottonde.ss  pit  (xi.  7), 
horses  (vi.  2,  etc.),  locusts  (ix.  3),  birds  (xix. 
17),  and  fi-ogs  (xvi.  13). 

3.  The  ecclesiastical  use  of  animals  was  very 
great  and  varied.  There  was  not  only  the  lamb 
for  Christ,  but  also  dolphins,  hens,  pelicans, 
apes,  and  centaurs.  The  dragon  appeared  as,  for 
instance,  the  opponent  of  St.  George.  The  old 
(iothic  churches  exhibit  these  fanciful  and  really 
heathen  designs.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  raised 
his  voice  against  them.  In  the  catacomlis  one 
finds  the  drawing  of  a  fish  to  .symbolize  Christ, 
because  the  initials  of  the  title  of  Christ  'h/aouc 
Xptarbi;  Qiov  Yiof  Xufj/p  spell  the  Greek  word  for 
fish  IXeTS. 

III.  The  Use  nf  Kmhlemnlir  AntinaU  in  Worship. 
—  1.  Among  the  Ilelirews  there  are  two  spoken 
of.  The  brazen  serpent  which  Moses  made, 
w'hich  was  at  last  destroyed  by  Ilezekiah,  because 
it  was  worsliipped  (2  Kings  xviii.  4).  The 
golden  calf,  a  direct  imitation  of  Kgyplian  wor- 
ship, was  not  intended  as  a  sidistitnte  for  the 
Jehovah  worship,  but  as  an  aid;  but  it  became 
a  snare  to  Israel  in  the  wildenic'ss  before  Sinai 
(Exod.  xxxii.),aiid  in  the  daj's  of  .leroboam  I.  and 
his  succes.S(>rs  on  the  throne  of  Israel  (1  Kings  xii. 
2S).  Among  the  neighboring  (leople  there  was 
an  idolatrous  worsliip,  and  this  the  llel)rews  cop- 
ied. Thus  at  lengtli  they  served  heathen  divini- 
ties under  various  animal  forms,  without  the 
apology  of  a  ,Jeliovistic  meaning.  The  Jews 
were  falsely  accused  of  worsliipping  an  a.ss's 
head.     Josephus  r.  Apinn  II.  7.     See  Asixakii. 

But  all  the  nations  around  JuihUi  were  led  into 
this  worship  of  animals.  Tlie  Kgyiitians  wor- 
shipped the  crocodile,  the  cat,  the  wolf,  the  dog, 
the  ape,  the  goat,  the  sheep,  the  l)eetle,  and  also 
the  lion,  and  other  animals.  The  As.syrians 
had  the  eagle-headed  god  Xisroch,  and  used  very 
extensively  drawings  and  figures  of  animals,  but 
probably  not  idolatrously.  So  at  all  events  it 
was  with  the  Persians.  They  divideil  animals 
into  two  clas.ses,  religio-morally  good  or  bad: 
e  g.,  the  unicorn,  the  hen,  the  dog,  tiie  ox  were 
holy  to  Ormuzd,  who  himself  appearttd  sometimes 
as  an  eagle,  .sonietiiiies  as  a  hawk.  The  head  of 
the  unclean  animals  was  the  dragon,  the  emblem 
of  Ahrimaii,  the  darkne.ss.  .).  u.  MUI.LUK. 

ANNA,  St.,  the  mother  of  the  Holy  Virgin, 
was,  according  to  the  tradition  of  the  ancient 
church,  a  native  f>f  Bethleln'm  ami  a  daughter 
uf  thu  priest  Mutlhau.     She  had  two  sisters,  both 


marrieil  in  Bethlehem,  of  whom  one  was  the 
mother  of  Klisabeth  and  the  grandmother  of  John 
the  Baptist.  Anna  married  Joachim  of  the  tribe 
of  Juda.  They  settled  at  Xazareth.  and  their 
lives  are  told  with  great  elaborateness  in  the 
Ei-aiir/eliiim  ile  Nalioilale  Maria  and  in  Protevnn- 
(lelium  Jticnhi.  According  to  another  account, 
Joachim  died  soon  after  the  birth  of  Maria,  and 
Anna  then  married,  first,  Cleophas,  to  whom  she 
bore  Maria,  the  wife  of  Alphaius.  and.  next,  Sa- 
lome, the  wife  of  Zebedsus.  But  Jerome  and 
Augustine  doubted  these  statements.  In  the 
Greek  Church  the  worship  of  .St.  Anna  origi- 
nated in  the  fourth  century,  and  tr.ices  of  it 
are  found  in  Gregory  of  Nyssa  and  Kpiphanius 
(Hasres.  78,  79),  It  becomes  prominent  in  the 
homilies  of  the  monk  Antioehus,  in  the  Encomi- 
um of  St.  Joachim  aiul  St.  .\nna  by  Cosmas 
Vestitor,  and  especially  with  Johannes  Danias- 
cenus  in  his  De  Fill.  Orlh.,  IV.,  14,  in  his  Orat. 
lie  Doniitt.  U.  Miiriie,  and  in  his  Ornt.  I.  and 
II.  in  NaliiK  Mnriit:.  Greek  hymns  in  her  honor 
are  preserved  in  Lambocius:  Cnmm.  <le  Bihtioth. 
Vinilob..,].  III.,  p.  207,  and  Andreas  Cretensis: 
Hi/inni  Sacri.  In  550  the  emperor  Justinian 
dedicated  a  church  to  her  in  Constantinople;  and 
not  only  tlie  day  of  her  death  (July  25).  but  also 
that  of  her  wedding  and  of  her  conceiition  (.Sept. 
9  and  Dec.  9).  are  celebrated.  In  the  Western 
Church,  Pope  Leo  III.  had  in  the  eighth  century 
the  history  of  St.  Joachim  and  St.  Auwa  inunted 
in  the  basilica  of  S;vn  Paolo;  and  in  1584  Pope 
Gregory  XIII.  ordered  that  a  double  mass  slioidd 
be  said  in  honor  of  St.  Anna  in  all  churches  on 
July  26.  In  S(iain  she  became  very  popular,  e.s- 
pecially  through  the  exertions  of  the  Augustine 
nun  Anna,  a  pupil  of  St.  Theresa;  also  in  Italy, 
where  the  Minorite  monk,  Inuoceuct  of  Clusa, 
suruameil  .Vnnreus,  wrought  many  miracles  by 
the  ai<l  of  St.  Anna:  indeed,  in  the  seventeenth 
century  an  Italian  writer,  Imperialis,  even  ap- 
plied to  her  the  idea  of  an  inim:iculate  concep- 
tion; but  his  doctrines  were  condeumed  by  the 
pope.  See  .lc(f!  Siunior,  Vit.  e.  comiiii'ni.  Citpn-i, 
Tom.  VI..  Jul.,  ]>.  2-):!.  ZiJCKLEK. 

ANNAS,  whom  Josephus  calls '.\i<ai'or,  one  of 
the  chiefs  of  the  Jewish  jieople  ;it  the  time  of  the 
public  ministry  of  Jesus  (Luke;  iii.  2;  John  xviii. 
13),  w;is  the  son  of  Seth,  and  was  high  jiriest 
during  the  taking  of  the  census  by  Quirinius 
(.V.D.  6).  but  depo.sed  by  the  procurator  Valeiius 
Gratus  (Joseph,  .[uliq.,  18.  2,  1  and  2).  After- 
wards he  exercised  great  influence,  for  five  of  his 
sons  were  high  prie.sts.  Annas,  and  Caiapluis  his 
son-in-law,  were  contemporary  chiefs,  the  former 
as  ]iresident  of  the  Sanhedrin,  the  latter  as  high 
priest.  There  is  no  dilhculty  in  mulerstanding 
Luke's  term  upxuftiii;  (Luke  iii.  2).  which  in  itself 
is  ambiguous,  of  the  ]iresident  of  thi!  .Sanhedrin, 
for  he  regularly  uses  it  in  this  sense  in  the  Acts 


vii.   1,  ix.  1,  XX.  5,  xxiii.  2,  4, 


(AcU  v.  21, 

xxiv.  1).  The  word  only  occurs  once  in  the 
LXX.  (Lev.  iv.  3;  the  common  term,  like  the 
Hebrew,  bt'ing  A  iiptv^  or  li  iV/wif  uiyaf).  and  is 
used  ^y  Josephus,  as  in  the  New  Testament,  of 
the  head  of  the  temple  priests  as  well  as  of  the 
not  ui'Cessarily  identical  per.son,  the  president  of 
the  Sanhedrin  ;  lor  Ezra  is  called  (in  1  Esd. 
ix.   10)  !i  i,p\upn>(.  K.   WMMELKlt. 

ANNATS.    See  Taxes,  Ecclksiastical. 


ANNIHILATIONISM. 


89 


ANSEGIS. 


ANNIHILATIONISM  dpnotes  a  tlicnry  acconl- 
inpr  to  which  thi-  evcrlastiiitj  |uiiiishiiieiit  of  the 
wicked  consists  in  utter  destruction,  aniiiliila- 
tion.  The  theory  has  never  been  adopted  as 
j)art  of  any  (lenoininational  creed ;  but  individu- 
ally its  many  subtle  points,  psychological  and 
theolocfical,  liave  found  very  able  advocates,  such 
as  RiCHAUD  WiiATEi.v:  A  View  of  Ihe  Scripture 
ItevelaliDiis  cfjncernini/  a  Future  SUilc,  London, 
ISyj;  and  Hudson:  Debt  and  Grace  as  relaleil  lo 
Ihe  Doctrine  of  a  Fiilnre  Slate,  Iioston,  1857;  and 
recently,  perhaps  its  ablest  expositor  in  Rev. 
Edward  AVliite,  an  Ensjlish  clergyman,  whose 
Life  m  Cliri.-;!  (first  edition,  London,  1875;  third 
edition,  1878)  has  not  only  sold  largely,  but  made 
many  converts. 

ANNIVERSARIUS  (sc.  dies).  From  the  second 
century  it  became  usual  in  Christian  congrega- 
tions to  celebrate  the  death-days  of  their  martyrs 
witii  divine  service.  Also  single  families  used 
to  commemorate  their  departed  members  on  their 
death-days.  Thus  the  festivals  of  the  martyrs 
and  the  saints  originated,  as  also  those  anniver- 
saries for  departed  members  of  the  congregations 
which  are  still  held  in  the  Roman-Catholic 
Church,  and  consist  in  masses  and  alms.  As 
only  the  rich  can  avail  themselves  of  this  custom, 
the  AU-Souls'  Day  has  been  instituted  for  the 
poor. 

ANNI  CLERI.  Any  loan  raised  for  the  erec- 
tion of  a  church  or  ])arsonage  must  be  paid  by 
the  succeeding  parsons  out  of  their  benefices  in 
fixed  instalments.  This  method  of  {layment  is 
called  aiini  cleri. 

ANNULUS  PISCATORIUS.  To  the  official 
costume  of  a  Uomau-Catholic  bishop  belongs  a 
ring,  which  designates  his  espousals  to  the  church. 
Also  the  pope  wears  such  a  ring,  and  one  with 
the  device  of  St.  Peter  fishing.  From  the  thir- 
teenth century  all  papal  briefs  were  sealed  with 
red  or  green  wax  showing  an  impression  of  this 
device,  and  for  this  reason  they  were  said  to 
liave  been  issued  snij  arnudo  piu-atoris. 

ANNUNCIADE  is  the  name  of  two  orders  of 
nuns  instituted  in  honor  of  the  annunciation.  — 
I.  The  first  w-as  founded  at  liourges,  in  1.^00,  by 
Jeanne  of  Valois,  the  sister  of  Charles  VIII.  and 
the  divorced  wife  of  Louis  XII.  It  was  also 
called  the  Order  of  the  Ten  Virtues,  with  allu- 
sion to  the  ten  festivals  of  the  Holy  Virgin  kept 
by  the  Roman  Church.  At  the  time  of  its  abol- 
ishment, under  the  Revolution,  it  numbered 
forty-five  monasteries  in  Franco.  It  still  flour- 
ishes in  the  Netherlands.  —  II.  The  second,  also 
called  the  Order  of  t.)ie  Ccelestines,  was  founded 
in  Genoa  by  the  widow  Maria  Victoria  Fornari, 
and  confirmed  by  Clement  VIII.  in  KIOL  Be- 
sides in  Genoa  and  Rome,  it  has  also  monaster- 
ies in  France. 

ANNUNCIATION,  Feast  of  Ihe,  is  the  ecclesi- 
astical commemoration,  upon  March  "J.j,  of  each 
year  of  the  beginning  of  the  incarnation  of  the 
word  of  God,  when  in  Nazareth  the  angel  Ga- 
briel announced  to  the  Virgin  Mary  the  over- 
shadowing of  the  Holy  Ghost.  It  is  uncertain 
when  the  Church  began  the  general  celebration 
of  this  event.  There  is  a  collect  for  the  day  in 
tlie  .Sacramentary  of  Gelasius  (A.D.  492)  and  in 
that  of  Gregory  the  Great  (A.D.  500),  and  a 
homily  exists  which  was  preached  upon  the  day 


by  Proclus,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  in  the 
first  half  of  the  fifth  century.  The  Council  of 
Toledo  (A.D.  OoG)  appointed  the  feast  for  Dec. 
18,  so  that  so  joyful  a  feast  miglit  not  come  in 
Lent,  nor  so  near  the  date  of  Christ's  deatli. 
The  Milan  Church  similarly  put  it  in  Decendier, 
upon  the  fourth  Advent  Sunday.  But  March  25, 
nine  full  months  before  Christmas,  is  now  the 
date  universally  assigned.  The  central  figure  in 
tlie  feast  is  Mary,  who  humbly,  wonileringly,  re- 
joicingly yields  herself  to  be  the  human  mother 
of  the  Son  of  (iod. 

ANNUS  CARENTI>C,  the  term  during  which  a 
canon  or  other  prebendary  must  renounce  lii.s 
revenues  in  favor  of  the  pope,  the  bishop,  or 
.some  ecclesiastical  purpose.  In  some  countries 
a  certain  per  centum  is  annually  paid  to  an  eccle- 
siastical fund. 

ANNUS  CLAUSTRALIS,  the  first  year  in  which 
a  canon  holds  his  benefice,  and  during  which  he 
is  bound  to  be  in  residence. 

ANNUS  DECRETORIUS.the  year  1G24,  which 
by  the  peace  of  Westphalia  was  taken  as  the  ba- 
sis for  the  division  of  German  territory  between 
the  Roman-Catholic  and  the  Protestant  churches. 

ANNUS  DESERVITUS,  or  ANNUS  GRATI/E, 
denotes  the  term,  different  in  different  countries, 
during  which  the  heirs  of  an  ecclesiastic  are  en- 
titled to  enjoy  his  revenues  after  his  death. 

ANNUS  LUCTUS,  the  year  of  mourning,  in 
some  countries  an  obstacle  to  m.arriage. 

ANSEGIS,  the  abbreviated  form  of  Ansegi<:il. — 
I.  The  elder  Ansegis,  b.  in  tlie  latter  part  of  the 
eighth  century,  d.  ;it  Fontauella,  in  the  diocese 
of  Rouen,  July  20,  833;  received  his  first  instruc- 
tion in  a  cloister-school  in  the  diocese  of  Lyons; 
became  a  monk  in  the  Monastery  of  Fontauella; 
and  was  made  Abbot  of  St.  Germain  de  Flay,  in 
the  diocese  of  Beauvais,  in  807.  Afterwards  he 
was  called  to  the  court  of  Charlemagne  in  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  and  made  suiierintendent  of  all  thu 
emperor's  architectural  undertakings.  Also  Louis 
the  Pious  held  him  in  great  favor,  and  endowed 
him  in  817  with  the  Abbey  of  Luxenil,  and  in 
823  with  that  of  Fontanella,  whither  he  finally 
witlidrew,  old  and  exhausted.  In  Fontanella  he 
finished  his  collection  of  prankish  laws:  Lihri 
IV.  Capilularium,  wliich  in  829  obtained  official 
authority.  Most  of  these  ca/ntularia  we  are  able 
to  compare  .with  the  original  documents;  and  the 
comparison  shows  that  Ansegis  altered  very  little 
in  the  text,  —  quite  different  in  this  respect  from 
Benedict  of  Mainz,  who,  twenty  years  later  on, 
continued  his  work,  and  made  arbitrary,  not  to 
say  fraudulent,  alterations.  In  the  ninth  cen- 
tury the  work  was  translated  into  German,  and 
up  to  the  thirteenth  century  the  German  kings 
took  an  oath  on  the  book  as  containing  the  lights 
of  the  realm.  The  best  edition  is  that  b}'  Pertz 
in  the  first  part  of  his  Monumcnta  Gcrmiinim 
Ler/um. — The  younger  Ansegis  became  Arch- 
bishop of  Sens  in  871,  and  was  in  876  appointed 
papal  vicar  in  Gaul  and  Germany,  with  right  to 
convoke  synods,  and  act  as  the  representative  of 
the  pope  in  all  affairs  of  the  church.  At  the 
synod  of  Ponthion,  however,  a  number  of  the 
Prankish  bishops  refused  to  acknowledge  his  au- 
thority, and  we  hear  nothing  of  a  real  activity 
from  his  side  as  papal  vicar.  In  877  he  seems  td 
have  lost  the  confidence  of  the  pope,  as  in  874 


ANSELM. 


90 


ANSGAR. 


another  papal  vicar  was  appointed.  Ansegis  died 
Nov.  25,  88:2.  On  liis  tombstone  he  is  called 
J'rimuis  Gallurum  Pajia;  and  np  to  the  fifteenth 
century  the  Archbishop  of  Sens  was  styled  GcdlUe 
(I  Gcrmanorum  Primas. 

ANSELM  OF  CANTERBURY,  b.  in  lOT-i,  at 
Aosta  in  Piedmont;  d.  at  Canterburj-,  .\pril  21, 
1109;  the  father  of  mediaeval  scholasticism,  and 
one  of  the  most  eminent  English  prelates.  He 
belonged  to  a  rich  family  of  old  Lombard  nobili- 
ty, but  felt  himself  so  strongly  drawn  towards 
a  life  of  study  and  contemplation,  that,  in  spite 
of  his  father's  protest,  he  entered  the  Monastery 
of  Bee,  in  Normandy,  wliere  he  studied  under 
the  tuition  of  his  celebrated  countryman,  Lan- 
franc,  and  finally  took  holy  orders.  In  1063  he 
■was  chosen  prior,  and  in  1078,  abbot  of  Bee;  and 
under  his  guidance  and  by  his  teaching  the  fame 
of  the  school  of  t)ie  place  steadily  increased.  In 
1093  he  was  appointed  .\rchbisho])  of  Canterbury ; 
and,  though  lie  was  a  very  mild  and  meek  man, 
he  had  adopted  the  Gregorian  views  of  the  rela- 
tion between  Church  and  State,  and  followed 
them  out  in  practice  with  unswerving  consis- 
tency. Strife  soon  broke  out  between  him  and 
the  kintj.  William  Rufus,  wlio  exiled  liim  in 
1097.  Under  M'illiani's  successor,  Henry  I.,  he 
returned;  but  the  strife  soon  broke  out  again. 
Once  more  he  went  into  exile;  and  a  reconcilia- 
tion was  not  brought  about  until  1100,  when  the 
king  renounced  the  riglit  of  investiture  with  ring 
and  staff,  and  the  archbishop  consented  to  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance  for  his  feudal  jiossessions. 

lu  the  history  of  theology  Ansel m  stands  as 
the  father  of  orthodox  scholasticism.  He  was 
called  the  second  Augustine.  Of  the  two  theolo- 
gical tendencies  at  that  time  occupying  the  field. 
— the  one  more  free  and  rational,  represented  by 
Berengarius;  and  tlie  other  confining  itself  more 
closely  to  the  tradition  of  the  church,  and  repre- 
sented l)y  Lanfranc, — he  chose  tlie  latter;  and  he 
defines  the  object  of  ficholastical  theology  to  be 
the  logical  development  and  dialectical  demon- 
stration of  the  doctrines  of  the  church  such  as 
they  were  handed  down  through  the  Fathers. 
Tlie  dogmas  of  the  church  are  to  him  identical 
with  revelation  itself ;  and  tlieir  truth  surpa.s.ses 
the  conceptions  of  reason  so  far,  that  it  seems  to 
him  to  b(!  nu'ie  vanity  to  doubt  a  dogma  on 
account  of  its  uniiitelligibility.  Crcilo  ul  iiilelli- 
gniii,  mm  qucero  inti'll if/are  ul  creilam,  is  the  princi- 
ple on  which  he  proceeds;  and  after  him  it  has 
become  the  i)rinciple  of  all  orthodox  theology. 
As  a  metaphysician  he  was  a  Realist;  and  one  of 
his  earliest  works.  l)e  Fide  Trinitallx,  was  an 
attack  on  the  Nominalist  Roscellin"s  doctrine  of 
the  Holy  Trinity.  His  two  most  celebrated 
works  are  Primlixiium,  written  before  1078,  and 
setting  forth  the  ontological  jiroof  of  the  exist- 
ence of  God,  and  Cur  Deux  llniiw,  finished  at 
Ca|ina  in  1();)8,  and  developing  those  views  of 
atonement  and  satisfaction  which  still  an;  held 
by  orthodox  divines.  His  MciUlalinncx  and  Ura- 
tiones  are  of  an  edifying  and  contemplative  char- 
acter rather  than  dialectical,  but  arc  often  very 
impressive. 

l,iT.  —  Collected  editions  of  Anselm's  works 
havi-  been  given  by  Joiiannks  Picaiii>i:s,  Colon., 
l')12,  anil  more  critically  by  G.  (JKKiiKitoN, 
I'aria,    HJ75,    which    later  edition   has   been  re- 


printed in  Migne:  Patrolor/.  Tom.,  158-59.  [Sep- 
arate editions  of  Cur  Deus  Homo  were  published 
in  Berlin,  18.37,  and  London,  18(33.  Translations 
of  Cur  Deua  Homo  and  Prosloi/ium  are  found  in 
Bibliotheca  Smni,  vols.  VIII.,  IX.,  and  XII.]  His 
life  was  written  by  his  pupil  Eadmkk.  See  F. 
11.  H,\sse:  Auselm  von  C<tnterl)urii,  2  vols.,  1843- 
1852  [Abridged  Translation  by  Rev.  W.  Tur- 
ner, London,  1850];  Ch.  Remusat:  Ansclm  de 
Cantorhdry,  Paris,  1853;  [lives  by  Dean  Chukch, 
London,  1875 ;  M.  Rule,  1882, 2  vols. ;  Ocsenyi  : 
Thcologia  S.  A  mehni,  Briinn,  1885].  J.  L.  JACOBI. 

ANSELM,  Bishop  of  Havelberg,  was  sent  in 
1135,  by  Lothair  II.,  as  ambassador  to  the  court 
of  Constantinople  ;  and  here  he  held  a  conference 
with  Nicetas,  Archbishop  of  Kicoinedia,  on  the 
principal  points  of  controversy  between  the  two 
churches.  On  his  return,  in  1145,  he  visited 
Rome ;  and  on  the  suggestion  of  Pope  Eugene 
HI.  he  wrote  down  a  report  of  the  dispute.  In 
the  mean  time  a  learned  Gi'eek  bishop  had  come 
to  Rome,  sent  by  the  emperor:  and  the  defence 
which  he  delivered  for  the  Greek  liturgy  seemed 
to  have  made  some  impression  on  the  pope;  at 
least,  the  pope  deemed  it  right  that  some  kind 
of  an  answer  should  be  prepared,  and  for  this 
purpose  the  above  report  was  published.  See 
DWcuKRY  :  S/>icitcf/ium  I.,  101. 

ANSELM,  St.,  surnanied  Badagius,  because 
he  descended  from  the  fami'v  of  Badagio ;  b.  in 
Milan,  1030;  d.  in  Mantua,  iSIarch  IS,  1086;  was 
a  nephew  of  Pope  .\lexander  II.,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded as  Bishop  of  Lucca  in  lOCl.  He  soon 
resigned,  however,  and  retired  to  the  Monastery 
of  Cluny.  Gregory  VII.  ordered  him  to  return 
to  his  see;  but,  being  a  devoted  friend  of  the 
pope,  the  adherents  of  the  emperor  expelled  him, 
and  he  then  lived  at  the  court  of  the  Countess 
Mathilda,  until  Leo  IX.  sent  him  as  papal  legate 
to  Lombardy.  In  the  conflict  between  (iregory 
VII.  and  Henry  IV.  he  wrote  a  Dc/'ciisio  pro 
Grafjorio  VII.  and  a  pamphlet.  Contra  Guibfrlum 
Auti-papnm,  which  are  found  in  Hounherti  Ilililio- 
lliei-d  I'dutificia  IV.  His  biograjihy  was  written 
by  the  Boi.LA.vnisTS,  March  18,  and  by  A.ndhka 
RoiA,  Vpron.,  1733. 

ANSELM  OF  LAON,  or  Lnwlunensis  (Laoii 
beinn'  his  birlhiilaci).  .stmlied  under  Anselm  of 
Canterbury,  in  the  Monastery  of  Bee;  taught 
from  1070  scholastic  theology  in  Paris,  and  con- 
trilmted  much  to  the  rising  jirosperity  of  that 
university.  Towanls  the  close  of  the  eleventh 
century  he.  returned  to  his  native  city,  where  he 
was  made  archdeacon  and  sc/ioldslicus.  In  this 
[losition  he  became  director  of  a,  theological 
school,  which  soon  was  much  frc-cpiented.  .\be- 
lard  was  for  some  time  among  his  puptls.  Ha 
was  an  enthusiastic  teacher,  and  refused  .sev- 
eral times  the  episcopal  dignity,  in  order  to 
stay  with  his  school;  died  1117.  His  Glossrt 
hilt<Hi»caris,  a  commentary  to  the  Vulgate,  writ- 
ten in  notes  between  the  lines,  formed  for  a  long 
time,  together  with  the  Gloxsii  onhndria  by  Wal- 
afri.l  Slrabo,  the  principal  source  of  all  exegeti- 
c;d  knowledge.  It  was  j)rinte(l  in  Basel  in  150.' 
and  15i)S,  and  in  .\ntwer]i  in  1034. 

ANSGAR  (from  Aiisi/rjr  or  (Mi;rjr.  the  modern 
Oscar,  '■  (iod's  spear  "),  the  apostle  of  Scandina- 
via, b.  .Sept.  !),  801,  near  Corbie  in  the  dioci^se  o[ 
Amiens;  d.  in  Bremen,  Feb.  3,  805;  was  educat- 


ANSO. 


91 


ANTHONY. 


ed  by  Adalhard  .and  Wala  in  the  Monastery  of 
Corbie;  moved  in  822  with  a  nuniber  of  brother- 
monks  to  the  newly  founded  Corvey  in  West- 
phalia, and  accompanied  Kin";  Harold  Klak  back 
to  Jutland,  in  8'2(i,  as  missionary  amons^  the 
Danes.  In  831  the  bishopric  of  Ilambiirg  was 
founded,  and  Ansgar  was  appointed  bisliop;  ami 
in  8()t  this  see  was  united  with  that  of  Bremen, 
and  elevated  to  an  archbishopric,  —  the  metropol- 
itan see  of  Scandinavia.  Ansgar  made  also  two 
journeys  to  Sweden ;  and  though  in  845  the  hea- 
then Danes  swept  down  upon  Hamburg,  burnt 
the  city,  and  drove  away  the  missionaries,  Christi- 
anity, nevertheless,  got  secui'e  foothold  in  Den- 
mark before  Ansgar  died.  See  Uimbkut:  Vila 
Atisfjarix  in  Pertz :  Mon.  II.;  Adam  of  Breme.v; 
Gesia  Hamh.  Eccl.  Ponl.,  in  Pkiitz:  Mim.  VII.: 
Tappkiioun:  Lchcn  d.  hi.  Ansgar,  Miinster,  1863; 
and  tlie  article  Dknmark. 

ANSO,  a  monk  and  (77G-800)  abbot  of  Lobbes, 
but  not  also  a  bishop,  as  his  predecessors  had 
been.  In  his  day  the  monastery  continued  inde- 
pendent of  the  diocese  of  Liege;  but  in  88!)  it  was 
annexed.  Anso  was  a  very  worthy,  zealous  man, 
but  no  scholar:  nevertheless,  we  owe  to  his  in- 
dustry while  a  monk  the  compilation  from  the 
sources  of  biographies  of  two  of  tlie  abbot-bish- 
ops who  preceded  him  at  Lobbes,  the  "Vita  S. 
Ursmari  "  (circa  (!89-7l;?),  which  the  BoUandists 
reprinted  under  April  18,  II.,  also,  by  Mabillon, 
Acta  Bened.  III.;  and,  later,  was  re-written  liy 
Bishop  Katherius  of  Verona,  and  Abbot  Folcuin 
of  Lobbes;  a*'d  the  "Vita  S.  Ermini,"  or  "  Er- 
minonis  "  (713-737),  reprinted  by  the  BoUandists 
under  April  2.5,  III.,  and  by  Mabillon. 

See  Uisloire  litter,  de  France,  IV,  203,  for  the 
corapletest  account  of  him.  The  Chronicle  of 
Alberich  confounds  liim  with  Ansegis  of  Fonta- 
nella  (see  title).  MERKEL. 

ANTERUS,  Bishop  of  Rome  (Nov.  21,  23o-Jan. 
3,  236),  succeeded  Pontianus,  and  sult'ered,  accord- 
ing to  one  account,  martyi-dom.  Eusebius  (Hist, 
eccl.  VI.,  29)  places  liim  in  the  time  of  the  Em- 
peror Gordian. 

ANTHOLOGIUM,'AM9oXo'/ioi',  the  name  of  one 
of  the  church-books  of  the  Gre^k  Church,  con- 
taining the  oflices  for  the  festivals  of  the  Lord, 
the  Virgin  Mary,  the  principal  saints,  etc.,  having 
been  much  augmented  by  successive  editors. 

ANTHONY,  St.,  the  f:ither  of  monasticism;  b. 
in  2.")1,  in  the  village  of  Coma,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Thebais,  Egypt  ;  d.  in  356,  in  the 
mountain-deserts  on  the  border  of  the  Red  Sea; 
belonged  to  an  old  and  wealthy  Coptic  f.araily. 
but  gave  aw.ay  all  his  wealtli  to  the  poor,  and 
began  to  lead  an  .ascetic  life  in  his  native  village, 
supporting  himself  by  the  labor  of  his  h.ands. 
Soon,  however,  the  temptations  began;  the  irre- 
pressible passions  of  human  nature,  and  perhaps 
also  the  allurements  of  pride,  trying  to  carry  him 
back  into  the  world  which  he  liad  renounced. 
In  order  to  conquei%  lie  adopted  a  still  severer 
manner  of  life,  repairing  to  a  cave,  and  mortify- 
ing his  flesh  by  protracted  fasts.  But  here  the 
temptations  re.ached  their  highest  force.  He  ex- 
perienced, Athiinasius  tells  us,  bodily  ill-treat- 
ment from  the  demons,  and  was  carried  back 
unconscious  to  the  village.  Afterw.ards  he  lived 
for  ten  years  in  a  ruin,  then  on  Mount  Colzin 
near  the  Red  Sea;  but,  when  he  fin.ally  took  up 


some  practical  work,  this  exercised  a  most  bene- 
ficial influence  on  him  and  saved  hijn.  He  be- 
came the  siiiritual  leader  of  n)any  ascetics,  and 
the  desert  around  liim  became  peo]iled  with- 
iiermits.  From  distant  places  men  came  to  him 
asking  liis  advice,  or  doing  him  homage;  and  it; 
;ivailed  him  nothing  that  lie  moved  farther  into 
tlie  desert  in  order  to  escape  tliese  disturbances. 
During  the  persecution  of  Maximinus  he  went  to 
Alexandria,  and  exliorted  the  Christians  to  be 
true  to  the  end.  Once  more,  during  the  Arian 
controversy,  he  visited  the  Egyptian  metropolis, 
in  order  to  defend  orthodoxy;  and  both  times  hi.s 
appearance  in  the  busy  world  produced  the  pro- 
foundest  impression.  When  he  was  dying,  he 
ordered  that  the  place  of  his  burial  should  bo 
kept  secret,  in  order  that  no  idolatrmis  honor 
sliould  be  shown  to  his  e.arthly  remains.  His 
life  was  written  in  365  by  Athanasius,  who  had 
known  him  personally:  and,  shortly  after,  the 
work  of  Athanasius  was  translated  into  Latin  by 
Evagrius,  and  introduced  to  the  Western  Churchy 
where  it  gave  monasticism,  if  not  its  first,  at  all 
events  its  most  powerful  impulse.  The  authen- 
ticity of  this  work,  however,  is  doubted  by  H. 
Weingarte.N' :  Der  Ursprung  dcs  Mvnchthumf, 
Gotha,  1877. 

ANTHONY,  St.,  Order  of.  Towards  the  close 
of  the  eleventh  century,  there  raged  in  France  an 
epidemic  (.s-acer  morbua),  which  people  commonly- 
called  the  "  fire  of  St.  Anthony,"  because  they  ex- 
pected aid  against  the  evil  from  this  saint.  And 
when  the  only  son  of  a  rich  nobleman,  Gaston,  in 
the  Dauphine,  was  taken  ill  by  this  disease  (109.5), 
the  father  went  to  the  Cliurch  of  S.  Didier 
la  Mothe,  in  which  the  relics  of  the  saint  were 
said  to  have  been  buried,  and  made  <a  vow,  that,- 
if  the  son  recovered,  he  would  give  all  his  wealth 
to  the  saint,  to  be  spent  in  releasing  those  who 
suffered  from  tlie  same  disease.  The  son  recov- 
ered, and  the  promise  was  redeemed.  A  hospital 
was  built  in  which  the  sick  were  nursed;  and  the 
father  as  well  as  the  son  and  eight  friends  de- 
voted themselves  to  this  service.  In  1208  this 
brotherhood  of  laymen  were  allowed  bj'  Inno- 
cent III.  to  build  a  church;  in  1228  Honorius 
III.  permitted  them  to  take  monastic  vows;  and 
in  1297  Boniface  VIII.  confirmed  them  as  regu- 
lar canons  under  tlie  rules  of  St.  Augustine. 
They  wore  a  black  garment  witli  a  blue  T,  or  the 
cross  of  St.  Anthony;  and  wlien  collecting  alms 
they  carried  a  small  bell  around  their  necks,  thus 
announcing  their  arrival.  People  used  to  pre- 
sent them  each  year  with  a  pig,  which  was  con- 
secrated to  the  saint  of  the  order,  probably 
with  reference  to  tlie  destruction  of  the  herd  of- 
swine  (Matt.  viii.  30-32).  Tlie  order  spread  in 
France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  and  attained  great 
wealth.  The  Abbot  of  St.  Antoine,  Vienne,  was 
its  grand-master.  At  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion it  had  degenerated,  and  the  conduct  of  its 
members  g.ave  occasion  to  much  satire.  In  the 
seventeenth  century  a  reform  was  attempted,  but 
failed.  In  1774  the  order  was  united  with  that 
of  the  Malthese,  and  with  the  latter  it  was  finally 
dissolved. 

ANTHONY  DE  DOMINIS  (^rarco  Antnnio  de 
Doininis),  b.  between  1500  and  1570,  in  the  do- 
minion of  the  Republic  of  Venice;  d.  in  Rome 
in  1674 ;  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits ;  entered 


ANTHONY. 


92 


ANTIDICOMARIANITES. 


the  order;  taiicfht  philosophy  in  various  places 
in  Northern  Italy;  and  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Segni,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Rome,  in  159G,  and 
two  years  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Spalatro, 
and  Primate  of  Dalmatia  and  Croatia.  Dis- 
agreeinc:  with  the  po]ie,  Paul  V.,  concerning  the 
interdict  laid  on  the  city  of  Venice  in  l(i0(j,  sus- 
pected of  entertaining  views  somewhat  similar 
to  those  of  Paolo  Sarpi,  and  liated  by  the  Jesuits, 
from  whose  order  he  had  been  expelled,  he  went 
to  Rome  to  defend  himself.  The  Inquisition 
acquitted  him,  but  did  not  declare  him  guiltless  ; 
and,  provoked  by  this  equivocation,  he  left  Italy, 
and  went  to  England,  explaining  in  a  Latin 
memoir,  published  in  1616,  that  it  was  the  inno- 
vations and  errors  of  the  Roman  popes  which 
drove  him  out  of  "  Babylon."  In  England,  where 
he  was  very  flatteringly  received  by  James  I., 
he  was  converted  to  Prote.stantisra,  joined  the 
Church  of  England,  and  was  made  Dean  of 
Windsor.  Tliis  apostasy  caused  a  great  sensa- 
tion, the  more  .so,  as  Anthony  now  attacked  the 
Roman  Church,  and  various  of  its  doctrines,  in  a 
series  of  learned  and  brilliant  works.  In  the 
De  Kepuhlica  Erclcaiaslica  he  denied  the  primacy 
of  St.  Peter  and  the  papal  see,  and  defended  the 
Anglican  view  of  tlie  equality  of  the  bishops 
with  the  pope.  In  his  views  of  the  relation 
between  the  pope  and  the  various  state-govern- 
ments, he  follows  closely  in  the  track  of  his  coun- 
tryman Sarpi,  whose  history  of  the  Council  of 
Trent  he  published  in  London,  1019.  Suddenly, 
however,  he  left  England,  disappointed,  as  it 
would  seem,  at  not  being  made  Bishop  of  York  ; 
and  in  Brussels  he  returned  to  the  Roman  Church 
(1622).  and  addressed  himself  to  the  pope,  beg- 
ging to  be  forgiven.  Having  arrived  at  Rome, 
lie  was  arraigned  before  the  Lnpiisition,  arrested, 
and  compelled  to  recant:  but  he  died  before  the 
final  sentence  was  spoken  (1624),  according  to 
which  his  books  and  his  body  were  burnt,  and 
their  ashes  strewn  in  the  Tiber.  See  Nkwlaxd: 
Life  of  Dp.  Dnmin'n,  Lomlon,  1860. 

ANTHONY  OF  PADUA,  b.  at  Li.sbon  in  1195; 
d.  at  Padua  in  12-'<1  ;  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
followers  of  .St.  Francis  of  Assissi  ;  entered, 
when  fifteen  years  old,  the  order  of  the  Au- 
gustines,  but  joined  afterwards  the  new  order 
of  St.  Francis;  settled  for  some  time  in  a  monas- 
tery near  Bologna,  and  lived  there  under  the 
severest  practio«.s  of  penitiMico;  studied  theology 
at  Vercelli,  and  taught  at  Bologna,  Toulouse, 
Montpellier,  and  Padua,  but  devoted  himself 
later  on  exolnsively  to  ])reaching,  in  which  olhce 
he  achieved  such  a  success,  that  even  the  fishes, 
it  is  said,  ascended  from  the  waters  to  hear  him. 
His  works  have  been  jiublished  as  an  appendix 
to  those  of  St.  Francis,  by  L.  Wadding,  Ant- 
»verp,  1623;  and  by  IIouov:  Medd  avi  bibliotheca 
j)'t!risliai.  Tom.  VI.,  I'aris,  1880. 

ANTHONY  OF  LEBRIJA  {Anlonim  Nchrmnn- 
si.i),  b.  in  1412;  d.  in  l.")22;  studied  at  various 
universities  in  Sjiain  and  Italy;  was  professor  of 
classical  literature,  first  in  .Salamanca,  and  then 
in  Alcala;  assisted  since  l.')08  in  the  edition  of 
the  Compliilensian  Bible  J'olyglot;  described,  ;is 
htistoriograjiher  to  Fcrdinan<l  and  Isabella,  two 
decades  of  their  reign;  and  published,  not  unmo- 
■IfKted  by  the  Inquisition,  but  protected  by  the 
■favor  of    Cardinal    Ximeues,  iluinquayena  Loco- 


rum  S.  Sc7-iptura:,  non  vulgariter  etiarratorttm,  1520, 

besides  other  works. 

ANTHROPOLOGY.     See  Theologt. 

ANTHROPOMORPHISM  (anthropos,  7nan, 
morphe,  form)  and  ANTHROPOPATHISM  (an- 
thropos, man,  pathos,  pasision).  These  terms 
designate  those  views  of  God  which  represent 
him  as  posses.sed  of  human  attributes  or  human 
passions.  Thus  the  Audians  of  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries  taught  that  all  pa.ssages  of  the 
Bible  which  speak  of  God's  hands,  eai's,  eyes, 
etc.,  are  to  be  interpreted  literally:  on  the  other 
hand,  many  philosophers  call  the  conception  of 
God  as  a  personal  spirit  anthropomorphic.  While 
the  Scriptures,  rightly  interpreted,  lend  no  sup- 
port to  either  extreijie  view,  they  yet  declare 
that  we  are  made  in  the  image  of  God,  and 
that  therefore  He  who  made  us  is  like  us  in 
every  pure  emotion,  and  is  possessed  of  all  our 
powers,  but  not  in  the  same  way  or  measure  with 
ourselves. 

ANTHROPOMORPHITES.     See  Audians. 

ANTICHRIST.  The  word  occui-s  in  the  New 
Testament  only  in  the  Epistles  of  John  ;  but  the 
idea  —  an  antitj'pe  to  the  Messiah,  a  worldly 
power  working  against  the  divine  scheme  of  sal- 
vation, the  last  and  greatest  enemy  which  the 
Saviour  of  mankind  has  to  defeat  —  is  often  re- 
ferred to  in  the  eschatological  discourses  of  the 
Gospels  (Matt.  xxiv.  15  sqq.),  in  the  Epistles 
of  Paul  (2  Thess.  ii.  3),  in  Revelation  (xvi.,  xvii.)  ; 
and  it  has  its  roots  in  the  Old  Testament  (Ezek. 
xxxviii.,  xxxix. ;  Dan.  xi.).  The  idea  is  apoca- 
lyptic in  its  whole  character,  —  dim,  giving  only 
one  vague  glimpse  of  what  is  to  happen  when 
the  time  has  come,  and  yet  full  of  warning,  and, 
by  its  fitness  for  application,  offering  a  clew  to 
the  meaning  of  the  passing  times.  Daniel  seems 
to  apply  it  to  Antiochus  Epiphanes;  the  Revela- 
tion, to  Nero.  —  if  the  interpretation  of  the  caba- 
listic figure  666  is  correct,  —  the  Christians  of  the 
eighth  century,  to  Mohammed  ;  the  Reformers,  to 
the  pope,  —  the  idea  involving  the  double  ele- 
ment of  hostility  to  Christ,  and  false  teaching, — 
Ilengstenberg  and  his  school,  to  that  combination 
of  social  radicalism  and  military  di'spotism  which 
characterized  the  government  of  Napoleon  III. ; 
Frederic  Godet,  H.  Martensen,  and  others,  to  that 
merely  negative  liberalism,  which,  accompanied 
by  an  almost  cynical  sensu;dism,  works  in  mod- 
ern civilization  as  a  most  b;\neful  .agency  of  de- 
moralization, [liesides  the  commentaries  jipon 
Daniel,  Thessaloniaus,  and  Revelation,  see  among 
recent  works  Rknan:  L'An/echnst,  2d  ed.,  Paris, 
1873;  PouKCUKit:  Anlechrisl,  son  Icmps  ct  sea 
anivrex,  tl'aprh  I'  Krrilurn  siiinle  et  lea  srtinls  pkres, 
Saint-Marlin-de-B(>ul>au\-,  1880.]     M.  K.'uiT.F.n. 

ANTIDICOMARIANITES,  or  ANTIMARIANS, 
advcrsarii'S  of  Mary,  Uie  mother  of  the  Lord,  ;v 
sect  which  flourishiil  in  Arabia  towards  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century,  ;iud  is  specially  treated  by 
Epiphanius  in  the  "78th  heresy.  They  taught, 
tliat,  after  the  birth  of  Christ,  M;iry  had  borne 
children  to  Joseph;  and,  by  a  lengthy  argument 
communicated  in  the  above  place,  JC]>iphaniu» 
endeavors  to  refute  them.  They  did  not  separate 
from  the  ('hurch,  however,  but  must  be  consid- 
ered simply  as  a  re-action  .against  the  growing, 
and  by  luonkish  excitement  fomented,  Mariolatry 
of  the  times. 


ANTILEQOMBNA. 


93 


ANTIOCH. 


ANTILECOMENA.     See  Canon. 

ANTIMENSIUM  denotes  in  the  Greek  Church 
the  cloth,  wliich,  at  the  bejiiiiiiing  of  the  niiuss, 
was  spread  over  the  altar.  The  Greek  as  well  as 
the  Roman  Church  liolds  that  mass  cannot  be 
celebrated  except  on  a  consecrated  altar  (comp. 
Gregor.  Nyss.  Opp.  Toui.  III.,  p.  309);  and  as 
such  a  consecration  cannot  be  performed  except 
by  a  bishop,  no  mass  can  be  celebrated  in  those 
cliurches  which  as  yet  have  received  no  episco- 
pal consecration.  From  this  circumstance  origi- 
nated the  antimensium,  which,  in  the  Greek 
Cliurch,  corresponds  to  the  allure  portab'de  in  the 
Latin.     See  Altar. 

ANTINOMIANISM  is  an  exaggeration  of  that 
antithesis  between  faith  and  works,  the  gospel 
and  the  law,  on  which  the  whole  Pauline  the- 
ology is  based;  faith  (the  gospel)  being  empha- 
sized so  strongly  and  one-sidedly,  that  works 
(the  law)  lose  tFieir  legitimate  position  in  the 
system  of  salvation,  and  assume  the  aspect  of 
something  intrinsically  wrong  and  bad.  The 
first  traces  of  Antinomianism  are  found  in  the 
(inostic  .systems,  which  often  dropped  the  whole 
moral  sphere  of  human  life  as  .something  to 
which  a  truly  spiritual  man  could  and  should  be 
entirely  indifferent.  The  opposite  extreme  is 
developed  by  tlie  Roman  Church,  which  ascribes 
a  value  to  works,  the  mere  actions,  in  their 
naked  externality,  the  mechanical  observation 
of  the  precepts  and  rites  of  the  law,  independ- 
ently of  sentiment,  intention,  conviction,  etc.  As 
a  re-action  against  the  Judaiziug  legalism  of 
the  Roman  Church,  in  which  the  life-principle 
of  tlie  gospel  had  become  entirely  lost,  the  Refor- 
mation naturally  came  to  lay  nmch  stress  upon 
the  faith  (the  gospel),  in  contradiction  to  the 
works  (the  law)  ;  and  with  some  of  Luther's  co- 
workers, especially  with  Agricola,  this  tendency 
developed  into  rank  Antinomianism.  He  would 
hear  nothing  about  a  moral  condition  for  sal- 
vation: the  only  condition  was  faith,  —  faith 
pure  and  simple.  The  first  troubles  caused  by 
this  disagreement  between  the  Reforn'.ers  were 
smoothed  over  by  a  conference  between  Agricola 
and  Melanchtlion  at  Torgau  (1527);  but  in  1537 
the  former  renewed  his  attacks,  and  went  so  far 
as  to  say  that  "all  who  had  any  thing  to  do  with 
Moses  would  go  to  the  devil,  for  Sloses  ought 
to  be  hanged."  lie  was  completely  refuted  by 
Luther,  left  Wittenberg,  and  lived  quietly  in  Ber- 
lin until  1562,  wlien  a  sermon  by  him  on  Luke 
vii.  37-49  again  stai-ted  the  controversy.  Agri- 
cola died  in  150(5,  but  others  continued  the  strife 
for  some  time.  Ams^Jorf  declared  that  "  good 
works  were  detrimental  to  salvation."  After  the 
establishment  of  the  Formula  Concordim  (1577), 
the  movement  died  out.  however,  in  Germany; 
but  Antinomian  tendencies  became  visible,  both 
among  tiie  Puritans  under  Cromwell,  and  among 
the  t^uietists  (Madame  Guyon).  .See  Aoui- 
COLA,  Hawkku.  Also  Frank:  Tl/eolnf/ie  der 
Koiicordieiijiiriiiel,  Erlangen,  1S58.  Neal  :  //«>•- 
tori/  (if'tlie  PurUuns.  (i.  PI.ITT. 

ANTIOCH  In  Syria,  tlie  second  capital  of 
Christianity,  and  the  third  city  of  the  Roman 
Empire  in  popul.ation  (.500,000),  wealth,  and 
commercial  activity,  was  situated  about  three 
hundred  miles  nortfi  of  Jerusalem,  upon  the  left 
bank   of   the  Orontes,  and  sixteen  miles  and  a 


half  from  the  Mediterranean.  The  city  lay  in 
a  deep  pass  between  the  fA'\>a.non  and  Taurus 
mouiit;iin-ranges.  Its  founder  was  Seleucu.s 
Nicator,  who  (15. C.  300)  removed  thither  the  in- 
habitants of  Antigonia.  In  order  to  distinguisii 
it  frfun  fifteen  other  .Vntiochs  built  by  the  sam.; 
indefatigable  city-builder,  who  in  this  way  per- 
petuated his  father's  name,  its  conmion  epithets 
were  "Epidaphnes"  (near  Daphne,  the  noto- 
rious temple  and  grove),  or  "on  the  Orontes." 
It  owed  much  of  its  sph^idor,  which  was  particu- 
larly in  streets  an<I  porticos,  to  Antiochus  Epiph- 
anes  ami  Herod  the  Great;  but  all  its  rulers 
succe.ssively  beautified  it,  —  Roman  emperor  no 
less  than  .Syrian  king.  Victorious  Pompey  made 
it  the  seat  of  the  legate  of  Syria  (B.C.  64),  and 
a  free  city,  which  further  increa.sed  its  popu- 
lation and  pro.sperity.  A  mixed  multitude  in- 
habited it;  and  Antioch  quickly  ranked  next  to 
Alexandria,  and  kept  lier  place  for  centuries, 
and  this  notwithstanding  the  danger  from  earth- 
quakes, which  several  times  destroyed  the  city, 
and  doubtle.ss  produced  the  superstition  .so  com- 
mon in  the  jil.ace.  The  most  severe  of  tho.se 
recorded  was  A.D.  .526,  when  two  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  persons  are  said  to  have  been 
killed;  there  being  an  assembly  of  Christians 
at  the  time.  But  after  each  visitation  in  old 
times,  the  city  rose,  and,  helped  by  its  stored-up 
resources  and  tlie  liberal  donations  of  the  emper- 
ors, it  again  became  noted  for  its  beauty.  One 
remarkable  feature  was  an  avenue  which  trav- 
ersed the  city  from  east  to  west,  a  distance  of 
about  four  miles,  and  which  had  two  rows  of  col- 
umns forming  a  covered  way  on  eitlier  hand,  with 
an  open  granite-paved  road  between.  Palaces  of 
imperial  and  provincial  dignities,  mansions  of 
wealthy  merchants,  houses  of  unpretending  folk  - 
—  all  that  luxury  could  .suggest  and  money  could 
buy,  Antioch  contained.  Tlie  people  were  gay, 
pleasure-loving,  and  jiroud.  The  street-life  was 
wonderfully  varied.  Every  sense  was  pampered, 
though  every  sensibility  was  shocked.  Dancing- 
women  charmed  by  their  grace  ;  adventurers  of 
all  sorts  amused  by  their  mimicry,  or  amazed 
by  their  skill.  There  was  also  much  culture, 
though,  for  the  most  part,  misdirected.  Philoso- 
phers, rhetoricians,  and  poets  exposed  their  in- 
tellectual wares;  but  too  often  the  first  excused 
sin,  the  second  glorified  it;  wliile  in  melodious 
verse  the  third  class  sang  the  praises  of  guilty 
love.  Science,  of  a  sort,  existed  :  the  stars  were 
studied,  principally  for  their  supposed  effect  upon, 
or  prophecy  of,  human  destiny;  animate  nature 
was  scanned,  in  order  to  find  an  answer  to  the 
questions  of  future  weal  or  woe. 

From  its  foundation,  Jews  formed  a  cnnsider.i- 
ble  fraction  of  its  population.  Selcucus  Nicator 
put  a  colony  there,  and  gave  them  equal  privi- 
leges with  the  (jreeks  (.loseph.  Ant.,  12.  3.  1. ;  c. 
Apinn.  2.  4).  It  is  probable,  however,  that  they 
held  their  Pagan  neighbors  in  too  great  disdain 
to  make  much  exertion  to  teach  them  any  thing. 
Yet  one  of  the  first  deacons  was  Xicolas.  a  prose- 
lyte of  Antioch  (A.D.  37),  and  he  could  not 
have  been  alone.  But  at  the  beginning  of 
Christianity  the  city  was  put  under  its  direct 
religious  influence;  for  thither  fled  some  of  those 
whom  persecution,  after  Stephen's  death,  drove 
from  Jerusalem  (Acts  xi.  19,  20)  ;  and  so  impor- 


ANTIOCH. 


94 


ANTIOCK. 


tant  was  the  work  there  begun,  that  Barnabas 
was  sent  (A.D.  41)  to  look  up  Paul,  and  secure 
his  aid,  as  a  man  of  wider  culture  and  deejier 
jihilosophic  insight,  in  preaching  the  gospel  to 
those  subtle  Greeks  (Acts  xi.  2G).  The  soil  was 
rich.  The  wisdom-loving  multitude  heard  of 
the  wisdom  and  love  of  God.  They  found  re- 
freshment in  the  gospel's  pure  water  of  salva- 
tion. Jlany,  "  bitter  witli  weariness  and  sick 
with  sin,"  listened  with  faith  to  the  truth,  and 
gladly  escaped  the  defilement  of  their  world 
through  the  protection  of  Christ.  Between  tlie 
mother-church  and  its  daughter  there  was  great 
intimacy,  but  by  no  means  agreement :  indeed, 
the  first  church  council  was  occasioned  by  the 
difference  between  them  in  regard  to  the  neces- 
sity of  circumcision  (.-Vets  xv.).  (See  Apostolic 
CoUN'CiL.)  It  was  at  -Vntioch  that  Paul  so  stern- 
ly rebuked  Peter's  inconsistent  conduct  (Gal.  ii. 
11).  But  for  two  most  important  things  the 
world  is  the  debtor  to  the  gay  capital,  —  the 
Christian  name  given  by  the  witty  popuLace  to 
distinguish  those  whom  the  Jews  called  the 
'•Nazarenes"  from  their  Jewish  kinsmen  (see 
CiimsTiAX,  origin  of  the  name),  and  Clu'istian 
viissiiiiis ;  for  from  these  proceeded  Paul  and 
Barnabas  on  their  first  missionary  journej',  and 
thither  they  returned  (Acts  xiii.  1,  4,  xiv.  20). 
Tlieir  second  tour  began  there  likewise,  though 
they  did  not  go  in  company  (Acts  xv.  39,  40); 
and  tliere  ended  Paul's  second  (xviii.  22),  and 
liis  third  began  (xviii.  23).  After  tlie  fall  of 
Jerusalem,  the  Aiitiochian  Church  took  tlxe  lead 
in  Asia,  and  ranked  with  that  of  Rome,  Con- 
stantinople, Alexandria,  and  Jerusalem,  as  the 
seat  of  a  patriarcli,  when  the  patriarchates  were 
formed  in  the  fifth  century.  This  position  it 
still  holds,  not  only  in  the  Greek,  but  also  in  the 
Latin  Chin-ch:  indeed,  in  the  latter  communion 
there  are  two  patriarchs,  .so  called,  for  the  Greek 
and  .Syrian  Roman  Catholics  respectively;  for, 
altliough  they  do  not  reside  in  tlie  city,  they 
wear  tlie  tith;  of  "Patriarch  of  Antioch."  The 
most  flourishing  period  of  the  Church  of  An- 
tioch was  in  Chi-j-sostom's  day  (b.  there  347): 
then  one-half  the  population,  or  a  hundred 
thousand,  professed  the  faith.  From  252  to 
380  ten  church  councils  were  there  held,  several 
very  important,  especially  in  relation  to  the 
Arian  controversy;  for  it  was  a  stronghold  of 
the  heretics. 

From  Cln'y.sostom's  day  dates  its  decline;  even 
tlien  it  was  no  longer  as  populous  as  formerly. 
In  387  it  rebelled  against  an  imperial  tax  be- 
cause it  was  levied  in  a  famine  year;  in  punish- 
ment it  W!»,s  deprived  of  its  metropolitan  privi- 
leges. It  never  rallied  from  this  blow,  although 
Zeno  and  Justinian  endc^avored  to  restore  pros- 
perity. In  6'i.)  it  fell  uiuler  the  Saracens,  was 
retaken  in  fJfi!),  lost  to  the  Turks  1084,  taken  by 
the  Cru.sadc:r.s  lODS;  but  since  1208  it  iuis  been 
ruled  by  the  Mohammedans,  and  couii)lct<'ly  pros- 
trated. Now  it  is  a  miserable,  dirty  town  of 
.six  thousand  inhabitants.  Repeatinl  eartluiuakes 
luivo  rendered  (,'Ven  the  traces  of  the  jincient 
walls  a  matter  of  doubt.  Scarcely  more  than 
the  name,  AnIaLie,  rennnds  the  traveller  of  the 
once  pojiular,  jiopulons,  powerful  Antioch.  But, 
as  the  gospel  is  again  taught  there  in  its  purity 
by  Protestant  inissiouarie.s,  it  iias  become  a  reli- 


gious centre,  and  may  once  more  send  out  mis- 
sions to  bless  all  Asia  and  the  world. 

Lit.  —  The  writings  of  Josephus,  Libanius  the 
Sophist,  and  Chrysostom,  are  the  most  copious 
original  sources  of  information  respecting  Anti- 
och. See,  also,  Johannes  M.\LAr,.\ :  lli.ituria 
Chronica.  Oxon.,  1001.  The  most  complete  mon- 
ograph upon  ancient  Antioch  is  C.  O.  Mijllek; 
Aniiquitales  Anliochcnce,  Gottiiigen,  1839.  Mod- 
ern Antioch  is  described  by  Pococke  :  Descrip- 
tion of  tit e  East,  London,  1743—15.  Hitter:  Pa- 
liist.  u.  Si/ricn  (part  of  Die  Erdkunde),  trans,  by 
G.age,  T/ic  Complete  Gcofjrapliy  of  Palestine  and 
tlie  Sinaitic  Peninsula,  Edinburgh,  1800,  4  vols, 
Ciiesney:  Eupiiralcs  Expedition,  London,  1850, 
4  vols.  Brilliant  sketches  of  its  life  in  New 
Testament  times  are  found  in  Giuison's  History, 
chap.  23;  Renan:  Les  Apulres,  Paris,  1800;  and 
F.\ia{AU:  Life  of  St.  Paid,  London  and  New  York, 
1879.  SAMITEI,  M.  JACKSON. 

ANTIOCH,  SCHOOL  OF.  This  term  does  not 
denote  an  educational  institution,  like  that  of 
the  catechetical  school  of  Alexandria,  but  a  the- 
ological tendency,  which,  from  Antioch  as  its 
centre,  spread  through  the  whole  Grreco-Syriati 
Church.  The  presbyter  and  martyr  Lucian  (d. 
311),  who  exercised  a  great  influence  as  a  teacher, 
and  his  colle;igue,  the  presbyter  Dorotheus,  are 
generally  mentioned  as  the  founders  of  this 
school ;  and  the  attempts  which  have  been  made 
to  carry  the  date  of  its  origin  still  farther  back 
have  invariably  led  into  uncertainty.  There  is, 
however,  if  not  a  historical  connection,  at  least 
a  psychological  affinity,  between  Lucian  and  Paul 
of  Sainosata,  though  the  monarchianism  of  the 
latter  stands  on  quite  another  ground  than  the 
later  Christology  of  the  Antiochian  school.  But 
both  show,  at  least  in  a  general  way,  a  tendency 
to  emphasize  an  absolute  distinction  between  the 
divine  and  the;  human  nature  in  Christ,  in  oppo- 
sition to  a  mystical  conception  which  confounded 
them;  and  both  are  characterized  by  a  certain 
cool  intellectuality,  which  shrank  back  from  the 
mystery  of  the  incarnation,  and  under  other  cir- 
cumstances became  .\rianisni.  Arius  himself, 
Knsebius  of  Nicomedia,  and  Asterius,  were  dis- 
ciples of  Lucian;  and  his  name  was  frequently 
used  by  the  Kusebians  as  a  cover  under  which 
they  carriiKl  out  their  attein])ts  at  mediation. 
That,  however,  which  most  strikingly  chanicter- 
izes  Lucian,  and  truly  made  him  tlu?  founder  of  a 
new  school,  is  not  so  much  his  dogmatical  stand- 
point, as  his  biblical  criticism.  In  the  field  of 
biblical  exegesis  he  started  a  new  principle, 
directly  opposed  to  the;  dogmatico-allegorical  ex- 
positions of  the  school  of  Origen,  and  iirojiagated 
by  a  number  of  able  disciples.  Arius  taught  for 
some  time  exegesis  in  the  catechetical  school  of 
Alexandria,  ami  commented  upon  the  Gospels, 
the  I'salms,  and  the  Iqiistle  to  the  Romans;  but 
the  fragments  of  his  eomminitaries  still  exlaut 
are  ascribed  to  Asterius.  Of  the  Arian  bishop 
Theodore  of  Ileraclea,  it  is  not  known  whether 
he  ever  received  instruction  from  i^ucian;  but  he 
belongs,  at  all  events,  to  that  grouji  of  men  who 
madit  historical  explanation  the  basis  of  exegesis. 
Of  still  greater  impcu'tance  is  the  Semi-Arian 
bishop  Knsebius  of  Kinesa.  lie  w.-is  born,  liko 
Lucian,  in  tin;  eastern  part  of  Syria,  in  tho 
neighborhood  of    Edcssa ;    studied   under   Kuge- 


ANTIOCHUS. 


95 


ANTIOCHUS. 


bius  of  Ciesarea,  and  tiis  exegetical  method  ex- 
ercised a  di'cisive  influence  on  Diodore.  Also 
Eustatliias  of  Antioch  belongs  to  the  school,  not 
so  much  on  account  of  his  dogmatical  stand- 
point—  for  he  was  a  stanch  adherent  of  the 
Council  of  Micrea  —  as  because  of  his  exegetical 
works.  His  celebrated  essay  on  the  witch  of 
Kndor,  De  E)ii/aslrhn;/lko,  is  directly  opposed  to 
the  exegetical  method  of  Origen.  In  a  more 
special  sense  of  the  word,  Diodore  of  Tarsus 
may  bo  called  the  father  of  the  Antiochian 
school.  He  was  presbyter  in  Antiochia,  and 
occupied  a  prominent  position  as  a  teacher. 
Chrysostom  and  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  were 
among  his  pupils,  and  the  latter  became  the 
classical  representative  of  the  school.  His  the- 
ology is  vigorous  and  original,  a  genuine  off- 
spring of  the  old  Greek  theology,  in  vital  con- 
nection with  its  father,  Origen,  and  emphasizing 
human  freedom,  in  direct  opposition  to  the  Au- 
gustinisni  of  the  Latin  Church.  Both  JJiodore 
and  Theodore  agree  with  tlie  great  Fathers  of 
their  time  with  respect  to  the  Nicene  Creed, 
and  contend  not  only  against  Arianism,  but  also 
again.st  .\polUnarism.  But,  with  respect  to  exe- 
gesis, Jiiodore  declares  that  he  prefers  the  his- 
torical to  the  allegorical;  and  Theodore  pushes 
liis  herineneutical  principles  still  further  towards 
a  true  gramraatico-historical  exposition.  Also 
Tlieodore's  brother  Polychronius,  first  monk  in 
the  Rlonastery  of  St.  Zebiua,  near  Kyros,  after- 
wards Bishop  of  Apamea  (d.  430),  deserves  to  be 
noticed.  He  was  superior  to  his  brother  in 
knowledge  of  Hebrew  and  Syriac  ;  and  his  com- 
mentary on  Daniel,  of  which  a  large  fragment  has 
been  given  by  Angelo  Mai  in  Hcript.  Vet.  Ntica 
Coll.  I.,  occupies  a  prominent  place  among  the 
exegetical  works  of  the  school.  See  O.  Bakdkx- 
iiKWKK  :  Poli/c/iroiiius,  Bruiler  Tlwodors  von  M., 
Freiburg  i.  Br.  1879.  In  a  practical  way,  Chrys- 
ostom is,  of  course,  the  finest  fruit  which  the 
school  produced;  but  both  he  and  Isidore  of 
Pelusium  make  concessions  to  the  allegorical 
method,  or  do  not  distinguish  sharply  between 
type  and  allegory.  The  last  re|iresentative  of 
the  school  was  the  learned  and  adroit  but  some- 
what wavering  Theodoret :  his  exegesis  is,  like 
his  dogmatics,  a  compromise. 

Lit.  —  Kihn:  Die  Beileutung  der  Ant.  SchuI.e, 
Weissenburg,  1856  ;  Ph.  HiiuoKNuoTHEU  :  Die 
Ant.  Schute,  Wiirzburg,  1866;  Dikstkl:  Ge- 
schichte  de.t  A.  T.  in  der  chrisll.  Kirclie,  Jena, 
1869,  pp.  126-141.  MOLLER. 

ANTIOCHUS  is  the  name  of  twelve  kings  of 
Syria,  of  whom  the  following  are  of  interest  for 
sacred  literature. — Antiochus  II.,  with  the  sur- 
name i3fof,  which  the  ^Milesians  gave  him  for 
freeing  them  from  the  tyrant  Timarchus  (261  to 
246),  was,  after  a  war  of  eight  years  with  tlie 
Egyptian  king,  Ptolemy  II.  (Philadpli)hus),  com- 
pelled in  249  to  accept  peace  on  the  conditions 
that  he  should  divorce  liis  wife  and  step-sister, 
Laodice,  and  marry  Berenice,  a  daughter  of 
Philadelphus.  Two  years  after,  Philadelphus 
died,  and  Antiochus  now  took  back  his  first  wife. 
She,  however,  had  not  forgotten  the  slight  of- 
fered her  by  the  divorce :  she  poisoned  her  hu.s- 
band,  and  had  Berenice  and  her  sou  decaiiitated. 
Berenice's  brother,  Ptolemy  HI.  (Euergetes),  has- 
tened to  Syria  with  an  army,  but  came  too  late 


to  save  her.  To  this  nnfortunate  marriage- 
connection  between  the  dynasties  of  the  South 
(Egypt)  and  the  North  (Syria)  refers  the  pas- 
sage in  Daniel  (xi.  6),  and  in  a  general  way  it 
is  synd)o!ized  by  the  feet  of  the  colossus,  half  of 
iron,  and  half  of  clay,  but  unable  to  stand  firmly 
(Dan.  ii.  33,  43). —  Antiochus  III.,  the  Great 
(224  to  187),  began  war  with  Egypt  in  218.  but 
was  completely  defeated  at  Ilaphia,  near  (jaza, 
and  saved  from  further  loss  only  by  the  slovenli- 
ness of  the  Egyptian  king,  Ptolemy  Philopator 
(Dan.  xi.  11).  He  then  turned  towards  the 
eastern  frontiers  of  his  realm,  against  I'arthia 
and  Bactria;  penetrated  into  Northern  India,  and 
organized  a  formidable  army,  includiuij  a  hun- 
dred and  fifty  Indian  elephants.  In  201  Philop- 
ator died  ;  and  the  Egyptian  crosvn  now  devolved 
on  his  son,  Ptolemy  V.  (Epiphanes),  a  boy  of  five 
years.  This  circumstance  Antiochus  meant  to 
utilize.  He  conquered  Coele-Syria,  Phoenicia,  and 
Palestine,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory,  in  198, 
at  PaUeas  in  Coele-Syria.  Peace  was  then  con- 
cluded ;  and  he  promised  to  give  his  daughter 
Cleopatra,  who  was  engaged  to  Ptolemy  Epipha- 
nes, the  three  conquered  provinces  as  a  dowry; 
but  the  jiromise  was  not  redeemed  (Dan  xi. 
13-17).  He  then  invaded  Asia  JNIiaor,  and  iii 
19.J  he  crossed  the  Hellespont,  and  advanced 
into  Eurojae.  Here  he  encountereil  the  Iloinans; 
but  in  190  he  was  totally  defeated  at  Magnesia 
by  Scipio  Asiaticus,  and  he  obtained  peace  from 
Rome  only  on  very  severe  conditions  (Dan.  xi. 
18;  1  Mace.  viii.  6).  lletiring  to  his  eastern 
provinces  in  order  to  raise  money  for  the  tribute 
he  owed  to  Rome,  he  was  slain  in  187.  while 
plundering  the  temple  of  Belus  in  Elymais.  ^ 
Antiochus  IV.,  Epiphanes  (176  to  164),  grasped 
the  sceptre  after  the  death  of  his  brother,  and  re- 
tained it  in  spite  of  the  just  claims  of  his  nephew 
(Dan.  xi.  21).  The  most  prominent  trait  of  his 
character  was  an  overweening  pride  (2  Mace.  v. 
21,  ix.  8;  Dan.  vii.  8,  xi.  20,  .xi.  36).  He  called 
himself  i9ei'(C,  and  assumed  the  surname  of  the 
Olympian  Zeus,  NiKrjidpag.  As  a  true  Oriental 
despot  he  ordered  that  all  his  subjects  should 
form  one  nation,  with  one  god  and  one  worship. 
This  god  should  be  the  Olympian  Zeus,  whose 
worship  was  unknown  to  most  of  his  subjects 
(Dan.  xi.  36-39);  but,  as  he  wholly  identified 
himself  with  this  deity,  it  was,  indeed,  his  own 
worship  he  ordered  introduced  (2  ISIacc.  vi.  7). 
Among  the  Jews  there  was  a  party  which  favored 
Paganism  in  its  Greek  form,  and  this  party  found 
ready  support  with  .\ntioehus  (1  Mace.  i.  11- 
lo).  In  17.5  the  pious  high  priest  Onias  was 
overthrown  by  his  brother  Jesus,  who  changed 
his  name  to  the  Greek  Jason,  bought  the  office 
as  high  priest  from  Antiochus.  and  received  per- 
mission to  introduce  Greek  sjames  at  the  temjile, 
which  caused  the  worship  of  Jehovah  to  be  much 
neglected  (2  Mace.  iv.  7).  Three  years  later 
on.  Jason  w'as  overthrown  by  JMenelaus,  who 
made  a  higher  bid  for  the  office,  and  succeeded 
in  retaining  it  by  the  foulest  means:  tlius  he 
slew  Onias  (2  Slacc.  iv.  23-50).  Antiochus 
made  four  campaigns  to  Egypt,  and  had  hope  of 
entirely  subjugating  that  country,  when  he  sud- 
denly was  stojiped  in  his  victorious  career  by  the 
Romans  (168).  In  the  interval  between  the  firet 
and  the  second  Egyptian  campaign  he  plundered 


ANTIOCHUS. 


96 


ANTIPHON. 


the  temple  in  Jerusalem  (1  Slacc.  i.  20) ;  and 
en  his  final  return  from  Epypt  he  ordered  that 
the  worship  of  Jehovah,  circumcision,  the  Sab- 
bath, the  distinction  between  clean  and  unclean, 
should  be  abolished:  that  the  sacred  books 
should  be  burnt,  and  altars  raised,  on  which 
every  one  was  to  sacrifice  to  the  Olympian  Zeus, 
under  penalty  of  death  (1  Mace.  i.  29;  2  Mace. 
V.  24).  On'Chisleu  15,  108,  an  altar  was  con- 
secrated in  the  temple  to  the  Olympian  Zeus 
(2  Mace.  vi.  2;  1  Mace.  i.  51,  BM^vy^a  ipijuciafoi; ; 
conip.  1  Mace.  i.  59  and  iv.  38),  and  on  Chisleu 
25  the  first  burnt  offering  was  presented.  To 
this  altar  refer  Dan.  i.K.  27,  xi.  31,  xii.  11: 
comp.  also  Jlatt.  xxiv.  15.  On  JMount  Gerizim 
the  worsliip  of  Zeus  Xenios  was  established  (  2 
Mace.  vi.  2).  This  last  step  had  long  been  pre- 
pared by  the  Greek  ]iarty  among  the  Jews,  and 
tlie  bloody  persecutions  made  many  renegades. 
Many,  however,  remained  true  to  their  faith  in 
spite  of  the  most  horrible  tortures  (1  Mace.  i. 
u2-()4;  2  Mace,  vi.,  vii.).  At  the  head  of  tlie 
faithful  stood  the  priest  Mattathias.  At  Mo- 
din,  near  Joppe,  he  struck  down  the  Syrian 
captain  before  the  idolatrous  altar,  and  thus  he 
u.shered  in  the  armed  resistance  of  the  Jews. 
Antiochus  determined  to  put  down  all  resistance; 
but,  being  in  need  of  money  (2  Mace.  viii.  10), 
he  divided  his  army  into  two  parts,  and  went 
himself  with  the  one-half  to  his  eastern  prov- 
inces for  the  purpose  of  collecting  the  tribute 
(1  Mace.  iii.  31);  while  the  other  was  placed 
imder  command  of  Lysias.  Lysias.  however, 
was  completely  defeated  by  Judas  Maccabeus, 
and  the  Jews  once  more  became  masters  of  the 
templl^  On  Chisleu  25,  165.  exactly  three  years 
after  the  presentation  of  the  first  Pagan  sacrifice, 
tlie  temple  was  purified  with  great  solemnity, 
and  it  was  determined  that  an  amiual  feast 
sliould  be  celebrated  in  commemoration  of  the 
day  (1  Mace.  iv.  59),  called  "the  Feast  of  the 
Dedication  "  (John  x.  22).  Meanwhile  Antio- 
chus met  with  very  little  success  in  the  East. 
lie  attemjited  to  plunder  the  rich  temple  of 
Naiiiea  in  Klymais,  but  was  repelled  by  the  in- 
habitants, and  died  shortly  after  (101)  at  Taba, 
having  just  leceived  the  news  from  Judrea  (1 
Mace.  vi.  1;  Polyb.  xxxi.  11;  Jerome  on  Dan. 
xi.).  In  the  Old  Testament  he  is  rejjresented  as 
die  fiend  of  the  Lord,  of  his  penpli',  and  of  his 
dispensation  (l);ui.  xi.  21;  1  jNIacc.  i.  10);  in 
the  New,  as  the  prototype  of  Antii:hrist  (Rev. 
xiii.  5).  —  Antiochus  V.,  Eupator  (101  to  102),  a 
son  of  Antiochus  Kpipluuies,  was  a  minor  wlien 
his  father  di^-d,  ami  had  been  phuit^d,  during  his 
(ather's  absence  in  the  Kast,  umler  the  tutorship 
of  Lysias.  Tlie  dying  Kpiph:uics,  however,  had 
made  I'liilip'nis  tutor  of  liis  son,  and  regent  of 
the  whole  realm;  and,  when  Lysias  heard  of 
these  dispositions,  he  immediately  made  peace 
with  tlie  Jews.  The  peace  of  Judica  was  of 
fhort  duration,  however.  The  (Jreek  Jiarty  and 
the  high  priest  Menelaus  continued  to  incite  the 
Syrian  government  against  the  faithful  (1  Mace. 
\\.  21-27;  2  Mace.  xiii.  3);  and  in  103  an  army 
(d'  a  hundred  thousand  foot,  twenty  thousand 
Irorse,  and  many  (dcphaiits,  invaded  the  couiitiy. 
'I  he  fiirtrrs.s  of  liclhziira  surrendered;  Jerusali'm 
wiifl  be|eii:;iiercd  and  taken.  Hut  Antiochus  now 
learnt  that  i'hilippus  advanced  from  Persia  with 


a  gre.at  army.  He  immediately  made  peace 
with  Judas  Maccabeus,  and  turned  against  Phi- 
lippus,  not,  though,  until  after  destroying  in  a 
faithless  manner  the  fortifications  of  Jerusalem 
(1  Mace.  vi.  51,  52;  2  Mace.  xiii.  23).  Philip- 
pus  he  defeated;  but  in  102  Demetrius  escaped 
from  Home,  landed  at  Tripolis,  and  took  posses- 
sion of  the  throne  of  Syria  almost  without  resist- 
ance. Antiochus  and  Lysias  were  decapitated 
(1  Mace.  vii.  1-4;  2  Mace.  xiv.  1).  —  Antiochus 
VI.,  Epiphanes  Dionysius,  was  a  son  of  Alexander 
Balas  (see  title),  who  in  140  was  overthrown  by 
Demetrius  II.  Though  a  mere  child  at  the  death 
of  his  father,  he  was  raised  to  the  throne  by 
Tryphon.  lie  gained  the  high  priest  Jonathan, 
and  the  brother  of  the  high  priest,  Simon,  over 
to  his  side  (1  ^Macc.  xi.  57-74,  xii.  24-54);  but 
Tryphon  showed  himself  a  traitor,  and  in  143 
both  Jonathan  (1  Mace.  xii.  39)  and  Antiochus 
(1  Mace.  xiii.  41)  were  murdered.  —  Antiochus 
VII.,  Sidetes  (from  Sida  in  Pamphylia,  where  he 
was  educated),  was  a  brother  of  Demetrius  II., 
who  in  141  was  taken  prisoner  in  Parthia  (1 
Mace.  xiv.  1-3),  and  obtained  in  139  the  crown 
of  Syria  (1  Mace.  xv.  10).  He  won  the  high 
priest  Simon  for  his  side,  and  succeeded  in 
shutting  Tryphon  up  in  Dora  (1  Mace.  xv.  10- 
14,  25,  20);  but  as  Simon  had  conquered  several 
towns  belonging  to  .Syria,  and  Antiochus  de- 
manded that  he  should  give  up  these  phvces,  or 
pay  a  thousand  talents  in  silver,  war  broke  out 
between  Syria  and  Jud.T^a.  After  defeating  Try- 
phon, Antiochus  sent  his  general,  Cemleba^us, 
with  an  army,  into  Juda}a;  but  he  was  defeateil 
by  Simon's  son,  .lohn  Ilyrcauus  (1  Mace.  xv. 
27-xvi.  10).  In  130  Siiiion  was  murdered  (1 
Mace.  XV.  14),  and  his  murderer,  Ptolemy,  asked 
for  help  from  Antiochus  (1  M:icc.  xvi.  18). 
Antiochus  then  invaded  Judaea,  and  pushed  on- 
wards victoriously  to  Jerusalem.  It  w:vs  the 
time  of  the  feast  of  tabernacles;  and  so  nobly 
did  Antiochus  behave  during  the  celebration  of 
the  solemnity,  that  the  Jews  gave  him  the  sur- 
name of  Eusebes.  Peace  was  concluded  shortly 
after.  The  Jews  retained  free  exercise  of  their 
religion,  but  wei-e  compelled  to  surrender  their 
arms,  and  to  pay  a  war  indemnity.  In  131)  .\uti- 
ochus  began  war  with  Arsaces,  King  of  P;irthia, 
but  fell  ill  the  same  year.  K.'\V1K.SK1.EU. 

ANTIOCHUS  IV.,' EPIPHANES,  Kiiigof  Coin- 
mageiie  (A.D.  41-72),  joined  Titus  during  the 
siege  of  .lerusalem.  Ills  Uingdoui,  with  its  capi- 
taP  of  Samosata,  was  sitiuiti'd  between  Mount 
Taurus  and  the  Euphrates,  and  belouge<l  origi- 
nally to  th(!  kingdom  of  Syria,  but  became  inde- 
pendent during  the  contests  between  the  hist 
Seleucids.  In  43  he  was  betrothed  to  Agripp;i's 
daughter  Drusilla;  in  72  he  was  deposed  lor  con- 
sjiinu^y  with  the  I'artliiaiis. 

ANTIOCHUS,  b.  at  Medosaga,  near  Ancyra, 
in  Galali:i,  wiis  a  monk  in  St.  Saba,  near  Jeriisa- 
h'ln,  at  the  time  when  Chosroes  took  and  s:u:keil 
that  city  (Oil),  and  has  given  a  deseii]itiou  of 
the  plundering  of  his  monastery  in  the  dedica- 
tion of  his  work:  ll(ii'(!(«r7;!  t7K  I'lyinc  }("'ip'K,  a  se- 
ries of  a  hundied  and  lliirty  homilies.  See 
Faiikiciis  :   llthl.  (I'rtir.  lib.  V.  c.  34. 

ANTIPHON,  a  form  of  singing  by  which  a 
second  voice  or  choir  answers  the  first,  was 
counuoJily   used  in   the  Jewish  synagogue   (Ez. 


ANTIPOPE. 


97 


ANTONELLI. 


iii.  11;  Ps.  cvi.  48.  cxlvii.  7;  Matt.  xxvi.  30), 
and  thence  early  introduced  in  the  Christian 
Church.  Socrates  (Hint.  Keel.  2 '.  8)  .say.s,  Ji;na- 
lius  (110)  employed  it  in  Antioch.  Basil  (S'JO- 
;>79),  in  one  of  his  letters  {Ephl.  03  ad  Neoea:.i.), 
gives  a  description  of  this  mode  of  sinRins,  wliich 
is  to-day  in  common  use  in  all  liturjjical  churches. 

ANTIPOPE  means  a  rival  pope,  one  not  elected 
in  the  proper  canonical  way,  but  resting  his 
claims  on  intrigue  or  force.  There  has  been 
quite  a  number  of  such  antipopes.  At  one  time 
(1040)  there  were  four  rival  popes,  namely, 
Sylvester  III.,  Benedict  IX.,  Gregory  VI.,  and 
Clement  II.  But  it  has  not  always  been  easy  to 
decide  which  of  the  rivals  was  the  true  pope; 
so  in  such  cases  the  church  has  been  divided  by  a 
."(chism.  The  longest  schism  broke  out  after  the 
death  of  Gregory  XI..  and  lasted  for  fifty  years 
(1378-1429).  As  the  rivalling  popes  always  con- 
demned and  excommunicated  each  other,  this 
chapter  of  the  history  -of  the  Roman  Church 
forms  a  somewhat  peculiar  introduction  to  the 
dogma  of  papal  infallibility. 

ANTITACT/E.     See  Gnosticism. 

AhJTITRINITARIANISM  is  the  general  name 
for  a  number  of  very  different  views,  which, 
however,  all  have  this  one  quality  in  common, 
that  they  oppose  the  dogma  of  the  Trinity. 
Such  views  occur  in  the  earliest  days  of  the 
Christian  Church,  even  in  tlie  apostolic  age;  and, 
indeed,  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  such  as 
it  was  formulated  by  the  Council  of  Nica^a  (32.5), 
in  the  Atlianasian  Creed,  and  such  as  it  is  still 
held  by  the  orthodox  side  of  Christendom,  alike 
in  the  Greek,  the  Roman,  and  the  Reformed 
churches,  may  be  said  to  have  developed  gradu- 
ally in  steady  contest  with  a  rigid,  narrow,  and 
Judaistic  Monotheism.  Unable  to  grasp  the  in- 
nermost kernel  of  Christian  dogmatics,  —  the 
idea  of  one  God  in  three  persons,  —  and  fearful 
of  falling  into  Pagan  Polytheism,  the  Antitrinita- 
rians  of  the  Ante-Nic<ean  period  tried  to  vindi- 
cate Monotheism,  either  by  making  the  differ- 
ence between  the  Father  and  the  Son  so  great 
that  Christ  became  a  mere  creature,  a  divine 
being,  though  not  God,  a  man.  though  the  best  of 
all,  etc.,  or  by  identifying  the  Father  and  the  Son 
so  closely,  that  the  Son  became  nothing  but  the 
Father  incarnated,  crucified,  etc.  The  first  of 
these  two  Antitrinitarian  types,  the  Monarchians, 
was  represented  in  the  apostolic  age  by  Cerin- 
thus  and  the  Ebionites;  in  the  second  century, 
by  Theodotus  the  Elder;  in  the  third,  by  Theo- 
dotus  the  Younger,  a  banker  in  Rome,  and  Arte- 
mon ;  and  it  found  its  highest  development  in 
Paul  of  Sanrosata.  Probably  it  is  this  influence, 
which,  running  through  the  Antiochian  school  of 
theology,  at  last  burst  forth  in  Arianism.  The 
other  type  of  Antitrinitarianism,  the  Patripas- 
sians,  made  its  first  appearance  with  Praxeas,  in 
the  time  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  Then  followed 
Nol'tus  of  Smyrna,  and  Beryllus  of  Bostra,  and 
finally  the  type  found  a  full  representation  in 
Sabellius,  who  left  behind  a  great  number  of 
congregations  and  a  wide-spre.ad  influence. 

By  the  Nic^an  Council,  the  dogma  of  the  Iloly 
Trinity  was  fixed,  and  for  centuries  the  question 
was  not  mooted.  But  the  schoolmen  of  the 
middle  ages  took  it  up  once  more,  and,  with  the 
left  wing  of  this  army,  embodying  the  ratioual- 
8-1 


izing  tendencies  of  the  time,  it  became  a  favorite 
subject.  The  authority  of  the  Roman  Church, 
however,  prevented  any  outburst  of  plain  Anti- 
trinitarianism; but  it  was  easy  to  see  whither 
the  speculations  of  an  Abelard,  Almaric  of  Bena, 
David  Dinanto,  etc.,  would  lead,  if  ever  this  au- 
thority became  shaken ;  and  the  consequences 
obscurely  involved  in  the  syllogisms  of  the  meta- 
physicians, and  well  concealed  behind  the  bar- 
barous terminology  of  the  school,  often  came  into 
open  daylight  through  tlie  sects,  the  Paulicians, 
the  Catharists,  etc.  Contemporary  with  the  Ref- 
ormation, an  Antitrinitarian  movement  actually 
begun,  started,  in  some  cases,  by  the  Anabaptist 
whirlwind,  as,  for  instance,  with  Denk,  Iletzer, 
Joris  of  Delft,  etc.,  but  in  others,  growing  up 
from  the  very  same  root  as  the  Reformation  it- 
self; as,  for  instance,  with  Servetus.  In  both 
forms,  however,  the  movement  represents  the 
Patripassian  type.  The  Antitrinitarianism,  both 
of  Joris  and  of  Servetus,  is  Sabellianism,  more 
or  less  colored  by  the  Pantheism  of  the  scliool- 
men  and  the  mystics.  But  when  the  influence 
and  ideas  of  Servetus  met  with  the  Italian  hu- 
manism, as  in  such  men  as  Gribaldo  and  Gentilis, 
a  transition  was  made  from  the  Patripassian  to 
the  jMonarchian  type;  and  in  Poland,  whither  the 
Italian  professors  and  tutors  brought  the  move- 
ment, the  result  became,  under  the  hands  of  Faus- 
tus  .Socinus,  what  is  now  known  under  the  name 
of  Unitariauism.  The  deists  of  England,  the 
positivists  of  France,  the  rationalists  of  Germany, 
all  free-thinkers,  from  the  spiritualists  to  the 
materialists,  are  by  necessity  Antitrinitarians ; 
but  the  dogma  of  the  Holy  Trinity  is  seldom  the 
point  of  Christian  dogmatics  which  they  attack. 
The  Sweden borgians  admit  a  Trinity  in  one  per- 
son, but  not  of  persons.  See  Bock  :  Historic, 
Antilrinitarionim,  Konigsberg,  1774-84,  2  vols.  ; 
Langk:  Gcschiehte  der  Unilwier  vor  d.  Nic. 
Si/node,  Leipzig,  1831 ;  TuECHSKL  :  Die prolestant. 
AntilriniUirier  vor  F.  Hocin,  Heidelberg,  1839-44. 

ANTON,  Paul,  b.  at  Hirschfeld,  in  Upper 
Lusatia,  1001;  d.  in  Ilalle,  1730;  studied  theol- 
ogy in  Leipzig;  founded,  together  with  Francke, 
the  so-called  Collef/ia  BilAiea ;  was  in  1080  made 
superintendent  of  llochlitz,  in  1092  court>- 
preacher  in  Eisenach,  and  in  1095  professor  of 
theology  at  the  Lhiiversity  of  Halle,  where, 
together  with  Breithaupt  and  Francke,  he  be- 
came a  leader  of  the  Pietist  movement.  His  lec- 
tures. Collegium  Aniillietieum,  were  edited  in  1732 
by  Schwentzel.  The  Denkmal  des  Herrn  Paul 
Anton,  published  soon  after  his  death,  contains 
an  autobiography  (to  172.5)  and  Francke's  Lecliu 
Para'neliea. 

ANTONELLI,  Giacomo,  an  Italian  cardinal 
.and  statesman,  b.  April  2,  1800 ;  d.  in  Rome, 
Nov.  7,  1870.  He  early  achieved  distinction, 
and  in  1845  was  made  minister  of  finance  to 
Gregory  XVI.  Pius  IX.,  the  next  pope,  made 
him  a  cardinal-deacon  (June  12,  1847).  papal 
secretary  of  foreign  affairs  (i.e.,  prime-minister) 
in  1849,  and  his  chief  political  adviser,  in  which 
capacity  he  strenuously  and  persistently  o]iposed 
every  liberal  measure.  In  January,  1808,  he 
became  dean  of  the  order  of  cardinal-deacons. 
He  had  the  mortification  to  see  Victor  Emmanuel 
enter  Rome  as  King  of  Italy,  Nov.  21,  1871. 
He  left  immense  wealth,  which  he  declared  ou 


ANTONIANS. 


98 


APHEK. 


liis  death-bed  was  derived  entirely  from  his 
patrimony.  He  was  certainly  one  of  the  ablest 
statesmen  of  his  day;  but  his  policy  was  bad. 
After  his  death,  a  suit  involving  his  moral  char- 
acter was  begun,  to  obtain  his  property,  by  the 
t'liuntess  Laura  Lambertini,  who  claims  to  be  his 
natural  daughter,  wliich  is  not  yet  (1880)  decided. 

ANTONIANS,  an  Antinoniiau  sect  of  recent 
date;  originated  in  Switzerland,  in  the  canton 
of  Berne,  and  received  its  name  from  its  author, 
Anton  Unternahrer.  Born  at  .Schiipfheim,  in  the 
canton  of  Lucerne,  Sept.  5,  1750 ;  d.  in  the  jail 
of  the  city  of  Lucerne,  June  29,  1824,  Unter- 
niihrer  was  educated  and  confirmed  in  the 
Roman-Catholic  Church,  and  began  his  career 
as  a  quack-doctor,  in  the  country  between  Thun 
and  Berne.  In  1800  he  moved  to  Anisoldingen, 
near  Tliun.  and  here  he  began  to  hold  religious 
meetings,  to  preach,  to  issue  books,  etc.  ;  and 
April  IC,  1802,  he  appeared,  with  a  great  ci'owd 
of  adlierents,  before  the  min.'^ter  of  Berne, 
announcing  himself  as  the  son  of  God,  come  to 
judge  mankind,  and  more  especially  the  magis- 
tnUes  of  the  city.  The  tumult  was  soon  sup- 
pressed, and  Unternahrer  was  condemned  to  two 
years'  imprisonment  with  hard  labor  ;  but  on  his 
release  in  1804  he  was  received  by  his  adherents 
with  great  enthusiasm,  and  the  riots  began  again. 
It  was  proposed  to  shut  him  up  in  a  lunatic- 
asylunr,  and  for  five  years  he  was  kept  under 
arrest  in  Lucerne.  He  returned  to  the  world 
more  collected  and  more  serious,  but  by  no 
means  cured,  and  in  1820  he  was  permanently 
locked  up  in  the  jail.  His  publications  comprise 
about  fifteen  pamphlets:  GerichlsbUcldein,  Buck 
ilcr  Krfdlluiui,  Gc/wimnixs  der  Liebe,  etc.  He 
taught  that  the  primitive  relation  between  God 
and  man  is  exhausted  by  two  single  command- 
ments,—  one  positive,  to  love  and  nndtiply;  and 
one  negative,  not  to  eat  ot  the  tree  of  knowl- 
edge. But,  tempted  by  Satan,  man  violated  the 
Second  Commandment;  and  the  result  was,  that 
he  attained  a  great  wisdom,  beginning  with  a 
distinction  between  good  and  evil,  an<l  ending 
in  institutions  innuuu'rable, — state,  church,  court, 
school,  etc.;  which  wisdom,  liowever,  is  of  satanic 
origin,  and  is  the  true  curse  of  mankind.  From 
this  curse  tliere  is  only  one  salvation,  through 
the  fulfilment  of  the  First  Comnuuuhneut,  to  love 
and  multiply;  and  for  this  purpose  all  restraints 
arising  from  such  ideas  as  nuirriage,  family, 
etc.,  must  be  throw'u  off.  The  principal  seat  of 
the  sect  was  .\insoldingeu,  whence  it  spread  into 
Gsteig,  near  Interlaken.  Suppressed  here  in  1821, 
it  re-ajijieared  at  Wohlen,  near  Berne,  in  1S30, 
vtiuler  the  leaderslii])  of  Benedict  .Sehori,  and 
again  at(isteig.  in  18;i8-10,  under  the  leadership 
of  Christian  Slichel,  and  severe  measures  were 
necessary  to  suppress  the  excesses.  See  .S.  Zieg- 
l.i:i::    /'."  /.,  /,n  d,  i-  A  uli/iiiiiiirr.  TI!KCII.SEL. 

ANTONINUS  PIUS,  Roman  fimi>eror  from 
•July  10,  l;i8,  to  Marcli  7,  101,  continued  the  poli- 
cy of  Trajan  towards  the  Christians,  protecting 
tfieni  against  the  wild  outbursts  oi'  Pagan  fury, 
without  according  them  a  full  legal  recognition. 
Under  liis  immediate  successor,  however,  there 
aro.qe  within  the  cliiircli  a  teiuleticy  to  glorify 
Antoninus,  an<l  make  him  an  example  ol  true 
liberality  and  goodne.ss;  and  this  tendency,  no 
easily  explainaljle  under  the  circumstances,  grad- 


ually developed  a  rich  tradition,  which,  however, 
has  no  historical  foundation.  The  Ediclum  ail 
Commune  Axiie  (Euseb.  /Hit.  Cccte.  IV.,  13)  is 
evidently  spurious ;  and  though  the  existence  of 
the  edicts  to  the  Larisseni,  Thessalouians,  and 
Athenians,  in  favor  of  the  Christians  (Euseb. 
Hist.  Eccles.  IV.,  26,  10)  cannot  be  doubted, 
there  is  no  reason  to  consider  them  as  any  thing 
more  than  a  simple  injunction  of  the  principles 
laid  down  by  the  legislation  of  Trajan. 

ANTONINUS,  St^  {Antonio  Pierozzi.  also  called 
de  Forcii/lioni) ;  b.  in  Florence  1389 ;  d.  there 
May  2,  1459 ;  entei-ed  the  Dominican  order  in 
1404  I  became  vicar-general  of  the  order  in  Tus- 
cany and  Naples  in  1436,  and  was  elected  Arch- 
bishop of  Floi-ence  in  1440.  In  both  of  these 
offices  he  labored  ze.alously  to  reform  the  monas- 
teries under  his  authorit}-,  and  won  the  esteem 
anil  love  of  all  by  his  energy,  and  readiue.ss  for 
self-sacrifice  dtiruig  the  plague  (in  1448)  and  the 
earthquake  (1453).  By  Adrian  VI.  he  was  canon- 
ized (1523).  His  principal  works  are:  .'iuinma 
tlicoloijica,  treating  the  moral  system  much  after 
Thomas  Aquinas,  lirst  )irinted  at  Venice  in  1477, 
afterw'ards  often  republished,  and  still  valued  in 
Italy  as  a  text-book;  Lctlere  di  S.  A.,  Florence, 
1859,  addressed  to  a  distinguished  lady,  Dio- 
data  degli  Adimari,  and  treating  moral  sub- 
jects with  great  earnestness;  Summa  confessio- 
nalix.  or  Sumina  conje.t.'iionuni,  first  printed  at 
Moudovi  in  1472;  Summa  liisloriali.i.  or  Chronicon 
ah  orlie  condilo  hi/iartilnm,  a  world's  chrojiicle, 
reaching  down  to  the  year  of  14.57,  first  printed 
in  1480,  and  afterwards  augmenied  and  altered 
by  the  Jesuit  P.  Maturus,  L3'ons,  1587.  Col- 
lected editions  of  his  works  appeared  at  Venice 
in  1474  (4  vols,  fol.)  and  at  Florence  in  1741 
(8  vols.).     See  Ada  S.  T.  Rlai  T.  I.,  p.  310. 

ANTONIO  DE  DOMINIS.     See  A.ntiio.nv  de 

Do.MIMS. 

APHAR'SITES,  one  of  the  peoples  with  wliom 
the  Assyrians  colonized  Samaria  (Ez.  iv.  9),  but 
otherwise  uttt'rlv  unknown. 

APHAR'SATHCHITES,  perhaps  identical  with 
the  Apharssachilen  (cf.  Fz.  iv.  9,  v.  G).  probably  the 
Paraitakenoi,  a  people  on  the  Medo- Persian  border, 
whom  the  conquering  Assyrians  had  put  in  a 
strange  land  in  order  to  makc^  harmless,  even  as 
they  did  lln^  Isracilites.  WOLK  U.VUDISSIN'. 

APHEK  {.ftrcni/lli).  the  name  of  several  cities. 

I.  A  city  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  .\sher 
(Josh.  xix.  30),  but  never  conquered  by  the  Is- 
raelites (Josh.  xiii.  4)  ;  also  called  Ajihik  (Judg. 
i.  31);  the  classical  Aphica,  the  present  Afka, 
situated  on  Mount  Lebanon,  near  the  source  of 
tlie  River  .\donis.  ami  at  one  time  famous  for  its 
Venus  temple,  which  was  destroyed  by  Constan- 
tine  the  (ireat. 

II.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Iss.achar,  oast  of 
.Shunem,  on  the  slope  ot  the  Lesser  Ilermon,  not 
far  from  Jezreel  (1  Sam.  xxix.  1).  Here  the 
Philistines  eucam]ied  before  the  battle  in  which 
Saul  lost  his  life,  and  here  the  Syrian  king  Ben- 
hacl.ad  11.  fell  into  the  hands  of  Ahab  (1  Kings 
XX.  26). 

III.  A  city  near  Miz])ah,  north-west  of  Jerusa- 
lem, wliere  the  Philistines  encamped  liel'ori'  the 
battle  in  which  the  .sous  of  Eli  were  killed  (1  Sam. 
iv.  1;  comp.  vii.  12),  an<l  jierhaps  identical  with 
the  royal  city  of  the  Canaanites  (Josl:.  xii.  18). 


APHTHARTODOCET^. 


99 


APOCRYPHA. 


IV.  A  city  .standiiif;  on  the  plateau  ea.st  of 
the  Sea  of  Galik-e,  probably  the  present  Fik,  or 
Wadi  Fik. 

APHTHARTODOCET>E.   See  jMo.nophysitks. 

APHRAATES,  a  I'fV.siaii  .sa^e,  who  was  mar- 
tyred 3-15.  Very  little  is  known  about  him. 
He  bore  the  ecclesiastical  name  Jacob,  and  was 
.a  bishop  and  abbot  of  the  Cloister  of  Mar  iMat- 
theiis,  upon  Mount  Elpheph,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Mosul.  Ills  homilies  were  so  hisjjhly  esteemed, 
that  they  were  translated  from  .Syriac  into  Arme- 
nian before  500,  althougli  under  the  name  of 
Bishop  Jacob  of  NisiV'is  :  under  this  name,  Nich- 
olas Antonelli  (175li)  issued  the  Armenian  tex^, 
■with  a  Latin  paraphrase.  The  identification  of 
the  name  is  very  recent.  In  18G9  W.  Wright 
issued  twenty-tliree  Homilies  of  Aphranlcs,  Lon- 
don. The  first  ten  of  these  are  in  letter  form, 
and  dated  336,  337 ;  the  next  twelve,  joined  in 
alphabetical  order  to  the  preceding,  are  dated 
343,  344  ;  and  the  last,  August,  345.  Aphraates  is 
valuable,  because  his  gospel  citations  are  derived 
from  Tatian's  Diale.-:sanin,  on  which  Ephraem 
Syrus,  his  contemporary,  had  written  a  commen- 
tary; and  thus  he  is  a  witness  to  a  very  early 
text.  C.  J.  F.  S.vssii:  Prote/;omena  in  Apliradlis 
Sapienlis  Pcrs(c  scnnones  homileticos.     Lips.,   1878. 

APION,  b.  in  Oasis,  of  Egyptian  descent; 
studied  in  Alexandria  under  Apollonius  and 
Didymus ;  tauglit  rhetoric  in  Rome  under  Ca- 
ligula; and  wrote  works  on  Homer,  the  history  of 
Egypt,  etc.,  of  wliicli,  however,  only  a  few  and 
rather  insignificant  fragments  have  come  down 
to  us.  But  he  has  become  noted  on  account  of 
his  hatred  to  the  Jews,  which  he  proved  both  by 
writing  directly  against  thera,  and  by  heading 
the  famous  Alexandrian  embassy,  whose  object 
was  to  excite  Caligula's  suspicion  against  them. 
Philo  headed  the  Jewish  embas.sy,  and  Josephus 
■wrote  against  Apion.  On  Apion's  authority 
rests  the  story  of  Androclus  and  the  lion,  of  the 
Jews  worshipping  an  ass  in  the  temple,  etc. 

APIS,  the  sacred  bull  -worshipped  by  the 
Egyptians  as  a  revelation  of  Osiris,  from  the 
eighteenth  dynasty  to  the  time  of  Julian  II. 
Tiie  marks  by  which  an  Apis  was  recognized 
were  a  black-colored  hide,  a  white  spot  on  the 
forehead  of  a  triangular  shape,  the  hair  arranged 
on  the  back  in  the  form  of  an  eagle,  a  twist  of 
the  lower  membranes  of  the  tongue  in  likeness 
with  the  shape  of  a  scaralxeus,  etc.  When  these 
marks  were  discovered  on  a  calf,  the  animal  was 
carried  with  great  solemnity  to  Memphis,  and 
when  the  old  Apis  died  a  natural  death  (in  which 
case  it  was  carefully  embalmed),  or  when  it 
reached  the  age  of  twenty-five  years  (in  which 
case  it  was  secretly  killed  by  the  priests),  the  new 
Apis  was  installed  in  the  temple  as  an  incarnate 
god.  The  birth  of  an  Apis  was  considered  an 
occasion  of  popular  joy,  and  the  death  an  occa- 
sion of  popular  mourning.  All  the  movements 
of  an  Apis  were  watched  with  the  closest  atten- 
tion by  the  priests,  and  interpreted  as  involving 
oracles.  See  M.\RiETTii :  Le  Scrapeum  de  Mem- 
p/iif:,  Paris,  1857. 

APOCALYPSE.    .See  RF.VKL.\TroN-,  Book  of. 

APOCRISIARIUS.  From  the  time  of  Constan- 
tine,  when  the  great  emperor  stood  at  the  head 
of  the  whole  ecclesiastical  constitution,  it  l)e- 
came,   of    course,   of    great    importance    to   the 


patriarchs  to  maintain  an  miinterrupted  con- 
nection with  the  im|)erial  court.  For  this  pur- 
pose they  appointed  ecclesiastical  ambassadors 
{u-oiipiaiujMii,  rcsponsules,  from  ummpivoimi,  to  re- 
spond), who  resided  in  the  metropolis,  and 
through  whom  they  addressed  them.selves  to  tha 
emperor,  and  received  his  decisions.  It  was  al.so 
tlie  duty  of  the  apocrisiarius  to  introduce  the 
patriarch,  or  the  bishops  of  the  patriarchal  dio- 
cese, to  the  court  when  they  visited  the  metropo- 
lis. As  long  as  Rome  formed  part  of  the 
eparchate,  and  remained  dependent  of  the  Greek 
crown,  the  pope  maintained  an  apocrisiarius  in 
Constantinople.     See  Du  Canr/r',  s.v. 

APOCATASTASIS.     See  .\pokatastasis. 

APOCRYPHA  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 
The  word  apnkruphos,  "liidden,"  applied  to 
writings,  describes  either  such  as  are  held  in  con- 
cealment, or  such  as  are  of  concealed  origin  ;  and 
the  same  book  may  be  both.  The  apocryphal 
is,  generally  speaking,  the  obscure,  both  in  use 
and  origin.  The  word  is  used  in  both  senses  in 
the  patristic  writings.  In  the  /(Vs(  sense  Clem- 
ens Alex,  speaks  of  the  apocryphal  books  of 
Zoroaster.  Sirom.  I.  15,  GO.  So  Origen  distin- 
guishes between  the  liooks  in  open  use  in  the 
church  and  those  "apocryjihal  "  (cf.  his  Com.  ad. 
Malt.  xiii.  57  and  xxvii.  9).  .Similarly  the  rab- 
liins,  by  the  term  O'lUJ  ("hidden  books"), 
designated  those  copies  of  tlie  Holy  Scriptures 
which  were  buried  because  they  were  no  longer 
fit  for  public  use.  The  word  has  also  the  mean- 
ing of  uncanonical.  In  the  second  sense,  of 
having  an  "unknown  origin,"  the  word  naturally 
shifted  into  "fal.se."  So  Irena^us,  Tertullian, 
Augustine,  and  Jerome.  The  obscure  origin  is, 
of  course,  suspicious. 

In  the  ancient  church  and  in  the  middle  age 
the  designation  "apocryphal"  was  almost  never 
applied  to  those  books  we  commonly  describe  as 
the  Apocrypha.  Jerome  anil  a  few  isolated 
writers  are  tlie  only  ones  who  do  so.  (See  Hugo 
a.  St.  Caro  in  De  Wktte-Sciii!AI)KU,  Eiidciliinij 
in  d.  A.  T.,  p.  06.)  The  use  of  the  word  in  this 
sense  is  Protestant.  The  first  one  to  use  it  thus 
was  Carlstadt  (1483-1541)  m  his  book,  De 
(.'anonicis  Scripturis  Liljctltis,  WittenbergK,  1520 
(see  CitEDNER  :  Zur  (Jtscli.  dcs  Ktinons,  1817,  p. 
201  sqq.).  The  first  edition  of  the  Bible,  in 
which  the  luicanonical  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment were  styled  "apocryphal,"  is  the  Frankfurt 
edition  of  1534.  (See  Panzei;:  Gesch.  d.  deulsch. 
Bdjeliiberselzung,  1783,  p.  294  sq.). 

This  article  is  upon  not  only  those  books  called 
by  Protestants  "  The  Apocryjiha,"  but  also  tliose 
jjieces  found  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  Bibles,  but 
not  in  the  Hebrew  canon. 

I.  The  Position  of  the  ArocnvpiiA  in  the 
Canon.  The  Hebrew  canon  was  settled  before 
the  Christian  era:  Josephus  is  the  witness  to 
tliis  (c.  Apion  I.  8).  He  is  the  better  witness, 
because  he  uses  books  which  he  allows  are  not  in 
the  Hebrew  canon.  The  Greek  Bible  canoa  was 
broader,  taking  in  many  writings  which  are  not 
in  the  Hebrew.  The  proof  of  this  is  the  fact 
that  the  Christians  quote  such  uncanonical  books 
from  the  Septuagint.  In  the  New  Testament 
there  are  no  express  quotations  from  our  so-called 
Apocrypha,  which  is  the  more  rennirkable  as  most 
of  the  writers  habitually  quote  the  LXX.     See, 


APOCRYPHA. 


100 


APOCRYPHA. 


for  Paul,  Kautzscb:  i)(?  Veleris  Tc.ifctmenii  Locis 
<i  I'ntiio  ApoMiilu  nl/er/aliis,  )S69.  It  is  important 
ill  tliis  connection  to  bear  in  mind  that  in  tlie 
Xew  Testament  only  the  Pentateuch,  the  Proph- 
ets, and  the  Psalms  are  frequently  quoted:  there 
are  few  references  to  the  historical  books,  and  no 
references  to  Canticles.  Kcclesiastes,  Ksther,  Ezra, 
and  Nehemiah.  And  since  the  Apocrypha  be- 
long to  these  occasionally  or  not  quoted  books,  we 
nmst  not  lay  too  much  vveiglit  on  the  absence  of 
express  quotation ;  for  there  are  passages  in  the 
Ivew  Testament  which  presuppose  the  Apocry- 
pha. Thus  cf.  Jas.  i.  19,  P.cclus.  v.  11;  Heb. 
i.  3,  Wis.  vii.  26;  lleb.  iv.  12,  13,  Wis.  vii.  22- 
24  ;  Eom.  i.  20-32,  Wis.  xiii.-xv. 

The  Fathers  generally  made  use  of  the  Apoc- 
rypha, and  that  when  there  is  not  the  form  of  a 
quotation :  so  that  one  can  say  that  the  church  of 
the  first  three  centuries  made  no  essential  differ- 
ence between  the  writings  of  the  Hebrew  canon 
and  the  so-called  Apocrypha.  Melito  of  Sardis 
(fl.  second  century)  and  Origen  (1S6-2.33)  do 
make  a  distinction,  as  the  result  of  learned  inves- 
tigations, but  not  such  as  to  put  the  uucanonical 
writings  out  of  use.  Still  the  result  of  such  a 
distinction  as  Origen  made  was  to  call  attention 
to  the  fixed  character  of  the  Hebrew,  as  con- 
trasted with  the  shitting  Greek  canon ;  and  so  in 
the  fourth  century  there  were  a  number  of  cata- 
logues of  sacred  books  which  limited  the  canon  to 
the  Hebrew,  and  either  did  not  mention  the  other 
books,  or  else  put  them  into  a  secondary  class. 
Thus  Athanasius  (29G-373),  Cyril  of  Jerusalem 
(31.5-3S6).  Gregory  Nazianzen  (328-38.'?),  and 
Amphilochius  (d.  39.')),  made  such  catalogues. 
(See  Dl  Wi;rrK-Sciiu.VDKK,  Einl.,  in  d.  A.  T., 
]..  ;'),)  sq.  :  Kkh..  Einl.  in  d.  A.  T.  3  Aufl.  p.  G.52.) 
Kpiphauius  (310-402)  is  sometimes  erroneously 
added  to  this  list,  lint  the  only  one  in  the 
ancient  church  who  decidedly  opposed  the  .Vpoc- 
rypha  was  Jerome,  who  was  the  best  Hebrew 
scholar  of  the  church.  All  these  men,  how- 
ever, quote  the  .Vpocrypha  as  "  Holy  Scripture  ;  " 
while  Augustine  (353-430)  puts  the  apocryphal 
books  among  the  Hebrew  canonical  books,  ami 
calls  them  all  canonical,  and  .so  did  the  Councils 
of  Hippo  (393)  and  Carthage  (397),  held  under 
his  influence.  And  this  may  be  said  to  be  the 
position  of  the  entire  church,  both  Kast  and 
West,  —  the  Council  of  Trent  having  declared 
all  but  the  two  books  of  Ksdras  and  the  Prayer 
of  Mauasses  to  be  canonical,  —  until  the  Kefor- 
ination,  and  is  the  position  of  the  Church  of 
Kome  to-day.  So  the  Apocrypha  appear  in  the 
Septuagint,  the  Vulgate,  and  all  Koman-Catholic 
Bibles. 

Ill  the  Protestant  Church,  as  already  remarked, 
Carl.stadt  was  the  iirst  to  draw  tlu;  lino  firmly 
between  the  canonical  and  apocryphal  books  of 
the  Old  'I'<'stament.  In  the  first  complete  edi- 
tion of  Luther's  Hible  (1534),  the  Apocrypha 
were  sundered  from  the  other  books,  and  i>ut 
as  an  appendix  to  the  Old  Testament,  with  tiie 
title  "Apoci'vpha;  that  is,  books  which,  although 
not  esUriiated  e(|ual  to  the  Holy  .Scriptures,  are  yet 
useiul  and  good  to  read."  The  Apocryi>ha  occu- 
pied a  similar  position  in  the  Helormed  Church, 
but  a  stricter  sentence  was  p;ussed  upon  them.  In 
modern  times,  twice  h;us  an  agitation  beiMi  raiseil 
against  them,  each  time  beguu  in  England  (182.0 


and  ISoO) ;  and  the  result  has  been  a  substantial 
increase  in  our  information  about  them.  But 
also,  tkat  whereas  they  were  printed  in  all  Prot- 
estant liibles,  and  by  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society,  up  to  182(i,  since  then  that  Society 
has  omitted  them,  and  the  American  Bible  So- 
ciety has  followed  their  example.  See  the  works 
of  De  WKrri;,  Kkil,  and  Ckedxkr,  already 
quoted;  also  Mouli-mk  :  Notice  aur  les  liores  apo- 
<Ti//ihes  (le  I'ancieJi  Testament  en  repon.se  a  la  (jues- 
tion  faut-it  les  supprimer?  Geufeve,  1S28  ;  Rf.uss  : 
Dixx.  poleinica  de  libris  V.  T.  apocrijphis  pcrperam 
plehi  iiei/alis,  Strassb.,  1829;  R.  Stier  :  Die 
Apokrijphen,  Vertheidiijung  Hires  aUhergehrachten 
Anscldusses  an  die  liibel,  Braunschweig,  1853; 
E.  W.  HENGSTKNiiKKO :  Fiir  BcibehaUung  der 
ApokrypJicn,  Berlin,  1853;  P.  F.  Keehl:  Die 
ApoL-ri//iJienfrar/e  mil  BerUck'sic/i/igun;/  der  darauf 
beziigliche  Sdiriften  Slier's  u.  IJenijstenbery's  auj's 
Neue  beleuchtel,  Leipzig,  1855. 

Upon  the  general  position  of  the  Apocrypha, 
see  also,  in  addition  to  those  named,  on  the 
Roman-Catholic  side,  Vincexzi  :  Ses.iio  I  V.  Cnn- 
cilii  Tridentini  V'indieata  s.  Intiaduclio  in  Scri/)tU' 
rrix Denterocanoiiicai  Vet.  Test.,  Rome,  1842,  2  vols.; 
J.  B.  M.\Lou  ;  Decs  Jiibelleseu  in  der  Vol/csxpniclie, 
iibers.  v.  Stdveken.,  Schaffhausen,  1849,  2  vols.; 
the  Introductions  to  the  Old  Testament,  by 
Herust,  vol.  1,  1840;  Scholz,  vol.  1,  1845; 
Reuscii,  4tL  jd.,  1870;  Kaulex,  Iste  Hiilfte, 
1870. 

II.       ]\lANUSCUirTS    OF    TIIE    GrEEK    TeXT. 

Coinp.  the  Prolegomena,  in  the  editions  of  the 
Septuagint  by  Holme.s-Parsox.s  and  Tisciien- 
DOUi',  and  in  Fuitzsciie's  edition  of  the  Apoc- 
rypha. The  number  of  manuscripts  is  considera- 
ble; but  they  are  mostly  of  a  kind  called  "cur- 
sive," or  '■  minuscule,"  because  written  in  a  small 
letter.  The  following  nine  are  the  only  known 
uncial  or  majuscule  manuscripts  :  1.  Cod.  V'ati- 
canus  contains  almost  all  the  Bible  (Tischendorf 
sets  it  in  the  fourth  century:  only  the  Books  of 
the  iMaccabecs  are  w.anting  from  the  Apocrypha); 
2.  Cod.  Sinaiticus,  fourth  century;  3.  Cod.  Alex- 
andrinus,  fifth  century;  4.  Cod.  Ephr.aemi,  fifth 
century;  5.  Cod.  Venetus,  eighth  and  ninth  cen- 
tury; 0.  Cod.  Basilano-Vaticanus,  nintii  century; 

7.  Cod.  Marchalianus,  sixth  or  seventh  century ; 

8.  Cod.  Cryptoferratensis,  a  palimpsest  fragment 
of  the  Prophets,  seventh  century  ;  9.  Palimpsest 
fragments  of  Wisdom  ami  Siraoli,  sixth  or  sev- 
enth century. 

HI.  Oi,i)  Translations.  1.  Latin. — The 
old  Latin  and  the  Jerome  translations  mu.st  be 
distinguished. 

((.  The  .lerome  tran.slation.  Jerome,  it  is  wel? 
known,  Kt:irti'd  out  with  th(?  intention  of  merely 
revising  the  old  Latin  translation  by  means  of 
the  Septuagint.  But  ho  eventually  abandoned 
the  effort,  ami  translated  directly  from  the  origi- 
nal Hebrew.  Thi.s,  of  course,  led  him  to  omit 
the  Apocrypha.  It  i.s  true,  he  did  revise  Tobit 
and  Judith,  but  not  as  a  part  of  his  Bible  work. 

b.  The  old  i>atin.  This  contains  the  follow- 
ing books:  apocryplial  additions  to  Ezra,  Esther, 
and  Dallied,  Barucli,  Tobit,  Judith,  1  and  2 
Maccabees  (of  2  j\Iaco.ibees  thi're  appears  to 
be  no  existing  Latin  translation),  .Siracli  and 
A\'isdom  of  Solomon.  The  last  two  exist  in  only 
one  Latin  translation. 


APOCRYPHA. 


101 


APOCRYPHA. 


2.  Stjriac.  The  vulgar  Syriac  or  the  Peshito 
and  the  Syriac-hexaplar  translations  are  to  be 
distinguished.  The  first  is  unevenly  done  ;  l)ut 
the  second,  in  which  appear  Wisdom  and  Sirach, 
is  excellent  throughout,  and  for  the  textual  critic 
is  on  this  account  of  great  value. 

IV  EDrriON.s  ok  thk  (;n^;EK  Tkxt.  —  The 
principal  editions  of  the  Septuagint,  which  in- 
cludes the  Apocryjiha,  are,  1.  The  Complutensian 
Pohjglolt,  in  Coniplutousi  universitate,  6  vols., 
1514-1.017;  2.  Tlie  Ai.dixa  :  Hacrce  Scriplurce 
Veleris  Nocccijue  oninin,  Venice,  1518;  3.  Tlie 
SixTiNA,  Rome,  15S7;  4.  Gkabe,  Oxford,  4  vols., 
1707-20;  5.  Hoi.mus  and  Fausons,  5  vols.,  Ox- 
ford, 1798-1827;  (J.  Tisciikndouf,  Leipzig,  1850, 
5th  ed.,  1875. 

The  best  separate  edition  of  the  Apocrypha  is 
by  Fuitzsciie:  Libri  Apocnjplu  Vetcris  Tcstamenti 
Grmce,  Lips.,  1871. 

\.    ExEGETICAL     LlTEItATUKE. Comp.     Fa- 

BRicius:  Bihliotheca  Gr(rca,ed.  Harless  III.,  718- 
750 ;  WiXER :  Ilndh.  iler  TIteol.  Lilleralur,  od  ed., 
I.  83  sq.,  231  sq. ;  Fuitzsciie  u.  Guimm,  in  their 
commentary  mentioned  below;  Fueust  :  Bihlio- 
llieca  Judaicn,  3  vols.,  1849-1863. 

1.  Tran.iUtlions. — Luther  translated  the  AVis- 
dom  of  Solomon,  1529,  the  rest  of  the  books  in 
1533  and  34;  when  all  were  collected  in  his  first 
complete  edition  of  the  Bible,  1534.  Since  then, 
De  WETTE,4th  ed.,  1858,  and  Honsen,  in  his  Bibcl- 
werk  fill-  die  Geineinde,  in  1869,  have  published 
translations  into  German.  [The  current  English 
translation  of  the  Apocrypha  is  that  found  in 
King  James's  version,  revised  by  seven  scliolars 
from  the  previous  versions.]  A  complete  Hebrew 
translation  was  issued  by  Frankel:  Ilar/iofjrapha 
Posteriora  denominain  Aphcr>jpha,  Lips.,  1830. 

2.  Commentaries.  —  [Tlie  most  accessible  of  the 
older  are  Au.vald  :  Critical  Commentarij  upon  tlie 
Apocrypha  (part  of  Patrick,  Lowth,  and  Whitliy 
Commentary  on  the  Bible),  London,  1744-.52, 
fob,  2d  ed.,  1760,  new  ed.  by  Pitman,  London, 
1822.  quarto,  Philadelphia,  U.S.,  1840;  Charles 
Wilson  :  The  Books  of  the  Apocr///)ha,  with  Crit. 
and  Hist.  Obscrcations  prefixed,  Edin.,  1801.  By 
far  the  most  important  exegetieal  help  to  the 
study  of  the  Apocrypha  that  has  yet  appeared 
is  by  O.  F.  Fritz.sciie  and  Carl  L.  W.  Grimm: 
Das  kurzyefasstcs  exeyet.  Handb.  zu  den  Apokr., 
6  vols.,  Leipzig,  1851-1860.  The  only  American 
Conunentary,  but  one  fresh,  able,  and  scholarly, 
with  a  full  bibliography  appended,  is  by  E.  0. 
BissELL,  New  York,  1880.  vol.  xv.  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament in  the  Am.  ed.  of  Lange's  Commenlary.'] 

3.  Special  Lexicons.  —  W.mil:  Clavis  Librorum 
V.  T.  Apoc.  pliUolorji.cn,  Lips.,  1853. 

4.  Introductions.  —  EicHHOK.v :  Einl.  in  d.  Apoc. 
Schrift.  d.  A.  T.,  Leipzig,  1795;  and  in  all  the 
Introductions  to  the  Old  Testament,  as  in  those 
by  Bertholdt,  ])e  Wette,  Scholz  (R.  C),  antl  Keil. 

VI.  The  Origin  and  Nature  of  the 
Various  Books  of  the  Apocrypha. — 1.  A. 
The  apocryphal  Ezra,  commonly  called  I.  Esdras. 
[The  title  in  the  authorized  version  was  first 
given  to  it  in  1560  by  the  translators  of  the 
so-called  Genevan  version.  But  the  Vvdgate 
calls  it  "3d  Esdras."  In  the  Old  Latin,  Syriac, 
and  Septuagint  versions,  it  was  called  "  1st 
Ezra."]  As  a  whole,  the  book  is  a  pi-etty  worth- 
less compilation,  identical  in   its   chief   contents 


with  the  canonical  Ezra.  This  will  appear  by 
comparing: 

C;hap.  i.  =  2  Chr.  xxxv.,  xxxvi.  The  restora- 
tion of  the  temjile-worship  under  .losiali  (B.C. 
(;3!)-600).  and  the  liistory  of  the  successors  of 
Josiah  until  the  destruction  (jf  the  temple  (588). 

Chap.  ii.  1-14  =  Ez.  i.  Cyrus,  in  the  first 
year  of  his  reign  (537),  allows  the  return  of  the 
exiles,  and  gives  them  the  vessels  of  tlie  temple. 

Chap.  ii.  15-25  =  Ez.  iv.  7-24.  In  conse- 
quence of  charges  against  the  Jews,  Artaxerxes 
(465-425)  forbids  the  further  building  of  the 
temple  and  the  walls  of  Jerusalem. 

Cliap.  iii.-v.  6,  independent.  Zerubbabel  wins 
the  favor  of  Darius  (521-485),  and  receives  jier- 
mi.ssion  for  the  return  of  the  exiles. 

Chap.  V.  7-70  =:  Ez.  ii.  1-iv.  5.  List  of  those 
who  returned  with  Zerubbabel,  activity  of  Zerub- 
babel, and  interruption  of  the  temple  building 
from  the  time  of  Cyrus  (536-529)  to  the  second 
year  of  Darius  (520). 

Chaps,  vi.,  vii.  =  Ez.  v.,  vi.  Recommencement 
and  finishing  of  tlie  temple  in  the  sixth  year  of 
Darius  (516). 

Chaps,  viii.,  ix.  36  =:  Ez.  vii.-x.  Iteturn  of 
Ezra,  with  a  number  of  exiles,  in  the  seventh 
year  of  Artaxerxes  (458).  Beginning  of  Ezra's 
activity. 

Chap.  ix.  37-55  :=  Neh.  vii.  73-viii.  13.  Ezra 
read  the  law. 

From  the  canonical  Ezra  the  apocryphal  is  thus 
shown  to  be  distinguished  by  these  four  jioinis: 
(1)  The  passage  of  the  canonical  Ez.  iv.  7-24  is 
in  the  apucryplial  Ezra  transposed  ;  (2)  The  pas- 
sage of  the'  apocryphal  Ez.  iii.-v.  6  is  inserted 
from  an  unknown  source ;  (3)  2  Chr.  xxxv., 
xxxvi.,  is  prefaced;  (4)  Neh.  vii.  73-viii.  13  is 
added.  Through  the  first  two  differences  the 
confusion  from  which  the  canonical  Ezra  partly 
suffers  is  materially  increased. 

The  sources  are  two:  (1)  The  canonical  Ezra 
according  to  the  Septuagint,  not  the  Hebrew;  (2) 
the  passage  iii.-v.  6  is  bodily  introduced  from 
some  existing  Greek  work,  and  it  fiatly  contra- 
dicts the  rest  of  the  book. 

The  purpose  of  the  whole  compilation  has 
already  been  rightly  expres.sed  by  Bertholdt 
(Eiiil.'Wl.  loll):  "The  author  desired  to  present 
a  history  of  the  temple  from  the  last  days  of  the 
legal  cultus  to  the  building  of  the  temple  and 
the  restoration  of  the  worship,  compiled  from 
older  works." 

In  regai-d  to  the  arje,  it  can  only  lie  said  that 
Jo.sephus  made  use  of  it.     Antiq.  Jud.  xi.  1-5. 

Lit.  —  Besides  the  works  already  mentioned, 
see  Trendelenburg:  Uber  den  apok.  Ezra  in 
Eichhorn's  Allr/.  Biblioth.  d.  bibl.  Litleratur.  I., 
p.  178.  Dahne:  Gescliichtl.  Darstellung  dcr  jii- 
disch-alexandrinischen  Relir/ionsphi/osophie,  vol.  II. 
(Halle,  1834),  pp.  115-12.J.  Herzeeld:  Gesch. 
d.  Volkes  Jisraei.  (3  vols.  1847-1857),  I.,  p.  320; 
III.,  p.  72.  Ewald  :  Gesch.  d.  Volkes  Israel., 
vol.  IV.,  p.  163. 

[B.  The  Second  Book  of  Esdras  liad  for  its 
original  title  "The  Revelation  of  Ezra;"  and  it 
were  well  if  it  were  retained,  as  it  is  appropriate. 
It  was  -written  originally  in  (;reek.  The  com- 
mon Latin  translation,  from  which  the  English 
was  made,  contains  two  inqiortant  interpolations, 
—  i.,   ii.,   XV.,    xvi.,  —  which    are    evideiitlv   of 


APOCRYPHA. 


102 


APOCRYPHA. 


Christian  origin,  and  are  pervaded  by  an  anti- 
Jewish  spirit. 

The  original  work  (iii.-xiv.)  consists  of  a  series 
of  angelic  revehitions  and  visions,  in  which  Ezra 
is  instructed  in  some  of  the  great  mysteries  of 
the  moral  world,  and  assured  of  the  final  tri- 
umph of  the  rigliteous. 

Tlie  lime  of  composition  is  Tmsettled.  Keil 
maintains  it  was  written  by  a  Hellenistic  Jew  of 
Palestine,  about  the  end  of  the  first  Christian 
century,  and  early  known  to  the  Cliristians. 
The  first  witness  to  the  existence  of  the  book  is 
Clemens  Alex.  Simm.  III.  16.  It  is  quoted  with 
respect  by  Irenreus,  Tertullian,  and  Ambrose, 
but  with  contempt  by  Jerome. 

Lit.  —  VoLKM.\R :  Das  vlerte  Burh  IJ^.tra, 
Ziirich,  18.38.  The  same:  Das  vierte  Buck  Ksrti 
znm  ErMenmale  vnllslandir/  herausf/erjehcii,  1863. 
HiLGENFKLD :  Die  Proplteten  ]^srii  y.  Diiniel  «. 
ihre  netiesten  Bearbeilunr/e/i,  Ilalle,  1863-  K\v.\LD: 
Dan  vierte  Ezmbuch  nach  seinein  zeiUiller  neinem 
arnlii-iclien  iilieivetzunf/cn  u.  einer  neuen  xcicderher- 
steliung,  Gdttingen,  1863.] 

2.  Aililitions  Id  EsOier.  —  In  the  Septuagint 
Esther  the  following  pieces  are  inserted,  and  that 
so  skilfully  as  to  make  no  break  in  the  narrative: 
(1)  Before  Esth.  i.  I,  the  dream  of  Jlordecai  of 
tlie  wonderful  deliverance  of  his  people;  (2) 
after  Esth.  iii.  13,  the  edict  of  Artaxerxes,  as  he 
is  called,  to  exterminate  the  .lews;  (3)  after  Esth. 
iv.  17,  the  prayers  of  jMordecai  and  Esther  for 
the  ]ireservation  of  their  people;  (4)  instead  of 
Esth.  v.  1,  2,  an  account  of  the  reception  of 
Esther  by  the  king;  (5)  instead  of  Esth.  viii. 
13,  the  second  edict  of  Artaxer.xes  recalling  the 
first;  (6)  alter  Esth.  x.  3,  Mordecai  learns  the 
meaning  of  his  dream. 

These  additions  are  later  than  the  Greek  trans- 
lation of  Estlier.  .Josephus  is  the  first  one  to 
use  them,  Aiiliii.  Jail.  xi.  6,  4  sqq.  The  subscrip- 
tion, stating  that  in  the  fourth  year  of  Ptolemy 
and  Cleopatra,  Dositheus  and  his  son  brought 
the  book  to  Egypt,  refers  to  the  whole  book,  ami 
does  not  therefore  give  any  hint  as  to  the  age  of 
the  additions,  especially  since  there  were  not 
less  than  four  Ptolemies  wliose  queens  were 
named  Cleopatra. 

'I'here  are  two  Greek  texts  of  Esther,  —  a 
revised  and  an  unrevised. 

Lit.  —  Special  works.  Zi.'xz:  Die  iiollesdleiisl- 
liclien  Vorlrwje  del-  Juitcn  (Berlin,  1832),  pp.  120- 
122.  Laxok.v:  Die  dculefoLanuuisclien  aiiicke  dcs 
Buches  Esllier,  Freiburg,  1862. 

3.  Addilioiix  lo  Daniel.  —  a.  The  Prayer  of 
Azarias  and  tli<!  .Song  of  the  Three  Children  in 
the  Oven,  insert<Kl  after  IJan.  iii.  23.  b.  The 
History  of  Susainia.  In  tlie  Greek  text  this 
usually  forms  the  first  jiart  of  Daniel  [but  in 
the  Complutensian  Vulgate  it  also  occurs  after  tlie 
twelfth  cluipter],  because  he  appears  as  a  boy,  wlio 
delivers  Susanna  through  his  wisdom,  c.  The 
lii.story  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon  :  this  forms  an  ap- 
pendix to  th(!  book.  b.  and  c.  make  no  ]iretensions 
to  be  part  of  the  original  text.  Tliey  were  written 
in  Greek.  There  is  an  interesting  correspond- 
ence extant,  between  .lulins  Africanus  and 
Origen,  in  regard  to  .Susanna,  the  former  attack- 
ing, and  the  latter  defending,  its  genuineness. 
See  separate  ed.  Julii  Africuni  de  Hijilnria  Su- 
sayiniE  Epiglola  ad  Oriyenem  el  Origenis  ad  ilium  lle- 


uponsio.  Ed.  .T.  R.  Wetstenius,  Basil.  1674.  In 
.Jerome's  lime  the  translation  of  Daniel,  by  Theo- 
dotion,  had  supplanted  that  of  the  LXX.  (Hie- 
ron  Pracf.  in  I'ers.  Danielia)  \  but  in  these  addi- 
tions it  was  only  a  revision  of  the  LXX. 

Lit.  —  Special  works.  Delitzscii  :  De  Hahjt 
cuci  Prop/ieUe  vita  atijue  celate  (Lips.,  1842),  p. 
23  sq.,  103  sq.  Rohling  :  Das  Buc!i  des  Prophelen 
Daniel.     Mainz,  1876. 

4.  The  Prai/er  of  JMannsses. — Reference  is 
made  in  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  12,  13,  IS,  to  a  prayer 
of  Manasses,  offered  in  captivity,  and  so  this 
apocryphal  book  was  suggested.  It  is  usually 
inserted  among  the  liyinns  after  the  Psalms,  anil 
is  quoted  in  full  in  Conslil.  Aposlnl.  II.  22,  the 
oldest  witness  to  its  existence;  although  doubt- 
less it  is  older,  and  Jewish,  not  Christian  [and 
was  written  in  Greek,  in  the  first  or  second  cen- 
tury B.C.]. 

5.  Baruch. — This  apocryphal  book,  bearing 
the  name  of  the  faithful  friend  and  amanuensis 
of  Jeremiah,  is  divisible  into  three  parts:  (1) 
Chap.  i.  2-iii.  8  sets  forth,  that,  in  the  fifth  year 
after  the  destruction  of  .Jerusalem  bj-  the  Chal- 
dees  (588),  tlie  Jews  in  Babylon  sent  a  deputation 
to  Jerusalem  with  money  for  sacrifices,  and  re- 
quested tliat  prayers  might  be  offered  for  the 
life  of  Nebuchadnezzar  and  his  son  Belshazzar. 
They  also  confessed  that  their  sufferings  were 
the  consequences  of  their  sins.  (2)  Chap  iii.  9- 
iv.  4.  Exhortation  to  Israel  to  leturn  to  the 
Source  of  all  wisdom.  (3)  Chap.  iv.  5-v.  9. 
Exhortation  to  the  peojile  to  take  fresh  courage. 

The  lime  of  its  composition  cannot  be  definitely 
settled.  Since  the  book,  in  one  phice  (i.  15-13) 
shows  traces  of  Daniel  (cf.  Dan.  ix.  7-10),  it 
must  be  later  than  it.  Alost  Protestant  critics 
put  Baruch  in  the  later  JIaccabeau  time;  but 
the  book  bears  evidence  that  the  autlior  lived  in 
stirring  times,  and  may  with  more  propriety  be 
put  into  the  time  of  Vespasian  (enqieror  A.D. 
69-79). 

Tlie  question  of  the  tinili/  of  autliorsliip  de- 
pends iqion  the  language  used.  This  was,  prob- 
ably, originally  the,  Hebrew  in  the  first  part,  and 
Greek  in  the  last  :  .so  there  were  two  authors. 

Lit.  —  Special  works.  H.vkvku.nick:  De  Li- 
hrn  Baniclii  Apocrifplio  Comvi.  Cril.,  Regiom., 
1813.  Ilicuscii:  Krlddnuiij  des  Bnrlies  Baruch, 
Ereibm-g.  1853.  Kneuckku:  Das  Buck  Barueh, 
Leipzig,  1879.  Brugsch  has  published  a  Coptic 
translation  in  the  Zeilsclir.  /'.  w/i/jil.  Spr.  n.  Aller- 
lumsk:  10-12  J.-irg.     1872-1874."  cf.  1S76,  p.  148. 

6.  Tlie  Leiter  of  Jeremiidi. — Tliis  appears  in 
the  Vulgate,  and  in  Luther's  Bible,  and  also  in 
other  editions,  as  an  appendix  to,  or  the  sixUi 
chapter  of,  the  Book  of  Baruch.  But  origi- 
nally it  had  notliing  to  do  with  the  latter.  It 
is  addressed  to  the  captives  of  Nebuoiuulnezzar, 
in  Babylon,  and  is  a  well-written  exhortation 
against  the  Babylonian  gods.  Its  origin:il  is 
Greek.  Of  coursi^  Jeremi;ih  was  not  its  author; 
but  it  must  be  ancient,  in:ismuch  as  it  is  quoted 
in  2  Mace.  ii.  1,  2. 

7.  Toliit.  —  In  the  Vulg;ite  and  in  Lutlier's 
Bible,  the  name  of  the  book  and  of  tlie  licM'o  is 
Tobias;  but  in  Uk!  (Jreek  text  that  is  the  name 
of  the  son,  while  tlie  father  is  Tobit,  or  Tobith. 
The  story  is  briefly  this:  Tobit,  an  exile  in  Nine- 
veh,  is  subjected   to  loss   and   persecution,   al- 


APOCRYPHA. 


103 


APOCRYPHA. 


tliounh  le.uling  a  very  exemplary  life  (i.  1-iii.  0). 
At  tlie  same  time  a  woman  named  Sara,  the 
(laus'liter  nf  KafTuel  in  Ecliatana,  is  very  strange- 
ly iilai,'ueil  (iii.  T-IT)).  Both  thesis  persons  pray 
for  help  at  the  sami'  time  ;  and  the  angel  Ra]-)liael 
is  sent  to  them,  who  delivers  them,  and  unites 
Sara  and  the  .son  of  Tobit,  Tobias,  in  mar- 
riage (iii.  l()-xii.  "J'J),  whereupon  Tobit  sings  a 
psalm  of  praise.  He  lives  to  be  a  hundred  and 
fifty-eight,  and  Tobias,  to  be  a  hundred  and 
twenty-seven  (xiii.,  xiv.).  The  whole  forms  an 
interesting  didactic  tale,  which,  with  the  exception 
of  a  few  facts  borrowed  from  histtn-y,  is  a  free 
creation  of  its  author.  The  ohjecl  i.s  plainly  to  show 
the  value  and  reward  of  serving  God  faithfully. 

As  to  the  time  of  composition,  nothing  definite 
can  be  said ;  but,  since  the  original  is  Greek,  it 
is  probably  about  B.C.  200.  Ilitzig  {Zeitschv.  f. 
tclsxenxcliafi.  TlieoL,  18150.,  p.  250  sq.),  upon  insuffi- 
cient grounds.  )nits  it  into  the  I'ost- Vespasian 
)ieriod.  ami  thinks  it  was  designed  to  comfort  the 
Jews  over  the  destruction  of  the  temple. 

The  Chaldee  version  of  Tobit  is  of  late  origin. 
Of  the  Greek  text  there  are  three  recensions. 

Lit.  —  Special  works.  Ilgkn  :  Die  Geschichte 
Tiihi's  nndi  tlrei  ver.ichiedenen  Orir/inalen,  item 
Griechi.icJien,  iJem  Laleinschen  i/ex  Hieronymux  und 
cinem  .S7/'"'-'''c/«?'i,  etc.,  Jena,  1800.  IIkusch  :  Dax 
linch.  Tiihias  uher.ielzt  u.  erUurt,  Freiburg,  1857. 
Skxgi;lm.\xn' :  Dax  Bach  Tubil  eridart,  llamb., 
1857.  KiiLDKCKE:  Altlest.  Lileralur,  Leipzig, 
1868.  Ad.  Nkub.\uek:  The  Book  of  Tnhit.  A 
Chaldee  Text  from  a  unique  MS.  in  the  Bodleian 
Lihranj ;  roilh  ntlirr  Ilabbinicnl  Texts,  English  Trans- 
lation, and  Ike  Ilala.     Oxford,  1878. 

8.  Judiili.  — The  story  of  the  book  is  briefly 
this  :  Holofernes,  the  general  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
turns  his  victorious  arms  against  the  Jews,  who 
resolve  upon  a  desperate  defence.  Holofernes 
lays  rigorous  siege  to  the  strong  fortress  Bethu- 
lia  (i.-vii.).  In  their  darkest  hour,  one  of 
the  besieged,  a  beautiful  widow  named  Judith, 
voluntiarily  assumes  their  rescue  by  stratagem. 
She  enters  the  hostile  camp,  wins  the  affection 
and  confiilence  of  Holofernes,  aiu.l  then,  while 
sunk  in  a  drunken  stupor,  she  cuts  off  his  head, 
and  returns  to  the  fortress  with  this  trophy  of 
victory.  The  besieged  avail  themselves  of  the 
confusion  to  make  a  destructive  attack.  The 
enemy  are  put  to  flight,  and  in  this  way  the 
people  are  delivered;  and  Judith,  amid  the 
praises  of  her  nation,  and  to  a  good  old  age  (a 
hundred  and  five),  lived  to  see  the  permanent 
effect  of  her  daring  deed. 

Here,  as  in  Tobit,  we  have  no  sober  narrative, 
but  a  didactic  fiction.  Auuizing  liberties  are 
taken  with  history.  Nebuchadnezzar  is  called 
the  King  of  As.syria,  and  the  temple  is  said  to 
have  been  rebuilt  in  his  time.  The  object  is  to 
stir  up  the  Jews  during  the  distresses  of  the 
jMaccabertn  time,  —  most  probably  the  time  of 
composition,  —  to  m.aintain  a  confident  resistance. 

It  was  written  originally  in  Hebrew.  The 
Chaldee  version  which  Jerome  had  before  him 
was  surely  not  the  original.  There  are  three 
recensions  of  the  Greek  text. 

Lir.  —  Besides  the  general  works  see  O. 
Wolff:  Das  Buck  Judith  als  f/escliiclitliclie  Ur- 
kunde  verleidii/t  und  erklarl,  Leipzig,  ISGl.  See 
also  SchOnhaupt:  Etudes  hisiurupies  et  critiques 


sur  le  livre  de  Judith,  Strasb  ,  18.39.  NrcKEs: 
De  lAbro  Jndithw,  Vratislavia;,  1851.  Voi.KMAU  : 
Einleitunfj  in  die  Ajinkry/theti.  I.  Thl.  1  Aljt. ;  A. 
SCHOLZ:  Das  Buch  Judith,  Wurzburg,  1885. 

!>.  'The  Books  of  Maccabees. — The  name  MaK- 
Kaiialof,  was  originally  only  the  surname  of  Ju<las, 
the  .son  of  Maltathias  (1  Mace.  ii.  4);  but  it  is 
not  exactly  determined  what  the  name  means. 
The  common  interpretation,  "the  hammer,"  is 
open  to  the  objection  that  the  sort  of  hammer 
described  by  the  Hebrew  word  adduced  is  a  little, 
workman's  hammer,  and  not  the  war  or  smith's. 
Professor  Curtiss,  in  his  brochure,  "The  Name 
Machabee,"  Leipzig,  187G,  advocates  the  mean- 
ing "the  extinguisher"  (cf.  Isa.  xliii.  17),  be- 
cause Judas  "quenched  (extinguished)  his  foes 
as  tow."  The  objections  to  this  derivation  are, 
that  the  use  of  such  a  picture  by  Isaiah  does 
not  prove  it  to  be  allowable  to  use  as  a  sym- 
bolical name  [and,  moreover,  it  rests  upon  show- 
ing, that,  in  the  original  form  of  the  name,  Kaph 
was  used  instead  of  Koph,  but  that  Jerome  trans- 
literated it  by  ch  in  his  revision:  however,  it  is 
not  generally  allowed  that  Jerome  made  a  revis- 
ion of  1  Maccabees  on  the  basis  of  the  Hebrew 
text.  See  full  discussion  of  this  point  in  Bis- 
sell's  Com.  on  Apoc.  (N.Y.,  ISSO).  p.  474].  Others 
have  held  the  name  was  a  combination  of  the 
initial  lettej-s  of  the  sentence  "  who  among  the 
gods  is  like  vmto  Thee,  Jehovah':'"  (Exod.  xv. 
11),  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  inscribed 
upon  the  banners  of  the  patriots  ;  or,  again,  of 
the  initi.als  of  the  simply  de.scriptive  title  "  Mat- 
tathias,  a  priest,  the  son  of  Johanan."  These 
latter  explanations  are  far  fetched.  From  Ju- 
d.as,  at  all  events,  the  name  came  to  be  applied 
to  the  whole  family  and  party.  [Dr.  Delitzsch 
considers  the  name  a  contraction  of  mah  k'abee, 
"what  is  comparable  to  my  father':'"  CuK- 
Tiss :   The  Name  Machabee,  p.  23.] 

A.  The  First  Book  of  ]\I;iccabees  relates  the 
fortunes  of  the  Jews  from  the  accession  of 
Antiochns  Epiphanes  (B.C.  175)  to  the  death 
of  the  high  priest  .Simon  (B.C.  135),  the  period 
during  which,  under  Judas,  who  raiserl  the  rally- 
ing standard,  and  was  chief  until  his  death  (B.C. 
100),  the  .lews  waged  war  against  their  Syrian 
lords,  and  under  Judas' brother  Jonathan  (B.C. 
160-143),  who  was  recognized  as  prince  and 
high  priest,  kept  up  the  struggle,  though  less 
actively,  and  under  the  third  brotlier,  Simon 
(B.C.  143-135),  also  high  priest,  achieved  their 
independence. 

The  book  is  reli;ible  history,  dr.awn  from  trust- 
worthy sources,  and  can  be  with  confidence  set 
down  in  the  first  decades  of  the  first  century  B.C. 
The  date  is  thus  exactly  determined,  because  the 
author  was,  on  the  one  hand,  acquainted  with  the 
chronicle  of  the  deeds  of  John  Hyrcanus  (B.C. 
135-105),  and,  on  the  other,  ignorant  of  the  con- 
quests of  Pompey  in  Palestine  (B.C.  04).  It 
was  written  originally  in  Hebrew. 

Lit.  —  Special  works.  J.  D.  Michaelis  : 
Deutsche  Ubersetzunr/  des  1  B.  drr  lilakkabiicr  mil 
Anmcrkunr/cn,G6ttingen,n7S.  Keil:  Kommentar 
idler  die  Biicher  der  Makkabacr,  Leipzig,  1875. 
See,  also,  FuoLicn  :  Annules  Compendiarii  Ilegum 
el  Rcrum  Sijrice,  yindob.,  1744.  E.  F.  W'kuns- 
dorff:  Prolusio  de  Fontibus  Historice  Syrice  in 
libris  Maccabceorum,  Lips.,  1746.     Frolich:   De 


APOCRYPHA. 


104 


APOCRYPHA. 


fonlihui  HUlorke  Si/ria;  in  Lihrix  Mnrcnhcenrum 
ProJitsio  LipxitB  eilita  in  Exnmen  Vocain,  Vimlob., 
1746.  GoTTi,.  'Wkux.sdokkf  :  Commenlalio  Jfix- 
tnrico-crilica  de  Fitlc  Hi.tlorica  Lihrivum  Mnccnbce- 
orum,  Wratislavise,  1747.  [Khell]:  Autorila.'i 
utriiisqtie  Lihri  Maccabcconint  Canoniro-hi.itorica 
(I'lserta,  Vieniise,  1749.  Geigep.  :  Urschrifl  «. 
ijherfcUungen  der  BibeL  Breslau,  18.37,  p.  200  sq. 
Ewai.d:  Ge.tch.  des  Vollce.-i  Israel.,  IV.,  p.  (i02 
s q.  RosENTir.\L  :  Das  ersic  lifakkaJiderbuch.  Lpip- 
zii^,  1867.  [Cotton':  The  Five  Bonks  nf  the  Mac- 
cabees, in  Eni/lish,  Oxford,  18:52.  C.  R.  Coxder  : 
Judas  Maccabceus,  Loud,  and  N.  Y.,  1879.] 

B.  The  Second  Book  of  Maccabees  runs  in 
time  a  little  before  and  then  parallel  with  the  First 
book,  inasmuch  as  it  extends  from  the  last  part 
of  the  reiEjn  of  Seleucus  IV.  Philopator  (or  about 
B.C.  180)  to  the  victory  of  Judas  Maccaliaeus 
over  Nicanor  (B  C.  101  or  100),  and  furnishes  a 
sort  of  leg:endary  commentary  upon  it.  It  is 
untrustworthy;  has  far  more  a  religious  than  an 
hist(n'ic  interest.  The  ori(/innt  i.s  Greek.  The 
book  is  professedly  an  extract  from  a  history  of 
the  Maccab;ean  stnisjajle,  in  five  books,  written  by 
Jason  of  Cyrene.  But  he  is  otherwise  entirely 
unknown.  In  regard  to  the  time,  we  can  only  say 
it  was  before  the  destruction  of  tlie  temple, 
.losephus  does  not  use  either  Jason  or  his 
epitomizer.  The  first  expi'ess  citation  occurs  in 
Clemens  .A.lex.  Strom.  Y.,  p.  595,  ed.  Sylb. 

Lit.  —  .Special  works.  H.  Eberh.  Glo. 
Paulus  :  Ubcr  das  zioeite  Buch  d.  Makkab. 
(KicnHonx's  All//.  Biblioth.  d.  MM.  Litt.  I  ,  pp. 
2-'5i  .sq  ).  Bertheau:  De  Secundo  Libro  Macca- 
AfconiHi,  Giitting.,  1829.  Scni.iJNKEs:  Epistofa: 
qnm  Secundo  Marc.  Libra  i.  1-9  lerjitur  E.rplicatio. 
Colon.,  1844.  The  same:  Difficiliorum  Locornm 
Fplstolw  '/me  2  Ulacc.  i.  10-ii.  18  ler/ittir  Erpiicntio, 
Colon.,  1817.  IIeuzfeld  :  Geschichte  des  Volkes 
Jisrael.,  vol.  II.,  1855,  p.  443  sq.  Patiuzi  :  De 
Consensu  utriusque  Libri  Machabworum,  RomK, 
1856.  ClGOI  :  Ilislorisrh-clirnnolofpsche  Schifierirj- 
keiten  des  ziveiten  Makkubiierbuches,  Klagenfurt. 
1868. 

C.  The  Third  Book  of  Maccabees  can  lay  no 
claim  to  be  at  all  connected  with  tlie  Maocal>ees, 
because  it  relati's  altogether  to  an  earlier  period. 
[It  and  the  remaining  books  of  the  Maccabees 
are  not  found  in  the  Vulgate,  nor  in  the  English 
Apocrypha.]  The  story  is  this:  Ptolemy  I\'. 
Philopator  (B.C.  222-20.5),  after  liis  victory  at 
Uapliia  (B.C.  217),  made  a  visit  to  Jerusalem, 
and  attempted  to  enter  the  Holy  of  Holies,  but 
was  unable  to  do  so,  because,  in  answer  to  the 
high  jiriest's  )irayer,  he  fell  down  paralyzed.  In 
revenge,  on  his  return  to  Alexandria  he  perse- 
cuted the  Jews  there.  But  his  attempts  at  their 
destruction  were  woudrously  frustrated,  and  at 
last  he  became  thi'ir  friend  ami  benefactor. 
The  book  resembles  Esther,  but  only  to  show  its 
inferiority. 

Tlie  sti/le  is  bombastic  and  involved.  Although 
tlie  book  blears  the  jirint  of  unreliability,  still  it 
rests  partly  upon  a  b;isis  of  fact;  for  .Iose|ihus 
relates  of  another  Pt-olemy  —  Ptolemy  VII. 
Physcon  (c.  Apinn  ii.  5)  —  an  incident  similar  to 
that  recorded  of  Ptolemy  IV^.  in  reg:ird  to  the 
use  of  elephants  to  trample!  ilowii  the  Jews,  and 
ahso  say.s  that  the  Alexainlrian  Jews  celebrate 
the  deliverance  by  a  yearly  feast.     The  attemjited 


entrance  of  the  temple  may  h.ave  been  made  by 
Ptolemy  IV..  and  tradition  set  also  to  his 
account  the  first  incident. 

As  to  time  the  book  is  conjectured  by  EwAi.n 
(Gesch.  de  Volkes  Israel,  IV..  p.  611)  and 
Hausr.\TH  (Neutestamentliche  Zeilf/eschichte,  2 
Aufi.  If.,  p.  262)  to  have  been  written  in  the 
time  of  Caligula  (A.D.  37-41)  ;  but  this  is  mere 
conjecture.  We  can  oidy  say  it  was  ■written  at 
a  late  date;  for  the  author  was  acquainted  with 
the  apocryphal  additions  to  Daniel  (cf.  vi.  0). 
The  first  mention  of  tlie  book  is  Canones  Apos. 
85.  The  abrupt  beginning  indicates  that  a  part 
has  been  lost. 

[D.  The  Fmirth  Book  of  Maccabees  describes 
the  niavtyrdom  of  Eleazer  and  of  the  seven 
brothers  (ef.  2  Mace.  vi.  18-vii.  41);  but,  as  the 
second  title  of  the  book,  On  the  Supreme  Sor- 
ereiffnt)/  of  Henson.  indicates,  the  history  is  a 
mere  illustration  of  that  theme.  The  book  is 
the  product  of  an  Alexandrian  Jew  who  had 
imbibed  stoical  notions.  The  Fathers  attributed 
it  to  Josephus  ;  but  it  is  not  his.  although  it  well 
may  have  dated  from  his  times.  It  has  un 
historical  value  ;  but  the  style,  though  rhetorical, 
is  correct  and  vigorous,  and  truly  Greek,  which  !■< 
the  original  language.  It  al)ouuds  in  words 
peculiar  to  the  book.  Tisciikxdorf  |-)ublislieil 
fragments  of  it  in  vol.  VI.  of  liis  Monumenln 
Sacra  Inedila,  Leipzig,  1S()9. 

Lit.  —  Grimm:  Exci/pi.  Handbnvh.  Dr.  Cor- 
Tox  has  ]iublished  an  English  translation  of  it 
and  the  fifth  book  iu  his  edition  of  The  Fire 
Books  of  tlie  Maccabees.  Oxford.  1832. 

E.  The  FijVi  Book  of  ^Maccabees.  It  is  printed 
in  ,\rabic,  in  the  Paris  and  r.,ondou  Polyglotts. 
and  contains  a,  history  of  the  .lews  from  the 
attempt  of  Heliodorus  (cf.  2  Maco.  iii.)  to  thi' 
birth  of  our  Lord.  The  aulhoi'  based  his  work 
upon  I.  and  H.  Maccabees  and  Joseiihus,  but 
displays  ignorance,  and  perverts  the  statement^ 
of  others.  He  must  have  lived  after  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem,  and  probably  outside  of  Palc^stine. 
The  original  was  proiiably  Hebrew.  See  article 
by  Professor  B.  V.  AVestcott  in  Smith's  Diction- 
arji  of  the  Bible,  Amer.  e<l.,  vol.  II.,  p.  1726.] 

10.  ICcclcsiasticus,  or  The  Wisdom  of  Jesus,  the 
Son  of  Sirach. — The  apocryphal  counterpart  to 
the  Book  of  Proverbs,  and,  like  it,  of  wide 
range  :ind  earnest  sjiirit,  proving  the  author  to 
havi^  biHMi  a  moralist  of  exceptional  training. 
It  is  well  worthy  of  repeated  reading.  'J'lie 
form  of  tlie  book  is  poetic:il.  It  has  no  percepti- 
ble plan. 

The  Greek  text,  which  alone  has  come  down 
to  us,  is  announced  by  itself  to  he  a  translation 
from  the  Hebrew;  but,  even  if  it  were  not  so 
stated,  it  must  be  so  regarded,  and  one  very 
slavishly  and  not  faultlessly  made.  In  the  Tal- 
mud tliere  an'  (]uotations  from  it  (cf.  Zii.vz :  /)/<■ 
f/otli'.ti/ienstl.  Vorlrdi/e  der  Juden,  p.  101  S(].  De- 
I.ITZ.SCH  :  Zar  Gesch.  der  jild.  Poe.iie,  p.  201  sq. 
DliKEs:  Jlabhinische  Blumenlesr,  p.  (!7  sq.).  .Te- 
rome  says  he  saw  a  copy  of  the  Hebnnv  text. 
The  book  in  his  day  was  coininonly  calhul  "  Ec- 
elesiasticus,"  as  it  is  to-day. 

The  author  ciills  himself  ".lesii.s,  the  Son  of 
.Sirach  of  .lernsaleni ;  "  and  the  translator  was 
his  grandson,  who,  in  his  thirty-eighth  year, 
came  to  Egyjit,  during  the   reign  of   Euergeti'S, 


APOCRYPHA. 


105 


APOCRYPHA. 


i.e.,  the  thirty-eighth  year  of  Euorgetes.  Tiiis 
gives  us  a  date  for  the  book,  because  the  fir.st  of 
the  two  Ptoleitiie.s  wlio  bore  tlie  uaino  Euergetes 
reigued  only  twenty-five  years.  15ut  tlie  second, 
who  was  named  in  full  I'tolemy  VII.  Physcon 
Euergetes  II.,  reigned  from  15. C.  170  in  conjunc- 
tion with  his  brother,  and  from  B.C.  145  alone; 
but  he  counted  his  reign  from  B.C.  170:  conse- 
quently it  w-as  B.C.  132  when  the  grandson  of 
Sirach  came  to  Egypt ;  and  the  book  itself  may 
well  have  been  written  B.C.  190-170,  which  was 
about  the  time  of  the  death  of  Simon  II.  (see 
Josephus,  Aniiij.  XII.  4,  10),  whom  it  eulogizes. 

The  first  Christian  writer  to  quote  the  book  is 
Clemens  Alexandrinus. 

Lit.  —  Bketschneidkk  :  Libei-  Jesti  Sirnciike 
GriEce  Perpelua  AnnolaUone  llhislralus.  Ratisbo- 
nse,  1800.  Gfrorer  :  Philo.  Vol.  II.  (1S31).  pp. 
18-52.  Dahnk:  Geschichlt.  Darxtetlung  ili-r  jii- 
discli-alexamlrinischen  Reli(/ions-p!iil(iMp/ue,  Vol.  II. 
(1834),  pp.  126-150.  W'lNKK  :  De  utrlusque  .Vi- 
racidm  celale.  Erlg.,  1832.  Buucii :  Weislwilslc/ire 
(/er  //timer,  1851,  pp.  2GG-319.  MiciiGUET :  Die 
Gluuliens-  und  Sittenlehre  ites  Buclies  Jesus  Sirach. 
Kbnigsberg,  1874. 

11.  The  Wi.idum  of  Solomon  is  an  animated 
hymn  in  praise  of  Wisdom,  who  in  the  begin- 
ning sat  with  God  on  his  throne  (ix.  4),  and  was 
by  him  when  the  world  was  made  (ix.  9).  rest- 
ing upon  the  ideas  about  Wisdom  made  famili.av 
to  us  by  the  Book  of  Proverbs  (viii.,  ix.)  and 
Job  (xxviii.  12  sq.). 

The  aulhiir  of  the  book  was  a  Jewish  philoso- 
pher of  the  Philo  order, — the  union  of  Jewish 
faith  and  Greek  philosophy.  It  is  true  the  book 
pretends  to  be  from  Solomon  (viii.  10  sq.,  ix.  7 
sq.);  and  one  modern  (Roman-Catholic)  theolo- 
gian, Schmid,  can  be  quoted  in  behalf  of  this 
view.  Philo  was  considered  by  many,  e.g., 
Luther,  to  be  the  author ;  but  it  is  more  proba- 
ble that  it  was  written  between  the  time  of 
Ecclesiasticus  and  Philo  (B.C.  150-50).  It  is 
expressly  quoted  first  by  Irenasus.  It  was  origi- 
nally written  in  Greek. 

Lit.  — Baueu.meister  :  Commentarius  in  Sap. 
Sat.  lilir.  Gott.,  1828.  J.  \.  .Scii.Mii>  :  Das  Burh 
der  Weighed  idierselzl  und  ericlart,  ^Vien,  1857. 
GuTBERl.KT  :  Das  Buch  der  Weisheit  iiherselzt  u. 
erklart,  Munster,  1874.  [W.  J.  Deane  :  The  Book 
of'  Wisdom,  with  introduction,  critical  apparatus  and 
commentary,  O^i-iord,  1881;  .Selig.maxn  :  D.  B.  d. 
Weislieit,  Halle,  1884];  of.  IIatsrath:  N.  T. 
Zeilyesch.  11.  259  sq.  EMIL  ciOlIUKER. 

APOCRYPHA  OF  THE    NEW   TESTAMENT. 

The  relation  between  canonical  and  apocryphal 
writings  is  quite  another  with  respect  to  the  Xevv 
Testament  than  with  respect  to  the  Old.  The 
apocryphal  books  of  the  Old  Testament  aim 
simply  at  a  continuation  of  the  sacred  history, 
and  jiursue  tliis  aim  in  an  honest  manner,  though 
without  divine  authority.  The  apocryphal  writ- 
ings, on  the  contrary,  relating  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, purpose  directly  to  substitute  spurious 
sources  for  genuine.  They  are  very  numerous; 
and  the  second  of  the  four  groups  into  which 
they  naturally  fall  —  I.  Gospels;  II.  Acts  of 
Apostles;  III.  Epistles  from  Apostles  ;  and  IV. 
Revelations  —  exercised  at  one  time  great  influ- 
ence on  the  church,  and  was  considered  the  most 
dangerous  source  of  heresy.     Of  course,  not  all  of 


these  writings  were  composed  for  directly  hereti- 
cal purposes.  Many  of  them,  no  doubt,  originated 
from  much  more  innocent  causes,  as  a  mere  /nous 
fraud.  But  from  the  very  oldest  time  a  suspi- 
cion of  heresy  clung  to  them  all,  and  contri- 
buted much  to  finally  tlirow  the  whole  literature 
into  the  shade.  When  the  canon  of  the  New 
Testament  was  fixed,  and  the  apocryphal  books 
thereby  became  exiled,  they  ceased  to  be  re.-ul ; 
and  in  the  middle  ages,  even  their  names  were 
forgotten.  Nevertheless,  although  the  books 
themselves  were  delivered  up  to  contempt  and 
oblivion,  not  so  with  their  contents.  From  their 
fables  sprung  a  .sacred  legend,  which  was  kept 
alive  in  the  congregation  during  the  middle  ages, 
—  an  ecclesiastical  tradition,  which  the  church  often 
utilized  in  the  development  of  its  dogmas.  In- 
deed, the  origin  of  numerous  dogmas  and  usages 
and  traditions  dates  back  to  these  apocryjihal 
writings;  and  it  was  consequently  of  as  much 
intere.st  to  the  Evangelical  Chnrch  to  subject  this 
whole  literature  to  a  thorough  investigation  as  it 
was  to  the  Roman  Church  to  keep  the  whole 
matter  in  convenient  obscurity.  The  first  collec- 
tion of  apocryphal  writings  relating  to  the  New 
Testament  was  given  by  Micii.  Neaxdeu,  Basel, 
15G4 :  more  comprehensively  by  J.  A.  Fahri- 
cius,  Hamburg,  1703;  then  J.  C.  TniLo's  Coilex 
Apocryphus,  A'.  7' ,  Lips.,  1832,  incomplete,  but 
valuable  ;  best  by  Tischexdorf,  Acta  A/iostoturuni 
Ajiocrypha,  Lips.,  1851,  and  Evanyelia  Apocri//iha, 
Lips.,18.j3,ed.  alt.,  1876.  [Bonnet:  ^4 c/a  Tlmnne, 
Leipzig,  1883.  See  Lipsius:  Die  a/ioli:  A/iostet- 
/jescli.  u.  -tef/enit.,  Braunschweig,  1883-86,  2  vols. 
English  translations  by  B.  II.\RRis  Cowi'er, 
London,  1807,  and  by  AA'ai.keu,  in  the  "  Ante-Ni- 
cene  Library,"  Edinburgh,  1870.] 

I.  Apocryphal  Gospels.  —  About  fifty  apocry- 
phal Gospels  are  still  extant,  or  at  least  known 
to  us.  Some  have  come  down  to  our  time  en- 
tire, others  only  in  fragments  ;  and  of  a  few  we 
possess  nothing  but  the  names.  The  method 
employed  in  these  compositions  is  always  the 
same,  whether  the  author  intended  simply  to  col- 
lect and  arrange  what  was  floating  in  the  general 
tradition,  or  wliether  he  intended  to  produce  a 
definite  dogmatical  effect.  Rarely  he  threw  him- 
self on  his  own  invention  ;  but  generally  lie  elabo- 
rated what  was  only  hinted  at  in  the  canonical 
Gospels,  or  transcribed  words  of  Jesus  into  ac- 
tions, or  described  the  literal  fulfilment  of  some 
Jewish  expectation  concerning  the  Messiah,  or 
repeated  the  wonders  of  the  Old  Testament  in  an 
enhanced  form,  etc.  The  work  done,  he  took 
care  to  conceal  his  own  name,  and  inscribed  his 
book  with  the  name  of  some  apostle  or  disciple, 
in  order  to  give  it  authority.  We  mention  first 
those  seven  apocryphal  Gospels  which  exist  en- 
tire, and  then  those  of  which  we  possess  only 
fragments.  See  Run.  Hok.maxx:  Das  Leheii 
.fesii  nach  den  Apokryptien,  Leipzig,  1851.  G. 
Buu.n'ET  :  Les  icunyUes  apocryplies,  Paris,  1863. 
M.  Nicolas:  Etudes  sur  les  ecanyiles  apocryplies, 
Paris,  1866.  R.  Reixsch  :  Die  Pseudo-Evanye- 
lien  von  ./esu  unit  Maria's  Kindheit  in  d.  ronian- 
isc/ien  u.  (jermaniscJien  Literatur,  Halle,  1879. 

1.  I'rotecani/elium  Jacohi — ascribed  to  James, 
the  brother  of  the  Lord  —  comprises  in  twenty- 
five  chapters  the  period  from  the  announcement 
of  the  birth  of  Mary  to  the  massacre  of  the  inno- 


APOCRYPHA. 


106 


APOCRYPHA. 


cents.  It  is  very  old,  was  widely  circulated,  and 
shows  traces  of  Ebionitic  origin.  Frasjinents  of 
a  Syrian  codex  are  given  by  Wright:  Coiilrihu- 
iion.1  to  the  Apocryphal  Literature  of  the  JV.  T.,  col- 
lected an'l  edited  from  Syrian  MSS.  in  the  British 
Mu.-ieum,  London,  ISGo. 

2.  Evangelium  Pseudo-^^atthcei  sive  Liber  de 
Ortu  Beatte  Marice  et  Infantice  Salvatoris  —  be- 
ginning with  the  annouiicemeut  of  the  birth  of 
Mary,  and  closing  with  the  youth  of  Jesus  — 
seems  to  be  of  Latin  origin,  and  to  have  been 
drawn  from  the  Prutevangl.  and  the  Evangl. 
Thomce. 

3.  Evangelium  de  Nativitate  Mariie  contains  in 
ten  chapters  the  histoiy  of  Mary  before  the  birth 
of  Jesus. 

4.  Histuria  Josephi  Fahri  Lignarii  —  first  pub- 
lished in  Arabic,  with  a  Latin  translation  by 
GeorgWalliu,  Leipzig,  1722  —  contains  the  whole 
biography  of  Joseph  in  thirty-two  chapters,  and 
gives  an  elaborate  description  of  his  death.  As 
it  is  eviilently  written  in  glorification  of  Joseph, 
and  destined  for  recital  ou  the  day  of  his  festi- 
val, and  as  the  worship  of  Joseph  originated 
among  the  Cop>tic  mouophysites,  the  origin  of 
the  work  is  probably  Coptic,  and  not  .Arabic. 

5.  Ecangelium  Thumie — next  to  the  Prolecangl., 
the  olde.st  among  the  apocryphal  Gospels  —  was, 
in  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  in  use  among 
the  Gnostics,  more  especially  among  those  Gnos- 
tics who  held  docetic  views  of  the  person  of 
Christ.  Wright  published  a  Syrian  codex  in 
London,  1875. 

6.  Evangelium  Infantile  Arabicum  —  first  pub- 
lished in  Arabic,  and  with  a  Latin  translation, 
by  H.  .Sike,  161)7  —  comprises  in  fifty-five  chapters 
the  period  from  the  birth  of  Jesus  to  his  twelfth 
year,  and  consists  mostly  of  stories  from  his  resi- 
dence in  Egypt.  The  first  mna  chapters  fol- 
low very  closely  the  Prutevangl.  ;  the  last  twenty 
chapters,  the  Evangl.  Tltonue:  but  the  intermedi- 
ate jiart  seems  to  rest  on  some  national  traditioti, 
which  explains  the  favor  it  has  found  among  thi; 
Arabs,  and  the  circumstance  that  si'veral  of  its 
details  have  been  incorporated  with  the  Koran. 
The  whole  work  has  an  Oriental  character.  Ori- 
ental deuionology  and  magic  come  everywhere  to 
the  surface,  and  many  points  cannot  he  under- 
stood without  some  knowledge  of  Oriental  .science 
and  the  religion  of  Zoroaster.  The  Arabic  text, 
however,  is  hardly  the  primitive  one,  but  proba- 
bly a  translation  from  a  Syrian  text. 

7.  Ecangelium  Aicoitami  consists  of  two  sepa- 
rate works,  —  Gesia  Pilati  and  Dexensu.i  Christi 
ad  Inferos, —  wliich  were  joined  together  at  an 
early  date,  though  the  combination  did  not  re- 
ceive the  name  it  now  bears  until  after  tlie  time 
of  Charlemagne.  The  former  of  these  two  works 
is  of  some  im|)ortance  for  the  explanation  and 
further  elucidation  of  tlie  canonical  Gospels; 
while  the  latter  is  of  very  little  interest.  In  con- 
nection with  these  two  works,  Teschendorf  gives 
some  otiier  apocryphal  fabrications,  which  logeth- 
«r  form  a  group  by  themselves  :  namely,  E/ii.stola 
I'ilafi,  a  letter  from  I'ilate  to  the  emperor,  con- 
taining a  report  on  the  resurrection  of  Christ; 
EpUtuia  Puntii  Pilati,  another  l('tt(^r  by  him,  in 
•which  he  excu.ses  the  unjn.stues.s  of  ins  verdict 
by  the  impoisibility  of  resisting  the  ]irevailing 
excitement;    Anaphora   Pilati,   a    n^port   on    tli  ■ 


trial,  execution,  death,  and  resurrection  of  Jesus; 
'  Paradosin  Pilati,  a  report  of  the  examination  of 
Pilate  before  the  emperor,  his  condemnation  and 
execution;  Mom  Pilati,  Narratio  Jo.sephi  Arima- 
thiensi.f,  atul  Vindicta  Salvatoris.  See  Tischex- 
DORF  :  Pilati  circa  Christum  Judicio  quid  lucis  in 
Actis  Pilati,  Lips.,  1855;  Lipsius:  Die  Pilatus- 
Aden,  Kiel,  1871. 

8.  Evangelium  .lecundwn  ^Egyptios  was  used  by 
the  Encratites  and  Sabellians.  9.  Evangelium 
yEternum,  the  work  of  a  Minorite  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  and  condemned  by  Alexander 
IV.  10.  Evangelium  Apellis.  probably  a  mutila- 
tion of  one  of  the  canonical  Gospels.  11.  Evan- 
gelium Duodecim  Apostolorum.  12.  Evangelium 
Barnalxe.  13.  Evangelium  Bartholonuei.  14. 
Evangelium  Basilidis.  15.  Evangelium  Cerinllii 
seems  to  have  been  the  Gospel  according  to  Mat- 
thew arbitrarily  remodelled,  and  in  this  muti- 
lated shape  accepted  by  the  Carpocratians.  16. 
Evangelium  Ebionitarnm.  17.  Evangelium  Erie. 
18.  Evangelium  secundum  Hebraos,  one  of  the  old- 
est apocryphal  productions,  written  in  Chaldee 
with  Hebrew  letters,  used  by  the  Nazarenes,  and 
translated  into  Greek  and  Latin  by  Jerome.  [See 
E.  B.  Xiciioi.sox  :  The  Go.ipel  according  to  the 
Hebrews,  London,  1879.]  19.  Evangelium  Jacobi 
Majuris,  found  in  Spain  in  1.595,  and  condemned 
by  Innocent  XI.  in  1682.  20.  Joannis  de  Tran- 
situ Marice,  not  given  by  Tischendorf.  21. 
Evangelium  Judee  Ischariota:,  used  by  the  Cainites. 
22.  Evangelium  Leucii.  23.  Evangelium  Luciani 
and  Ecanijelium  lles'ychii.  21.  Evangelia  Mani- 
chfenrum,  comprising  (a)  Evangelium  Thonue,  dif- 
j  ferent  from  the  above-mentioned,  (b)  Evangelium 
I  Vivum,  (c)  Evangelium  J'hili/)/)i,  and  (d)  Evan- 
Igelium  .Ibdee.  25.  Evangelium  Marcionis,  a  nmti- 
1  lation  of  the  Gospel  according  to  Luke,  by  the 
founder  of  the  famous  anti-Jewish  sect.  26. 
Marire  Inlerrognliones,  Ma/ores  et  Minores,  two 
works  of  iu)]iroper  contents,  used  by  some  Gno.s- 
tics.  27.  Evangelium  Matlhice.  28.  iVarrntio  de 
Legali  Christi  Sacerdotio.  29.  Evangelium  J'erfec- 
tionis,  used  by  the  Basil idians  and  other  Gnos- 
tics. 30.  Eviiugelium  Petri  was  in  use  in  the 
congregation  of  llhossus  in  Cilicia  towards  the 
close  of  the  second  century.  31.  Evangelium 
Phiiippi.  32.  Evangelium  Simonitarum,  or,  as  it 
was  called  by  themselves,  Liber  Qualuor  Angu- 
lorum  et  Cardinum  Mundi.  33.  Evangelium  secun- 
dum Syros,  probably  identical  with  the  Emngc- 
tium  secuiujum  Ilcbrceos.  34.  Evangelium  Tatiani, 
a  compilation  from  the  four  canonical  (iospels. 
35.  Evangelium  Thaildad.  36.  ICvangelium  Valen- 
tini  is  I  probably  the  same  as  th('  Evangelium  Veri- 
tatis,  which  was  useil  by  the  Valentinians,  aud 
ditfered  widely  from  the  canonical  Gospels. 

II.  Apocrypliid.  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  —  The  ori- 
gin of  tins  kind  of  writings  is  about  the,  same  as 
that  of  the  apocryphal  (iospels,  though  tlu;  hereti- 
cal tendency  is  generally  more  prominent.  For 
tills  reason  they  were  much  feare<l  in  the  early 
church,  and  we  meet  with  freipient  complaints  of 
peojile  who  manufactured  such  "  Acts.''  Espe- 
cially one  Lucius  (or  Lencius)  Clioriuus,  a  Mani- 
cha^an,  seems  to  have  been  very  active;  but  of  his 
pro<luctions  none  is  now  extant,  at  least  not  in 
the  original  sliaix'.  These  works  are  often  tran- 
scriptions of  transcriptions;  and  sonuaimes  the 
version  which  lias  come  down  to  us  shows  a  do- 


APOCRYPHA. 


107 


APOKATASTASIS. 


cidoil  Romanizing  or  popisli  tiMidency.  Thus  the 
Hift(iri(ii  .-l/iDs/tilicrc  I'sciiitii-Alii/i/i.',  Lihri  A'.,  as- 
cribed to  Aliilias  (Bishop  of  Habylon,  and  the 
first  bishop  consecrated  by  tlie  apostles  tliem- 
selves),  is  simply  a  compilation  from  earlier 
heretical  writins's.  According  to  tradition,  the 
worlc  was  originally  written  in  Hebrew  by 
Abdiiis,  and  then  translated  into  Latin  by  Julius 
Africanus.  But  it  shows  a  complete  ignorance 
of  the  time  in  which  it  is  said  to  have  been 
written,  and  can  hardly  be  dated  further  back 
than  the  seventh  cenlnry.  The  comprehensive 
collection  of  Tischendorf  contains  :  — 

1.  Ada  Petri  el  Pauli,  which  in  their  general 
contents  agree  with  the  De  Mirijicis  JU'iim  el 
Aclihuf  Bealoniin  Peiri  el  Pauli,  ascribed  to 
Marcellus,  the  disciple  of  Peter,  and  published 
by  Fabricius  (Cuii  Apoc. ,  p.  632),  as  also  with  the 
work  ascribed  to  the  Konian  bisho]i  Linus,  and 
published  in  Bibl.  Pair.,  Colon.,  IGIS,  1.,  p.  70: 
while  the  Hisloritc  Ajxisloline  de  .S.  Petro  and  </e 
S.  J '(Idle  by  Abdias,  are  very  different.  2.  Ada 
Pauli  et  Theckc,  ascribed  by  Tertullian  {De 
Bajilivn.  17)  to  an  Asiatic  presbyter  of  the  first 
lialf  of  the  second  century  [See  Caul  .Sciil.\u: 
J)ie  Aden  iles  Paulus  unil  iler  Tltecla  u.  die  dtlere 
Thecla-Lef/ende,  Leipzig,  1877.]  3.  Ada  Barnalim, 
of  a  later  date.  4.  Ada  Philippi.  5.  Aela 
Philippi  in  Hellade.  6.  Ada  Andrece,  of  a  very 
early  date.  7.  Acta  Anilre(e  el  Maltltice  in  Urhe 
Antliriijiiiphaf/arum,  of  which  the  Anglo-Saxon 
jioeni  Andreas  and  Elcne,  Cassel,  1840,  by  Jacob 
Grimm,  is  a  paraphrase.  8.  Ada  et  Marlijrium 
Mdltliice,  a  continuation  of  the  preceding.  9. 
Ada  Thoina,  belong  to  the  earliest  times.  10. 
Consummalio  Thomcc.  11.  Marlijrium  Barthnlo- 
meei.  12.  Ada  Thaddwi.  Whether  the  old  tradi- 
tion of  King  Abgarus  of  Edessa,  his  correspond- 
ence W'ith  Christ,  the  portrait  of  the  Lord  sent 
to  him,  etc.,  arose  from  this  work,  or  whether, 
perhaps,  it  rests  on  the  tradition,  is  questiona- 
ble. 13.  Ada  Joannis,  of  a  very  old  date,  and 
lield  in  great  esteem  by  the  Manichajans  and 
certain  Gnostics.  [See  Th.  Zahx.  Ada  Johannis 
unler  Benulzunr/  v.  C.  V.  Tischendorfs  Nacldass 
hearbeitel.     Erlangen,  1880.] 

IIL  A/iiJcrij///iat  Epistles. — The  Epistola  Ab- 
r/ari  ad  Chrislum  and  Epistola  Christi  ad  Alnjarum 
are  given  by  Eusebius  {Hist.  Ecdes.,  1,  13),  who 
pretends  to  have  seen  the  original  documents  in 
the  archives  of  Edessa,  and  in  a  somewhat  modi- 
fied form  in  the  Ada  Thaddcei.  [See  R,  A.  Lip- 
SIUS :  Die  edessenische  Ahgar-sai/e  i:rilisch  unler- 
suchl.  Braunschweig,  1880.]  Also  other  Scripla 
Cliristi  are  known  to  tradition  ;  but  they  are  so  evi- 
dently mythical  as  to  lose  all  interest.  They  are 
given  complete  by  Fabricius  in  Cod.  Apoc.  N.  T., 
L,  303-321 ;  III.,  439,  511  sq.  Several  letters  from 
the  Virgin  Mary  are  mentioned,  —  one  to  Ignatius, 
the  pupU  of  John;  another  to  the  Messanenses; 
and  a  third  to  the  Florentines  (F.\Biucius  : 
Cod.  Apoc.  N.  T  ,L,  834,  844,  8.51).  But  they  all 
belong  to  a  very  late  time.  Of  the  two  letters 
from  Peter  to  James,  the  first  one  was  placed  as 
an  introduction  to  the  Recofpul.  Clement.,  and  its 
authenticity  falls  with  that  of  the  body  of  the 
work;  the  second  is  found  in  Faukicius  :  Cud. 
Apoc.  N.  T.,  I.,  907.  From  Col.  iv.  l(j  we  learn 
that  Paul  wrote  a  letter  to  the  Laodiceans,  which 
13  lost;  and  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  this 


lost  letter  .soon  found  an  apocryphal  substitute. 
But  it  is  questionable  whetln.'r  the  te.\t  which 
has  come  dosvn  to  us,  and  is  first  found  in  Latin 


in    Pseudo-Anselm,  in 


iv.    If),,  is    identical 


with  that  mentioned  by  the  Fathers.  The  letter 
was  incui'iiorati'd  in  the  German  Bible-transla- 
tions before  Luther.  —  The  correspondence  be- 
tween Paul  and  Seneca,  consisting  of  si.K  letters 
from  Paul,  and  eight  from  Seneca,  is  first  men- 
tioned by  Jerome,  who  accepts  it  as  genuine 
{Catal.  Script.  ]',ccles.  12);  while  Augustine 
doubts  its  genuineness  {Ep.  1.53;  De  Cii;  Dei, 
0,  10).  In  the  middle  ages  these  letters  found 
great  favor,  and  were  incorporated  with  the  edi- 
tions of  Seneca's  works ;  and  Faber  Stapuleus 
even  ventured  to  place  them  among  the  Pau- 
linian  Epistles  of  the  canon,  Pans,  1512.  The 
whole  correspondence,  however,  is  nothing  but 
a  piece  of  fiction,  based  on  a  conjectural  con- 
ception of  Acts  xviii.  12.  [See  F  W.  F.aruak: 
.'ieekers  after  God,  London,  1S09.  J.  B.  Ligiit- 
FOOT  :  E/iislle  to  the  Philippians,  London,  1873. J — ■ 
In  a  similar  manner  the  passage  from  1  Cor.  v. 
9,  where  Paul  speaks  of  an  earlier  letter  which 
has  been  lost,  caused  the  fabrication  of  a  third 
letter  from  Paul  to  the  Corinthians.  Fauuicius: 
Cod.  Apoc  X.  r.,  I.,  020.  —  Finally  the  Ejiistola 
S.  Joannis  AposloU  ad  Jli/dropicum,  is  in  tiie  apoc- 
ryphal work  of  Prochorus  :  A^arrat.  de  i'.  Joanne, 
cajL  34. 

IV.  Apocryphal  Recelations.  —  Although  we 
know  the  names  of  quite  a  inuuber  of  apocryphal 
apocalypses,  we  piossess  the  texts,  or  fragments  of 
the  texts,  of  only  a  few.  There  is  an  Apocali/psis 
.Joannis,  different  from  the  canonical,  and  pub- 
lished by  Tischendorf.  The  apocalypse  which 
Cerinthus  used  was  referred  back  to  St.  John, 
but  differed  in  essential  points  from  that  con- 
tained in  the  >few  Testament,  as  Cerinthus 
claimed  to  have  received  revelations  himself. 
Another  "  Revelation  of  St.  John,"  discovered 
in  Spain  in  1595,  is  said  to  have  been  translated 
into  Spianish  by  St.  CiT^ciliiis,  a  disciple  of  James 
the  Elder,  though  at  that  time  there  existed  no 
Spanish  language.  One  Aj>ocali/psis  Petri  is 
mentioned  very  early,  as  used  by  the  heretic 
Theodotus ;  another  is  quoted  in  the  twelfth 
century  by  Jacobus  de  Vitriaco,  and  is  identical 
with  the  Liljer  Per/cdioni.^,  discovered  in  1821  by 
Alexander  NicoU.  One  Apoculijpsis  Pauli,  occa- 
sioned by  2  Cor.  xii.  2—4,  is  mentioned  by 
Epiphanius  as  being  used  by  the  Cajanes'  an- 
other, used  by  the  monks  of  the  fourth  century, 
is,  according  to  Uu  Pin,  still  in  use  among  the 
Copts.  .V  Syrian  text  of  this  work,  discovered 
among  the  Nestorians,  was  piublished,  together 
with  an  lOnglish  translation,  in  186G,  by  Cowper. 
The  Coptic  text  of  an  apocryphal  work  en- 
titled Recelationes  Bartholemai.  was  published, 
together  with  a  French  translation,  by  Dulaurier, 
Paris,  1835.  .Some  fragments  of  an  Apocali/psis 
Marice  are  given  by  Tischendorf.  An  Apocalt/psis 
Thomce  and  an  Apocalypsis  Stephani  are  men- 
tioned by  Gelasius.  IIUD.  HOFM.iNX. 

APOKATASTASIS.  The  term  describes  ths 
doctrine  of  the  return  of  all  sinful  and  con- 
demned creatures  unto  the  favor  of  God,  the 
moi-al  life  in  God,  and  heavenly  felicity,  and  is 
derived  from  Acts  iii.  21  (Greek  text),  "  restitu- 
tion."    The  first  Christian  writer  known  to  ad- 


APOKATASTASIS. 


108 


APOKATASTASIS. 


vocate  the  doctrine  as  deduced  from  the  Scrip- 
tures was  Origen  (185-253).  He  lield  that  un- 
repentant souls  after  death  were  punislied,  but  also 
were  instructed  by  spirits  who  stood  nearer  God, 
and  so  —  some  sooner,  some  later,  but  all  at  last 
—  will  be  led  in  sorrow  and  repentance  unto  God. 
He  planted  himself  upon  the  Bible.  Christ's 
rule  must  be  universal,  and  God  must  be  all  in 
all  (Ps.  ex.  1  ;  1  Cor.  xv.  27  sq.).  The  saying 
of  Jesus,  that  the  sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost  was 
not  forgiven  in  the  impending  teon,  does  not 
stand  ill  the  way,  because,  after  the  next  Kon, 
there  are  many  others  in  which  it  could  be  for- 
given. Origen  considered  this  teaching  esoteric, 
and  calculated  to  do  harm,  if  spread  among  the 
masses.  A  similar  doctrine,  it  is  claimed  by 
some,  was  taught  previously  b_v  Clement :  but 
lie  merely  asserted,  that,  in  the  next  world,  there 
is  an  operation  of  salvation  upon  lost  souls;  but 
how  far  it  effected  a  change  he  does  not  say. 
These  teachers  advocated  the  dogma  as  part  of  a 
theoiy  of  the  constitution  of  God,  man,  and  his 
soul.  In  God.  goodness  was  above  justice.  The 
human  will  was  not  fixed,  either  in  good  or  bad. 
Sin  was  rather  darkness  and  weakness,  and  there- 
fore could  be  banished  by  the  entering  liglit  of 
God.  See  Or\gen,  De Princlp.,  I.,  U.  2;  II.,  3.  1. 
3:  III.,  6.1  sq.  Horn.  Xy 111.  in  John.  Horn. 
XIX.  in  Jeremiah.  Contra  Celsum,  XL, '2Q.  See 
E.  R.  Redepenning's  edition  of  De  Prmci/nls, 
Lipsia;,  1830.  which  contains  llieron.  ail  Aril. 

Similar  ideas  in  regard  to  the  divine  goodness, 
liumaii  freedom,  and  sin,  led  to  the  advocacy  of 
the  .Apokatastasis  by  Gregory  of  Xazianzen  (328- 
389),  although  not  openly,  Gregory  of  Nyssa 
(332-.398)  very  publicly,  "iJidymus  "of  Alexan- 
dria (308-395)  ;  by  theologians  of  the  .\ntiochiau 
school,  Diodorns  of  Tarsus  (fl.  375),  and  Theo- 
dore of  Mopsuestia  (350-429),  even  Chry.sostom, 
as  appears  in  his  comments  upon  1  Cor.  xv.  28. 

In  the  West  the  doctrine  had  no  prominent 
advocates.  Augustine  (353-430)  declared  against 
it.  The  doctrines  of  Origen  were  condemned  by 
the  Council  of  Coiistaiitino]ile  (513).  After- 
wards the  A]>okatastasis  was  adv<icated  by  such 
men  :is  the  Moiiojihysite  monk  Bar  .Siidaili  in 
the  sixtli  century;  but  it  rose  to  far  greater 
prominence  in  later  times,  when  Joliaunes  Scotus 
Krigena  (<1.  about  884),  drawing  from  the  pseudo- 
Dionysius  the  Areopagite  and  Maximus,  from 
Origen  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  incorporated  it 
into  his  theology.  He  taught  that  (iod  is  the 
substance  of  all  things,  ami  all  things  at  last  re- 
turn to  God  :  accordingly,  the  ,\pokatastasis  is 
only  a  part  of  the  univi-rsal  process  by  which  all 
individuality  is  extinguished.  But  the  theory 
did  not  jirevail.  See  Cliristlieb,  .ScoUi.i  Krii/ima, 
Gotha,  18(J0.  The  mystics,  Kckart  (12(i0-li!27), 
Suso  (lii0()-13(i.j),  and  others,  did  not  advocate 
it:  on  the  other  li.ind,  the  "  Brethren  and  Sisters 
of  tlie  Free  .Spirit"  (thirteenth  century)  did,  and 
that  fanatically. 

We  are  thus  brought  down  to  the  Reformation. 
Johann  Denk  (d.  1.527)  taught  that  even  the 
devil  would  be  saved  ;  and  he  spre.id  the  notion 
among  lln!  Anabaptists.  (See  Bullinger,  J)er 
WiilirlO'iJ/iren  ii/fprniif/,  Buch  2,  Kap.  5;  Menius, 
iltr  fjcinl  ilcr  WiiUrliiujer  in  the  AVittenb.  ed.  of 
Lutlier's  Beric,  II.,  293;  L'hlhorn,  U.  llheijiun, 
p.  122;  Baum,  Capilo  u.  Bulzer,  p.  385.)     Uonk, 


although  well  acquainted  with  Origen,  did  not 
draw  exclusively  from  him,  but  grounded  himself 
upon  Bible  studies,  conducted  in  the  spirit  of 
the  Reformation,  citing  Rom.  v.  18,  xi.  32  ;  1 
Cor.  XV.  22  sq.  ;  Eph.  i.  10;  Col.  i.  20  ;  1  Tim. 
ii.  4  ;  Ps.  Ixxvii.  8  sq.  The  chief  reformers, 
however,  held  unanimously  to  the  church  view; 
and  the  Augsburg  and  other  confessions  of  faith 
declare  strongly  for  an  eternal  hell. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century 
the  doctrine  of  the  Apokatasiasis  again  appears, 
and  ever  since,  it  has  found  numerous  advo- 
cates. The  earliest  were  Jane  Eeade  of  London 
(1623-1704),  J.  W.  Petersen  (1049-1727).  and 
the  "  Philadelphian  Society,"  which  Mrs.  Leade 
founded.  With  them  the  theory  was  established 
not  only  ujion  the  Bible,  but  upon  jiersonal  reve- 
lations. It  is  noteworthy  that  Jacob  Boehme 
(1575-1024),  who  influenced  them,  did  not  teach 
this  belief.  The  author  of  the  "  Berleburger 
Bibel  "  shared  their  belief  ;  but  the  most  promi- 
nent advocate  was  F.  C.  Oetinger,  the  theoso- 
phist.  He  read  the  writings  of  Mrs.  Leade 
and  of  the  Philadeliihians.  and  wove  this  tenet 
into  his  theological  system,  depending  chiefly 
upon  1  Cor  xv.  and  Eph.  i.  9-11.  J.  A.  Bengel 
(1687-1752),  the  father  of  modern  exegesis,  be- 
lieved it,  but  thought  it  dangerous  to  teach. 
The  modern  Dunkers,  a  Baptist  sect  in  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Ohio,  are  supposed  to  hold  this  view, 
derived  from  Petersen  and  the  Berleburger  Bibel. 

The  Rationalists  of  Germany  since  the  second 
half  of  the  former  century  commonly,  and  super- 
naturalists  frequently,  have,  upon  various  grounds, 
advocated  the  return  of  all  souls  unto  (iod. 
Schleiermacher  was  pronounced  in  its  favor.  He 
maintained  that  the  sensitiveness  of  the  con- 
science of  the  damned  was  a  sign  that  they  might 
be  better  in  the  next  life  than  in  this,  and,  quite 
characteristically  also,  that  it  would  make  an  in- 
explicable "dissonance"  in  God's  universe,  if  a 
portion  of  God's  creatures  were  debarred  forever 
from  participation  in  the  redemption  of  Christ. 
But  his  principal  arguments  were  derived  from 
his  doctrine  of  the  will  and  of  the  method  of  the 
operation  of  the  atonement. 

In  England  and  America  the  opposition  to 
the  doctrine  of  the  absolute  eternity  of  future 
punishment  has  led  to  the  formation  of  a  denomi- 
nation called  the  I'.vi  VKiis.vi.isTs,  which  see. 

An  unprejudiced  critic  cannot  find  support  for 
tlie  Apokatastasis  in  the  sayings  of  Christ  or  of 
the  a|)ostles,  save  Paul.  Indeed,  iMatt.  xii.  32, 
XXV.  41,  xxvi.  24,  Mark  ix.  48,  xiv.  31,  are  direct- 
ly opjiosed  to  it.  At  the;  same  time  Rom.  v.  IS 
sip,  xi.  32,  1  Cor.  xv.  22,  have  to  be  read  in  a 
dilfereiit  sense  from  that  whicli  lies  on  the  sur- 
face, in  order  to  avoid  the  conclusion  that  Paul 
taught  it. 

Rothe  and  Martensen,  among  recent  theolo- 
gians, have  brought  out  the  inner,  <logmatic, 
and  ethical  objections.  Thus  Rothe,  in  opposi- 
tion to  Schleiermacher,  declares  that  an  A|>oka- 
tastasis  contradicts  the  .self-determining  will- 
power of  acceptance  of  salvation,  without  which 
there  can  be  no  ethical  value  in  the  process;  for, 
if  the  man  is  fn-e  to  accept,  he  is  etpially  free 
to  nd'use.  Marlensi'U  lay.s  stress  upon  the  con- 
flict between  God's  sovereignty  and  liumaii  free- 
dom, and,  along  with  tiie  belief  in  God's  intention 


APOLINARIS. 


109 


APOLLONIUS. 


to  save  everybody,  admits  tlie  possibility  of  an 
endless  damnation.  ■'■  KosTl.lN". 

APOLINARIS,  or  APOLINARiUS,  Claudius, 
liisliop  of  llirrapolis  in  Phryq:ia.  a  contfni]H>rary 
of  Jleliios ;  (lourished  in  the  reign  of  Marcus 
Aurelius  (lGl-180),  and  occupied  a  prominent 
position  as  an  apologist  of  Christianity,  and 
opponent  to  jSIontanism.  He  was  a  very  prolific 
writer,  and  Eusebins  and  Photius  mention  sev- 
eral works  by  him,  especially  his  Apologj'  ad- 
dressed to  the  emperor;  but  only  a  few  fragments 
of  a  work  on  the  Passover  have  been  preserved 
in  the  Citron.  Paxchak  ed.  Dindorf,  I.,  p.  13. 
The  calence  contains  numerous  fragments  marked 
' A7ro?dvaplov ;  but  they  have  never  been  carefully 
examined,  and  it  is  probable  that  most  of  them 
belona;  to  Apollinaris  from  I.aodicea. 

APOLLINARIANISM,  the  doctrine  of  APOL- 
LINARIUS  THE  YOUNGER,  Bishop  of  Laodicea 
in  Syria  (d.  390),  the  son  of  Apollinaris  the 
Elder,  of  Alexandria,  who  taught  gramm.ar  and 
rhetoric,  first  at  Berytus,  and  afterwards  in 
Laodicea,  and  became  a  presliyter  in  tlie  latter 
■city.  When  the  Emperor  Julian  forbade  the 
Christians  to  read  the  Greek  literature,  he 
undertook  to  indemnify  them  as  best  he  could, 
and  gave,  among  other  works  of  the  same  kind, 
a  poetical  paraphrase  in  Homeric  verses  of  the 
historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament.  The 
son,  who  was  also  a  teacher  of  rhetoric,  and 
afterwards  (335)  a  lector  in  Laodicea,  but  who 
surpassed  the  father  both  in  talent  and  learning, 
began  his  literary  career  in  a  similar  way,  but 
later  on  concentrated  himself  on  Christian  the- 
ology. He  wrote  commentaries  on  various  por- 
tions of  the  Bible,  a  defence  of  Christianity 
against  Porphyry,  a  defence  of  the  Nicene  Creed 
against  Eunomius  and  Marcellus,  etc.;  and  these 
works  brought  him  in  close  connection  with  the 
representatives  of  the  Orthodox  Church,  such 
as  Athanasius  and  others.  He  was  made  Bishop 
of  Laodicea,  and  for  a  long  time  he  was  consid- 
ered one  of  the  chief  supports  of  the  Nicene 
symbol,  when  gradually  his  christological  the- 
ory, originally  aiming  simply  at  a  refutation 
of  Arianism,  began  to  develop  into  open  heresy. 
On  the  basis  of  the  Nicene  Creed,  there  had 
grown  up  a  view  according  to  which  complete 
.divinity  and  complete  humanity  were  united  in 
Christ;  he  being  at  once  a  perfect  God  and  a 
perfect  man.  But  to  Apollinaris  this  idea  seemed 
wholly  imtenable  and  self-contradictory,  whether 
approached  from  an  ontological,  or  psychological, 
or  dogmatical  point  of  view.  Two  different  sub- 
stances, he  reasoned,  each  complete  and  perfect 
in  all  its  attributes,  can  never  unite  into  one. 
A  complete  God  ami  a  complete  man  can  never 
melt  together  in  one  person.  The  idea  of  an 
uv-dpuTTofteoc  is  a  monstrosity  on  a  level  with  such 
mythological  creations  as  the  minotaurs,  etc. 
Furthermore,  the  idea  of  such  a  union  in  Christ, 
between  perfect  divinity  and  perfect  humanity, 
at  once  destroys  the  whole  idea  of  atonement. 
Where  there  is  complete  humanity,  there  is  sin ; 
and  if  sin  is  thought  of  as  a  potentiality  in  the 
nature  of  Christ,  he  is  disqualified  for  the  work 
of  atonement.  As  perfect  div  ;iity  and  perfect 
humanity  cannot  piossibly  un,'  j  in  one  person, 
the  humanity  of  Christ,  if  considered  complete, 
must   have   moved   mechanically  beside   his  di- 


vinity, and  it  is  only  the  man  in  Christ  who  has 
suffered,  been  crucified,  and  died  ;  but  "  the  death 
of  a  man  does  not  kill  death."  TIio  solution 
which  Apollinaris  offered  of  this  difficulty  con- 
sisted in  limiting  the  humanity  of  Christ  to  a 
body  and  an  animal  soul  inhabited  by  the  divine 
Logos.  These  doctrines  made  a  great  sensation, 
partly  because  they  pointed  to  certain  weak 
points  in  the  orthodox  confession,  partly  because 
they  fell  in  with  the  general  drift  of  public 
opinion  ;  and  they  caused  the  Church  considera- 
ble embarrassment  on  account  of  the  prominent 
position  of  their  author.  The  Council  of  Alex- 
andria (302)  condemned  them.  Athanasius 
wrote  against  them  in  371.  But  neither  in  the 
one  nor  in  the  other  case  was  the  name  of  Apol- 
linaris mentioned.  In  37.5,  however,  he  sepa- 
rated from  the  Church,  and  began  to  form  a 
sect;  and  in  the  same  year  he  was  condemned  by 
the  synod  of  Rome  under  Damasus,  which  con- 
demnation was  repeated  by  the  second  oecumen- 
ical council  (381).  Several  imperial  decrees 
(388,  397,  4128)  were  issued  against  his  adherents, 
the  Apollinarians,  or  Apollinarists,  of  whom  some 
returned  to  the  Catholic  Church,  while  others 
joined  the  Monophysites.  Of  his  works  only 
I'ragments  are  extant.  See  Bauu  :  Dreieinirj- 
keit,  I.  ;  DoRNER  :  Geschichte  der  Lelire  von  Christi 
Person;  Schaff  :  History  of  Ihe  Christian  Church, 
TIL,  708.  IIEUZOG. 

APOLLONIA,  St.,  suffered  martyrdom  at  an 
advanced  age,  in  Alexandria,  during  the  Deciau 
persecution"(249).  She  was  seized,  together  with 
other  Christians,  and  received  such  violent  blows 
upon  her  jaws,  that  she  lost  all  her  teeth.  The 
Pagans  then  lit  the  pyre,  and  demanded  that  she 
should  curse  Christ.  She  hesitated  for  a  mo- 
ment, and  then  she  suddenly  leaped  into  the 
fire.  During  the  middle  ages  she  was  worshipped 
as  the  patroness  against  the  toothache.  She  is 
commemorated  in  the  Roman  Church  on  Feb.  9. 

APOLLONIUS  OF  TYANA,  b.,  probably  in  the 
same  year  as  Christ,  at  Tyana  in  Cappadocia,  and 
educated  at  Mgx  in  Cilicia,  where  he  studied 
medicine  in  the  temple  of  ^Esculapius,  and  be- 
came acquainted  with  the  various  philosophical 
schools ;  was  an  ardent  adherent  of  the  New- 
Pythagorean  system,  which,  since  the  close  of  the 
second  century  B.C.,  had  spread  rapidly  from 
Alexandria,  both  among  the  Greeks  and  the  Ro- 
mans. In  his  fortieth  year  he  began  to  travel, 
and  visited  first  Bardanes,  king  of  Parthia,  then 
the  Indian  gymnosophists,  with  whom  he  found 
great  sympathy,  and,  at  a  later  period,  also  the 
Egyptian  wise  men.  After  his  return  from  India 
he  developed  a  great  activity  as  a  moral  and  reli- 
gious reformer  in  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  Italy,  and 
Spain,  converting  individuals,  and  forming  con- 
gregations. He  stood  in  connection  with  many  of 
the  most  prominent  men  in  Rome,  and  was  per- 
sonally acquainteil  with  Vespasian  and  Titus. 
Under  Domitian,  however,  he  was  thrown  into 
prison,  but  only  for  a  short  time  (94).  The  last 
years  of  his  life  he  spent  in  the  temple  of  Olym- 
pia,  surrounded  by  a  great  crowd  of  disciples, 
who  imitated  his  ascetic  manner  of  life ;  and 
from  here  he  disappeared  in  some  unknown  way 
during  the  reign  of  Nerva,  nearly  one  hundred 
years  old.  His  life  was  written  by  Pliilostratus, 
on  the  instance  of  Julia  Domua,  the  wife  of  Sep- 


APOLLONIUS. 


110 


APOLOGETICS. 


timius  Severiis,  Vnit  not  published  until  after  her 
death  (-217).  Edited  by  C.  L.  Kayser.  ;W  ed., 
Leipzig,  ISTO,  2  vols.  The  object  of  this  work 
is  evidently  to  give  a  representation  of  the  ideal 
Xew- Pythagorean  philosopher;  and  although  the 
chronological  details  are  correct,  and  in  accordance 
with  other  historical  facts,  this  object  is  pursued 
with  such  an  unsparing  jirofusion  of  mysteries 
and  miracles,  that  it  becomes  wholly  impossible 
to  separate  the  real  Apollonius  from  the  fancy 
picture  by  Philostratus.  That  the  biography  was 
written  as  a  direct  parallel  to  the  gospel  narra- 
tive of  Christ  can  hardly  be  maintained;  but  it 
was  often  employed  as  a  weapon  against  Christi- 
anity, both  in  ancient  and  modern  days.  [It  has 
been  translated  into  English  by  Charles  ISlount 
(incomplete),  London,  1680,  Edward  Herwick, 
1809:  into  French  by  Castillan,  Paris,  1774; 
A.  Chassang,  18(32  ;  into  German  by  E.  lialtzor, 
Rudolstadt,  1883  See  essays  by  Baur,  repub., 
Leipzig,  187(5 ;  Xewman,  repub.,  London,  1872 
(Hht.  ."Sketches,  II.);  Reville,  trans  ,  18GG;  Niel- 
sen, Copenhagen,  1879 ;  Jessen,  Hamburg, 
188.5.]  IWAX  MliLLER. 

APOLLONIUS  is  the  name  of  two  men  active 
in  the  Christian  Church  in  the  second  century. 
The  one  was  an  ecclesiastical  author,  and  lived, 
as  it  seems,  in  Asia  Minor.  He  wrote  a  work 
against  the  Montanists  while  Montanus  and 
both  his  prophetesses  were  still  alive.  The  other 
enjoj-ed  a  great  reputation  among  tlie  Roman 
Christians  on  account  of  his  scientific  and  philo- 
sophical accomplishments,  and  because  he  deliv- 
ered an  eloquent  apology  for  the  Christians  before 
the  senate,  which  cost  him  his  life.  lie  suffered 
martyrdom  under  Commodus  before  186. 

APOL'LOS  (probably  a  contraction  from  .\pol- 
lonius,  helontjiiitj  lo  Apollo),  one  of  the  most  effi- 
cient workers  in  the  early  church,  noted  for  his 
eloquence  and  learning  (Acts  xviii.  21).  He  was 
boni  of  Jewish  parents  at  Alexandria,  P^gypt,  and 
became  one  of  John's  disciples  ;  but  at  Ephesus, 
in  A.I).  54.  he  met  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  who  in- 
.structed  him  in  the  gospel  (Acts  xviii.  26),  and 
ever  afterwards  was  an  enthusiastic  and  success- 
ful preacher  in  Achaia  and  at  Corinth.  Paul's 
First  Epistle  (A.l).  .57)  to  the  latter  city  mentions 
him  as  nnliappily  the  favorite  of  a  faction.  There 
is  no  doubt  tliat  such  a  state  of  things  was  very 
painful  to  .Apollos.  who  refrained  from  visiting 
the  church  while  tluis  distracted.  The  last  men- 
tion of  Apollos  is  Tit.  iii.  13,  and  shows  Paul's 
affectionate  interest. 

Many  scholars  to-day  incline  to  regard  .\pollos 
as  the  author  of  the  Ejiistle  to  the  Hebrews,  —  a 
work  for  wliicli  his  abundant  learning  and  great 
eloquence  fitted  him ;  but  the  designation  is  in- 
ca])able  of  ]iroof. 

APOLOGETICS  and  APOLOGY.  Apologetics 
is  a  theological  discijiline;  the  apology,  a  jirac- 
tical  utterance  of  religious  life.  Apologetics 
originated  from  a  scientific  demand,  and  asjiires 
at  systematic  form,  encompassing  Christianity  as 
a  whole,  an<l  defending  it  as  tlie  jirincipli!  of 
truth.  The  apology  clianges  its  contents  and  its 
method  in  accordance  with  tin!  outward  circum- 
stances which  call  it  forth,  confining  itself  to 
those  points  which  in  eacli  imlividnal  case  have 
been  attacked.  Thus  the  dilTerence  between 
apologetics  and  apology  may  be  put  down  pro- 


visionally as  one  between  theory  and  practice; 
and  as  theory  always  comes  after  practice,  and 
experience  always  precedes  science,  it  may  be 
found  easiest  to  explain  the  relation  of  apolo- 
'  getics  and  apology,  and  fi.K  the  jiosition  of  the 
I  former  in  the  theological  system,  in  the  course  of 
an  historical  representation  of  the  subject. 

I.  Apologies  direcled  against  ailcersarics  outside 
of  Cliristianili/. — Up  to  the  time  of  Constantine 
the  church  had  to  battle  for  its  existence,  and 
this  circumstance  gave  the  whole  period  an 
apologetical  character.  The  first  written  apolo- 
gies, dating  from  the  times  immediately  after  the 
apostles,  are  political  defences  addressed  to 
Roman  authorities,  such  as  those  by  .\ristides, 
Qnadratns.  Melito  of  .Sardis.  Claudius  ApoUi- 
uaris,  Justin  Martyr,  and  Athenagoras.  Also 
Tertullian's  Apoloijdicuis  and  Ad  ScapuUnn  be- 
long to  this  class.  The  general  object  of  the.se 
works  is.  with  reference  to  Paganism,  to  defend 
the  Christians  against  accusations  of  atheism, 
debaucheries,  treason,  etc  ,  and.  with  reference 
to  Judaism,  to  prove  by  evidence  from  the 
prophets  that  Jesus  was  the  Messiah,  and  that 
righteousness  cannot  be  attained  through  the 
law,  but  only  by  faith  in  Christ.  But  through 
the  whole  series  of  works  we  see  how  the 
original  juridical  form  of  the  apology  gradually 
grew  into  the  theological,  and  how  the  defence 
by  degrees  became  an  attack  on  the  bliiulness 
and  stubbornness  of  Judaism,  on  the  folly  and 
vanity  of  Paganism,  etc.  During  the  third  and 
fourlii  centuries  the  Christian  apology  developed 
still  further,  and  its  problems  widened  as  it  felt 
itself  established  on  scientific  ground.  Its  object 
was  now,  not  so  much  to  prove  the  piety  of  the 
Christians  as  to  prove  the  truth  of  Christianity; 
and  here  a  ehar.acteristic  difference  is  discoyered 
between  the  Greek  and  Latin  apologist.  The 
former  is  a  philosojiher ;  and  logical  reasoning, 
with  proper  application  of  the  ideas  of  Socrates 
and  Plato,  is  the  weapon  by  which  he  contend,* 
for  the  truth  of  the  Christian  doctrines:  the 
latter  is  a  jurist,  and  in  the  principles  of  the 
Roman  law  lie  finds  the  arms  with  which  he 
fights  for  the  inalienaljh'  rights  of  the  in<lividual. 
Chnucnt  of  Alexandria  institutes  with  superior 
ciilmness  and  impartiality'  a  comparison  between 
the  religious  ide;vs  of  P:igauisni  and  Christianity. 
Origen  proves  in  a  more  polemic:d  tone,  but 
with  admirable  :icutene.ss  and  stupendous  erudi- 
tion, the  trnstworthini'ss  of  the  Gospels,  the 
diyinity  of  the  miracles,  and  the  intrinsic  rea- 
sonableness of  the  Cliristiau  doctrines;  while 
Tertulli:ui  appears  as  the  legal  defender  of 
Christi;iiiity,  and  pleads  his  c;iuse  with  cutting 
sliarpness  ;ind  s;irc:ism.  In  the  series  of  Latin 
apologists  follow  Minutius  Felix,  Cyprian,  .\rno- 
bius,  and  L:ictantius;  in  that  of  the  Gn-ek, 
Methodius  and  .Vjiollinaris  of  Laodicea. 

Its  point  of   culmination  the  ancient  apology 
reached    in    the    i)eriod    from    Constantine    the 
(Ireat  to  the  middle  of  tlie  fifth  century,  when, 
freed  from  any  pressure  from  without,  the  church 
obtained  the  leisure  necessary  to  purely  scientific 
I  pursuits.     In    his   two  works,   Ailo.    denies   and 
De  Jnraniiilioiic.   .\than.asius  made  the  first  suc- 
cessful    atti'uqit    to    yindicate.    Christianity    by 
I  proceeding  from      s  very  centre,  the  doctrine  of 
I  redemiition,  and  to  refute  its  adversaries  by  a 


APOLOGETICS. 


Ill 


APOLOGETICS. 


genetieal  demonstration  of  their  errors.  From 
his  time  tlie  aphoristical  and  casual  character 
of  the  apology  disappears,  and  a  scientific  treat- 
ment according;  to  jirinciples  becomes  more  and 
more  prominent.  Although  the  attacks  of  Julian 
gave  rise  to  a  number  of  works  simjily  adapted 
to  the  special  occasion,  the  systematic  develop- 
ment of  the  apology  was,  nevertheless,  continued 
by  Ensebius  of  Csesarea,  and  Augustine.  In 
order  to  silence  the  reproach  frequently  made 
against  Christianity,  that  it  was  the  cause  of  the 
decay  of  the  Roman  Empire,  Augu.stine  com- 
bined in  his  De  Cioilale  Dei  the  speculation  and 
historical  demonstration  of  his  predece.ssors,  con- 
structed tlie  whole  politico-religious  defence  of 
Christianity  on  the  basis  of  a  contrast  between 
the  kingdom  of  heaven  and  tlie  kingdom  of 
this  world,  and  interpreted  tlie  downfall  of  the 
Roman  Empire  as  the  fulfilment  of  a  divine 
judgment  in  favor  of  Christianity.  His  di.sciple 
Orosius  took  the  same  ground,  and  the  system- 
atic form  of  the  apology  was  cultivated  also  by 
Cyril  of  .\lexandria  and  Tlieodoret  of  Cyprus. 

After  tlie  downfall  of  the  ancient  world,  dur- 
ing the  first  half  of  the  middle  ages,  the  Tal- 
mudic  Judaism  and  the  appearance  of  Islam- 
ism  still  occasioned  some  apologetical  activity. 
Against  the  former  wrote  Agobard  of  Lyons, 
De  Jn.iolentia  Juilaorum,  822 ;  against  both,  Rai- 
mund  Martins,  Put/to  Fklei  ado.  Ulanros  el  Ju- 
dceos,  1278  ;  also  the  Dialo(/us  inter  T'liiliKsuphum, 
Jurlaum  et  Christianum,  by  Abelard,  may  be  men- 
tioned here. 

II.  A/)oloi/ies  directed  againul  (idverntiries  ti:ith- 
in  the  Church.  Although  the  apology  always 
contained  more  or  less  polemics  against  heresies, 
up  to  the  second  half  of  the  middle  ages  it  was, 
nevertheless,  chiefly  occupied  with  adversaries  out- 
side of  the  church  ;  but  from  this  time  it  became 
more  and  more  necessary  for  it  to  vindicate  the 
divine  basis  of  the  Christian  faith  also  before  the 
rea.soning  spirit  of  the  Christian  Church.  The 
scholastic  elaboration  of  the  Christian  dogmatics 
was  hardly  completed,  when  the  whole  building 
was  shaken  by  the  question  of  the  relation  be- 
tween science  and  faith,  reason  and  revelation, 
and  thereby  the  apology  was  compelled  to  assume 
an  entirely  new  position.  The  Sumina  Cuthnl. 
Fidei  con.  GentUes.,  by  Thomas  Aquinas,  was  the 
first  attempt  to  give  an  apologetic  theory  of  the 
Revelation  in  its  relation  to  reason  ;  but  it  was 
not  until  after  the  fifteenth  century,  when  the 
revival  of  the  classical  studies  by  the  Humanists 
in  Italy  turned  the  sway  of  Aristotelian  forms  of 
reasoning  into  an  enthusiasm  for  Pagan  ideas, 
poetical  and  philosophical,  that  the  split  be- 
tween theology  and  philosophy  became  fully  ap- 
parent, and  with  it  the  new  adversary  intra  niurof, 
—  the  Pagan  in  Christian  clothes.  A\'ith  steady 
reference  to  these  fralri.i  in  I'lalonc,  Marsilius 
Ficinus  tried  to  christianize  Platonism,  and  pla- 
tonize  Christianity,  in  his  De  Uetif/.  Christiana ; 
and  by  their  historical  researches,  Picus  of  Mi- 
randola,  John  Reuchlin,  and  others,  brought 
Christianity  in  close  contact  with  the  Jewish 
Cabliala ;  while  Savonarola,  in  jirophetical  spirit, 
and  with  practical  tendencies  of  the  deepest  ear- 
nestness, attacked  the  irreligious  frivolity  of  his 
iige  in  his  Triutnphnx  Cruci.t.  One  of  the  most 
important    apologists,    however,   of    the    whole 


period  before  the  Reformation,  was  the  Spaniard, 
Louis  Vives,  whose  De  Verit.  Fidei  Christ.,  l.-)43, 
was  al.so  directed  against  the  Pagan  tendencies 
of  his  time.  Immediately  after  the  Reformation 
we  meet  with  Philipp  de  jlornays  :  f.a  ]','riti}  de  ta 
lielii/i(jn  Clirilieniie,  1.57!),  and  the  much  more  im- 
portant work  by  Hugo  (Jrotius  :  De  Veril.  lieliff. 
Chri.-il.,  1027.  In  the  works  by  Abbadie;  La  Virile 
de  ta  Jlelif/.  Chrtl.,  1G84,  Limborch  :  De  Verit.  Jiel. 
Christ.  Cullalio  cum  Eriid.  ./uda:o,  1087,  an<l  Iluet : 
Demonslralio  Evan;/  ,  1G70,  .some  regard  is  already 
paid  to  the  deism  and  naturalism  now  looming  up 
above  the  horizon.  The  ino.st  prominent  work 
of  an  apologetical  character  from  the  period  be- 
tween the  si.xteenth  and  the  eighteenth  centuries 
is  Paiscal's  Pensees  sur  la  Relit/ion,  1GC9.  Though 
its  form  is  aphoristic  throughout,  it  gives  some 
of  the  deepest  hints  of  the  true  nature  and  method 
of  apology. 

During  the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth 
and  the  whole  of  the  eighteenth  century,  deism 
and  naturalism  reigned  widely  in  England, 
France,  and  Germany  ;  and  in  all  three  countries 
the  doctrine  that  natural  religion  forms  the  true 
kernel  of  all  revelation — on  the  basis  of  which 
assertion,  first  the  necessity  and  value,  next  the 
truth  and  possibility,  of  a  supernatural  revela- 
tion, were  attacked  —  called  forth  a  rich  apolo- 
getical activity.  England  produced  an  enormous 
number  of  apologetical  works.  Some  of  these 
apologists,  however,  were  not  free  from  deism 
themselves ;  they  endeavored  to  find  a  ground 
common  to  them  and  their  adversaries ;  they 
yielded  too  much  to  the  principle  of  their  oppo- 
nents (Locke,  Whitby,  Clarke,  Foster,  and  oth- 
ers) ;  they  often  sacrificed  the  kernel  in  order 
to  save  the  shell  (Burnet,  Robinson,  Archibald 
Campbell,  Williamson,  and  others).  Others, 
however,  assumed  a  decidedly  polemical  attitude, 
and  developed  with  great  thoroughness  and  in- 
dustry the  historical  evidences  of  Christianity, — 
the  miracles  (Lei and,  Pearce,  Adams,  especially 
rjeorge  Campbell  against  Hume),  the  resurrec- 
tion of  Christ  (Uitton,  Sherlock,  West),  and  the 
prophecies  (Edward  and  Samuel  Chandler.  .Sy- 
dus,  Newton,  Hurd).  Noticeable  are  also  Robert 
Boyle,  who  founded  an  apologetical  prize,  —  an  in- 
stitution which  soon  was  imitated  in  other  coun- 
tries, for  instance,  in  Holland, —  Richard  Baxter, 
Cudworth,  .Skelton,  Stillingfleet  {Oriijines  sacne, 
16G2,  and  Vindication  of  the  Doctri}>e  of  Trinity, 
1G97),  Richard Bentley  (against  Collins),  Warbur- 
ton  {The  Divine  Legation  of  Moses,  1738),  Water- 
land,  '\^'atson,  Stackhouse,  Conybeare,  Addison 
(Essay  on  the  Truth  of  the  Christ,  lielit/ion).  Lard- 
ner  (The  Credibdity  of  the  Gospel  ILislonj,  12  vols., 
1741)  showed  wdth  "great  thoroughness  and  mi- 
nuteness tlie  trustworthiness  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment history  and  its  authors.  A  still  greater  in- 
fluence was  exercised  by  Butler's  book,  The  Analoyy 
of  lieliyion  to  die  Ctinstitiition  and  Course  of  Xature, 
l73G,  a  work  of  great  originality,  which  holds  its 
own  to  this  day,  remarkable  for  thoroughly  refut- 
ing objections  without  mentioning  the  name  of  a 
single  objector,  and  Paley's  View  of  the  Evidences 
of  Christianity,  1794,  and  Natural  Theoioyy.  1802, 
which  still  belong  to  the  standard  works  of  Eng- 
lish theology.  Generally,  however,  the  necessity 
and  demonstrability  of  the  biblical  revelation 
formed  the  somewhat  narrow  ground  occupied  by 


APOLOGETICS. 


11:2 


APOLOGETICS. 


the  English  apologists.  They  considered  Chris- 
tian truth  a  set  of  doctrines  rather  than  a  new  and 
divine  principle  of  life.  [See  llev.  JoHX  IIu.n't, 
D.D.  :  Religious  Tliouyld  in  Emjlanil,  frnm  the  lle- 
formutioii  lo  the  End  of  lite  L'lsl  Cenliiri/,  London, 
1870-7-1.  3  vols.  Svo.  For  a  legible  and  accessi- 
ble reprint  of  the  more  famous  works  produced 
by  the  deistic  controversy,  see  Christian  Literature, 
London,  1867  (Bohn).  The  volume  contains : 
Watson's  ••  Apology  for  Christianity  "  and  "  Apol- 
ogy for  the  Bible ; "  Paley's  "  Evidences  of 
Christianity."  and  "  IIora5  Paulinae;"  Jencyn's 
"  View  of  the  Internal  Evidence  of  tlie  Chris- 
tian Religion  ;  "  Leslie's  "  Truth  of  Christianity 
Demonstrated,"  "  Short  and  Easy  Method  with 
the  Deists,"  and  "  Short  and  Easy  Method  with 
the  Jews  ;  "  Chandler's  "  Plain  Reasons  for  being 
a  Christian  ;  "  Lyttleton's  "  Observations  on  the 
Conversion  of  St.  Paul  ;  "  Cambell's  "  Disserta- 
tion on  Miracles ;  "  Sherlock's  "  Trial  of  the 
Witnesses,  with  the  Sequel  to  the  Trial;"  West 
on  the  "Resurrection."  The  companion  volume, 
Christian  Treasury,  London,  1863  (Bohn),  contains 
Less's  "  Authenticity,  Unoorrupted  Preservation, 
and  Credibility  of  the  New  Testament,"  along 
with  other  standard  treatises.] 

In  France  during  the  eighteenth  century,  frivo- 
lous latitudinarianism,  materialism,  and  atheism 
followed  in  the  track  of  the  deistical  enlighten- 
ment. The  contest  against  Voltaire,  Rousseau, 
and  the  encyclopedists,  was  carried  on  among  the 
Roman  Catholics  by  Le  Vassor,  Denyse,  Iloute- 
ville,  d'.\guesseau,  Bergier  (Traite  historique  et 
iloginatiijue  de  la  vraie  lieliijion,  12  vols.,  1780), 
and  Chateaubriand,  whose  Genie  dn  Christianisme, 
1803,  made  a  great  impression  by  emphasizing 
the  aisthetical  side  of  Christianity;  and  among 
the  Protestants  by  Jacquelot  (against  Boyle), 
J.  A.  Turretin  {Oxjitat.  et  Dissertat.  TheoL,  1737, 
and  Traite  de  la  rerite  de  la  rel.  chret.),  and  Bon- 
net (/.o  /laliiif/e/iesie  philosophique,  1764),  who, 
from  his  peculiar  stand-point  of  natural  philoso- 
phy, undertook  to  reconcile  the  belief  iu  mira- 
cles with  the  scientific  conception  of  the  laws  of 
nature. 

In  Germany,  as  in  England,  the  a))ologetic 
literature  of  the  eighteenth  century  showed  a 
double  character,  influenced  in  the  former  coun- 
try by  rationalism,  as  in  the  latter  by  deism. 
Rationalistic  latitudinarians  defended  oidy  the 
reasonableness  and  high  morality  of  Clnnstian- 
ity  against  open  deniers ;  while  tlie  orthodox 
supranaluralists  vindicated  this  revelation,  with 
its  miracles  and  mysteri(!s,  as  divine  truth  against 
both  the  naturalists  and  the  rationalists.  In  his 
celebrated  Theodice  (1710)  against  Boyle.  Leib- 
nitz maintained  tiie  complete!  harmony  between 
rea.son  and  true  ndigion;  and  in  the  same  direc- 
tion followed  Pfaff,  Moslieim,  A.  F.  W.  Sack, 
Euler  (liettuny  der  i/ijtt.  Offlxj.,  1747),  Jerusalem 
(Betrachluiif/cn  liber  die  unrnehmstnn  Wahrheiten  der 
Rel.,  1768),  Nbsselt  {V<:rth(:idiiiunii  der  Wahrheit 
uni!  GOItlichkeit  der  clirist.  Jtd.,  5th  ed.,  1783), 
llaller  (Briefe  Ulier  d.  wichlii/sten  Wahrh.  d.  OJfh;/., 
3d  ed.,  1770,  and  liricfe  idier  einit/e  luniviir/e  niich 
lebender  Freir/eistir,  177.5).  Lilicnthal,  Die  (/ute 
Snche  tier  f/iiltl.  Offhij.,  16  vols.,  17")0-82,  occupies 
a  prominent  place  on  account  of  his  thorough 
historical  investigations ;  also  Less :  lieweis  d. 
Wuhrheil  d.  chrinl.  Jiel.,  Otii  ed.,  1785,  and  M.  Fr. 


Roos  :  Tiiwijis  ilasn  die  yanze  Bihel  vnn  Golt  eimjege- 
hen,  1701.  After  the  appearance,  however,  of  the 
Wolfenbiittel  Fragments  in  1777,  and  during  the 
ascendency  of  Lessing's  ]irinciple  of  the  trans- 
formation of  revealed  truth  into  reasoned  truth, 
the  contest  grew  considerably  hotter ;  but  that 
which  was  offered  by  the  rationalists  (Dbder- 
lein,  Semler.  Seilei-,  and  others)  was  much  infe- 
rior to  Kleuker's  Neue  Pril/'uiif/  uiid  Erklarunr/  der 
varzHijl.  Beweise  fiir  die  Wahrheit  niul  den  (/ottlichen 
L'rsprunrjdes  Christenthums,  1787,  and  Untersuchun;/ 
der  Griinde  fur  die  Aclitheit  unil  Glauhwurdigkeii 
der  Urkunilen  iles  Christenthums,  5  vols.,  1793 
These  works,  like  Kdppen's  Die  Bihel  ein  Werl:  ilej 
f/ottlichen  Weislieit,  1787,  3d  ed.,  1837,  represent 
Christianity  as  a  divine  plan  in  history. 

III.  Apolof/eiics  proper.  —  Jlost  of  the  above- 
mentioned  works  owe  their  origin  to  some  practi- 
cal demand,  rather  than  to  any  purely  .scientific 
interest.  But,  from  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  a  desire  grew  up  to  gather  together 
all  that  was  permanent  and  fundamental  among 
the  various  apologetical  materials,  and  form  it 
into  an  organic  system,  an  independent  science. 
Kant's  and  Fichte's  criticism  of  Revelation,  and 
their  attempt  to  confine  religion  entirely  within 
the  limits  of  pure  reason  and  practical  volition, 
made  it  more  and  more  necessary  to  subject  the 
ideas  of  religion  and  i-evelation  to  a  deeper  re- 
search, and  place  the  whole  question  of  the  neces- 
sity, possibility,  and  reality  of  a  revelation  on 
an  entirely  new  basis.  The  name  "  apologetics  '' 
was  first  introduced  by  Planck,  Einleitung  in  die 
Theol.  Wissenschd/t,  1794;  but  for  a  long  time  the 
definition  of  this  new  science,  and  its  position  in 
the  theological  systeia,  continued  nncertain,  and 
a  matter  of  dispute.  Tzschirner  made  it  a  part 
of  historical  theology  ;  Planck,  of  exegetical  the- 
ology. The  first  attempts  at  a  positive  represen- 
tation are  also  somewhat  vacillating  in  their  gen- 
ei-al  character;  as,  for  instance,  P.  E.  Muller: 
Krittelig  Apoloijetik,  Copenhagen,  1810 ;  J.  S. 
Franke:  Entwurf  einer  Apologelik  d.  christl.  lielif/., 
1817;  Stein:  Apolotjetik  des  Christenthums  ids  Wis- 
senselidjl  diirt/estellt,  1824.  In  his  Knrze  Dtirs- 
tellunij  d.  theolog.  Studinms,  1810,  2d  edition, 
1830,  Schleiermacher  places  apologetics  in  the 
philosophical  division  of  the  theological  system  ; 
and  tills  was  the  (character  which  it  assumed  in 
the  hands  of  Sack,  1829,  Steudel,  18.30,  Von 
Drey,  1838,  Staudenmaier,  1810.  Dieriiiger,  1811, 
Fleck,  1847.  Its  relations  to  the  philosophy  and 
history  of  religion  were  unmistakable.  The 
philoso|)hy  of  religion  treats  of  the  idea  of  reli- 
gion, and  constructs  its  system,  without  any  refer- 
ence to  the  Christian  religion;  while  the  object 
of  apologetics  is  to  demonstrate  the  idea  of  Chris- 
tianity as  the  absolute  truth.  The  history  of 
religion  represents  all  religions  acconling  to  their 
own  profe.ssion,  without  any  partiality  ;  while  the 
object  of  apologetics  is  to  prove  the  absoluteness 
of  the  Christian  religion  from  the  insulficiency 
of  the  non-Christian  religions.  Not  so  clear, 
however,  is  the  ndatiou  between  apologetics  and 
dogmatics;  though  of  late  the  former  has  gi'ner- 
ally  been  treated  as  a  more  or  less  independent 
introduction  to  the  latter,  as,  for  instance',  by 
Delitz.sch,  Haumstark,  and  lObrard  [and  by  1.  A. 
DoK.VKit:  Si/stem  der  clirisllichcn  Glauhenslchre, 
Berlin,  1879,  vol.    i.J.     See,  besides  the  above- 


APOLOGETICS. 


113 


APOLOGETICS. 


Tneiitioned  works  on  apologetics,  Ilcubnei- :  Apn- 
lo/jrtit  in  Ersch  and  Grnber's  "  Encycl."  I.,  Sec- 
tion IV.,  451;  Tholuck :  VenimclUe  Srliri/h'n,  I., 
140;  Ilirzel:  Uber  die  chrlKtliche  Ap(ilo<i('lik;\MZ\ 
Zoekler:  Beweii  <les  Glauhens,  1807,  ]).  iS  et  sq. ; 
Sieffei't:  Apoloij.  Fumlameniirwuj  d.  rJirixlt.  (Jlau- 
l/enswisseiisc/iaft,  1871. 

IV.  Recent  Apoloijies.  —  The  criticism  of  tlie 
school  of  Tubingen,  the  works  of  Strauss,  Renan, 
and  others,  and  the  materialistic  tendency  of  the 
whole  course  of  modern  natural  philosophy,  com- 
bining into  one  general  attack  on  Christianity, 
have  in  our  time  called  forth  a  great  number  of 
.apologetical  works  of  every  description,  of  which 
we  shall  mention  the  most  prominent  Stium: 
Apologie  il.  C/iristenl/iums,  2d  ed.,  185G;  Uli.manx: 
Wesen  d.  CIinstenllium.%  4th  ed.,  1854  ;  IIu.vdks- 
HAGEN:  Der  Wee/  :u  Chrixln,  2d  ed.,  1854; 
Tholuck:  Gespmrhe,  1840,  1864;  Lurn.iunT : 
Apoloffet.  Vurtrilije,  8th  ed.,  1873;  and  Heihwnhr- 
heiten,  5th  ed.,  1882  [English  translations  of 
his  Lectures,  published  at  Edinburgh  ;  Sarinf/ 
Truths  of  Christianitii  (1868,  now  in  4th  ed.); 
Funtlaini iital  7VhM.<  (1869,  now  in  5th  ed.) ; 
Moral  Trutlis  (1873,  now  in  2d  ed.)];  Gess  and 
IliGGENB.\cH :  Apnloij.  Beitrdf/e,  I860;  Aubek- 
len:  Die  <]<)td.  Offenharunrj,  18(31,  1804;  DiJSTEit- 
DIECK  :  Apolog.  Dcitrdge,  1865;  Zezschwitz  : 
Apologie  d.  Christeiitums,  2d  ed.,  1866;  Held: 
Jesus  der  Christ,  1865;  Curisti.iei!  :  Aloilenie 
Zweifel,  2  ed.,  1870  [Modern  Doubt  and  Chris- 
tian Belief,  JST.Y.,  1874]  ;  Die  hesten  Methoden  d. 
Bekilmpfung  d.  mod.  Unglavbens,  3d  ed.,  1873 
[The  best  ]\Iethods  of  Counteracting  Modern  Infi- 
delity, N.Y.,  1874];  a,nA.  Apologet.  V(n-lruge,  1870; 
STErxMKYER:  Apologet.  Beitrdge,  I. -III.,  1871  [C. 
E.  Baumstark  :  Christliche  Apoloqetik,  Frank- 
fort, 1st  vol.  1872,  2d  vol.,  1879];  Van  Ooster- 
ZEE :  Kampf  nnd  Frieden,  1875;  IIettin'Ger  (Ro- 
man Catholic):  Lehrbuch  der  Fundamental-Theo- 
iogie,  1879.  [J.  H.  A.  Ebrard  :  Apologetik.  117.?- 
senschaftliche  Rechtferti(/(/.  d.  Christenthnms,  Giiter- 
sloh.  Vol.  I.  1874,  \'ol.  Tl.  1875  (important) ;  F.  A. 
M.  Weiss  (R.  C);  Apologie  des  Christenthnms  rom 
Slandpunkle  der  Sittenlehre,  Freiburg,  1878.  1879, 
2  vols.  A  very  rich  and  original  work  in  this 
line  is  Sand  Christendom  og  Cliristeiiilommens 
Sandh.ed,  "  True  Christianity  and  the  Truth  of 
Christianity,"  by  N.  F.  S.  (irundtvig,  Copenha- 
gen, 1800  (2d  edition).  Its  first  part  is  directed 
against  the  rationalism  of  the  first  half  of  this 
century;  the  second  powerfully  develops  the  office 
of  Christianity  in  the  history  of  mankind.]  — 
French  and  English  works  :  Fuayssinou.s  :  De- 
fense du  Christianisme,  IS'A;  Rougemoxt:  Christ 
et  ses  temoins,  1856 ;  G.\ussEX :  Le  cano7i  des 
Saintes  Ecritures,  1864;  Guizot;  Meditations 
sur  V essence  de  la  rel.  chret,  1864. — Erskine  : 
Remarks  on  the  Interned  Evidence  of  the  Truth  if 
Revealed  Religion,  1825;  Chalmers:  The  Evi- 
dence ai^d  Authority  of  the  Christian  Revelation,  1824; 
John  Pye  Smith:  Scripture  Testimony  to  the 
71/essto/i,  6th  ed. ;  Pearson:  On  Infidelity,  1863; 
Ph.  Schafk  ;  The  Person  of  Christ,  186.5,  revised 
ed.,  1880  (published  in  several  languages)  ;  Eid- 
don:  The  Divinity  of  Jes.  Christ.^l8Q7,  8th  ed., 
1880 ;  Fisher  :  Essays  on  the  Sujiernnturiil  Origin  if 
Christianity,  1870  ;  McCosii :  Christianity  ami  Posi- 
tivism, 1872;  Fakrar  :  Life  of  Christ  [London  and 
New  York,  1874, 2  vols.,  25th  edition,  1880 (twelve 
9-1 


eilitions  sold  the  first  year)];  McIlvai.xe  :  T) i\ 
Truth  <if  Christianity,  1874;  I'eaisODY  :  Cliristian- 
ity  and  Science,  1874. — Treating  special  points 
of  the  subject :  Ligiitkoot  ;  Supernatural  reli- 
gion, in  Cinitemjxirary  lievieic,  1875-76;  Ull- 
m.vnn:  Siindldsigkeit  jesu,  7th  ed.,  1803  [Sinless- 
)(('.«  o/'./('.vi(.v,  Edinburgh,  1870];  Tholuck:  Lehre 
V.  d'.  Siindc,  9th  ed.,  1871;  Kraus.s:  Lehre  y. 
d.  Offlig.,  1868;  Pressensi::  Jesus  Christ,  1806; 
[translated  4th  ed.,  revised,  London,  1871]; 
Va.n  ()(isrE-i7,KE  :  Das  Bild  Christi,  1864  ;  Godet: 
Die  Ileiligkeit  des  A.  T..  1809;  Fuller:  Das 
A.  T.  deui  Ziceifel  gegeniiber,  186!-;  IIkixzelkr  : 
Die  Anstijsse  in' it.  h.  Schrift.  ]8(M;  Kurtz:  Bibel 
and  Astronomic,  5th  ed.,  1865  [I'he  Bible  and 
.Islrononiy,  Phila.,  11.  d.];  KiinxEi!:  Nalurjorscli- 
nag  und  Kulturlelirn,  2d  ed.,  1864;  Zoi.LMAXX: 
Bibel  tind  A'atur.  3d  ed.,  1872;  Gart.vek  ;  Bibel 
und  Geoloqie,  1867  ;  Stutz  :  Der  alte  und  il.  neue 
Glaube,  1874;  Rkusch:  Bibel  und  Natur.  4th  ed., 
1876;  F.AisRi  :  Briefe  gegen  d.  Materialismus,  2d 
ed.,  1864;  Sch.mid:  Die  Darwinischen  Tlieorien, 
1876.  —  Periodicals  of  Apologetical  interest  " 
Christian  Evidence  Journal,  published  since  1870  by 
the  Christian  Evidence  Society,  London;  Der  BeiveiL 
lies  Glauhens,  published  since  1804  by  Zockler, 
Grau,  and  others.  TiiEonoK  cii'ltiaTLlEB. 

[In  addition  to  the  works  mentioned  by  Pro- 
fessor Dr.  Christlieb,  the  following  deserve  atten- 
tion: the  Bamplon  Lectures,  iinnted  London  and 
New  York,  especially  A.  S.  Farrar:  Critical 
History  of  Free  Thought  (1862);  J.  B.  JMozley: 
Eight  Leclu^-es  on  Miracles  (1865)  ;  C.  A.  Row : 
Christian  Evidences  Viewed  in  Relation  t>  Mcdern, 
Thought  (1877)  ;  Hexry  WaCE  :  The  Foundations 
of  Faith  (1879).  The  Hulsean  Lectures  (London), 
especially  F.  W.  F.^rrar;  The  Witness  of  /li.itonj 
to  Christ  (1870);  St.\xlk\'  Le.\thes  :  The  t  !os- 
pcl  its  invn  Witness  (\S7i)  ;  The  same:  The  Re- 
ligion of  the  Christ  (1876).  The  Boyle  Lectures. 
Independent  of  these  valuable  courses,  see  Hor- 
ace Bushxell:  Nature  and  the  .Supernatural 
(1858);  McCosH  :  The  Supernatural  in  Relation  tn 
the  Natural, 'S.Y.,  1862 ;  Emilie  Saisset  :  Mod- 
ern Pantheism,  Edinburgh,  1863,  2  vols.  ;  J.  P. 
Cooke:  Religion  and  Chemistry,  N.Y.,  1867,  2d 
ed.,  1880;  Albert  B.\rxes;  Lectures  on  the 
Evidences  of  Chri.'!tianily  in  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury, N.Y.,  1808;  Science  and  the  Gospel,  London, 
1870;  Aids  to  Faith,  by  several  authors,  N.Y., 
1870;  G.  P.  Flsher  ;  Supernatural  Origin  of 
Christianitii,  revised  ed.,  N.Y.,  1870.  Boston 
Lectures,  Ijoston,  1870,  1871,  1872.  B.  IIarri:^ 
CoWPER :  Popular  Lectures  on  the  Evidences  af 
Religion,  London,  1870;  Thom.^s  Cooper:  Tlie 
Bridge  'if  History  over  the  Gulf  of  Time,  London, 
1871.  jilodern  Unbelief.  Lectures,  edited  bj'  R'l'. 
Rev.  C.  J.  Elicott,  London,  n.  d.  Willi.\m 
Fr.aser:  Blending  Lights,  N.Y.,  1874.  God's 
Word  A  fan's  Light  and  I'iuide.  Lectures  by  differ- 
ent authors,  N.Y.,  n  d.  ;  J.  W.  Dawson;  Na- 
ture and  the  Bible,  N.Y.,  1875;  Tayler  Lewis  : 
Nature  and  the  .Scriptures.  N.Y.,  1875;  .Science 
and  Revelation,  Lectures.  Belfast,  1875;  Henry 
Rogers  :  The  Eclipse  of  Faith,  London,  1853 ;  Ram- 
sox  B.  Welch:  Faith  and  Modern  Thour/ht.  N.Y., 
1870;  R.  Flint:  Theism,  Edinburgh,  1877  ;  the 
same;  .Inlitheistic  Theories,  Edinburgh,  1878: 
E.  R.  Conder:  The  Ba.'iis  of  Faith,  London. 
1878,  2d  ed.,  1881;   Paul  Janet:   Final   Cause.'^ 


APOSTASY, 


114 


APOSTLE. 


Edinburgh;  Charles  AV.  Shields:  The  Final 
Pliih:so))l,ii.  N.Y.,  1878,  2d  ed.  revised;  B.  Mait- 
laxd:  Stcpn  to  Faith,  London,  1880;  AV.  M. 
Taylou  ;  The  Gti^pel  Miracles  in  their  Relatiim  tu 
Christ  and  Christianity,  X.Y.,  1880;  G.  Frederick 
■\VuiGnT:  The  Loijic  of  Christian  Eoidences,  And- 
over,  1880.  Cau'.xs  :  UnheUef  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  Edinburgh,  1881:  Caldekwood:  Science 
and  ReUfjion,  X.Y.,  1881.  See,  also,  Chrislianiti/ 
and  its  Antaynnisms  in  the  vol.  of  the  Evangelical 
Alliance,  X.Y.,  1874,  and  Revealed  Reliyiun  in  its 
Relation  to  Science  and  Philosophy  in  the  vol.  of 
the  Pre.sbyterian  Alliance,  Pliila.,  1881.] 

APOSTASY  (u-onraaia,  aposfasia,  '-revolt")  com- 
prised, wlien  the  doctrine  first  was  formed  in  tlie 
Churcli.  both  the  aposlasia  perfidice  (revolt  against 
tlie  faith),  tlie  aposlmia  inohedienliie  (revolt 
against  autliority)  and  the  aposlasia  irreyulari- 
talis  (revolt  against  tlie  rules).  A  precise  dis- 
tinction between  the  two  last  forms  of  apostasy 
was  never  established,  however ;  and  at  present 
the  apostasia  inohedindiie  is  identical  with  apos- 
lasia a  monachatu  (revolt  against  the  monastic 
vow),  and  tlie  aposlasia  irrefjidaritalis  witli  aposla- 
sia a  clericatu  (revolt,  against  the  clerical  vow). 
Neither  of  these  forms  is  possible  outside  of  the 
Roman-Catholic  Church ;  while  the  aposlasia  a  Jiile 
or  per/idiie  is  known  also  to  Protestant  clinrclies. 

Aposlasia  a  monachatu  takes  place  when  a  regu- 
lar member  of  an  ecclesiastical  order  leaves  his 
monastery  and  its  rules  without  due  permission 
from  his  superior,  and  returns  to  the  w'orld  either 
as  ecclesiastic  or  as  layman.  Apostasia  a  cleri- 
catu, wliich  can  be  committed  only  by  ecclesias- 
tics of  the  higher  grades,  is  an  unpermitted  re- 
turn to  the  world  of  some  such  ecclesiastic: 
apostates  of  this  kind  were  Talleyrand,  Rouge, 
etc.  Both  forms  of  apostasy  were  by  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon  belaid  with  anathema,  to  which 
later  ecclesiastical  legislation  has  added  loss  of 
all  privileges  of  order  and  estate,  excommunica- 
tion, and  infamy.  All  bisliops  were  required  to 
seize  and  imprison  criminals  of  this  kind  when 
found  in  their  dioceses.  Apostates  from  monas- 
tic vows  were  delivered  up  to  the  superior  of 
their  order,  to  be  punished  in  accordance  with  the 
peculiar  laws  ami  usages  of  the  order:  apostates 
from  the  ]iriesthood  were  detained  in  prison 
until  they  returned  to  obedience.  Neither  of 
these  forms  of  apostasy  is  punished  by  the  state. 

Aposlasia  a  Jide  means  secession  from  the 
Christian  congregation,  and  disowning  of  the 
name  of  Christ.  It  is  allied  to  lieresy  and  .schism, 
involves  both  tliese  crimes,  and  lias  always  been 
considered  a  higher  grade  of  tliem.  The  pas- 
sages of  Scripture  on  which  the  legal  treatment 
of  tliis  form  of  apostasy  is  based  are,  Ileb.  iii. 
V>,  vi.  4-9,  X.  1(1-29;  2  Pet.  ii.  15-21  ;  2  John  ix. 
11;  Luke  xii.  9.  In  the  ancient  church,  during 
the  epoch  of  jiersecution,  this  crime  was,  of 
course,  mucli  m<n'e  frerpiently  met  with  than  now  : 
but  the  ancient  churcli  mad(^  a  distinction,  and 
called  only  such  as  seceded  volunt;irily  apos- 
tates; while  those  who  fell  from  weakness,  or  were 
compelled  by  force,  were  classified  as  lihrllatici, 
sacri/icati,  Iradilores,  i!tc.  All  were  excommuni- 
cated; and  at  first  the  church  refused  to  grant 
alisolution,  either  altogetlwr,  or  till  the  liour  of 
death:  but  afterwards  this  severity  decreased, 
nnd  the  excommunicated  were  received  into  the 


church  once  more  on  condition  of  repentance  and 
penance.  This  is  still  the  actual  state  ot  the 
case.  The  decree  of  Boniface  VIII.,  identifying 
apostasy  to  Judaism  with  heresy,  lias  been  of 
special  importance,  us  it  has  been  extended  also 
to  other  cases  of  apostasy,  and  its  jirinciple  has 
been  adopted  by  the  state.  Apostates  to  Islam- 
ism,  the  so-called  renegades,  are  still  treated  by 
the  Roman  Church  from  this  point  of  view.  To 
apostates  to  modern  atheism,  however,  the  prin- 
ciple cannot  be  applied,  as  such  apostates  gener- 
ally make  no  public  confession,  which  is  necessary 
to  ])rove  the  crime. 

Under  the  first  Christian  emperors,  the  Roman 
state  considered  apostasy  as  a  civil  crime,  to  be 
punished  with  confiscation  of  propert.y,  loss  of 
TestinienliJ'actio,  inability  to  serve  as  a  witness, 
infamy,  etc. :  see  Tit.  Theodos.  Cod.  de  aposlal. 
(10,  7)  tit.  Just.  Cod.  ead.  (1,  7)  I.  1,  7.  Th.  C.  de 
Jwheis  (10,  8);  comp.  Plainer,  Qutest.  de  Jure 
Criiiiin.  Romano,  IMarburg,  1812,  jip.  205-267. 
During  the  middle  ages  the  Gerniau  Empire  had 
no  occasion  to  make  laws  against  apostasy :  it 
adopted  the  above-mentioned  ecclesiastical  view, 
and  considered  apostasy  a  qualified  heres}'.  The 
German  criminal  codes  of  the  early  middle  agfe8 
know  no  penalties  for  apostasy,  and  the  criminal 
code  of  Charles  V.  (1532)  abolished  also  the 
penalties  for  heresy. 

AV'ith  respect  to  the  Protestant  churches  it  is  in 
the  very  nature  of  the  idea  of  a  state-church, 
indeed,  of  a  church  in  gener.al,  that  it  cannot  re- 
main altogether  indifferent  to  apostasy.  It  must 
take  notice  of  the  fact  in  some  way  or  other; 
but  of  course  it  cannot  employ  the  aid  of  the 
state.  See  Linde  :  StaatsL-irche,  Geioissensfreiheit 
und  reliyiuse  Vereine,  Mainz,  1845,  p.  17;  Am- 
thor:  De  Apostasia  Liber  Sinyularis,  Coburg, 
1833;  Georg  Fe.jkr:  Jus  Ecclesice  Catholicce  ad- 
ccrsiis  Aposlatas,  Pest.,  1847.  MEJER. 

APOSTLE.  This  name,  "sent  of  God,"  was 
given  in  the  Old  Testament  to  the  organs  of  the 
divine  revelation  (Num.  xvi.  28;  Isa.  vi.  8;  Jer. 
xxvi.  5) ;  and  so  in  the  New  Testament,  not  only 
to  Jesus,  as  freipiently  in  .lohn  (of.  Ileb.  iii.  >), 
but  to  John  the  Baptist  (.John  i.  0),  and  to  those 
whom  Jesus  sent  furlh  (ef.  I,uke  xi.  4!)  ;  Matt, 
xxiii.  34,  37).  This  is  .surely  the  derivation  ot 
the  word  "apostle;"  and  that  it  came  into  such 
universal  and  early  use  is  good  evidence  that  it 
was  the  name  given  by  Jesus  to  the  Twelve 
(Luke  vi.  13).  To  the  apostles  Jesus  gave  a 
special  training.  They  were  particularly  to  be 
witnesses  of  his  resuriection.  Their  number 
was  twelve,  because  tliere  were  twelve  trilies,  and 
after  the  death  of  Judas,  the  disciples  filled  the 
break  by  an  election  (.Acts  i.  15  sq.)  Tlie  apos- 
tles made  their  nation's  c:ipital  the  centre  of 
their  work;  and,  as  the  church  grew,  they  je- 
mained  its  head,  and  staid  in  the  city  after  the 
di.sciples  were  disjieised  (Acts  viii.  1).  continu- 
ing, however,  when  necessary,  to  make  excursions 
into  the  neighborhood  (cf.  viii.  14  sq.,  ix.  32 
S(i.).  Their  number  received  the  addition  of 
anotlier,  Paul,  whose  call  to  the  aiiostolate  was 
precisely  as  good  as  theirs,  and  whom  they  even- 
tually recognized  as  every  way  fitted  to  work 
among  the  llncircumcisioii  as  they  were  among 
th(!  Circumcision  (.\cts  ix.  1;  (ial.  ii.  11  sqq.). 
The  different  sjiheres  of  hibur  being  thus  reeog- 


APOSTLES. 


115 


APOSTLES. 


nizeii,  there  was  no  clashing  and  no  jealousy. 
It  may  wpll  be  that  Paul  and  Peter  ctonld  not 
work  together  in  the  same  place ;  but  that  there 
was  a  dissension  between  them  is  unprovcn  and 
impnibable.  The  Tubingen  school  has  over- 
strained the  difference  between  the  two  leading 
apostles. 

Tradition  assigns  to  each  apostle  a  specific  ]iart 
of  the  then  known  world:  accordingly  there  is  a 
festival  of  "the  Disper  ion  of  the  Apostles," 
celebrated  .July  15;  hv'  there  is  no  proof  that 
this  was  the  case.  Tnis  much  is  true  :  Peter 
and  John,  as  is  proven  by  their  letters,  left  the 
centres  of  Judaism,  and  labored,  like  Paul,  amid 
heathen  populations,  and,  it  would  seem,  among 
the  heathens  themselves.  [The  signs  of  an 
apostle  were  (1)  Witness  of  the  Resurrection 
(Acts  i.  21,  22);  (2)  Commission  from  Clirist 
iiiniself  (Luke  vi.  li;  Gal.  i.  1);  (3)  Inspira- 
tion (.John  xvi.  13) ;  (4)  Miraculous  powers 
(.Acts  ii. -43;  lleb.  ii.  4).  The  word  "apostle" 
is  al.so  used  in  a  wider  sense  of  a  gospel  herald 
(2  Cor.  viii.  23;  Phil.  ii.  25).]        K.  SCHMIDT. 

APOSTLES'  CREED,  The  {Sijmbolum  Aposloli- 
rnm),  can,  in  its  present  form,  be  traced  back 
■with  certainty  to  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  or 
the  end  of  the  fifth  century.  The  text,  Latin 
and  Greek,  first  occurs  in  a  manuscript  from  the 
eighth  or  ninth  century  of  the  Psalterium  Gvvs- 
cnin  el  lionuinnm,  erroneously  ascribed  to  Gregory 
the  Great.  But  it  is  evident  from  the  pseudo- 
Augustinian  sermons,  that  this  very  text  was 
lused  in  the  churches  of  Gaul  about  the  year 
500.  As  now  no  trace  of  it  can  be  found  before 
this  time,  while  various  other  creeds  deviating 
more  or  less  from  it  can  be  proved  to  have  been 
in  common  use,  the  year  500  may  be  put  down 
approximatively  as  the  date  of  its  origin. 
Singular  it  is,  however,  that  a  formula  of  so  late 
a  date  should  have  obtained  the  epithet  ■'  apos- 
tolical ;  "  and  of  the  meaning  of  this  epithet 
there  can  be  no  doubt,  as  the  legend  telling  how 
the  apostles  made  the  creed,  by  adding  each  one 
separate  sentence,  is  contemjiorary  with  the 
creed  itself.  Hence  it  would  seem  probable 
that  there  must  have  been  in  the  Roman  Clmrch 
an  earlier  creed,  which,  when  sujjerseded  by 
what  is  now  knawn  as  the  Apostles'  Creed, 
transferred  its  dignity,  name,  and  legend  to 
its  successor.  And  so  there  was.  The  conjec- 
ture fits  the  known  facts.  Between  250  and 
4(J0  the  Church  of  Rome  used  a. shorter  symbol, 
or  creed,  which  was  held  in  the  highest  esteem, 
in  which  no  alterations  were  tolerated,  and  which 
was  considered  the  common  work  of  the  twelve 
apostles  brought  to  Rome  by  Peter.  The  Greek 
text  of  this  older  and  shorter  Roman  symbol 
first  occurs  in  Marcellus  of  Aucyra  (330-341), 
the  Latin  in  llufinus  (390).  It  must  be  noticed, 
that,  while  with  the  younger  and  longer  Roman 
symbol  the  Greek  version  evidently  is  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Latin,  in  the  older  and  shorter,  the 
Latin  is  certainly  a  translation  of  the  Greek. 
See  both  te.\ts  in  Schaff's  Creeds,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  47 
sq.  Ambro.sius  speaks  of  this  creed,  and  seems 
to  have  known  the  legend  of  its  origin  ;  though 
Rufinus,  who  wrote  later,  did  not  know  it.  Also 
J.'iome,  Ccelestine  I.  (422-431),  Sixtus  III.  (431- 
410),  and  Leo  I.  (440-461)  allude  to  the  apos- 
tolical origin  of  the  symbol ;  and  so  highly  did 


Ambrosius  prize  it,  that  he  ascribed  a  greater 
authority  to  it  than  to  any  work  of  any  single 
a|iostle.  The  questions  then  arise.  Whence  did 
this  older,  shorter,  Roman  symbol  come  V  and  in 
what  relation  did  it  stand  to  the  younger  and 
longer  V 

With  respect  to  the  first  ipiestion,  the  very  cir- 
cumstance that  the  Latin  version  is  a  translation 
of  the  (ireek  ptiinta  towards  an  Eastern  source; 
but  there  is  nothing  to  show  that  the  said  Greek 
text  ever  has  been  actually  used  by  any  Greek 
church.  Generally  there  is  a  great  difference 
between  the  creeds  of  the  Western  Church  and 
those  of  the  Eastern  Church,  both  internally  and 
externally.  All  the  creeds  of  the  Western  Church 
have,  if  not  their  root,  at  least  their  type,  in  the 
old,  short  Roman  .symbol.  They  have  all  an 
historical  character.  New  facts  are  added  in 
Slime  local  creed  to  make  the  symbol  more  fully 
representative  of  the  Christian  faith;  but  nothing 
pertaining  to  the  original  type  is  ever  left  out. 
The  Eastern  Church,  which  knew  nothing  of  a 
creed  made  by  the  apostles  themselves,  felt  more 
free  about  the  matter.  All  Oriental  creeds  are 
pre-eminently  dogmatical ;  and  changes  were  made 
simply  to  suit  circumstances,  for  polemical  pur- 
poses, in  order  to  crusft  dogmatical  heresies. 
Important  historical  facts  are  left  out,  and  anti- 
Gnostic,  anti-Monarchian.  anti-Arian  definitions 
take  their  place.  Thus  the  Oriental  creeds  are 
in  a  state  of  steady  transition  up  to  the  moment 
when  the  Nicseno-Constantinopolitan  Creed  is  es- 
tablished, and  a  rigid  conservatism  adopted. 
Nevertheless,  in  this  stream  of  shifting  shapes, 
the  presence  of  something  typical  is  very  strongly 
felt,  and  though  this  type  cannot  be  bodily 
caught,  and  palpably  traced  out,  its  resemblance 
to  the  old,  short  Roman  symbol,  cannot  be  mis- 
taken. But  at  this  point  all  further  demonstra- 
tion becomes  impossible.  The  common  source 
of  these  two  types  is  a  matter  of  pure  construc- 
tion. Only  it  may  be  asserted  that  the  starting- 
point  cannot  have  been  the  common  work  of  the 
twelve  apostles,  or  the  w'ork  of  any  single  apostle. 
In  that  case,  the  history  of  the  creeds  during  the 
second  and  third  centuries  would  have  been 
another  than  that  it  has  been. 

With  lespect  to  the  second  question,  it  seems 
probable  that  it  was  the  adoption  by  the  Church 
of  Rome  of  the  Nicteuo-Constantinopolitan  Creed 
which  mediated  the  transition  from  the  older  to 
the  younger  Roman  symbol.  The  rule  of  the 
Ostrogoths  in  Italy  brought  the  Church  of  Rome 
in  dangerous  proximity  to  xVrianism,  and,  in 
order  to  emphasize  its  attitude  with  respect  to 
this  heresy,  the  church  felt  compelled  to  adopt  a 
more  exjilicit,  so  to  speak  polemically  formed, 
symbol.  Then,  again,  when  this  necessity  ceased 
to  press  on  the  church,  and  a  return  to  a  simpler 
creed  became  possible,  the  old  symbol  had  grown 
dim  in  men's  memory;  while  the  new  stood  fresh 
and  vigorous,  recommending  itself  with  its  noble 
simplicity,  its  easy  completeness,  and  the  great 
favor  it  had  already  won  in  the  churches  of  Gaul. 

Lit.  —  Harvey:  History  and  Theology  of  the 
Three  Creeds,  Cambridge,  1854;  Nicolas:  Le 
Symhole  des  Apotres,  1807;  Caspari  :  Quellen  zur 
Geschichte  des  Taufsymhols,  Christiania,  1869 ; 
LfMUY:  The  Ilislvri/  of  the  Creeds,  Cambridge, 
1873,  2d  ed.,  1880;  Westcott:  Apostles'  Creed, 


APOSTOLIC. 


116 


APOSTOLICAL. 


Lundoii,  ISSo;   liAltox:   (Jicek  Oriijin  of  Ajioslles' 
Creeil.  Loinloii,  l'S"^o 

APOSTOLIC  BROTHERS,  or  APOSTOLICS, 
is  the  name  uf  a  sect  which  was  founded  in 
Upper  Italy,  in  tlie  latter  halt  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  by  Gerhard  Sagarelli,  a  native  of  Al- 
zano,  in  the  donunion  of  Parma.  It  arose  as  a 
natural  re-action  against  the  ostentatious  and 
vainglorious  splendor  of  the  Roman  Church,  and 
its  principal  tenet  was  a  literal  imitation  of  the 
life  and  apparel  of  the  first  followers  of  Christ. 
At  first  Sagarelli  made  only  a  very  slight  im- 
pression, and  found  only  very  few  adherents. 
But  the  interference  of  tlie  Bishop  of  Parma  (in 
1280),  the  decrees  of  Honorius  IV.  (in  12S0),  sup- 
pressing all  religious  associations  not  sanctioned 
by  the  pope,  the  ex-communication  of  Sagarelli 
by  the  synod  of  Wurzburg  (1"287)  finally  at- 
tracted attention  to  him.  The  number  of  his 
adherents  increased,  and  his  attacks  on  the 
worldliness  of  the  church  grew  bolder.  In  1204 
he  was  seized,  and  compelled  to  recant;  and  in 
1300  he  was  burnt  for  having  relapsed.  A  man 
of  much  greater  gifts,  Dolcino,  now  took  the 
lead  of  the  sect;  and  by  his  enthusiasm  and 
apocalyptical  prophecies  he  attracted  great 
numbers  of  followers.  Against  the  troops  which 
were  sent  to  arrest  him,  he  defended  himself  by 
force;  but  in  1307  he  was  defeated  and  burnt. 
Still  the  sect  did  not  yet  succumb.  In  1310  it 
was  condemned  by  a  synod  of  Treves;  in  1311 
it  appeared  in  the  neighborhood  of  .Spoleto,  in 
1320  in  Toulouse ;  in  13(58  it  was  condemned 
by  a  synod  of  Lavaur ;  and  in  1374  this  con- 
demnation was  repeated  by  a  synod  of  Xar- 
bonne.  In  France  and  Gernumy  the  sect  often 
united  with  the  Fratricelles  and   Beghards.     bee 

Dol.lI.Ml. 

APOSTOLICAL  CANONS.  Under  the  title 
Cnntini's  i/ui  ilicuitliir  Apuslolonnit,  an  appendix  is 
in  many  codices,  though  not  in  all,  added  to  the 
eiglith  book  of  the  Apostolical  Constitutions, 
giving  sometimes  fifty,  .sometimes  eighty-five, 
rules  concerning  ecclesiastical  discipline.  .\s 
far  as  their  contents  are  concerned,  these  rules 
have  been  drawn  partly  from  Holy  \Vrit  and 
the  tradition  of  the  cliurch,  |)artly  from  the 
decrees  of  the  synods  (.\ntioch,  Neo-Ca^sarea, 
Xiciea,  and  Laodiciea),  and  partly  from  the 
Apostolical  Constitutions,  a  letter  from  St.  I5asil 
(370),  etc.  The  author  of  tliis  collection  is  un- 
known. It  was  made  in  Syria,  and  jirobably 
gradually,  though  within  the  fifth  century,  as 
Dionysius  Kxiguus  incorporated  the  shorter  ver- 
sion in  his  collection,  and,  fifty  years  later  on, 
Johannes  .Scholasticus,  the  longer  one  in  his. 
The  Council  of  'i'rullo  (f)!)2),  which  repuiliated  the 
Ajrastolical  Constitutions,  recognized  the  .\pos- 
tolical  Canons,  and  after  that  time  they  always 
form  part  of  the  (ireek  collections  of  canon  law 
In  tlie  We.stern  Church,  only  the  first  fifty  canons, 
that  is  the  sliorter  version,  were  recognizi'd;  but 
to  the.se  tile  popes  often  apjieal  ;  .lolm  II.,  in  a 
letter  to  Cio.sarius  of  .Vrles;  Zacharias,  in  a  letter 
to  Pepin,  etc.  The  work  was  first  published  by 
Merlin,  I'aris,  1521,  but  after  that  time  often  in 
colleclioii.s  of  canon  law.  They  are  found  also 
in  L'eltzeii'.s  (.'i/riHliliilioiicx  A/'i/nliiliiii:  (1853),  )ip. 
236-253  (85  canons  in  Greek).  .See  the  article 
Apostolical  Canous,  in  b.MiTii  and  Cukktiiam  : 


Dictinnnrii  of  <  'lirislkin  .1  iillipiiliis  .   and  our  article, 
Apo.-iToi.icAi.  CoxsTi  1  r rioNs. 

APOSTOLICAL    CHURCH    DIRECTORY,     a 
collection  of  ]irescripts  and   instructions   belong- 
ing to  the  beginning  of  the  third  century,  and  ex- 
taut  in  several    Ethiopian    and    Arabian    manu- 
.scripts,  but  only  in  one  Greek.     In   many  points 
this  collection  presents  a  remarkal>le  conformity 
j  to  the  seventh  and  eighth  books  of  the    .\postoli- 
1  cal  Constitutions  and  to  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas; 
1  but  it  is.  nevertheless,  independent  of  both.      It 
I  consists  of  thirty-five  articles,  and  contains  moral 
I  instructions  ascribed  to  John,  and  ecclesiastical 
prescri|its    ascribed    to   the   other   apostles,    and 
treating  of  bishops,  elders,  deacon.s,  w'idows,  ;)ie 
duties    of    laymen,    and    the    question    whether 
women  should  be  allowed  an  active  particiiiati(.^- 
in  divine  service.     The  whole  ends  with  an  ad- 
monition by  Peter  to  follow  these    instructions. 
The   collection  was  first   published    in    a    Latin 
translation  of  the  Ethiopian  text  by  Iliob  Ludolf  ■ 
Coinmeiilarittx  in  Historidiii  .Ellilopicam.  The  (ireek 
text,  accompanied  by  a  German  translation,  haa 
been    given    by    Bickkli.   in    his    Geschichte    ilcs 
K'lrchi  nnrhU,  (iiesseii.  1813. 

APOSTOLICAL  CONSTITUTIONS  is  the 
name  of  a  collection  of  ecclesiastical  prescripts 
in  eight  books,  in  which  three  independent 
works  have  been  combined.  I.  The  first  six 
books  were  probably  origiiuilly  written  in  Greek, 
in  the  diocese  of  Ephesus.  They  give  in.  the 
loose  form  of  a  continuous  speech,  and  in  a  very 
diffuse  style,  a  multitude  of  doctrinal,  liturgical, 
and  moral  instructions.  The  author  is  unknown; 
but  he  has  evidently  drawn  from  the  longer  ver- 
sion of  the  Epistles  of  Ignatius.  The  Greek 
original  is  lost ;  but  a  Syrian  translation  is  still 
extant  in  several  manuscripts;  and  a  transci-ip- 
tion  of  the  work,  made  in  the  beginning  of  the 
third  century,  exists  in  Greek,  Arab,  Ethiopian, 
and  Coptic  versions.  II.  The  seventh  book 
treats  in  a  very  much  more  conci.se  style  of  the 
ditt'erent  paths  which  lead  to  life  or  to  death, 
and  —  to  judge  from  the  contents,  which  may  be 
characterized  as  a  transition  from  Sabellianism 
to  .Vrianisin  —  it  belongs  to  the  fourth  century, 
though  before  the  Council  of  Njca?a.  It  ends 
with  some  liturgical  rules  and  formularies. 
Chaps,  i.-xviii.  contorm  often  to  the  ICpistle  of 
Barnabas.  In  the  Orient  it  is  not  known.  III. 
The  eighth  book,  probably  originally  a  ritual  for 
bishops,  and  according  to  its  contents  ohler  than 
till!  Council  of  Nica^a,  is  found  in  various  collec- 
tions, both  Oriental  and  Greek.  The  style  is 
peculiar,  the  form  is  that  of  ordinances;  the 
apostles  command.  It,  too,  contains,  a  number  of 
liturgical  formularies.  Chap  iv.,on  Or<liiiation, 
bears  in  many  codices  the  special  title,  " 'l"he 
Constitutions  of  the  Holy  .Apostles  concerning 
Ordination  bv  Ilipiiolytus ; '"  and  also  other  col- 
lections of  apostolical  traditions,  I'^thiopiaii  and 
Arabian,  are  ascribed  to  this  man.  With  respect 
to  tlu^  work  as  a  whole,  it  is  noteworthy,  however, 
that  the  three  divisions  somi'times  give  three  con- 
tradictory instructions,  as,  for  instance,  on  the 
([ueslion'of  tithes  (ii.  25,  28;  vii.  21);  viii.  30). 

Th"  .\postolical  C<institutions  were  never  rec- 
ognized by  the  Western  Clinrcli,  and  were  hanlly 
known  in  Western  Europi;  before  tin'  si.xteeutli 
century.     In  the  Eastern  Church,  opinions  were 


APOSTOLIC. 


117 


APOSTOLIC. 


divided  about  the  wortii  and  disjiiity  of  the  work, 
until  the  Council  of  Trullo  ((i!VJ)  decided  the 
Cjuestion  by  rejecting  tlie  boolv.  It  was  first 
piiLilished  by  'l'iirri;uius  (Venice,  15(3;^);  after- 
\v;inl  by  Coteleriiis.  in  liis  l'alri:i  Aposlolici  (Paris, 
1G72),  and  by  Ult/.en,  Cdii.tlilnlioiii'.i  Apastolicre 
(Scliwerin  aiid  Uostook,  18.'):i),  De  Lagarde, 
Diildfcdlia  Aiio.it.  Si/rl(ici'  (Lips.,  18.51),  drwce 
(18(iJ).  'I'lie  Ethiopic  version  was  edited  and 
translated  into  English  liy  Thomas  Pell  Piatt 
(18:iJ);  the  Coptic,  by  Henry  Tattam  (1848), 
both  for  the  Oriental  Translation  Fund. 

Lit.  —  Dhkv:  iJhtr  (tie  Konslilutioncn  und 
KaiioDf-s  (I.  Aposl..  Tubingen,  18:52;  Bickell: 
Gesc/iiclilc  '/ex  Kirc/irnrrc/ils,  Giessen,  1843;  BuN- 
SF.x  :  Hijjpiili/liis  ami  /<«  .-liye,  London,  1852;  h\- 
<;.\i<I)K:  De  Indole  el  Orujine  Canonum  el  Cun- 
.itiiiilioniiin  Aposlolorum.  [Smith  and  Ciieetham: 
Divlionarji  of  Chrisliun  Aniiipidies,  Tol.  I.,  art. 
"  Apostolical  Constitutions."]  ME.JER. 

I  APOSTOLIC  COUNCIL  AT  JERUSALEM, 
/  AD  ■"It.  In  .\cts  XV.  there  is  an  account  of 
I  a  meeting  of  the  apostles  and  elders  to  decide 
'  whether  circumcision  and  the  Mosaic  law  were 
binding  upon  the  Gentile  converts.  The  occa- 
sion of  the  council  was  the  representation  of 
certain  men  who  came  down  to  .Vutioch  from 
•Jndiea,  that  it  was  necessary  to  salvation  to  be 
Vcircumeised.  The  question  arose  whether  this 
was  also  the  sentiment  of  the  parent  church  in 
Jerusalem.  If  so.  then,  the  practice  and  preach- 
ing of  Paul  and  Barnabas  flatly  contradicted  it, 
and  the  easiest  way  to  find  out  was  to  send  a 
delegation  to  Jerusalem,  wdio  sliould  confer  with 
die  brethren  there.  This  was  done.  By  com- 
aion  consent  this  council  is  the  most  important 
.u  the  entire  history  of  the  church,  and  therefore 
demands  special  consideration.  It  not  onl}'  fur- 
nished the  basis  for  the  evangelical  work  of 
the  early  church,  but  also  was  a  field  upon 
-  which  the  opposing  parties  could  meet.  Within 
this  century  it  has  ahso  been  the  target  for 
rationalistic  attack,  and  the  object  of  vigorous 
defence.  Thus  central  and  crucial  in  primitive 
times  and  to-day  has  been  the  first  council  of 
the  Christian  Church. 

1.  The  Cuuiicil  and  the  Speec/ie.i.  -^The  narra- 
tive informs  us  that  the  leaders,  and  the  great 
majority  of  the  congregation,  were  liberal  in 
their  views;  but  the  opposition  of  some  Phari- 
saical members  in  the  private  preliminary  meet- 
ing which  seems  to  have  been  held  (vers.  4,  5) 
was  so  vigorous  as  to  compel  the  apostles  to 
■jring  the  matter  before  the  whole  body ;  and 
thus  the  decree  had  the  full  force  of  the  sanction 
of  the  entire  church  (vers.  7,  22).  This  final 
unity  proves  that  the  Jerusalem  Church  was 
accustoraeil  to  the  view  Peter  held  to  in  his 
speech,  '•  We  believe  that  we  shall  be  saved 
through  the  grace  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  in  like 
manner  as  they"  (ver.  11).  The  men  who  had 
come  to  .\utioch  were  condemned  (ver.  24). 

The  chief  speakers  at  the  council  w-ere  repi'e- 
>pntative  men,  —  Peter,  the  apostle  to  the  circum- 
cision, but  cured  of  bigotry  ;  Paul,  the  apostle 
to  the  uncircumcisiou,  whom  a  miracle  had  con- 
vinced of  the  truth,  and  experience  had  taught 
how  to  apply  it ;  Barnabas,  the  companion  of 
Paul,  and,  under  his  influence,  a  representative 
of    the   great   body   of   the   present  clergy,   not 


investigatora,  but  happy  and  able  followers  ; 
James,  the  just  man,  walking  in  all  the  com- 
mandments and  ordinances  of  the  law  blameless. 
The  speeches  matched  the  character.s.  Peter 
(vers.  7-11)  fell  back  upon  his  experience  ten  or 
twelve  years  before  in  the  house  of  Cornelius, 
and  argued  from  that  premise,  that  inasmuch 
as  God  had  |uit  no  difference  between  .lew  and 
Gentile,  receiving  them  both  through  faith,  they 
(the  Jews)  could  not  refuse  them  (the  Gentiles) 
all  the  rites  of  their  religion,  or  tell  them  that 
circumcision  and  Mosaism  were  necessary  to 
salvation.  Paul  and  Barnabas  (ver.  12)  spoke 
of  the  attendance  of  miracles  upon  their  work. 
James  (vers.  13-21),  as  presiding  officer  and  head 
of  the  Jerusalem  Church,  authoritatively  summed 
up  the  debate.  He  showed  that  it  was  entirely 
in  accordance  with  prophecy,  that  the  "  lawless  " 
Gentiles  stood  near  the  Jews  in  the  church. 
.And  he  counselled  them  not  to  act  contrary  to 
the  declared  will  of  God,  who  knew  all  his  work  ; 
i.e.,  how  to  manage  the  world,  from  the  begin- 
ning, and  who  had  put  the  conversion  of  the 
Gentiles  into  his  plan.  On  the  contrary,  he 
advocated  following  the  plain  indications  of 
Providence,  and  ridding  the  Gentiles  of  any 
obligation  to  keep  the  law,  merely  calling  atten- 
tion to  certain  necessary  things.  The  counsel  of 
James  was  not  a  command,  and  yet  it  carried 
so  much  weight,  that  the  letter  which  the  coun- 
cil sent  to  the  Antiochian  Christians  by  two  dele- 
gates who  returned  with  Paul  and  Barnabas, 
followed  exactly  the  line  of  remark  and  prohibi- 
tion he  i^roposed,  and  probably  was  dictated  by 
him. 

2.  The  Letter  of  the  Conned.  —  The  following 
is  an  analysis  of  it.  The  salutation  showed  how 
the  several  cl.asses  in  the  council  were  consulted, 
and  had  agreed.  The  Jerusalem  Church  denied 
emphatically  that  the  causers  of  the  trouble 
were  authorized  to  speak  in  their  name,  or  that 
they  expressed  their  sentiments.  They  indorsed 
Barnabas  and  Paul,  and  sent  delegates  to  repeat 
their  commendation  orally.  They  claimed  the 
co-operation  of  the  Holy  .Spirit  in  the  decrees, 
as  in  the  general  tenor  of  their  remarks.  The 
i/ecree.i:  al)Stentiou  from  (1)  meats  offered  to 
idols;  (2)  blood;  (3)  things  strangled  (as  fowls 
and  other  animals  cauglit  in  snares)  ;  (4)  forni- 
cation. The  closing  salutation,  like  the  opening 
one,  was  (ireek,  not  Hebrew,  indicating  the  com- 
plexion of  the  council. 

The  decrees  deserve  more  detailed  study.  They 
are  most  likely  exactly  the  prohibitions  laid  upion 
so-called  Proselytes  of  the  Gate,  which,  according 
to  Jewish  tradition,  were  among  those  laid  upon 
Noah  and  his  descendants;  mark,  liefore  circum- 
cision, and  before  Moses.  We  find,  however, 
that  tliej'  are  contained  in  Lev.  xvii.  and  xviii. 
The  design  of  the  decrees  was  to  shut  off  all 
objectionable  heathen  customs,  so  that  the  Gen- 
tile Christians  might  escaj^e  defilement.  (1) 
The  first  prohibition  was  called  for  by  the  per- 
meation of  the  social  life  by  Paganism.  That 
p>art  of  the  .animal  which  was  not  burnt  as  a 
sacrifice  was  used  by  the  sacrificer  as  food,  or 
else  sold.  The  effect  of  the  prohibition  was, 
therefore,  to  debar  the  Gentile  believer  from  all 
festivities,  surely  from  all  feasting;  for  the  eat- 
ing of  such  idol-offered  food  was  universal.     (2) 


APOSTOLIC. 


118 


APOSTOLIC. 


"Blood"  was  forbidden,  because  "the  life  of  the 
flesh  is  ill  the  blood"  (Lev.  xvii.  11).  It  was  a 
very  coiiimou  article  of  food  auioug  the  an- 
cients. (3)  So  particular  were  the  Jews  in 
regard  to  the  slaj-ing  of  their  food,  that  they 
would  employ  only  a  Jewish  butclier ;  and  the 
same  spirit  is  shown  now.  Consequently  the 
council  laid  upon  the  Gentile  converts  a  similar 
obligation.  (4)  The  fourth  prohibition  was 
directed  against  that  sin.  which,  in  the  then 
heathen  world,  was  regarded  as  natural  and  per- 
missible, and  committed  without  shame.  It  is, 
however,  perhaps  probable  that  "fornication" 
in  this  passage  may  include  unlawful  marriages 
■within  the  forbidden  degrees  of  kindred  (Lev. 
xvii.  IS).  We  thus  see,  that,  although  the  coun- 
cil may  have  considered  its  decrees  very  moderate 
and  light,  yet  really  it  called  upon  the  Gentile  to 
live  a  different  style  of  life,  and  to  raise  matters 
of  perfect  inditference  into  matters  of  conscience. 
And  it  is  noteworthy  that  while,  in  regard  to  for- 
nication, the  present  Church  of  Christ  is  in  uni-son 
with  the  Primitive  Church,  in  regard  to  the  other 
decrees  the  Eastern  or  Greek  Church  in  the  sec- 
ond TruUan  Council  (092)  re-enacted  the  law 
against  eating  blood  and  things  strangled,  and 
still  retains  it ;  but  the  Latin  Church  very  properly 
has  graduall}'  let  this  prohibition  drop.  The 
decrees  found  a  ready  reception,  and  exerted  a 
great  influence  (cf.  xv.  31,  xvi.  4,  xxi.  25).  They 
established  a  code  of  manners  wliicli  protected 
the  weak  Christian,  and  distinguished  all  believ- 
ers from  the  lieathen. 

3.  Till:  liffi-cin  of  the  CiiuncU.  — The  immediate 
effect  was  to  greatly  cheer  the  Gentile  converts. 
They  breathed  more  freely.  The  Judaizers  were 
similarly  depressed.  But  the  council  did  not 
settle  all  points;  for  it  yet  left  open  to  a  Jewish 
Christian  to  put  aside  his  Mosaism,  while  at  the 
same  time  James  and  others  were  in  favor  of  re- 
taining it.  Consequently  the  liberal  Jew  could 
(piote  the  spirit  of  the  letter;  the  strict  Jew,  the 
text  of  it.  Peter  in  .\ntioch  acted  not  so  much 
with  the  decrees  of  the  council  as  with  himsi'lf, 
his  speech  and  behavior.  Wo  can  trace  the  in- 
fluence of  the  first  and  greatest  of  the  church 
councils  in  the  liealfhier  tone,  and  greater  moral 
earm-stness,  with  which,  in  the  First  Kpi.stle  to 
the  Corinthians  (v.,  vi.  S-lO)  and  in  the  Apoca- 
lyp.se  (ii.  14,  20).  fornication  and  idolatry  are 
spoken  of;  and  the  sentiments  therein  expressed 
are  evidently  not  unusual,  but  the  voice  of  the 
church.  In  regard  to  the  eating  of  blood,  the 
inforniation  is  slight;  but  it  can  be  said,  that,  in 
the  si'cond  half  of  tlie  second  century,  it  was  ab- 
iiorred  in  the  church.  .See  Tertnllian,  Ajioloi/i-lird 
c.  !);   Clemi-nl.  Hum.  VII.  4,8;  Rico>/n.  IV.'M. 

There  luis  lieen  a  suspicion  that  the  .Vets  vin- 
dicated an  altogether  too  prominent  position  for 
the  Jerusalem  Church  in  the  council.  But  ex- 
amination shows  that  there  was  no  authority 
exerted  upon  the  (Jentih;  converts  wliieh  did  not 
coincide  with  their  convictions.  So  Paul  could 
heartily  defend  the  position  there  taken. 

4.  X/ie  Arcouiif.s  fj'wini  in  Arts  sv.  ami  Gul,  ii. 
1-10.  —  An  event  of  so  much  importance,  we 
should  expect,  would  be  mentioned  again  in  the 
New  Testament  ;  and,  indeed,  a  reference  (dis- 
puted) iiiis  beni  fouml  in  Paul's  lOpistle  to  the 
Galatians  (ii.  1-10).     liul  there  are  evident  dif- 1 


ferences,  although  they  can  be  reconciled.  The 
points  of  dissimilarity  are,  (1)  The  visit  to 
Jerusalem  is  the  third  mentioned  in  the  Acts, 
after  Saul's  conversion ;  in  Galatians  it  is  appar- 
ently the  second.  (2)  The  .-Vets  I'elate  a  public 
meeting  of  the  entire  church.  Galatians  refers 
to  a  private  meeting  between  Paul  and  the  prin- 
cipal (■'  pillar  ")  apostles  ;  but  he  hints  also  at  a 
juiblic  meeting,  when  he  says  that  he  laid  his 
Gospel  before  the  brethren  of  Jerusalem,  i.e., 
the  entire  congregation,  and  also  "'  privately,"  or 
apart,  before  the  pillar-apostles.  (3)  The  coun- 
cil in  Jerusalem  was  summoned  at  the  request 
of  the  .Vntiochian  Church.  Paul,  in  Galatians, 
says  he  went  up  by  '■  revelation."  (4)  In  Gala- 
tians the  circumcision  (V)  of  Titus  is  mentioned: 
there  is  nothing  said  about  it  in  the  Acts.  (5) 
The  .\cts  give  the  text  of  a  letter;  there  is  no 
reference  to  it  in  Galatians. — actions  rather  than 
words  are  mentioned,  —  and  the  only  exhortation 
given  was  "to  remember  the  j)Oor." 

In  view  of  these  dissimilarities  it  has  been 
common  with  "  liberal  "  theologians,  especially  of  ] 
the  "Baur"  school,  to  throw  discredit  upon  the  ,' 
fifteenth  chapter  of  Acts,  to  regard  it  as  written  to 
reconcile  the  Petrine  and  Pauline  parties,  but 
not  as  history.  But  this  view  is  being  aban-  i 
doned,  at  least  in  part,  even  by  liberal  critics,  as 
Weizsiicker,  Keim,  and  Schenkel.  who  have  come 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  difference  between 
Peter  and  Paul  was  not  nearly  as  great  as  Haur 
had  represented  it.  Schenkel  confesses  himself 
now  convinced  that  the  .\cts  is  contemporary  and 
reliable  (Das  Clirixtusbilil  der  Aposlal,  Leipzig, 
1879,  p.  xi.).  Keim  {Ann  dem  Urckri.ilevtlium, 
Zurich,  1S7S,  p.  89)  says,  that,  although  the  hook 
is  defective,  it  yet  supplements  Paul,  and  tells 
the  story  of  active  and  synqiathetic  co-operation 
with  Paul.  A  closer  study  of  the  two  pass;iges 
serves  to  bring  out  their  harmony,  and  does  away 
with  the  necessity  of  Paley's  suggestion  that  in 
(Jalatians  we  liave  mention  of  a  visit  to  Jerusa- 
lem, not  elsewhi're  recorded.  1.  There  are  five 
visits  of  Paul  to  Jerusalem  nn'iitioued  in  the 
Acts.  In  identifying  that  of  Galatians  (ii.  1-10), 
the  first  (ix.  2(i)  and  the  last  (xxi.  1.))  must 
evidently  be  left  out;  but  the  second  (xi.  30.  xii. 
2."))  and  the  fourth  (xviii.  22)  have  foimd  advo- 
cates. But  against  the  first  ideMtificatiou  "there 
are  the  facts  (1)  that  it  is  not  easy  to  pKice  four- 
teen years  between  the  visit  of  chap.  ix.  27.  and 
and  that  of  chap.  xi.  30;  (2)  the  visit  of  chap, 
xi.  30  appears  in  the  history  as  confined  to  the 
single  object  of  carrying  relief  to  the  suffering 
poor  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem  ;  (3)  the  cpu'stion 
as  to  enforcing  circunu'ision  had  not  then  'been 
raised  after  it.?  ajiparent  .settlement  in  l.lie  case 
of  Ccn'uelins;  (1)  had  tin'  agreement  referred  to 
in  Galatians  (ii.  9)  preceded  the  council,  it  would 
assm'edly  have  been  ajipealed  to  in  the  course  of 
the  debate  at  the  council.  Against  the  second 
there  are  the  facts  (1)  that  the  interval  would  in 
that  case  liave  been  more  than  fourteen  years; 
and  (2)  that  it  was  not  likely  that  the  question 
shduld  have  been  rai.sed  again  after  the  decision 
of  the  council  "  (Plumptri!  on  .\cts  xv.  2,  in  15p. 
miicott's  Nor  'rfstiimiiit  Ci)miiH'i)liiri/  for  ICni/lisf, 
lieiiih'i.i).  We  decide,  therefore,  that  the  attend- 
ance of  Paul  on  the  council  was  his  third  visit. 
Paul  iloes  not  say,  "I  went  u[)  the  secontl  time," 


APOSTOLIC. 


119 


APOSTOLIC. 


but  "I  went  up  apain."  The  absence  of  refer- 
once  to  it  ill  (Jalatians  is  explaiiicil  liy  the  fact 
that  there  he  is  statiiisj  how  much  intercourse  he 
li.ail  had  with  the  cliief  aposth'S,  and  as,  on  tills 
visit,  he  prohal)ly  did  not  see  them,  he  omits  all 
mention  of  it.  Hence  tliere  is  no  cliscre]iancy 
between  Acts  xv.  and  Gal.  ii.  in  rei,','ird  to  time. 
Nor  is  there  any  insuperable  difficulty  in  regard 
to  the  contents  of  the  two  accounts.  (1)  In  both, 
the  matters  of  consultation  are  circumcision  and 
the  Mosaic  law;  and  the  origin  of  the  consultation 
was  in  each  case  the  effort  of  the  Judaizers.  (2) 
In  both,  the  practice  of  the  apostle  was  confirmed. 
(3)  In  both,  Peter  appears  as  the  equal  of  Paul. 
(I)  In  both,  the  Pauline  principles  are  trium- 
jihaiit.  (5)  It  was  evidently  impossible  for  Paul 
to  carry  on  his  argument  for  his  apostolic  posi- 
tion, and  yet  be  silent  about  this  most  important 
council;  for  it  was  in  it  that  his  claim  was 
fullest  recognized.  Further,  that  Paul  ascribes 
his  journey  to  revelation  proves  the  coincidence 
between  outward  events  and  the  Spirit's  action. 
The  Antiocliian  Church  sent  him;  but  God 
prompted  him  to  go.  Paul  deals  with  the  pri- 
vate, inner  history  of  the  council ;  the  .Vets,  with 
the  public.  Hence  the  Acts  are  silent  about 
Titus,  as  they  are  about  the  giving  to  Paul  of 
the  right  hand  of  fellowship. 

5.  The  Aposlotic  Council  at  Jerumlem  and  Church 
Gorernnient.  —  Each  form,  Episcopal,  Presbyte- 
rial,  Congregational,  appeals  to  this  council  for 
support.  But,  while  it  may  be  freely  granted 
that  there  was  some  particular  order  then  used,  it 
does  not  follow  that  the  order  was  of  binding 
force.  As  far  as  we  can  gather,  there  were  regu- 
larly appointed  delegates  from  .^ntioch,  a  called 
meeting  of  the  apostles  and  eldei's,  a  further 
meeting  of  the  church,  a  presiding  officer  (James, 
nol  Peter),  and  a  letter,  which  was  official  in  the 
sense  that  it  received  the  indorsement  of  the 
Jerusalem  Church.  This  letter  contained  direc- 
tions which  were  thought  to  be  in-spired.  It  is 
easy  to  see  elements  of  the  thi-ee  great  methods 
of  church  government  in  such  a  council,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  be  able  to  prove  that  no  one 
method  is  entirely  favored  by  it.  About  the 
only  things  it  does  prove  are,  that  there  was 
no  supremacy  of  Peter,  that  it  was  considered  a 
good  thing  to  refer  perplexing  questions  to  the 
mother-church,  and  that  in  the  council  all  — apos- 
'tles,  elders,  and  brethren  —  took  part.  Not,  there- 
fore, as  furnishing  a  norm,  but  as  demonstrating 
the  essential  unity  of  the  church,  is  the  council 
a'delighful  feature  of  the  primitive-church  his- 
tory. Its  so-called  -'decrees"  have  p.assed  out  of 
sight  as  the  division  of  the  church  into  circum- 
cised and  uncircumcised  converts  ceased;  but 
the  yoke  of  Mosaisni  it  broke  has  never  been  re- 
made. 

Lit.  —  Besides  the  books  already  incidentally 
mentioned,  see  the  special  thesis,  K.  Schmidt: 
De  aposlolornm  decreti  sententia  el  consiliu,  Erlang- 
en,  1874 ;  and  the  article  by  the  same  in  Hkkzog  : 
Real-encykhpddie  s.  v.  "  Apostel  Konvent",  vol.  1 ; 
ScHAFF  :  History  of  (lie  Apostolic  Church,  pp.  21.5- 
257 ;  Bishop  Lightfoot's  Excursus,  "  iV.  Paul 
and  the  Three  "  in  his  Commentary  on  Galatians ; 
Canon  V aixiwk's  Life  of  Paul ;  Karl  Wie.seler: 
Zur  Geschichte  d.  Neutestamentliclien  Schrift  u.  d. 
Urchristenthunis,    Leipzig,    1880;    and   the    latest 


discussion  and  literature  in  Dr.  .Schaff's  Church 
Ifislon/,  vol.  1,  revised  edition,  1882,  pp.  ;5;50 
sqq.     '  S.\MUEL  M.  .TACKSO.N'. 

APOSTOLIC  FATHERS  (Patres  Apnstolici),  a 
term  a|>pliiMl  in  a  wider  sense  to  all  immeiliate 
jiupils  of  tliH  apostles,  and  in  a  nam  wcrsi'iise  to 
those  only  who  have  left  written  trstinionies. 
They  fall  into  two  groups;  namely,  disci]i!fs  of 
Paul,  Bauxahas,  Ci.kmicxs  Uoma.nts,  aii(I  IIeu- 
.mas;  and  disciples  of  John,  Ignatius,  Poi.y- 
CAHI-,  and  Papias.  Diony.sius  Aueopagita 
(see  title),  who  is  sometimes  also  reckoned  among 
the  Apostolic  Fathers  as  a  convert  of  Paul,  be- 
longs to  a  much  later  age.  The  .\postolic  Fathers 
are  valuable  for  the  contrast  they  present  to  the 
New-Testament  writers.  They  move  in  the  ele- 
ment of  living  tradition,  and  make  reference  to 
the  oral  preaching  of  the  apostles;  but  by  their 
language  they  plainly  show  that  the  difference 
between  them  and  the  apostles  is  one  of  kind,  not 
of  degree.  Tlie  pious,  and  in  tlie  main  excellent 
Clemens  Romanus,  Ignatius,  with  his  morbid, 
feverish  longing  after  martyrdom.  Polycarp.  with 
his  remarkable  echoes  of  tlie  New  Testament, 
Barnabas,  allegorical  and  tedious.  Hernias,  inge- 
nious though  strained,  not  to  mention  the  others, 
—  these  are  a  great  contrast  to  Paul,  Peter,  John, 
James,  Jude,  and  the  evangelists.  That  the  Apos- 
tolic Fatliers  were  truly  pious  men,  that  they  had 
learned  much  about  Christ,  does  not  free  them 
from  the  charge  of  mediocrity,  and  starts  the  in- 
quiry, Did  they  differ  from  the  New-Te.stainent 
writers  simply  as  talent  differs  from  genius,  or 
did  they  differ  as  uninspirefl  from  inspired  men? 
The  unprejudiced  judgment  leads  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  tlie  New  Testament  came  from  God  ; 
the  Pdlriun  Apostolicoruni  Opera,  from  men.  .See 
separate  articles  on  the  writers  mentioneil. 

Lit.  —  Eilitions.  The  best  editions  of  this 
whole  body  of  literature  are  those  by  J.  B.  Cote- 
i.EKius,  Paris,  1672,  which  was  the  first  col- 
lection re-edited  with  notes  by  J.  Ci.kricus  (Le 
Clerc),  Antwerp,  1098,  2d  ed.,  1724;  RiciiAiti) 
RussKL,  London,  1746;  GuiL.  Jacobso.v,  0.x- 
ford,  18:58,  4th  ed.,  1863;  C.  J.  Hkfei.e,  Tubin- 
gen, 1839,  5th  ed.  by  Fa.NK,  1878;  Dressel.  Leip- 
zig, 1857,  3d  ed.  by  Gebhardt,  IIak.vack.  and 
Zaun,  1876.  The  last  edition  is  the  best  and 
fullest.  Lightfoot's  promised  edition.  ,so  far, 
embraces  Clcmenl  of  Rome,  London,  1869-77,  2 
parts  (containing  Bryennios'  recovered  portions  of 
Clement's  Epistles),  Ignatius  and  Pob/carp,  1885,  2 
vols.  —  Translations.  There  are  good  translations 
of  the  Apostolic  Fathers  by  .\rcliliisliop  \V.\ke, 
London,  1693,  often  reprinted,  latest  edition,  care- 
fully revised,  Oxford,  1861;  by  Rdhkrts,  Do.\- 
Ai.Dso.v,  and  Cuombie  as  vol.  I.  of  tlie  •' .A.nte- 
Nicene  Christian  Library,"  Edinburgh,  1887; 
and  by  C.  II.  Hoole,  London,  1^72.  X  good 
German  translation  is  that  of  H.  Scholz,  Guter- 
sloh,  1865.  —  Dissertations.  Besides  the  Prolego- 
mena to  the  editions  named  above  see  Mohler 
(R.  C):  Palrolof/ie,  ed.  Reitmayr,  Mainz,  1840; 
A.  Schweolek:  Das  nacliapostolische  Zeitalter, 
Tubingen,  1846  (full  of  untenable  hypotheses); 
Reuss  :  Hist,  de  la  theol.  chret.  au  sibcle  ajiostoi., 
Strassburg,  1852,  3d  ed.,  1864,  English  transla- 
tion, Edin.,  1872;  A.  IIilgenfeld:  Die  apos- 
totischen  Vdler,  Halle,  1853  ;  Lechler  :  Das  apoS' 
tolische  und  nacliapostolische  Zeitalter,  3d  ed  ,  Karls- 


APOSTOLIC. 


120 


APSE. 


nihe,  1885;  Donaldson:  A  Critical  History  of 
Christirtn  Literature  and  Doctrine,  from  the  Death  of 
the  Apostles  to  the  Council  of  jS^ice.  London,  1864- 
06.3  vols.;  The  same:  The  Apostolical  Fathers; 
a  critical  account  of  their  genuine  writings,  and  of 
their  doctrines,  London,  187-1 ;  Alzoq  :  Grunilriss 
der  Patrologie,  Freilniis;  im  Breisgau,  1860,  3d 
ed.,  1876  ;  Sphix/i.  (R.  C.)  :  Die  Theologic  der 
ap'iftollschin  Viilir,  Wien,  1880. 

APOSTOLIC  KING,  an  honorary  title  of  the 
kings  of  Hungary,  given  originally  to  Stephen, 
the  first  Christian  King  of  Hungary,  by  Pope 
Silvester  H.  (999-1003).  on  account 'of  liis  zeal 
for  the  jiropagation  of  the  faith ;  renewed  and 
confirmed  to  Slaria  Theresa,  for  the  .Xnstro-Hun- 
garian  royal  family,  by  a  brief  of  Clemens  XHL, 
Aug.  25,  1758 ;  abolished  in  1818,  but  resumed 
in  is.')-.'. 

APOTACTICI  (Renuntiants),  also  called  Apos- 
tolici,  an  ascetic  sect  which  arose  in  Phrygia, 
C'ilicia,  and  Pamphylia  in  the  third  century,  and 
held  tenets  similar  to  those  of  the  Encratites, 
Marcionites,  etc.  They  renounced  marriage, 
private  property,  etc.,  and  pretended  to  follow 
apostolical  advice  on  these  points. 

APPEALS  to  the  pope,  in  his  quality  of  primate 
of  the  Konum-Catholic  Church,  were  not  formally 
recognized  as  a  legal  instrument  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  justices,  until  the  j-ear  of  343,  by  the 
Council  of  Sardica.  It  was  there  agreed  that  a 
bishop  who  had  been  condemned  by  a  synod 
had  a  right  to  appeal  to  the  Roman  patriarch, 
who,  in  such  a  ca.se,  should  either  confirm  the 
verdict,  or  .appoint  new  judges.  In  the  course  of 
half  a  century,  this  decree  of  the  council  grew, 
in  Rome,  into  the  assumption,  that,  in  all  impor- 
tant cases,  an  appeal  from  the  verdict  of  a  bishop 
could  be  made  to  the  popie,  not  only  by  another 
bishop,  but  by  any  one  aggrieved;  and  this  view 
was  not  only  repeated,  but  even  carried  further, 
by  the  Psendo-Isidorean  decretals.  Tliey  state, 
that  not  only  can  all  cases  be  brought  before  the 
papal  court  by  bishops,  but  causa:  majores  cannot 
be  decided  in  any  other  court;  tliat  not  only  can 
appeals  to  the  pope  be  made  by  bishops,  and  in 
caiwis  majorihus,  but  by  any  one  aggrieved,  and  in 
any  kind  of  c:isps,  etc.  In  the  twelfth  century, 
when  the  pope  had  arrogated  the  right  to  decide, 
immediately  or  through  liis  leg;ites,  in  all  cases 
arising  under  tin;  episco])al  courts,  it  became 
generally'  miderstooii  that  .an  appeal  could  be 
made  even  from  the  .secular  courts  to  the  church, 
that  is,  finally  to  the  Roman  c\iria  :  and,  thougli 
Alexander  III.  acknowledged  th.at  such  an  apjieal 
was  not  strictly  according  to  rule,  Innocent  HI. 
declared  that  it  was  the  duty  of  the  church  to 
fight  against  every  kind  of  sin,  conseiiucntly,  also, 
against  the  lack  of  justice  in  tiie  secular  courts. 
From  this  time,  ajjpeals  to  the  pope  became 
more  and  more  fre<juent;  and  the  part  they 
jilayed  in  Rome  is  very  vividly  de.scribed  by  Ber- 
nard of  Clairveaux  in  his  l)e  Coiisideratione. 

The  first  instance  in  Kiigland  of  an  appeal  to 
Rome  occurred  in  the  time  of  King  .Stejihen,  in 
the  ca.se  of  Henry  of  Hlois,  Hishop  of  Winches- 
ter;  and  although  the  Constitutions  of  Claren- 
d(jn  decliirerl,  "  If  appeals  arise,  they  ought  to 
proceed  from  the  archdejieon  to  the  bishop,  from 
the  bishop  to  the  archbi.Hhoi),  and,  lastly,  to  the 
king  (if  the  archbishop  fail  in  doing  justice),  so 


that  the  controversy  be  ended  in  the  archbishop's 
court  by  a  precept  from  the  king,  and  so  that  it 
go  no  further  without  the  king's  consent,"  and 
similar  prohibitions  were  enforced  now  and  then, 
.appeals  to  Rome  continued  to  occur  until  the 
time  of  Henry  VIII.  In  Germany  the  first  re- 
action .against  this  papal  usurpation  appeared  in 
the  •■  Golden  Hull,"  which  forbade  appeals  to 
Rome  from  a  civil  court.  Nest  the  Concordatum 
Constant  of  1418,  .and  the  decree  of  the  tliirty-first 
sitting  of  the  Council  of  Basel,  determined"  that 
appeals  to  the  pope  should  not  be  decided  in 
Rome  by  the  curia,  but  hyjuilices  inparlilius.  chosen 
first  by  the  provincial  or  diocesan  .synods,  and 
afterwards,  when  this  in.stitution  had  fallen  into 
decay,  by  the  bishops  and  cliapters.  This  was  a 
de.ath-blow  to  the  appeals  to  the  pope:  and  even 
before  the  reforms  of  Joseph  II..  all  German 
governments,  Roman-Catholic  as  well  as  Protes- 
tant, had  forbidden  such  appeals. 

Appeals  from  the  pope  to  a  geneial  council 
were  forbidden  by  Pius  II.  by  a  bull  of  Jan.  18, 
1459  "  "  ME.TER. 

APPELLANTS  is  the  name  of  that  party, 
which,  in  the  controversy  between  the  Jansenists 
,and  the  Jesuits,  rejected  the  bull  I'nii/enitus,  and 
appealed  to  .a  general  council.     See  J.-vxsknism. 

APPLETON,  Jesse,  b.  at  New  Ipswich,  N.H., 
Nov.  17.  177-  ;  d.  at  Brunswick,  Me..  Nov.  12, 
1819;  was  graduated  from  Dartmouth  College  in 
1792,  and  chosen  president  of  Bowdoin  College 
in  1807.  The  Worlcs  of  Jesse  Apjiltinn,  consist- 
ing of  sermons,  lectures,  etc.,  were  published  at 
Andover  in  2  vols.,  in  1836,  with  memoir. 

APPROBATION  OF  BOOKS  is  a  measure 
which  the  Roman-Catholic  Church  employs,  in 
connection  with  the  censure,  in  order  to  direct 
the  course  of  literature  in  the  interest  of  pure 
doctrines.  The  fifth  council  of  the  Laterau 
(1512)  decided,  that,  under  penalty  of  a  fine  or 
of  ex-communication,  no  theological  book  should 
be  published  without  having  pi-eviously  obtained 
the  approbation  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  in 
which  it  was  destined  to  appear;  and  this  decis- 
ion was  incorporated  with  the  decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  (Trident,  ress.  4).  It  is  still 
valid,  and,  for  regular  members  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical orders,  it  is  further  extended,  so  that  not 
only  theological  works,  but  any  kind  of  literary 
productions,  must  have  the  ap))rob;ition  of  the 
supericM'  before  they  can  be  published.  The  Prot- 
estant churches  havi>  no  institutions  of  the  kind; 
though  in  earlier  times,  when  the  censure  was  in 
use,  the  censorship  for  theological  books  was 
often  vested  in  the  consistory  of  the  Kstablished 
("hurch. 

APSE,  or  APSIS,  the  semicircular  or  semi- 
octagonal  enclosure  with  which  the  choir  of 
the  Christian  church  generally  terminates.  The 
ground-iilan  of  this  enclosure  is  an  .arc,  on  the 
chord  of  which  the  altar  is  raised,  while  the 
bisho|)'s  throne  is  placed  in  the  centre,  up 
against  the  wall,  with  rows  of  benches  for  the 
clergy  on  both  sides,  .sometimes  one  row  above 
the  other  (apsiiles  i;r<idat<r).  In  the  Roman  /«i- 
silica,  or  hall  of  justice,  which  in  unmerous  cases 
was  actually  turned  into  a  Christian  church  with 
vi'ry  slight  inodilications,  while  its  gronnd-i>lan 
forniecl  the  st:irling-point  for  all  Christian  church 
architecture,  the  exterior  form  of   the   building 


AQUAVIVA. 


121 


AQUILEIA. 


■was  perfectly  rectangular;  and  the  apse,  with  its 
■seats  for  the  magistrate  and  the  officers  of  the 
court,  was  formed  internally.  There  are  still 
■churches  extant  on  this  plan,  and  they  are  the 
■oldest ;  such  as  the  Sta.  Croce  in  Gerusalemme 
in  Rome,  and  several  others  in  Africa  and  Asia 
Minor,  all  from  the  third  century.  In  churches 
from  the  fifth  century,  such  as  St.  Apollinare 
in  Classe  at  Ravenna,  etc.,  the  apse  has  gen- 
erally become  visible  also  in  the  exterior  form ; 
and  not  only  the  choir,  but  also  the  aisles,  termi- 
nate in  apses.  In  St.  Sophia  in  Constantinople, 
and  in  churches  built  after  that  model,  also  the 
transepts  are  provided  with  apses ;  and,  in  some 
few  ca.ses  in  Germany,  the  choir  has  apses  at 
both  ends,  such  as  the  Church  of  Reichenau  on 
the  Lake  of  Constance. 

AQUAVIVA,  Claudius,  b.  Sept.  14,  154.3;  d. 
■Jan.  31,  1(31.5;  joined  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  in 
1567,  and  became  its  general  in  1580.  Under 
his  rule,  the  order  flourished  in  spite  of  the  great 
difficulties  and  troubles  which  overtook  it;  but 
lie  was  prudent  enough  to  silence  Molino,  when 
the  controversy  with  the  Dominicans  became  too 
hot,  and  to  silence  Mariana,  whose  doctrine  of 
tlie  allowableness  of  the  murder  of  tyrants  pro- 
duced the  deepest  indignation.  He  wrote  sixteen 
letters,  which  are  incorporated  with  the  constitu- 
tions of  the  order,  and  a  book .  Indusirke  ad  Cu- 
ranclas  Animce  Morbos,  Venice,  1606.  The  Ralio 
Studiorum  and  Direclorium  Exercitonim  St.  Ignalii 
were  compiled  and  published  after  his  order,  and 
under  his  superintendence. 

AQ'UILA  {eagle)  AND  PRISCIL'LA  (from  Pris- 
ca,  ancient).  A  married  couple  who  did  most 
excellent  service  in  spreading  the  gospel  by  mate- 
rially aiding  Paul,  and  in  teaching  ApoUos  (Acts 
xviii.  2,  18,  26).  Aquila  was  a  Jew  of  Pontus. 
The  pair  were  driven  out  of  Rome  in  consequence 
of  the  order  of  Claudius,  and  came  to  Corinth 
(A.D.  52).  When  Paul  met  them  in  that  city, 
they  were  still  Jews;  but  as  the  result  of  his  con- 
versation and  instruction,  since  Aquila  and  he 
carried  on  the  same  trade,  they  were  converted. 
They  accompanied  Paul  to  Ephesus,  and  held  a 
regular  service  in  their  house  (1  Cor.  xvi.  19). 
It  was  then,  probably,  that  they  risked  themselves 
in  the  manner  alluded  to  in  Romans  (xvi.  4) ; 
thence  they  went  to  Rome,  and  held  similar  ser- 
vices (Rom.  xvi.  3,  5).  At  the  time  of  the  Nero- 
uian  persecution  they  had  moved  to  Ephesus 
(2  Tim.  iv.  10).  Nothing  more  is  known  of 
them.  ILERZOG. 

AQUILA,  born  at  Sinope  in  Pontus,  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  second  century  A.D. ;  became  a 
proselyte  to  Judaism,  and  gave  a  new  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament  into  Greek,  which  was 
reproduced  by  Origen  in  the  third  column  of  the 
Hexapla.  and  highly  valued  by  the  Jews  on  ac- 
count of  its  literalness,  though,  for  that  very 
reason,  it  often  became  unintelligible  to  readers 
who  had  no  knowledge  of  Hebrew.  The  frag- 
ments of  this  work  still  extant  are  most  fully 
given  in  Montfaucon's  edition  of  the  Hexapla, 
Paris,  1714,  and  Field's  Origenis  Hexaplorum  quce 
supersunt,  Oxford,  1867  sq.  See  Bible  Ver- 
sions. A  number  of  details  relating  to  Aquila's 
life,  and  first  given  by  Epiphanius  {De  Pond,  el 
Mens.  14,  15),  seem  to  have  no  foundation. 
Emanuel  Deutsch  {Literary  Remains,  N.Y.,  1874, 


pp.  344  sqq.)  identifies  Aquila  with  Onkelos,  the 
author  of  a  Targum.  The  steps  are,  1.  Onkelos 
is  the  same  as  Akilas,  because  the  incidents  re- 
lated of  him  are  the  same :  a  Greek  quotation 
from  Onkelos  the  Chaldee  translator  is  in  reality 
found  in,  and  quoted  from,  Akilas,  the  Greek 
translator.  2.  Akilas  and  Aquila  are  the  same; 
born  in  the  same  time  and  place,  and  have  pre- 
cisely similar  life-courses. 

AQUILA,  Johannes  Kaspar,  b.  at  Augsburg, 
Aug.  7,  1488;  d.  at  Saalfeld,  Nov.  12,  1560; 
studied  theology  at  Wittenberg  and  Leipzig,  and 
became  camp-preacher  to  Sickingen  in  151.5,  and 
pastor  of  Jenga  in  1516,  but  joined  Luther  im- 
mediately in  1517;  married,  and  was  thrown  into 
the  dungeon  of  Dillingen  by  the  order  of  the 
Bishop  of  Augsburg,  and  released  only  on  the 
instance  of  Queen  Isabella  of  Denmark,  a  sister 
of  Charles  V.  Repairing  to  Wittenberg  in  1521, 
he  was  first  tutor  to  the  sons  of  Sickingen,  and 
afterwards  minister  at  Saalfeld.  He  aided 
Luther  in  translating  the  Old  Testament ;  wrote 
with  such  a  vehemence  against  the  Interim,  that 
Charles  V.  put  a  price  of  five  thousand  guilders 
on  his  head ;  and  partook  with  great  zeal  in  the 
theological  controversies  of  the  day,  though  most 
of  his  writings  are  only  essays  and  pamphlets. 
See  G.  A.  Fr.  Gensler:  Vila  M.  J.  C.  Aquilce, 
Jense,  1816. 

AQUILEIA,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  fifteen 
miles  north-east  of  Venice,  traces  back  the  origin 
of  its  church  to  St.  Mark,  and  occupied  during 
the  earlier  middle  ages  a  conspicuous  place  in 
history  as  the  rival  of  Rome.  In  381  the  Bishop 
of  Aquileia  assumed  metropolitan  rights  over  the 
churches  of  Venice,  Istria,  Carniola,  Carinthia, 
Friuli,  and  Styria;  and  in  557  the  metropolitan 
took  the  title  of  patriarch.  In  his  contest  with 
the  pope,  the  patriarch  leaned  first  against  the 
Lombard  king,  afterwards  against  the  German 
emperor.  In  1752  the  patriarchate  was  divided 
into  the  two  archbishoprics  of  Goritz  and  Udine. 

Aquileia  is  noticeable,  therefore,  as  the  seat  of 
a  patriarch,  as  the  place  of  several  synods,  and 
as  the  cradle  of  a  peculiar  creed. 

Several  other  Italian  bishops  beside  the  Bishop 
of  Rome,  namely,  those  of  Milan,  Ravenna,  and 
Aquileia,  labored  from  the  earliest  time  to  as- 
sume patriarchal  powers;  and  they  partly  suc- 
ceeded. But  the  Bishops  of  Milan  and  Ravenna 
were  so  hard  pressed  by  the  Arian  Longobards 
during  the  decade  from  570  to  580,  that  they 
preferred  to  enter  into  closer  communication 
with  Rome ;  and  only  the  Archbishop  of  Aqui- 
leia, who  since  568  resided  in  the  Island  of  Grado, 
continued  obstinately  to  resist  any  attempt  at  a 
union.  Pope  Honorius  I.  (625-638)  felt  com- 
pelled to  consecrate  the  Bishop  of  Aquileia  Patri- 
arch of  Grado,  simply  to  keep  up  the  appearance 
of  supremacy.  In  1451  the  patriarchal  see  was 
removed  to  Venice;  but  this  gave  rise  to  perpet- 
ual conflicts  between  Austria  and  Venice,  both 
claiming  the  right  of  electing  the  patriarch. 
Finally  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  abolished  the  Patri- 
archate of  Aquileia  altogether  in  1751,  and  es- 
tablished the  rather  insignificant  Patriarchate  of 
Udine  for  the  Venetian  possessions  in  Friuli, 
and  an  apostolic  vicarate  at  Aquileia  for  Austria. 
Venice,  however,  was  not  satisfied  with  the  pa- 
pal arrangement ;  and,  on  the  suggestion  of  Aus- 


AQUINAS. 


122 


ARABIA. 


tria,  two  archbishoprics  —  of  Udine  and  Goritz 
—  were  established. 

The  first  synod  of  Aquileia  was  convened  in 
381  to  decide  whether  or  not  Palladias,  Bishop  of 
Xllyria,  was  justly  accused  of  Arianism.  Thirty- 
two  bishops  from  Italy,  Gaul,  and  Africa,  were 
present  on  Sept.  3.  The  Eastern  bishops  had  been 
invited,  but  did  not  appear.  Valerian,  Bishop 
of  Aquileia,  presided;  but  the  true  leader  of 
the  investigation  was  .\mbrose  of  Milan ;  and 
Palladius,  as  well  as  his  presbyter  Secundinus, 
was  found  guilty  and  deposed.  Tlie  second 
synod  of  Aquileia  (169S)  concerned  the  Three- 
Chapter  controversy.  The  bishops  declared 
against  the  condemnation  of  the  Three  Chap- 
ters; but  their  decision  never  obtained  authority 
in  the  church  on  the  contrary,  they  were  them- 
selves considered  schismatics.  In  1409  Gregory 
XII.  held  a  synod  at  Udine  in  the  diocese  of 
Aquileia,  and  anathematized  both  his  rivals, 
Benedict  and  Alexander  V  ;  but  just  at  the 
same  time  the  Council  of  Pisa  declared  for  Alex- 
ander V.  Other  synods  were  held  1305,  1311, 
and  1339.     See  Three  Chapters. 

The  above-mentioned  peculiar  creed  of  the 
Church  of  Aquileia  has  the  words,  inrixibili  e> 
impassibili  added  to  the  formula,  credo  in  Deo 
palre  omnipotente,  which  was  probably  intended 
for  a  decisive  testimony  against  the  Patripas- 
siani.  It  also  contains  the  formula,  ilesccndit  ad 
inferna,  and  has  a  liujux  before  carnis  resun-ec- 
tionem.  Schaff  :  Creeds  of  Clirhlendom,  II., 
p.  49.  "  ZOCKLER. 

AQUINAS.     See  Thomas  Aquinas. 

ARABIA  (37V,,  prairie)  does  not  in  the  Bible 
denote  the  whole  peninsula  between  the  Red  Sea 
and  the  Persian  Gulf,  but  only  the  northern  part, 
contiguous  to  Palestine  (Isa.  xxi.  13;  Jer.  xxv. 
24;  Ezek.  xxvii.  21);  and  in  the  same  manner 
"the  Arabian "  (Isa.  xiii.  20;  Jer.  iii.  2)  does 
not  denote  the  Arab  in  general,  but  only  an  in- 
habitant of  the  northern  prairies  and  deserts. 
Only  in  the  later  books  of  the  Old  Testament, 
as.  for  instance,  in  2  Chron.  xxi.  l(i,  where 
'•  the  Arabians "  are  spoken  of  together  with 
the  ^Ethiopians,  or  in  Neh.  ii.  19,  vi.  1,  and  in 
the  New  Testament  (Acts  iii.  11  ;  (ial.  i.  17,  iv. 
25)  the  name  seems  to  have  obtained  a  more 
general  signification.  Other  designations  em- 
ployed by  the  Hebrews,  such  as  "tlie  people  of 
the  East,"  and  "  the  land  of  the  people  of  the 
East"  (Gen.  xxix.  1  ;  Judg.  vi.  3,  33,  vii.  11,  viii. 
10;  .Job  i.  3;  Isa.  xi.  14),  must  be  limited  in  tlie 
same  way. 

Arabia  comprises  an  area  of  about  one  million 
square  miles,  with  about  eight  niilliou  inhabit- 
ants. Though  it  connects  two  continents  with 
each  other,  it  occupies  a  very  isolated  position, 
partly  on  account  of  the  inhospitableness  of  its 
coasts,  partly  on  account  of  tiie  huge  desert, 
whicli,  to  the  north,  separated  the  .-Vrabs  even 
from  their  nearest  kinsmen,  —  the  Hebrews,  the 
Syrians,  tlie  Chaldieans,  and  the  As.syriaiis.  From 
this  country,  however,  so  peculiarly  .shut  up  witli- 
in  itself,  there  broke  forth  at  one  lime  one  of 
the  most  powerful  impulses  which  the  history  of 
mankind  ever  received ;  and,  long  before  that 
period,  it  attracts  tlie  attention  of  the  student  of 
the  Bible  on  account  of  the  conspicuous  part  it 
played  in  the  history  of  Israel. 


The  ancient  geographers  distinguished  be- 
tween Arabia  Petrsa,  Arabia  Deserta,  and  Ara- 
bia Felix.  Arabia  Petrjea,  situated  between  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  north,  the  Red  Sea  to  the 
south  (here  forming  the  peninsula  of  Sinai), 
the  desert  of  Sur  to  the  west,  and  the  Arabah 
to  the  east,  received  its  name  from  Petra,  the 
capital  of  Idumrea.  It  is  a  desolate  mountain 
region,  with  huge  masses  of  granite,  porphyry, 
basalt,  and  limestone  piled  up  in  fantastic 
heaps,  and  with  very  few  fertile  valleys.  It 
may  have  been  more  productive  in  the  times  of 
Moses ;  but,  without  a  special  providence,  it  can 
at  no  time  have  sustained  such  a  multitude  as 
spoken  of  in  the  Pentateuch.  Especially  the 
plateau  of  Azazimat,  bordering  immediately  oil 
Cana.an,  is  .an  inhospitable  wilderness,  sparingly 
popuLated,  difficult  of  access,  enclosed  north  and 
south  by  ranges  of  wild  cliffs,  and  descending 
abruptly  to  the  east  into  the  Arabah.  The  prin- 
cipal chain  of  the  whole  group  runs  parallel 
with  the  western  arm  of  the  Red  Sea,  but  turns 
eastward,  farther  to  the  south,  and  approaches 
the  eastern  arm  by  a  number  of  bald  ridges. 
The  direction  of  this  chain  must  have  deter- 
mined the  course  of  the  wanderings  of  Israel 
through  the  wilderness.  It  was  followed  along 
its  western  slope,  where  are  found  the  Wady 
Ghurundel,  Mukatteb,  and  the  beautiful  and 
fertile  Wady  Feirau  (the  Pliaran  of  the  Bible). 
It  was  then  doubled  to  the  south,  where  are  the 
sand-waste  of  Ramleh,  the  "Wady  er-Rahah  and 
esh-Sheikh.  South  of  Wady  Feiran  -rises  the 
Jebel  Serbal.  liigh  and  striking,  which,  though 
against  the  tradition,  is  by  some  considered  as 
the  Mount  of  the  Law.  Farther  to  the  east 
appe.ars  ]\Iount  Sinai,  with  its  three  imposing 
ridges,  of  which  the  central  one  bears  the  name 
of  Iloreb. 

Arabia  Deserta,  to  which  the  prophets  refer 
when  they  speak  of  the  return  of  the  exiles  .as  a 
wandering  through  the  wilderness  (Hos.  ii.  16  ; 
Isa.  XXXV.  1,  xl.  3.  xlix.  9.  etc.),  is.  In'  the  Arabs 
themselves,  called  simply  el-I?adie,  "  the  desert," 
whence  the  name  of  its  iuliabitants,  a  few  tribes 
of  roving  nom.ads,  —  the  Bedawin  or  Bedouins. 
The  peculiar  atmospheric  deceptions  whicli  occur 
in  these  regions,  the  mirages  of  cool  lakes  in  the 
midst  of  the  burning  .saud-waste,  are  .alluded 
to  in  Isaiah  (xxxv.  7);  and  its  poisonous  wind, 
Samum,  which  hurls  desolation  at  every  thing 
living  it  meets,  is  alluded  to  in  Ps.  xi.  G.  Ara- 
bia Felix  consists  of  a  large  central  plateau,  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  by  de.serts,  and  very  little 
known,  and  a  belt  of  mountain-ranges  and  Alp 
regions  all  along  the  coast,  (Huitaiiiing  some  of 
the  most  beautiful  and  most  fertile  spots  on  the 
gjobi'.  Here  are,  on  the  west  coast,  Hejaz  and 
Yemen;  on  tlii'  south  coast  lladramant,  Slahrali, 
and  (Jharrah;  and,  on  the  east  coast,  Oman. 

The  po]iulatioii  is  essentially  Sheinitie,  though 
the  southern  part  of  tlie  country  contains  Cushi- 
tic  elements.  Of  the  Ciishitic  tribes  mentioned 
in  Gen.  x.  7,  only  tlie  first  one,  Sheba,  belongs 
exclusively  to  .Vfricft,;  already  the  second  one, 
Havilah,  belongs  without  doubt  to  Asia  ((ieii. 
xxv.  18);  and  the  last  ones,  Sabtah,  Kaaniah, 
and  Sabteclia,  refer  still  more  plainly  to  South- 
ern Arabia.  .Sabtah  reminds  one  of  Sabota,  the 
caiiital  of  the   Ciialiamotiti's  in   Hadramaut,  the 


ARABIA. 


123 


ARABIA. 


centre  of  the  frankincense  trade.  Raamali,  men- 
tioned in  Ezek.  xxvii.  22,  tofjether  with  Sheba, 
as  a  place  from  wliicli  drugs,  diamonds,  and  gold 
were  sent  to  Tyre,  is  probably  Regma,  or  Kegama, 
an  Arabian  port  on  the  Persian  Gulf.  Among 
the  Shemites  it  was  the  descendants  of  Joctan, 
the  brother  of  Peleg,  who  took  possession  of 
Yemen  and  the  rest  of  Southern  Arabia.  The 
Ishmaelitic  tribes,  descending  from  Abraham  and 
Hagar,  the  Egy|>tian  woman,  — Nebajoth,  Kcdar, 
Duniah,  and  IMussa,  —  came  later;  but  their  place 
of  settlement  has  not  been  ascertained.  The  tribe 
of  Tema  (mentioned  in  Isa.  xsi.  14;  Jer.  xxv. 
23  ;  Job.  vi.  19)  settled  between  Petra  and  Medi- 
na; and  that  of  .Tetur  (the  Iturieans),  across  Ara- 
bia Deserta  from  Egypt  to  the  Gulf  of  Persia 
(Gen.  xxv.  12  sqq.).  The  other  tribes,  descend- 
ing from  Abraham  and  Ketura  (the  Midianites 
and  their  kindred),  were  settled  in  the  western 
parts,  among  the  Joctanites.  This  report  of  a 
difference  between  the  northern  and  southern 
Arabians  with  respect  to  descent  is  supported  by 
the  existence  of  marked  differences  between 
them  in  history  and  language,  in  physical  fea- 
tures, and  moral  habits.  In  habits,  features, 
and  language,  the  Southern  Arabians  resemble 
the  .(Ethiopians.  The  language  which  in  ancient 
times  was  spoken  in  Southern  Arabia  was  the 
Himyaritic,  as  has  been  proved  from  numerous 
monuments  discovered  in  Yemen.  But  the  Him- 
yaritic occupies  an  intermediate  position  between 
the  /Ethiopian  and  the  tongue  spoken  in  Cen- 
tral Arabia.  By  the  spread  of  Jlohamniedanisni 
the  Himyaritic  dialect  lost  ground.  Neverthe- 
less, it  is  still  spoken  in  various  districts  of 
Southern  Arabia ;  and  this,  its  modern  develop- 
ment (the  Etkili),  bears  a  strong  likeness  to  the 
modern  development  of  the  ^Ethiopian. 

The  principal  seat  of  South- Arabian  civiliza- 
tion was  the  kingdom  of  Sheba  with  the  capital  of 
Mariaba,  or  Mai'eb.  Thence  came  the  queen  to 
visit  Solomon  (1  Kings  x.  1-13),  and  thither  be- 
long most  of  the  Himyaritic  inscriptions,  as 
probably,  also,  the  praises  for  wisdom  bestowed 
upon  the  children  of  the  East  (1  Kings  iv.  30). 
The  Bible,  especially  the  prophets,  speaks  of  the 
Sabaans  as  a  distant  but  far-reaching,  rich,  and 
enterprising  people,  which  brought  gold  and  dia- 
monds, incense,  cassia,  and  slaves  to  tlie  northern 
countries  from  India  and  Africa  (Jer.  vi.  20;  Ezek. 
xxvii.  22;  Ps.  Ixxii.  15;  Isa.  Ix.  6;  Joel.  iv.  8). 
But,  besides  this  peaceable  city  population,  the 
kingdom  of  Sheba  also  contained  a  country  or 
desert  population  of  another  temper,  and  these 
Bedouins  appear  in  connection  with  the  Joctan- 
ites and  the  Keturseans.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
third  century  of  our  era  the  city  of  Mareb  was 
destroyed  by  an  inundation,  and  several  tribes 
then  emigrated  to  the  north,  where  they  founded 
the  kingdoms  of  Hira  on  the  Euphrates,  and  of 
Gassau  in  the  Hauran  Mountains. 

Of  the  two  chief  tribes  of  Ishmael,  Nebajoth 
and  Kedar,  the  latter  plays  by  far  the  most  promi- 
nent part  in  the  records  of  the  Old  Testament. 
The  Kedarenes  are  mentioned  in  Solomon's  Song 
i.  5,  as  living  in  black  tents;  in  Isa.  xlii.  11, 
Jer.  xlix.  31,  as  settled  in  open  villages  ;  in  Ezek. 
xxvii.  21,  as  pursuing  trade ;  in  Isa.  xxi.  16,  17, 
Jer.  xlix.  28,  as  good  archers  withstanding  the 
attacks  of   the   Assyrians  and  Chaldseaus.     Ac- 


cording to  the  annals  of  Assurbanipal,  and  in 
fulfilment  of  the  predictions  of  the  prophets 
(Isa.  xxi.  11;  Jer.  xxv.  23,  xlix  28).  they  were 
subjugated  by  the  Assyrians.  In  the  period 
immediately  after  Alexander  the  (ireat  they  dis- 
appear as  an  independent  tribe  ;  but  at  the  same 
time  the  Nebajoth  or  Nabataeans,  who  are  men- 
tioned in  the  Old  Testament  only  as  related  to 
the  Edomites  (Gen  xxviii.  9,  xxxvi.  3),  gaiD 
ascendency.  They  not  only  held  a  great  portion 
of  Arabia  Proper,  for  instance  Aila,  but  they 
also  came  into  posse.ssion  of  the  land  of  the 
Idumaeans  with  the  capital  Petra,  and  pu.shed  on- 
wards into  the  region  east  of  the  Jordan  and  the 
Syrian  desert,  as  far  as  the  Hauran  Mountains 
(1  Mace.  V.  25,  ix.  35),  and  Damascus  (Joseph. 
Anl.  xiii.  15,  2),  thus  ruling  over  all  the  lands 
between  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Euphrates.  Their 
relations  with  the  Jews  now  became  of  conse- 
quence. While  the  Arab  prince  Emalchuel  en- 
tertained friendly  i-elations  with  the  Syrians  (1 
Mace.  xi.  39),  and  Arabs  entered  the  Syrian  army 
as  mercenaries  (1  JIacc.  v.  39;  2  Mace.  xii.  10),  so 
that  the  Maccabteans  had  to  take  the  field  against 
them  (1  Mace.  xii.  31),  the  Nabata?ans  are  re- 
peatedly mentioned  as  friends  and  allies  of  the 
Jews  (1  Mace.  v.  25,  ix.  35).  They  had  kings  of 
their  own,  among  whom  was  Aretas,  the  father- 
in-law  of  Herod  Antipas.  He  waged  war,  both 
against  his  son-in-law  and  the  Romans,  and  occu- 
pied at  one  time  Damascus  (2  Cor.  xi.  32).  At 
the  beginning  of  our  era,  however,  the  Naba- 
tsans  distinguished  themselves,  not  only  in  war- 
fare, but  also  in  the  arts  of  peace,  as  shown  by 
the  ruins  of  Petra,  by  coins,  inscriptions,  etc. 
Their  empire  was  destroyed  under  Trajan. 

Among  the  Ketursean  tribes,  only  the  Midian- 
ites are  of  any  interest  in  antiquity.  They  ap- 
pear in  the  history  of  Joseph  as  merchants  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  28,  36).  In  the  times  of  Moses  they 
showed  themselves  friendly  to  Israel  in  the  Sina- 
itio  peninsula  (Exod.  ii.  1.5,  iii.  1 ,  Num.  x.  29), 
but  hostile  in  the  region  of  Moab,  where,  how- 
ever, the  Israelites  defeated  them  (Nuni  xxxi. 
Comp.  Num.  xxii.  4,  xxv.  6,  14-18).  In  the 
times  of  the  judges  they  pressed  heavily  upon 
Israel  in  connection  with  other  Arab  tribes,  but 
were  repulsed  by  Gilead  (Judg.  6-8.  Comp.  Isa. 
ix.  3,  X.  26;  Hab.  iii.  7;  Ps.  Ixxxv.  10).  Of 
any  great  development  of  power  in  those  regions 
which  belonged  to  the  Keturrean  tribes,  nothing 
is  heard  until  much  later  in  the  Christian  era, 
when  just  in  these  lands  Mohammed  succeeded 
in  raising  the  name  of  Arabia  to  a  splendor  and 
magnificence  which  it  had  not  before  attained. 

Of  the  religion  of  the  ancient  Arabs  very  lit- 
tle is  known  with  certainty.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  there  existed  with  respect  to  reli- 
gion the  same  difference  between  north  and  south 
as  with  respect  to  language  and  character ;  and  it 
seems  that  the  northern  Arabians  really  main- 
tained for  some  time  their  religious  connection 
with  Abraham  and  the  .lews  Both  the  native 
historians  and  cuneiform  inscriptions  from  the 
seventh  and  eighth  centuries  B.C.  testify  to 
the  existence  of  a  very  old  Allah-worship;  and 
the  tradition  that  Abraham  and  Ishmael  were  the 
founders  of  the  national  sanctuary,  the  Kaaba, 
points  in  the  same  direction.  In  later  times, 
however,  monotheism  was  all  but  lost  among  the 


ARABIANS. 


124 


ARAM. 


Arabs.  In  the  soutlierii  part  of  the  country,  the 
sun,  Samas,  or  Sabis  (feminine),  and  the  moon, 
Alkamah  (masculine),  were  worshipped  together 
with  the  star  of  Venus.  Athar.  and  other  stars. 
In  Northern  Arabia.  Orotal  and  Alilat,  identified 
by  Herodotus  witli  Dionysos  and  Urania,  were 
worshipped.  At  various  times  and  in  various 
places,  polytheism  even  sank  down  into  feti- 
cisni.  Objects  which,  on  account  of  form  or 
qualities  created  admiration,  came  to  be  con- 
sidered, not  only  as  receptacles  of  divine  pow- 
ers, but  as  specimens  of  the  divine  essence,  as 
gods.  There  may  at  all  times  have  been  per- 
sons among  the  Arabs  who  stood  above  such 
notions;  but  the  popular  level  from  which  Mo- 
hammedanism arose  was,  as  might  be  expected, 
verj-  low. 

Lit.  —  What  the  Greeks  and  Romans  knew 
about  Arabia  has  been  collected  by  ]M.A.xxEur : 
Geo()ra/ihie  tier  (Iriechen  und  Homer,  Nuremberg. 
1799,  YI.  ;  and  Fohbiger  :  Ilandbiich  d.  all.  Geo- 
graphie,  Leipzig.  1844,  IL  The  writings  of  the 
native  Arabian  historians  and  geographei'S,  as 
well  as  those  of  modern  travellers,  are  referred 
to  in  K.  KiTTKK :  Erdkiinde,  XII. -XIII.,  Berlin, 
184b',  and  J.  Gay:  Biblwi/rnphie  den  Oiivrnc/es 
relatip  a  I'Afrique  el  r Arable,  Berlin,  1874. 
Among  the  best  and  most  accessible  works  on 
the  various  points  touched  in  this  article  are, 
Laxe:  Notes  on.  the  Tlioiisand  and  One  Nights, 
London,  1838  ;  Robinson  :  Biblical  Researches  in 
l'<(ltsilne,  Boston,  'id  ed.,  1850,  3  vols. ;  [Stanley  : 
Sliial  and  Palestine,  London,  1850;  PALtiRAVE: 
Jnurnefi  throujih  Central  and  Eastern  Arabia,  Lon- 
don, 1865];  Arconati  :  VUu/i/lo  ntll 'Arabia  Pc- 
trcea,  187:i:  [P.  Sciiaff:  T/irouc/h  Bible-Lands,  Xew 
York,  1879].  —  CorssiN  de  Perceval  :  Essal  sur 
I'Hlstolre  des  Arabs  ai-atd  /'/.s/om«me,  Paris,  1847, 
3  vols.  —  Kreiii.:  I'hcr  die  Iielif/ion  der  vorlslant- 
!.«•/»■»  .4r.;/«7-.  Lei]i/.ig,  l8li:!.      Fli.   W.  SCIIULTZ. 

ARABIANS,  or  ARABICI,  a  Christian  sect,  arose 
in  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  in  Arabia, 
in  tiio  times  of  Septiniius  .Severus.  They  were  a 
kind  of  Christian  materialists,  and  held,  accord- 
ing to  Kusebius  (Illst.  Eccles.,VI.,  37),  that  the 
soul  dies  with  the  body,  but  shall  be  resurrected 
along  with  it..  This  doctrine  grew  up  from  the 
view,  frequently  met  with  in  antiquity,  that  con- 
sciousness could  not  exi.st  without  a  body.  Origen 
refuted  them  in  a  synod  held  in  24t),  and  gene- 
rally known  as  tlie  Council  of  Arabia. 

A'RAD  {/ilfice  of  fni/ltlres),  a  royal  city  of  the 
Canaanites  (Num.  xxi.  1,  xxxiii.  40;  Josh.  xii. 
14),  situated  on  the  south-western  border  of  Uw. 
desert  of  .ludah  (.ludg.  i.  10),  about  twenty  miles 
south  of  Hebron,  on  a  liill,  now  called  Tell  Arud, 
still  covered  with  ruins. 

A'RAM,  such  as  it  occurs  in  tiie  Old  Testament, 
comprises  all  those  peo)iles  which  inhabited  Syria 
and  Mesopotamia,  north  to  tlie  Taurus,  east  to 
the  Tigris;  but,  as  these  peoples  never  formed  a 
political  unit,  the  name  is  not  used  collectively, 
but  only  with  reference  to  some  particular  tribe 
or  region  or  state.  Thus  the  Old  Testament 
distinguishes  between  L  Aram  Naharaim,  Aram 
between  the  two  rivers,  tlie  laml  between  the 
Euphrates  aiul  the  Tigris,  still  called  the  island 
((ien.  xxiv.  10;  Deut.  xxiii.  4;  Judg.  iii.  8;  Ps.  Ix. 
title);  II.  Aram  Dammesek.in  the  north-eastern 
part  of  Palestine,  often  called  simply  Aram  be- 


cause it  was  the  tribe  best  known,  and  of  most 
importance  to  Israel  (2  Sam.  viii.  5;  Isa.  vii.  8, 
xvii.  3;  Am.  i.  5);  III.  Aram  Zobah,  at  the 
times  of  Saul  and  David  the  most  powerful 
realm  in  Syria,  not  far  from  Damascus  and 
Haniath  (1  Sara.  xiv.  47;  2  .Sam.  viii.  3);  IV. 
Aram  Beth-Rehob,  in  the  northern  part  of  Gali- 
lee (2  Sam.  X.  6);  V.  Aram  Maachah  (1  Chron. 
xix.  6  ;  Gen.  xxii.  24)  ;  and  VI.  Geshur  (2  Sam. 
XV.  8). 

The  spread  of  the  Aramseans  over  these  vast 
regions  was,  of  course,  gradual ;  and  the  point 
from  which  they  started  is  generally  determined 
by  Amos  i.  5  and  ix.  7  (comp.  2  Kings  xvi.  9  ; 
Isa.  xxii.  6),  where  it  is  said  that  Jehovah  once 
led  Aram  out  from  Kir,  and  that  he  once  shall 
send  the  inhabitants  of  Damascus  back  again  to 
that  place.  Some  understand  Kir  to  be  the  re- 
gion around  the  River  Kur,  which  runs  between 
the  Black  and  the  Caspian  Seas,  and  enters  the 
latter  after  joining  the  Araxes:  others  find  the 
place  at  Kyrrhos,  north  of  Haleb,  or  seek  it 
somewhere  in  iSIesopotamia.  Moses  Chorenen- 
ses  mentions  Aram  among  the  ancestors  of  the 
Armenian  people ;  but  Aram  has  as  little  to  do 
with  Armenia  as  with  Homer's  Erembi  or  Arirai. 
The  Greeks  called  the  Aranipeans  Syrians,  which 
is  an  abbreviation  of  Assyrians.  Those  Greeks 
who  were  settled  along  the  southern  coast  of  the 
Black  Sea  first  applied  the  name  to  their  C.appa- 
docian  neighbors  who  were  Assyrian  subjects. 
Thence  it  was  extended  to  the  whole  bulk  of  the 
population  of  the  A.ssyrian,  Empire,  and  thus  it 
became  synonymous  with  .\rama;an.  Afterwards 
the  Christian  Aramaeans  adopted  the  name  Syrian, 
because  among  the  Jews  Aramrean  meant  heathen. 
The  country'  comprised  by  the  name  Aram,  and 
of  which  Damascus  formed  a  prominent  part, 
was  conquered  by  the  Assyrians  under  Tiglath- 
Pileser,  and  made  a  proviiu-e.  Afterwards  it 
stood  under  the  Babylono-ChaUtean,  and  then 
under  the  Persian  rule,  until,  after  the  death  of 
Alexander  the  (ireat,  it  w.as  formed  into  an  in- 
dependent empire,  Syria,  under  the  Seleucides. 
Pompey  made  it  subject  to  Rome  04  B.C.  The 
religion  of  the  old  Arama;ans  was  akin  to  the 
Assyro-Babylonian  worship  of  nature.  See  the 
articl(!S  on  Astarte,  Baal,  and  Tammuz. 
From  their  Aram»an  kinsmen  the  Israelites 
adopted  the  Terajihim. 

The  Aram.aic  language  is  a  member  of  the 
Shemitic  family ;  but,  as  if  influenced  by  the 
climate,  it  is  poorer  in  vowels,  and  rougher,  than 
any  of  the  other  members ;  and  because  the 
Aianueans  lived  surrounded  by  non-Shemitic 
jieoplcs,  and  were  often  and  for  long  periods  sub- 
jected to  foreign  conquerors,  it  became  a  mix<'il 
and  corrupt  tongue.  Compared  with  the  two 
sister-tongues,  —  the  rich,  sonorous,  and  elegant 
.\rabic,  and  the  pithy  though  somewhat  pro- 
vincial Hebrew,  —  it  is  a  commonplace  dialect. 
It  falls  into  two  branches,  a  north-eastern  and  a 
south-western  ;  of  which  the  first  one,  originally 
spoken  in  Mesopotamia,  afterwards  developed 
into  the  Syriac  language,  and  produced  a  rich 
literature,  not  only  of  Christian  theology,  but 
also  of  history  and  philosophy.  The  most  flour- 
ishing period  of  the  history  of  this  branch  ex- 
tends from  the  fourth  to  the  seventh  century : 
in  the  eighth  and  ninth  the  Syriac  was  overtaken 


ARARAT. 


125 


ARCANI. 


by  the  Arabic ;  and  in  the  thirteenth  it  disap- 
peared (see  Syuia).  The  otiier  branch  bears, 
since  the  days  of  Jerome,  tlie  name  of  the  Clial- 
dee  language,  thougli  the  old  Chaldpcans,  or  Baby- 
lonians, never  spoke  Aramaic  (see  Babylonia). 
The  Hebrew  Bible  calls  this  branch  the  "Ara- 
maic "  (Dan.  ii.  4;  2  Kings  xviii.  26).  In  the 
time  of  the  kings  it  was  understood  iu  Jerusalem, 
if  not  by  people  in  general,  at  least  by  all  edu- 
cated persons ;  and  it  was  the  business-language 
throughout  the  Assyrian  realm.  The  Persian 
Government  afterwards  issued  its  edicts,  so  far 
as  they  concerned  the  provinces  of  Western  Asia, 
in  the  Aramaic  tongue.  After  the  exile,  this 
tongue  gradually  became  the  popular  language 
of  Palestine,  not  only  of  Galileo  and  Samaria, 
but  also  of  Judroa.  Christ  and  the  apostles 
spoke  it,  as  may  be  seen  from  several  words 
and  phrases  occurring  in  the  New  Testament. 
The  only  specimens  of  this  dialect  which  have 
come  down  to  us  are  sections  of  the  Books  of 
Daniel  (ii.  -i-vii.  28)  and  of  Ezra  (iv.  8-vi.  18, 
vii.  12-26),  and  the  Chaldaean  paraphrase  of  the 
Old  Testament,  the  so-called  Targums  ;  but  of 
these  specimens  the  first  mentioned  show  so 
strong  a  coloring  of  Hebrew,  that  many  linguists 
have  been  inclined  to  consider  the  Chaldee  dia- 
lect a  mere  mixture  of  Hebrew  and  Syriac. 

Lit. — Lexgkuke:  Kanaan,  I.,  p.  218  sqq.  ; 
Ritter:  Erdkiimle,  vols.  X.  and  XVI.  A  Chaldee 
dictionary  was  compiled  by  Joii.  Buxtouf,  Ba- 
sil., 1640,  and  re-edited  by  Fischer  and  Gelbe, 
Leipzig,  1866-74.  Chaldee  grammars  have  been 
written  in  Italian  by  Luzatto,  Padua,  1805,  and 
in  Latin  by  H.  Zschokkk,  Vienna,  1870,  and 
Petekmaxx,  Berlin,  1872.  VOLCK. 

AR'ARAT  (Jtohj  land  or  high  land)  occurs  in 
the  Bible,  only  as  the  name  of  the  country,  which, 
in  the  Assyrian  inscription,  is  called  Urarti,  in 
classical  literature  Armenia,  and  by  the  native 
inhabitants  Haik.  Afterwards  the  name  was 
transferred  from  the  country  which  chiefly  con- 
sists of  a  high  plateau  along  the  midille  course 
of  the  River  Araxes,  to  the  mountain-range  on 
its  southern  frontier,  and  more  especially  to  the 
two  commanding  peaks  of  this  range, — the 
Greater  and  Lesser  Ararat.  The  former,  called 
by  the  natives  Massis,  or  V^araz-Baris,  by  the  Per- 
sians Kuhi-Nuh,  the  "Mountain  of  Noah,"  is  a 
cone  17,750  feet  high,  and  with  the  top  covered 
with  a  silver  cap  of  perpetual  snow.  Here,  on 
the  southern  slope,  the  native  traditions  place 
the  spot  where  Noah's  ark  rested,  and  the  mes- 
senger-dove brought  back  an  olive-leaf;  while  a 
Syrian  tradition,  supported  by  the  Assyrian  in- 
scriptions, points  to  a  peak  farther  to  the  south, 
iu  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan. 

ARATOR,  a  Christian  poet  from  the  middle  of 
the  sixth  century,  was  a  native  of  Liguria,  and 
educated  by  Archbishop  Laurentius  of  jNIilan, 
and  the  poet  Ennodius ;  studied  law,  and  entered 
the  civil  service  of  the  Gothic  Government,  first 
as  cumes  dnmeMicnrum,  then  as  cuiiies  privatormn : 
but,  when  war  broke  out  between  the  East  Roman 
and  Ostrogothic  Empire,  he  retired  from  politi- 
cal life,  and  Pope  Vigilius  made  him  a  sub-deacon 
in  Rome.  While  here  he  wrote  his  great  didac- 
tic epic:  De  Actibus  Apusto/oriiin,  Libr.  II.,  dedi- 
cated to  Vigilius,  and  recited  in  four  consecutive 
days  to  an  applauding  crowd  in  the  Church  of  St. 


Pelrun  wl  vincula,  in  544.  The  theological  ten- 
<len<;i('s  of  this  poem  mirror  very  truthfully  the 
reigning  tendencies  of  the  time,  —  the  superiority 
of  Peter  over  Paul,  the  first  traces  of  the  worship 
of  Mary,  saints,  relics,  etc. :  its  a>sthetical  mer- 
its, however,  are  rather  small.  It  still  exists  in 
numerous  manuscripts,  and  has  often  been  pub- 
lished :  Basel,  1537,  and  in  MuiNE,  with  a  com- 
plete commentary  Palml.  Curs.  vol.  68.  See 
Mayou:  Biblioyraphkal  Cknj  In  Latin  Literature, 
London,  1875. 

ARCANI  DISCIPLINA,  a  term  applied  to  the 
practice,  general  in  the  ancient  church,  of  ex- 
cluding all  the  uninitiated  from  certain  parts  of 
the  divine  service,  and  maintaining  a  studied 
reticence,  when  speaking  in  public,  about  cer- 
tain sacred  objects  and  proceedings.  This  prac- 
tice arose  naturally,  not  to  say  nece.ssarily,  from 
the  existing  circumstances.  In  Christianity  it- 
.self  there  is  no  esclusiveness,  no  reserve;  and 
when,  in  the  time  of  Justin,  divine  service  was 
still,  as  a  general  rule,  celebrated  in  complete 
seclusion,  the  reason  was  simply  that  Christian- 
ity was  an  "unrecognized  religion,"  and  as  such 
exposed  to  the  fury  and  persecutions  of  the  Pa- 
gans. When  these  circumstances  changed,  the 
practice  itself  disappeared.  More  especially  the 
arcani  discipl'ma  may  be  said  to  have  been  born 
and  lived  and  died  together  with  the  catechu- 
menate.  They  originated  at  the  same  time  and 
from  the  same  causes;  and  when  the  institution 
of  the  catechumenate  was  abolished  as  superflu- 
ous, because  the  whole  society  had  become  Chris- 
tian, the  custom  of  an  arcani  disciplina  was  aban- 
doned as  unnecessary  for  the  very  same  reason. 

As  long  as  the  catechumenate  existed,  the 
catechumens,  or  any  one  else  uninitiated  who 
might  have  been  present  at  the  sermon,  were 
shown  out  by  the  deacon  when  the  sermon  was 
over,  and  the  so-called  missa  Jiileliuni  began. 
First,  after  two  years  of  prejiaration.  the  cate- 
chumens were  admitted  among  the  compttfutes  and 
ete<.ri;  and  at  this  stage  the  religious  teaching, 
properly  speaking,  began.  But  it  was  a  condi- 
tion well  understood,  and  definitely  set  forth, 
that  the  catechumen  should  speak  to  no  one  of 
the  creed  which  was  orally  confided  to  him;  and 
all  teaching  concerning  the  holy  rites  was  gen- 
erally postponed  till  after  baptism,  or  the  first 
eucharist.  Indeed,  so  strictly  was  this  fides  silen- 
tii  kept,  that  people  hesitated  to  communicate 
the  text  of  the  creed  in  historical  works  (Sozom. 
I.,  2),  or  spoke  of  the  elements  of  the  eucharist 
only  in  a  general  way,  and  through  hints  (Ibid. 
85).  Epiphanius,  in  his  A  ncuratus  (57),  refrains 
from  giving  the  formulas  of  the  consecration; 
and  Theodoret  shows  the  same  reserve  with 
respect  to  baptism  in  his  Divin.  Decret.  Epit.  c.  18. 
Again  and  again  Chrysostom  suddenly  breaks 
oft'  with  "the  initiated  know,"  or  Augustine, 
with  "the  faithful  know,"  when  intentionally 
refraining  from  speaking  plainly  of  certain  sub- 
jects. Even  Innocent  I.  hesitates  to  write  in 
detail  about  the  unction  in  a  private  letter  ad 
LJvcentium;  and  on  tombstones,  for  instance,  all 
kinds  of  symbolical  devices  and  metaphorical 
phrases  were  applied.  But  after  the  sixth  cen- 
tury all  this  changed.  No  ecclesiastical  writer 
mentions  either  the  catechumenate,  or  the  arcani 
disciplina   any   more.     Isidorus    Ilispalensis   (d. 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


126 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


636)  gives  a  description  of  the  divine  service, 
without  noticing  any  difference  between  a  rnissa 
catechumenuriim  and  a  missajidelium. 

Lit.  —  Isaac  Casaubonus:  De  Rebus  Sacr. 
el  Ecc/esl.,  1651;  Em.  von  Schelstrate  :  An- 
lii/iiilas  I/liislrala,  etc.,  1678;  Bingham:  Origines 
IV.;  R.  RoTHE :  De  Di.iciplina  Arcani,  Heidel- 
berg, 1841 ;  Th.  H.\rnack:  Der  cltrisl.  Geme'mde- 
<7o//?.v'/(Vh.s7.  Erlangen,  1854;  Zezschwitz:  System 
tJer  KalechetiL;  Leipzig,  1863.  [S.mith  and  Cheet- 
ii.\M :  Diclionnry  of  Christian  Aniii/uities  s.  v.  "Dis- 
ciplina  .\rcaiii."]  G.  v.  ZEZSCHWITZ. 

ARCH/EOLOGY,  Biblical,  a  discipline  which 
has  been  very  variously  defined,  some  authors 
(Dionysius  Halicarnassus,  Joseplius,  Jahn,  etc.) 
incorporating  with  it  the  whole  history  of  the 
Hebrew  nation,  and  the  whole  geography  of  the 
Holy  Land,  others  (De  Wette,  Gesenius,  Hagen- 
bach,  etc.)  excluding  one  or  both  of  these  ele- 
ments from  it;  while  finally  others  have  confined 
it  to  purely  artistic  monuments.  We  would  pro- 
pose a  middle  course.  Leaving  out  biblical 
history,  properly  so  called,  we  define  biblical 
archaeology  as  a  representation  of  the  physical, 
geographical,  statistical,  economical,  and  social 
conditions  of  that  nation  which  produced  the 
Bible.  Of  the  antiquities  of  other  nations  which 
came  in  contact  with  the  Hebrews,  either  on  ac- 
count of  race  relationship,  such  as  the  Aramaeans, 
Arabs,  Canaanites,  Philistines,  etc.,  or  through 
some  political  combination,  such  as  the  Egyp- 
tians. Assyrians,  Chaldajans,  Persians,  Greeks, 
and  Romans,  we  admit  only  that  which  has  a 
direct  bearing  on  .some  scriptural  passage.  Thus 
defined,  biblical  archeology  is  a  most  important 
aid,  not  only  to  the  expounder,  but  also  to  every 
reader,  of  the  Bible. 

The  sources  of  this  science  comprise  ;  I.  An- 
tique monuments  and  buildings,  plastic  repre- 
sentations, insoriptions,  and  coins.  To  tiiis  group 
belong  not  only  the  ruins  and  architectural  mon- 
uments from  an  ante-MoIiammedan  period  in 
Palestine  itself,  whii'h,  although  recent  investi- 
gations and  excavations  have  brought  several  to 
light,  are  not  very  numerous,  but  also  the  temples 
and  palaces  of  Egypt,  Assyria,  Babylonia,  Per- 
sia, Phoenicia,  and  Syria,  with  their  plastic  and 
pictorial  representations,  yield  valuable  instruc- 
tion. The  pertinent  inscriptions  are  found 
collected  in  the  Curpiis  Insrriptl.  fjnccnr. :  vol. 
HI.  (1853),  p.  211;  Corpus  Inscriptt.  Latin,  ed.  ; 
Mom.mse,v,  vol  III.  (1873);  Le  Bas  kt  Wad- 
di.nuton:  Inscriptions  Greciptes  el  Laiines,  torn. 
III.,  1870;  De  Vogue:  Syrie  Cenlralc,  Paris, 
1868;  Wetzstein:  Ausijeuiihlte  (jriech.  unil  latin. 
Jn!»-liriflen,  in  Alihanil.  il.  lierliner  Akai/.,  1803. 
The  literature  concerning  the  sarcophjigns  of 
Eshmunazar  (Plucnioian),  the  tablet  of  Mar- 
seilles (Punic),  and  the  stone  of  Mesa  (Moabitic), 
will  be  found  under  the  respective  heads.  The 
coins  have  been  examined  by  Eckhel,  Mionnet, 
Bertheau,  C'avedoni,  De  Saulcy,  Levy,  and  Mad- 
den (see  article  on  Money).  II.  Among  the 
written  sources  the  Bible  occupies  the  first  place, 
though  a  careful  discrimination  is  nece.ssary 
between  the  various  epochs  in  which  the  various 
books  were  written.  Al.so  the  writings  of  Philo 
and  Joseplius  give  excellent  information  with 
regard  to  their  own  times;  but,  for  the  older 
periods,  they  must  be  used  with  caution.     T^lie 


Talmud,  Targums,  and  the  Rabbins  form  a  "  rich 
but  not  clear  source."  The  older  portions  of 
them  are  of  great  value  for  the  explanation  of 
the  New  Testament.  See  Meuschen  :  N.  T.  ex 
Talmude  Illuslralum,  1736;  Lightfoot  :  Horm 
hehr.  el  lalm.  in  N.  T.,  Cantabr.,  1658;  Schott- 
GEN  :  Horce  hebr.  el  lalm.  in  N.  T.,  1733  et  1742  ; 
Wetstein:  Annolt.  in  N.  T.,  1757.  Several 
Greek  and  Roman  authors,  such  as  Herodotus, 
Xenophon,  Polybius,  Diodorus  Siculus,  Strabo, 
Plutarch,  Appian,  Pliny.  Tacitus,  and  Justin 
contain  important  notices,  but  cannot  be  used 
without  the  most  careful  criticism.  Among 
Oriental  writers  the  Arabic  geographers  and 
natural  philosophers  are  of  great  value,  such  as 
Istachri,  Edrisi,  Ibn  liautal,  Abulfeda,  Yakut, 
AbdoUatiph,  Avicenna,  and  others ;  also  the  re- 
ligious books  of  the  Arabs  and  Parsees,  and  the 
older  poets  and  historians,  are  of  interest.  Of 
still  greater  importance  are  the  numerous  travel- 
lers' sketches  from  the  Orient,  old  and  new,  which 
wall  be  enumerated  in  the  article  on  Palestine. 
We  mention  here  only  two  works,  giving  extracts 
from  older  travels,  and  applying  them  immedi- 
ately to  peculiar  passages  of  the  Bible.  E.  F.  C. 
Rosenmulleu  :  Da.t  alle  untl  neue  Morgenland,  6 
vols.,  Leipzig,  1818,  an  enlarged  translation  of 
Burder's  Oriental  Customs,  London.  1802,5th  ed., 
1816,  2  vols.;  and  Tii.  Harmar  :  Beuhachtungen 
iitter  d.  Orient  aus  Reiselie.^ckreibungen,  ed.  J.  E. 
Faber,  Hamburg,  1772,  and  Clarke,  London,  1876, 
4  vols. 

Of  the  sep.arate  branches  of  biblical  archse- 
ology  we  mention  first  biblical  geography  and 
natural  history,  including  the  views  of  the  He- 
brews of  the  universe  and  the  e.arth,  and  their 
knowledge  of  geography  and  ethnology.  For 
more  detailed  inform.ation  on  this  point  we  refer 
to  the  special  articles,  and  mention  here  only  the 
principal  works  on  natural  history  according  to 
the  Bible.  J.  J.  Scheuchzer:  Physica  Sacra, 
1731  (illustrated)  ;  Odmann  :  Gemischte  Samm- 
lungen,  Rostock,  1786;  J.  B.  Friedreich:  liibcl. 
Naturhist.  untl  Mediz.  Frarpncnle,  Niiriiberg,  1848; 
Tristu.^m  :  The  Natural  Hi.ilory  of  the  Bible,  Lon- 
don, 1873,  3d  ed.;  S.  Bociiart:  Hierozoicon,\Qid'i, 
ed.  Rosenmiiller,  Lips.,  1793;  Oi..  Celsius:  Hie- 
robotanicon,  Upsala,  1745.  Next  follows  a  repre- 
.sentation  of  the  domestic  relations  .and  customs  of 
Israel, — family  and  marri.age,  parents  and  chil- 
dren, master  and  slaves,  house,  garments,  agri- 
culture, etc.,  which  we  propose  to  speak  of  in 
special  articles.  The  legal  anil  political  antiqui- 
ti<'8  of  the  Jews  have  been  treated  by  J.  I). 
MiCHAELis;  Mas.  liccht,  1770,  6  vols.;  IIull- 
m  A.NN  :  Stalscerfassung  iter  Isracliten.  Leipzig,  1834 ; 
SAAl.scHtJTZ  :  Das  Mas.  Recitt,  Berlin,  1853  ;  also 
Sei.de.n  :  De  Jure  Naturali  el  (lentium  juxta  Dis- 
cipil.  llebr.,  London,  1610.  The  so-called  sacred 
antiquities,  rel.ating  to  worshi]>,  have  been  treated 
by  Si'ENCEr:  De  Legibus  Hebr.  Ritual ibus,  Cambr., 
11)85;  Jon.  Lund:  Die  alien  JUdischiHi  Heilig- 
riiHiftr,  Ilanibuig.  16f15;  H.  Rei.and:  A'ntitpdlates 
Sacra:,  Traj.  ad  Rlien.,  1708,  with  notes  of  Kau  and 
Ugolino,  ed.  by  Vogel,  Halle,  176!);  Baiir  :  Die 
Si/mlmlik-  lies  Alos.  Kullus,  lleideUx'rg,  1837,  2  ed., 
vol.  i.,  1874;  IIaneiierg:  Die  rclig.  Alterlhiimer 
der  Bibrl,  Munich,  1861).  Hebrew  areha«logy  has 
been  specially  treated  by  (ioodwin  :  Mu.ie.i  et 
Aaron,  Oxou.,  1616,  ed.  Ilottinger,  1710;  Iken: 


ARCHEOLOGY. 


127 


ARCHDEACONS. 


Antiquilt.  Heh.,  Bremen,  1730,  5th  ed.,  1764; 
Waehner  :  Anliquilt.  EJiraor. ,  Gotixngew,  1743; 
Ugolino  :  T/iesauriis  Anlliiuilt.  Snernr.,  54  vols., 
Venet.,  1744,  a  collection  of  older  treatises ;  War- 
NKKROS  :  Entiourf  d.  helir.  AllerthutiH'r,  Weimar, 
1782,  3d  ed.  by  Hoffmann,  1832;  \V.  M.  L. 
I)K  VVkttk:  Lehrb.  it.  Iiehr.  jiid.  Arc/Keolnr/if, 
Leipzig,  1814,  4th  ed.  by  Rjibiger,  1804  ;  E\VAi.i> : 
Die  Alh'rtldimer  ties  Volkes  Israel,  Gottingen, 
1848,  3d  ed.,  1866;  Saalschijtz:  Arcli(ciil(i(/ie  d. 
Hebrceer,  Konigsberg,  1855;  Keil:  Ilaniiburh  d. 
Idbl.  Archdolofjie.  Frankfurt^am-Main,  1858,  1859, 
2  parts,  2d  ed.,  1S75.  lliblical  archa'ology  in  gen- 
eral has  been  treated  by  J.  Jahx  :  Bibl.  Arcliceolo- 
gie,  Vienna,  1796,  5  vols.,  E.  F.  C.  Kosknmuller  : 
Handbueh  des  biblisrheti  Alterthumsknnde,  Leipsic, 
1827,  7  vols.;  G.  B.  Winer:  Bibl.  Reaticorter- 
huch,  Leipsic,  1820,  2  vols.;  Sche.vkei,  :  Bibel- 
lexicon,  Leipzig,  1869,  5  vols.;  Rieum:  Hdnd- 
worterbuch  d.  bibl.  Allertiimer,  Leipsic,  1875  sqq.  ; 
Hamburger:  fieal-Encyklupadie,  1866  .sqq.;  J. 
KiTTO:  Ci/clopcedia  of  Biblical  Literature,  3d  ed.  by 
L.  Alexander,  London,  1869, 3 vols  ;  Smith:  Dic- 
tionary  nf  tlie  Bible,  London,  1860-63,  3  vols. 
[Am.  ed.  in  4  vols.].  RIJETSCHI. 

ARCH/EOLOGY,  Ecclesiastical,  is  a  branch  of 
church  history ;  but  its  boundaries  have  not  yet 
been  finally  fixed,  either  with  respect  to  the  ex- 
tension of  time,  or  with  respect  to  the  amount  of 
material,  which  it  ought  to  encompass.  Some, 
as  for  instance  Walch,  confine  it  to  the  three 
first  centuries;  while  others,  as  for  instance  Res- 
en  kranz  and  Piper,  want  to  continue  it  up  to  our 
time.  In  the  latter  case  its  name  has  sometimes 
been  altered ;  thus  Pellicia  calls  his  work  Christ. 
Efclesice  Polilia.  Again  :  some  place  the  bound- 
ary-line at  the  twelfth  (August!)  or  the  fifteenth 
century  (Baumgarten) ;  while  others,  following 
the  example  of  Joseph  Bingham,  place  it  at  the 
death  of  Gregory  the  Great  (604).  The  limita- 
tions of  the  material  vary  in  a  similar  way. 
Formerly  almost  every  thing  was  admitted  ;  and 
the  subject-matter  was  arranged,  rather  arbi- 
trarily, after  the  fashion  of  Terentius  Varro. 
It  was  Rosenkranz  and  Schleiermacher  who  first 
brought  system  into  the  limitation  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  materials.  In  his  Encyclo/xedie  der 
theol.  Wissenschaflen,  Rosenkranz  confines  the  do- 
main of  ecclesiastical  archseology  to  the  Christian 
cultus ;  while  Schleiermacher,  in  his  Darstellung 
des  tlieol.  Studiums,  also  admits  what  we  might 
call  Christian  customs.  To  these  two  titles 
most  modern  writers  have  added  a  third  one, 
ecclesiastical  constitution ;  and  thus  the  whole 
discipline  falls  into  three  divisions.  I.  Eccle- 
siastical constitution,  comprising  the  develop- 
ment of  general  priesthood  into  a  distinction 
between  clergy  and  laymen  ;  the  hierarchy  of 
ecclesiastical  offices,  etc.  II.  Christian  cultus, 
comprising,  first,  ecclesiastical  actions,  such  as 
sermon,  prayer,  song,  administration  of  the  sacra- 
ments, etc.  ;  next,  ecclesiastical  times,  such  as 
festivals,  etc. ;  and,  finally,  ecclesiastical  places, 
church  architecture,  religious  art,  etc.  III.  The 
settled  customs  of  Christian  life,  marriage  and 
burial  ceremonies,  etc.  The  last  of  these  three 
divisions  is  still  very  incompletely  developed  ; 
while  the  second,  on  account  of  the  immense 
treasures  of  Christian  art,  has  become  an  inde- 
pendent discipline,   and  the  name  "  church  an- 


tiquities "  or  "ecclesiastical  archaeology,"  like 
that  of  '•  classical  archaeology,"  is  often  confined 
t«  the  art  monuments. 

Previous  to  the  Reformation,  there  now  and 
then  appeared  works  which  touched  archaiological 
subjects,  such  as  Durandus  (d.  1294),  Raliomdes 
DiviiKirntii  Ojficiorum  :  but  it  was  the  Reformation 
which  first  occasioned  a  critical  treatment  of 
church  anti([uities.  The  two  great  works  on 
church  history  —  the  Mai/debiir</  Centuries  (Prot- 
estant) and  Annates  Baronii  (Roman  Catholic)  — 
contain  the  archa!ological  summaries  or  surveys, 
and  from  their  time  ecclesiastical  archaeology  was 
treated  as  a  separate  discipline.  Among  Protes- 
tant writers  we  mention  Joseph  Binciiam  : 
Orit/ines  Ecclesiasticcc,  or  llie  Antiquities  of  lite  ClirU- 
tian  Cliurcli,  London,  1708-22;  Augu.sti  :  Denk- 
leiirdifjkeiten  d.  christ.  Arcliwoloijie,  1816-31; 
RiiEi.vw.\LD  :  Kircld.  Arcli(eolo;/ie ;  Guekicke: 
Letirliucli  d.  clirist.-kireld.  Arcli(eotof/ie,  1847 
[Smith  and  Cheetham  :  Dirtiomir//  of  Clirislian 
Antiquities,  187.5, 2  vols.].  Among  Roman-Catholic 
writers  we  mention  Mamachii:  Oric/.  et  Aniiquit. 
C/irisl.,  1749,  5  vols.;  Bintekim:  DenkwUrdiijkeit' 
en  d.  Christ,  katliol.  Kirclie,  1825,  12  vols. — -Spe- 
cially relating  to  Church  Constitution,  Ziegler  : 
Gescliictite  d.  kircld.  Gesellschaftsformen,  1798; 
Planck  :  Entstehung  d.  christ.  kircld.  Gesell- 
scha/tsverfasswiy,  1803;  Rothe-  Anfunge  der 
chrisllichen  Kirche ,  IS'il ;  Ritschl:  Entstehunq  d. 
altkalholischen  Kirclie,  2d  ed.,  1857  ;  Beysciilag  : 
Die  christ.  GemeindeverJ'assung  ini  Zeitalter  d.  N. 
T.,  1874. — Cultus,  Alt:  Der  christliche  Cultus,  2 
vols.,  1851;  Harnack:  Der  christliche  Gemeinde- 
gottesdienst  im  apost.  Zeitalter,  1854.  —  Customs, 
ZoCKLER :  Geschickte  iter  Askese,  1863.  —  Art, 
Schnaase:  Kunstgeschichte ;  Rossi:  Roma  Sot- 
teranea,  Rome,  1864,  1867,  1877,  3  vols. ;  repro- 
duced in  NoRTHCOTE  and  Brownlow  :  Roma 
Sotteranea,  2d  ed.,  London,  1879,  3  vols.;  Guten- 
SOHN  and  Knapp  :  Die  Basiliken  d.  christ.  Rom, 
1842  ;  Unger  :  Griechische  Kunst ;  Otte  :  Hand- 
bueh d.  kirchl.  Kunstarchoeoloyie  des  deulsch.  Mit- 
telalters,  ISSS;  Didron  :  Iconoyraphie  chretienne , 
Crosnier  :  Iconographie  chretienne,  1848;  L. 
Twining  :  Symbols  and  Emblems  of  Early  and 
Mediceval  Christian  Art.  [Kraus:  Ueber  Beyriff, 
Umfang,  u.  Geschichte  der  chrisllichen  Archceologie. 
Freiburg,  1879;  Victor  Schultze:  Arclueol- 
ogische  Studien  idler  altchristliche  Monumenle, 
Wien,  1880.]  c.  bbockhauh. 

ARCHBISHOP.     See  Bishop. 

ARCHDEACONS  and  ARCHPRESBYTERS 
occur  very  early  in  the  dioceses  as  helpers,  and, 
under  certain  circumstances,  as  representatives, 
of  the  bishops ;  the  archdeacon  standing  at  the 
head  of  the  secular  clergy  in  all  questions  of 
government  and  administration,  and  the  arch- 
presbyter  heading  the  priests  in  matters  of  cult. 

The  origin  of  the  office  of  the  archpresbyter  is 
not  clear.  The  name,  upjOTpffT/iiiTc^of  (Sozom. 
Hist.  eccl.  VIII.  12),  or  irpoTO-npeniJinepof  (Socrat. 
//(s^  eccl.  VI.  9).  seems  originally  to  have  been 
given  in  the  Greek  Church  to  the  oldest  presbyter 
of  the  diocese  as  a  matter  of  course ;  but  by  de- 
grees, as  a  definite  distinction  became  established 
between  the  episcopate  and  the  presbyterate,  we 
find,  that,  towards  the  close  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, the  senior  presbyter  came  to  occupy  an  in- 
termediate position  between  the  bishop  and  the 


ARCHDEACONS. 


128 


ARCHICAPELLANUS. 


presbyters.  In  Western  Europe,  especially  in 
Germany,  the  office  developed  in  a  somewhat 
different  way.  Here  the  episcopal  dioceses,  cor- 
responding to  the  old  missionary  fields,  were 
much  larger,  and  so  were  the  parishes  into  which 
the  dioceses  were  divided,  and  which  often  fol- 
lowed the  boundary-line  of  some  political  sub- 
division. Each  parish  had  its  church,  often 
erected  on  the  site  of  some  ancient  Pagan  tem- 
ple; but  besides  these  parochial  churches  (eccle- 
siw  hapthmales:,  plelies,  titull  majares),  in  which  full 
service  was  performed  every  Sunday,  with  bap- 
tism, burial,  etc.,  each  parish  had  a  number  of 
minor  churches  (ar-aloria,  capellw,  liluli  tninores), 
often  connected  wdth  a  castle,  and  in  which  only 
sermons  were  delivered,  and  prayers  held,  but  no 
full  service  performed.  In  course  of  time  these 
oratoria.  capeUcc,  liliili  tninores,  became  parish- 
chm-ches  themselves,  with  full  service :  but  the 
original  parochial  church,  whose  incumbent  now 
assumed  the  title  of  archipresbyter,  or  decanus 
ruralLi.  continued,  nevertheless,  to  exercise  some 
kind  of  supervision  and  superintendence  over 
them. 

Archdeacons  occur  as  superior  officers  in  the 
administration  and  jurisdiction  of  the  episcopal 
diocese  as  early  as  the  pontificate  of  Leo  tlie 
Gi'eat.  In  the  eighth  century  they  were  regular 
priests,  and  superior  to  the  rural  deacons.  In 
the  ninth  century  in  France,  and,  somewhat  later 
in  Germany,  the  dioceses  were  divided,  and  each 
bishop  had  several  archdeacons  under  him.  With 
the  development  of  the  chapter-houses  the  pow- 
ers of  the  archdeacons  were  much  incre.ased,  as 
the  archdeaconates  were  genei'ally  held  by  the 
provost  of  the  cathedral  and  the  canons;  but 
from  this  circumstance  arose  also  a  conflict  be- 
tween the  archdeacon  and  the  bishop.  Origi- 
nally the  archdeacon  was  only  the  coadjutor  or 
representative  of  the  bishop  in  the  exercise  of 
the  episcopal  jurisdiction  :  but.  in  the  beginning 
of  tlie  thirteenth  century,  he  is  called  ^'urfex  tinli- 
nwiu.t.  and,  but  for  the  obstinate  resistance  of 
the  bishops,  he  would  probably  have  usurped  the 
whole  episcopal  power  of  jurisdiction,  lie  had 
also  the  right  to  hold  visitation.s,  to  examine  the 
candidates  for  ordination,  to  apjioint  and  rele- 
gate the  archpresbyters,  etc.  During  the  thir- 
teenth century  several  councils  (Tours,  I'J^JS); 
Liege,  1287 ;  Slainz,  1310,  etc.^  tried  to  circum- 
scribe the  powers  of  the  arclideacons  in  favor 
of  the  bishops,  and  very  complicated  questions  of 
competence  arose  every  now  and  then.  But  the 
Council  of  Trent  finally  settled  the  conflict. 
The  archdeacons  lost  their  right  of  visitation,  of 
jurisdiction  in  criminal  cases  and  ca.ses  of  mar- 
riage, etc.,  and  gradually  the  office  lost  its  im- 
portance, or  a-ssumud  other  forirfs.  In  the  Roman 
curia,  the  archdeacon  became  the  cardinal-cam- 
mcrlengo,  as  tlie  arclipresbyter  had  beconii!  the 
cardinal-vicar;  while  in  otlier  episcopal  curias, 
for  instance  in  (jermany,  the  oflice  disappeared 
altogether,  and  its  business  was  transferred  to 
the  vicar-general.  In  the  Church  of  England 
there  are  .seventy-one  archdeacons  apjiointed  by 
the  bishops,  and  acting  as  a  kind  of  vice-bishop, 
with  riglit  of  visitation,  Hus[)ension,  ex-commu- 
nication, etc.  See  Pkktmcii  :  Urs/iiunjj  der  Dia- 
iouoi,  llildesheim,  1743;  Cuu'l's:  Lmv  nlatintj  to 
the  Church  and  (Meryi/,  1850.  MEJEli. 


ARCHELA'US  (ruler  of  the  people),  a  son  of 
Herod  the  Great  by  the  Samaritan  Malthake ; 
brought  up  at  Rome  with  his  uterine  and  younger 
brother,  Herod  Antipas ;  succeeded,  according  to 
his  father's  will,  on  the  latter's  death  (B.C.  4), 
although  not  without  opposition  on  the  part  of 
Antipas,  to  the  government  of  Judrea  and  Sa- 
maria, with  the  title  of  ethnarch,  not  kinq  as  he  is 
called  by  Josephus  (Antiip  XVIII.  4.  3)  and  Mat- 
thew (ii.  22).  He  was  so  cruel,  that,  in  the  tenth 
year  of  his  reign,  he  was  deposed  by  Augustus, 
who  had  originally  given  him  his  government, 
and  banished  to  Vienne  in  Gaul,  on  complaint 
of  the  most  prominent  Jews  and  Samaritans, 
A.D.  6.  He  died  there.  Josephus  also  relates 
that  he  magnificently  rebuilt  the  palace  at  Jeri- 
cho, and  built  a  village,  called  after  him  Arche- 
lais.  He  was  twice  married,  first  to  Mariamne, 
whom  he  divorced  in  order  to  marry  Glaphyra, 
the  former  wife  of  his  brother  Alexander,  [to 
whom  she  had  borne  children,  and  thus  this 
second  marriage  was  illegal.]  See  Josephus  : 
Antiq.  XVH.  13. 

Lit.  —  Braun:  Die  Sohne  des  Herodes,  1873; 
Schurer:  Neutestamenlliche  Zeitf/eschichte,  L,eiip~ 
zig,  1874.  EMIL   SCHURER. 

AR'CHEVITES,  the  name  of  a  people  trans- 
planted by  the  Assyrians  into  the  depopulated 
Samaria  (Ez.  iv.  9).  They  were  inhabitants  of 
Erech  and  its  neighborhood,  mentioned  (in  Gen. 
X.  10)  as  belonging  to  the  kingdom  of.  Nimrod. 
Erech  has  been  identified  in  the  ruins  of  Warka, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  eighty-two 
miles  south-east  from  Babylon,  a  former  seat  of 
power,  and  apparently  the  necropolis  of  the  As- 
syrian kings,  judging  from  the  number  of  clay 
coffins  and  royal  inscriptions.  In  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions  the  place  is  named  Arku.  The 
Greeks  called  it  Orchoe. 

Lit.  —  Besides  the  commentaries  upon  Gen.  x. 
10 ;  Ez.  iv.  9,  see  Buttmann  :  Mytholoqiis,  vol. 
i.  (1828),  pp.  23.5-245.  V.itvv.k:' Erdkunde,  2d 
ed.,  vol.  xi.,  1844,  pp.  315-3,56.  Chesney:  The 
Ex/ieililiitnfor  the  Surr>>!/  of  the  Euphrates  and  Ti- 
i/ris  (  London,  1850,4  vols.).  Loktus  :  Travels 
and  Researches  in  Chatdiva  and  Siwiana  (London, 
1857),  p.  150  sq.  Rawlinson:  The  Five  Great 
Monarchies  of  the  Ancient  Eastern  World  (4  vols., 
London,  18G2-(>7,  3d  ed.,  1870,  reprinted  in  New 
York,  1881)  1st  vol..  p.  23.     wolf  baudissin. 

ARCHICAPELLANUS  (apocrisiarius.  patalii  cus- 
tos,  (ditiiis  ref/ii  oratorii,  etc.)  w-as  the  highest  dig- 
nitary in  the  church  of  the  ancient  Fr.ankish 
Empire.  To  the  royal  court,  still  ambulant,  and 
changing  its  residence  from  place  to  place,  there 
belonged  a  number  of  clerical  per.sons,  at  the 
head  of  whom  stood  the  .archicapellanus.  His 
office  was  to  report  to  the  king  on  all  ecclesiasti- 
cal attairs;  and  as  the  Fraiikish  Church  of  that 
time,  ill  vindication  of  its  independence  of  Rome, 
.sought  and  found  its  centre  in  the  royal  power, 
the  arcliicapcllaiius  became  natiiially  the  most 
influential  and  powerful  of  the  Frankish  prelates. 
Soon  his  oflice  extended  al.so  to  secular  affairs. 
He  became  chief  of  the  chancery,  and  the  sum- 
mns  cancellariiis  became  his  subordinate.  The 
oflice  was  generally  filled  by  an  archbishop, 
after  the  division  of  the  empire  it  was  even  con- 
nected with  a  certain  see,  —  for  (iermany  with 
Mainz,  for  Gaul  with  Treves,  for  Italy  with  Co- 


ARCHIMANDRITE. 


129 


ARCHITECTURE. 


logne.  See  Hincmar:  Dc  ordine  palalii,  c.  13,  10, 
19,  20,  32;  and  the  article  on  Ei.kkmosynaiui. 

ARCHIMANDRITE  (upx"^  ^m  ii<ivi\)ai,  from  iiiin- 
iV'fl.  fold,  being  geuerally  applied  to  a  monastic 
association  as  consisting  of  tlie  sheep  of  Christ) 
was  the  name  given  since  the  fifth  century  to  the 
head  of  a  monastery  by  the  (ireek  Christians,  and 
generally  used  in  the  Eastern  Church,  though  it 
also  occurs  in  the  Western.  In  old  times  it  was 
sometimes  applied,  both  by  Greek  and  Latin 
Christians,  to  all  prelates,  regardless  of  their  re- 
spective rank. 

ARCHITECTURE,  Hebrew.  The  notices  which 
the  Bible  gives  of  Hebrew  architecture  are  very 
few,  and  so  are  the  architectural  remains  from 
biblical  times  found  in  Palestine.  The  common 
house  was  that  generally  met  with  throughout 
the  whole  Orient,  built  of  baked  or  sun-dried 
brick,  sometimes  of  hew'n  stones  (Isa.  ix.  10), 
cemented  by  lime  (Isa.  xxvii.  9)  or  gypsum,  and 
often  plastered  (Lev.  xiv.  41;  Ezek.  xiii.  10; 
Matt,  xxiii.  27).  The  beams  and  the  roofing 
were  made  of  sycamore,  sometimes  of  olive  or 
cedar-wood  (Isa.  ix.  10;  Jer.  xxii.  14).  In 
palaces,  columns  and  colonnades  were  of  frequent 
occurrence  (Judg.  iii.  23).  Larger  houses  con- 
sisted of  several  stories,  and  were  built  in  a 
square,  around  a  roomy  court-yard,  which  con- 
tained the  well  and  the  fountain  (2  Sam.  xi.  2, 
xvii.  18).  .Sometimes  such  houses  had  a  front 
court,  from  which  people  entered  into  the  inner 
court  through  a  door,  or  ascended  to  tlie  upper 
stories  or  to  the  roof  by  stairs  (Mark  xiv.  68 ; 
Luke  xvi.  20;  John  xviii.  16;  Acts  x.  17). 
The  roof  was  flat,  only  a  little  inclined  to  let  off 
the  rain-water,  and  provided  with  a  breastwork 
(Deut.  xxii.  8).  It  w-as  used  for  various  domes- 
tic purposes, — for  recreation  and  sleep,  for  lonely 
meditations  and  religious  exercises,  and  iu  cases 
when  somebody  wished  everybody  to  see  and 
hear  what  he  said  or  did  (2  Sam.  xi.  2 ;  1  Sam. 
ix.  25  ;  Acts  x.  9  ;  2  .Sam.  xvi.  22  ;  IMatt.  x.  27  ; 
Isa.  xxii.  1).  Stairs  led  up  to  it,  both  from  the 
street  and  from  the  interior  of  the  house.  With 
thJ  roof  communicated  the  so-called  upper  room, 
which  was  used  as  a  place  of  retirement,  a  kind 
of  house-chapel  (2  Sam.  xviii.  33  ;  2  Kings  xxiii. 
12  ;  Acts  i.  13,  xx.  8),  or  as  a  spare-room  for 
guests  (2  Kings  iv.  10).  It  was  cool  (Judg.  iii. 
20),  and  here  the  corpse  was  laid  out  before 
burial  (Act.  ix.  37,  39).  The  walls  were  gen- 
erally wainscoted,  the  panels  being  sometimes 
inlaid  with  ivory  (1  Kings  xxii.  39;  Jer.  xxii. 
14).  Light  was  admitted  through  latticed  win- 
dows (Judg.  V.  28).  The  doors  were  shut  by 
wooden  bars,  and  the  posts  were  adorned  with 
proverbs  (Deut.  vi.  9).  Rich  people  had  rooms 
for  the  summer,  and  rooms  for  the  winter,  the 
latter  provided  witli  a  hearth  (Jer.  xxxvi.  22  ; 
Amos  iii.  15).  The  back  rooms  were  destined  for 
the  women,  and  could  be  entered  by  none  but 
the  master  of  the  house. 

A  Hebrew  architecture,  in  the  proper  sense  of 
the  word,  did  not  arise,  liowever,  until  the  times 
of  the  kings.  But,  immediately  after  the  con- 
quest of  Zion,  David  began  to  rebuild  and  fortify 
the  city,  and  to  erect  a  palace  for  himself.  Still 
greater  and  more  brilliant  were  the  undertakings 
of  his  .son  Solomon.  He  enlarged  and  strength- 
ened  the   city-wall   and   the   Castle  of  Millo  (1 

10 -I 


Kings  iii.  1,  ix.  15,  24,  xi.  27),  erected  for- 
tresses and  palaces  also  outside  of  the  capital  (1 
Kings  ix.  15-19),  and  built  a  costly  aqueduct  by 
which  excellent  drinking-water  was  led  from  the 
region  of  Etani,  south-we.st  of  Bethlehem,  to 
Jerusalem.  His  two  most  magnificent  buildings, 
however,  were  the  temple  and  the  ])alace.  It 
took  seven  years  and  a  lialf  to  build  the  former 
(1  Kings  vi.  38),  besides  three  years  to  gather 
and  prepare  the  materials,  during  wliich  time  a 
hundred  and  eighty-three  thousand  Jews  and 
strangers  were  employed.  The  contractors  and 
superintendents  were  Phrenicians.  The  cedar 
and  cypress  wood,  and  probably  also  the  stone, 
was  brought  from  Lebanon,  floated  down  to  Joppa, 
and  thence  hauled  to  Jerusalem.  On  Mount 
Moriah  enormous  substructures  had  to  be  raised, 
in  which  huge  stones  were  used,  thirty  feet  long, 
seven  feet  and  a  half  thick,  and  liewn  in  a  man- 
ner not  met  with  outside  of  Phoenicia  and  Syria. 
These  truly'cyclopean  walls  have  partially  with- 
stood the  vicissitudes  of  thirty  centuries,  while 
the  temple  it.self  has  wholly  disappeared.  The 
building  of  the  royal  palace  took  thirteen  years 
(1  Kings  vii.  1).  It  stood  on  the  north-eastern 
side  of  JNlount  Zion,  west  of  the  temple,  and  con- 
sisted of  two  large  courts  connected  by  a  passage- 
yard  (2  Kings  XX.  4).  In  the  centre  of  the  front 
court  stood  the  House  of  the  Forest  of  Lebanon, 
two  hundred  feet  long,  one  hundred  feet  broad, 
and  sixty  feet  high,  consisting  of  three  stories, 
and  forming  an  interior  court-yard,  surrounded 
by  open  galleries,  which  rested  on  four  rows  of 
colunnis  of  cedar- wood.  A  flight  of  stairs  led  to 
the  passage-yard,  with  a  hall  one  hundred  feet 
long  and  sixty  feet  broad,  resting  on  columns, 
where  stood  the  magnificent  throne  (1  Kings  x. 
18).  In  the  back  court  was  the  palace  proper, 
with  the  harem,  etc.  A  wall  of  three  rows  of 
huge  hewn  stones,  with  a  battlement  of  cedar 
beams,  surrounded  the  whole  structure.  The 
interior  decorations  consisted  exclusively  of  foli- 
age ornaments,  whose  character,  though  very 
different  from  what  elsewhere  occurs  in  antique 
art,  is  tolerably  well  known  from  ancient  He- 
brew tombs. 

From  the  circumstance  that  both  under  David, 
and  still  more  under  Solomon,  every  architectural 
undertaking  was  executed  by  the  aid  of  King 
Hiram  of  Tyre  and  his  Phoenician  artisans  (1 
Kings  V.  9;  Joseph.  Ant.  8,  5,  3),  it  has  been 
generally  inferred  that  Hebrew  architecture  was 
a  mere  repetition  of  Phoenician  architecture. 
Nevertheless,  in  the  description  of  the  palace,  not 
only  the  general  impression,  but  a  number  of  de- 
tails, remind  most  decidedly  of  the  palaces  of  the 
valley  of  the  Nile,  and,  with  respect  to  the  temple, 
the  model  was  the  tabernacle,  and  in  the  details 
foreign  influence  can  have  made  itself  felt  only 
so  far  as  it  was  compatible  with  the  Jewish  idea 
of  God.  In  Hebrew  architecture,  when  it  stood 
at  its  highest,  in  the  time  of  the  kings,  both 
^Egyptian  and  Assyrian  influences  have  asserted 
themselves  beside  the  Plioenician.  After  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees,  especially  under  the 
Herodian  dynasty,  Greek  taste  and  Greek  style 
became  prevailing.  All  the  magnificent  struc- 
tures from  that  time  —  gynmasiums,  baths,  thea- 
tres, palaces,  and  colonnades  —  were  Greek,  and 
so  was,  to  a  great  extent,  the  new  temple  built 


ARCHITECTURE. 


130 


ARCHITECTURE. 


by  Herod  (Joseph.  Anl.  15,  8,  1 ;  15,  9,  4;  6;  15, 
10,  3).     See  Tabernacle,  Temple. 

Lit. — MiCHAELis  :  De  Jud.  Arch.,  Gottingen, 
1771 ;  KuGLER :  Geschichle  der  BaukunM,  1855- 
60;  LuBKE  :  Geschkhte  der  Archileclur,  1865,  and 
his  History  of  Art  (edited  by  Clarence  Cook), 
New  York,  1878,  2  vols.;  De  Vogue:  V Archi- 
tecture dans  la  St/rin.  Paris,  1865.         RUETSCHI. 

ARCHITECTURE,  Christian,  does  not  denote 
a  special  ch-apter  of  the  history  of  architecture. 
Taken  into  the  service  of  the  Christian  Church, 
and  adapting  itself  to  the  liturgical  demands 
of  Christian  worship,  architecture  burst  into  a 
new  bloom,  and  produced  some  of  its  grandest 
fruits;  but  it  received  this  new  spirit,  and  acted 
upon  this  new  impulse,  without  deserting  its  old, 
already  established  norms,  without  any  sudden 
breach  in  its  onward  development. 

The  gospel  was  preached  in  the  synagogues  of 
the  cities  (.\cts  xiv.  1,  xvii.  1,  xviii.  4,  xviii.  19, 
xix.  9);  but  as  soon  as  a  congregation  was  formed, 
and  a  peculiar  worship  began  to  develop,  the 
Christians  separated  from  the  synagogue,  and 
held  their  gatherings  in  private  houses  (.\cts  ii. 
46,  XX.  9;  Rom.  xvi.  5;  1  Cor.  xvi.  19).  In  the 
times  of  persecution  every  place  might  become  a 
place  of  worship,  —  the  field,  the  desert,  the  .ship, 
the  inn,  the  jail,  and  the  tomb  (Euseb.  Hist.  Eccl. 
V.  22).  For  a  long  period  the  catacombs  of 
Rome  were  the  church  of  the  Roman  congrega- 
tion, the  place  of  their  teaching  and  their  wor- 
ship. Independent  church-buildings,  that  is, 
buildings  erected  or  set  apart  for  the  divine  ser- 
vice of  the  congregations,  existed  in  the  third 
century;  but  the  slight  and  frail  character  of  these 
structures  is  proved  by  the  circumstance,  that, 
during  the  persecution  of  Diocletian,  the  famous 
Church  of  Nicomedia  was  destroyed  and  levelled 
to  the  ground  by  the  Praetorian  guard  in  the  course 
of  a  few  hours  (Lactant.  De  Mortib.  Persecut., 
c.  12). 

Not  until  the  time  of  Con.st.antine  did  Chris- 
tian architecture  become  an  art;  and  so  slight 
■were  its  pretensions  to  originality,  so  closely  did 
it  adapt  itself  to  the  artistic  forms  already  ex- 
isting, that  it  appeared  at  once  in  two  entirely 
different  styles,  I.  The  Hdsilicon,  and,  II.  The 
Bi/zantine,  corresponding  to  the  two  principal 
types  of  national  civilization,  —  the  Roman  and 
tne  Greek.  Between  these  two  styles  there  is  very 
little  similarity ;  for  in  neither  of  them  is  there, 
in  their  first  productions,  any  thing  strikingly  and 
pronouncedly  Christian.  The  Byzantine  was  the 
more  magnificent  and  brilliant  of  the  two.  But 
it  soon  became  stationary,  and  even  degenerated; 
while  the  Basilican  developed  two  new  and  grand 
Jihases,  III.  The  y^owndcwyiie,  and,  IV.  The  (j'o/AiC 
style. 

I.  The  Basilican  sli/le  sprung  from  the  Roman 
ba,silica,  which  was  not  only  imitated,  but  in  many 
ca-ses  actually  taken  possession  of,  and,  with  few 
and  slight  alterations,  used  as  a  Christian  chin-ch. 
The  style  became  |)r<;valent  throughout  the  West- 
ern countries,  and  lasted  till  the  beginningof  the 
eleventh  century.  Under  (lie  reign  of  Constan- 
tine,  and  i>artly  by  his  su]iport,  several  iii.igiiifi- 
cent  structures  wen;  erected  in  this  style,  both  in 
the  East  and  in  the  West,  such  as  tin;  Basilica  of 
Tyre,  built  (31 3-22)  by  Bishop  Paulinus,  the 
Church  of  St.  Mary  in  Bethlehem  (328-36),  the 


Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  in  Jerusalem,  con- 
sisting of  a  basilica  and  a  rotunda,  the  Church  of 
the  Vatican  (336),  that  of  the  Lateran,  etc.  As 
specimens  still  existing  and  in  good  repair  may 
be  mentioned,  .S.  Paolo  fuori  le  mura,  S.  A(/nese 
fuori  le  mura,  S.  Cteinente  in  Rome,  5.  Apoltinare 
in  Classe  in  Ravenna,  etc. 

The  Roman  basilica,  an  imitation  of  the 
Greek  (Saai'Mnii  cttoo,  thus  called  because  the  second 
archou,  the  dpxtJv  fSacAtix,  held  his  court  there, 
was  a  rectangular  structure  of  two  stories,  pre- 
senting a  bare  wall  to  the  street,  and  forming  in 
the  interior  a  large  hall  surrounded  by  columns 
and  galleries.  In  the  front  was  an  open  court, 
alriunt,  narlhex ;  in  the  rear  a  semicircular  addi- 
tion covered  with  a  vault,  hemicijclium,  Irihnna. 
The  main  hall  was  used  by  the  Romans  as  a  kind 
of  bourse,  or  exchange :  in  the  trihuna  sat  the 
court,  —  the  judge,  the  lawyers,  the  witnesses,  etc. 

The  changes  which  it  was  necessary  to  make  in 
order  to  transform  this  structure  from  an  ex- 
change to  a  church  were  not  many.  The  atrium 
was  enlarged,  and  provided  with  a  fountain. 
Here  assembled  the  catechumens  and  the  peni- 
tents ;  but  when  the  church  ceased  to  have  cate- 
chumens, and  public  penance  was  abolished,  the 
atrium  disappeared  altogether.  From  the  atrium, 
the  interior  hall  —  the  place  of  the  baptized,  the 
faithful,  the  true  congregation  —  was  entered 
through  three,  or  five,  or  even  seven  doors,  accord- 
ing as  the  hall  was  divided  in  three,  or  five,  or 
seven  aisles.  Three  was  the  common  number. 
Two  parallel  rows  of  columns  divided  the  hall 
into  three  aisles,  of  which  the  middle  one,  the 
nave  proper,  generally  was  double  as  broad  and 
double  as  high  as  the  side-aisles,  and  enclosed  on 
on  account  of  its  additional  height  by  a  solid  wall 
resting  on  the  columns,  and  on  arches  spanning 
from  column  to  column,  and  pierced  towards  the 
roof  by  a  row  of  windows.  The  hemici/clium,  or 
trihuna,  now  became  the  sacarium,  or  sanctitarium , 
trlie  place  of  the  clergy,  elevated  a  few  steps  above 
the  nave,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  railing. 
Here  stood  in  the  centre  the  altar,  on  both  sides; 
in  front,  the  ambons,  or  pulpits ;  in  the  middle, 
behind  the  altar,  the  bishop's  throne,  and  all 
along  the  wall  the  .seats  for  the  clergy. 

The  exterior  effect  of  the  basilica  was,  no  doubt, 
heavy  and  cold  ;  but  the  interior  must  have  mada 
an  impression  of  great  magnificence,  though  per- 
fect harmony  may  have  been  wanting.  The 
doors  were  of  carved  wood  or  gilt  bronze,  and 
provi<ied  with  hangings  of  costly  stuffs  embroi- 
dered with  gohl  and  silver.  The  columns  were 
of  the  finest  marble,  sometimes  of  porphyry, 
taken  from  the  old  Pagan  temples;  the  seats,  of 
marble  and  bronze,  or  of  wood  inlaid  with  ivory 
and  precious  stones,  taken  from  the  baths  and  the 
theatres.  The  roof  was  of  wood,  gilt  or  painted; 
and  the  heaviness  of  the  masonry  was  relieved 
by  exquisite  pictures  in  mosaic.  Originally  these 
pictures  were  used  simply  as  a  method  of  teach- 
ing, as  a  means  by  which  to  impress  the  prin- 
cipal facts  of  the  Christian  faith  upon  the  minds 
of  th(;  congreg.ation  ;  but  in  course  of  time  they 
were  employed  for  jiurely  a'sthetii^  il  |)in-poses. 

Iat.  —  Descriptions  of  individual  churches  by 
Eisiinius  (//«/.  JCccl.  X.  4)  and  by  Paulinu.s  of 
.N'ola  (Nulal.  X.  and  K/n's'.  ad  Serer.,  13);  Vrritu- 
vils:    Dc  Archili'clnra :    Hunsen:   Die   Basiliken 


ARCHITECTURE. 


131 


ARCHITECTURE. 


rfc.s-    chrhtlivhcn    Roms,    1842;    Huiiscn:    Die    alt- 
clirisllirliiii  KircJien,  1858-Gl. 

II.  T/ie  lifizdniine  xti/lt'  originated,  according  to 
some  art-historians,  from  the  Roman  mausoleum, 
accordiiii;  to  otliers,  from  a  Persian  influence, 
most  probalily  from  botli.  The  cupola,  whicli  is 
the  most  prominent  feature  in  Byzantine  cliurch- 
arcliitecture,  was  frequently  used  in  Roman 
tombs;  and  the  transition  from  a  Pagan  mauso- 
leum erected  in  honor  of  some  hero,  to  the  Chris- 
tian church  raised  as  a  mausoleum  over  the 
remains  of  a  martyr,  seems  both  easy  and  natural. 
But  in  the  Roman  tombs  the  cupola  was  always 
placed  on  a  circidar  substructure,  and  it  was  in 
Persia  that  the  problem  was  first  solved  of  placing 
the  cupola  on  a  squari  substructure  by  forming 
an  octagon  in  the  interior  of  the  square  by  means 
of  a  huge  pillar  in  each  angle.  This  Persian 
form  of  dome-building  —  the  combination  of  the 
cupola  and  the  square  — ■  the  Eastern  Church 
adopted ;  and  in  this  ground-plan  it  found  its 
spirit  expressed,  its  wants  satisfied.  The  struc- 
ture became  higher  and  loftier;  and,  by  the  op- 
portunity it  afforded  to  place  galleries  on  lower 
columns  between  the  pillars,  it  at  once  acquired 
a  more  picturesque  and  imaginative  appearance, 
and  met  the  want,  so  peremptory  in  the  East,  of 
full  separation  between  tlie  sexes.  In  the  Roman 
basilica,  with  its  atrium  for  the  catechumens  and 
penitents,  its  nave  for  the  congregation,  its  apsis, 
or  sancluariuiii,  for  the  officiating  clergy,  we  recog- 
nize the  Western  Church,  with  its  craving  for 
clear  and  definite  organization,  for  policy.  In  the 
Byzantine  dome,  in  which  the  light  and  broad 
aisles  have  been  transformed  into  narrow  and 
dark  corridors,  in  which  the  atrimu,  and  even  the 
apsis,  with  the  altar,  have  shrunk  into  insignifi- 
cance, in  which  the  whole  construction  is  concen- 
trated on  the  free  central  space,  where  a  dim  light 
floats  far  aloft  under  the  cupola,  we  recognize  the 
Eastern  Church,  with  its  craving  for  dreamy  and 
subtle  speculation,  for  theology. 

Several  fine  specimens  of  the  style  were  pro- 
duced in  the  reign  of  Constantine,  such  as  the 
so-called  Dommiuin  Aureutn  in  Antioch  (331); 
the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  in  Jerusalem, 
which,  as  above  mentioned,  combined  a  basilica 
with  a  rotunda ;  the  Church  of  the  Apostles  in 
Constantinople ;  the  Church  of  the  Ascension  on 
Mount  Olivet,  etc.  But  its  p)oiut  of  culmination 
it  did  not  reach  until  in  the  sixth  century,  under 
the  reign  of  Justinian.  The  two  masterpieces 
of  the  style  are  St.  Vitale  in  Ravenna  (520-47) 
and  St.  Sophia  in  Constantinople  (532-57). 
The  latter  is  probably  the  grandest  monument  of 
Christian  art,  covering  an  area  of  seventy  thou- 
sand square  feet.  The  bulk  of  the  building  forms 
nearly  a  square,  two  hundred  and  thirty-five  feet 
the  one  way,  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  the 
other.  The  central  dome  —  a  hundred  and  seven 
feet  in  diameter,  and  forty-six  feet  high  —  rises 
a  hundred  and  eighty  feet  from  the  floor ;  east 
and  west  it  rests,  not  on  pillars  with  piers,  but 
on  two  semi-domes  of  the  same  dimensions,  and 
thus  a  central  space,  two  hundred  feet  long  and 
a  hundred  feet  broad,  is  left  entirely  free  and  un- 
encumbered. The  costliness  of  the  materials  — 
gold  and  silver,  ivory  and  precious  stones,  por- 
phyry and  marble  —  corresponded  to  the  grandeur 
of  the  dimensions ;  and  when  the  building  was 


finished,  Justinian  burst  out,  "I  have  eclij'sed 
thee,  O  Solomon  !  "  Since  1453  St.  Sophia  has 
been  used  by  the  Turks  as  a  common  mosque. 

A  latter  development  of  the  Byzantine  style 
shows  a  substitution  of  the  (ireek  cross  for  the 
sipuire  substructure,  and  a  multi|ilication  of  the 
cupolas,  —  one  at  the  end  of  each  arm,  and  one 
over  the  crossing.  The  Church  of  St.  Mark  in 
Venice  (1043-71)  is  the  most  prominent  ex- 
ample. A  still  further  complication  was  reached 
by  combining  the  Greek  cro.ss  with  the  square. 
The  number  of  cupolas  was  then  increased  to 
nine,  — one  at  the  end  of  each  arm.  one  over  the 
crossing,  and  one  in  each  corner  of  the  square ; 
and  various  fantastic,  almost  grotesque  forms 
were  attempted.  Many  examples  are  found  in 
Russia.  In  Western  Europe  the  style  penetrated 
only  as  far  as  the  Hungarian  frontier,  with  the 
exception  of  some  places  in  Northern  Italy;  but 
in  Eastern  Europe  and  Western  Asia  it  was  and 
is  generally  prevailing. 

Lit.  —  Descriptions  of  individual  churches  are 
found  in  Eusebius  :  Vila  Conxlunlini,  III.,  50; 
IV.,  30,  58,  and  in  a  poem  by  Paulus  Silen- 
TiARius  on  St.  Sophia,  in  Scripl.  Hint.  Byzant.  ; 
Texier  et  P.  PuLLAN  :  Arciiitccture  Byzantine, 
1854  ;  Selzenberg  :  AltcJirislliche  Baudenkmale 
von  Konstantinopel. 

III.  The  Romanefsque  /style  was  simply  a  devel- 
opment from  the  basilican  by  adaptation  of 
various  Byzantine  motives,  especially  the  round 
arch.  It  dates  as  a  definite  style  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eleventh  century,  and  produced  a 
number  of  fine  buildings  in  Upper  Italy  and  in 
the  valleys  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Rhone.  It  was, 
nevertheless,  only  a  transition  style ;  and  during 
the  thirteenth  century  it  disappeared,  its  true 
and  perfect  ideal  having  been  found  in  the 
Gothic  style. 

Under  the  rule  of  the  Romanesque,  both  the 
ground-pilan  and  the  interior  and  exterior  ar- 
rangement of  the  old  basilica  were  materially 
changed.  The  most  important  of  these  changes 
was  the  introduction  of  transepts,  or  the  adap- 
tation of  the  cruciform  plan  with  fixed  mathe- 
matical proportions.  In  the  old  basilica,  all 
proportions  had  been  completely  arbitrary ;  but 
in  the  cruciform  plan  the  proportions  became 
fixed,  as  the  cross  was  invariably  produced  by 
repeating  the  square,  chosen  as  unit,  three  times 
to  the  west,  and  one  time  respectively  to  the 
north,  east,  and  south.  The  establishment  of 
chapters,  or  the  connection  between  the  church 
and  the  monastery,  made  an  extension  of  the 
choir  necessary.  The  introduction  of  side-altars 
produced  a  number  of  apses,  especially  at  the 
termination  of  the  transepts  and  the  aisles.  The 
development  of  the  vault  over  the  martyr's  bones 
into  a  complete  crypt  caused  the  choir  to  be 
raised  considei'ably  above  the  floor  of  the  nave. 
In  the  Cathedral  of  Brandenburg,  a  flight  of 
twenty-two  stairs  led  from  the  latter  to  the 
former.  The  ati-imn  disappeared;  and  the  can- 
tharus  was  moved  inside  the  door,  where  it  be- 
came the  font  with  holy  water.  A  belfry  was 
raised, —  first  one,  and  as  an  independent  building, 
then  two,  and  connected  with  the  western  termi- 
nation of  the  main  building,  —  where,  instead  of 
the  alrium,  a  front  fa<;ade  was  formed,  with  an 
elaborate  portal  and  window,  etc. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


132 


ARCHITECTURE. 


Of  still  greater  consequence  were  the  changes 
which  the  introduction  of  the  round  arch  caused 
in  the  construction  of  the  building.  When  the 
flat  •nooden  ceiling  was  discarded,  the  barrel- 
vault  was  first  tried,  as  the  easiest  to  build :  but, 
as  the  barrel-vault  pressed  with  equal  force  on 
every  point  of  the  side-walls,  it  was  necessary  to 
give  these  an  enormous  strength.  Then  the 
cross-vault  was  adopted,  in  which  the  pressure  is 
concentrated  on  those  four  points  in  which  the 
ribs  touch  the  side-walls.  These  four  points  it 
became  necessary  to  strengthen  with  additional 
masonry,  while  the  intervening  portions  of  the 
wall  could  be  made  thinner  and  lighter  without 
weakening  the  structure.  Thus  the  dead  same- 
ness of  the  wall  was  broken,  and  the  formation  of 
pillars  began.  Also  the  cross-vaulting — looking 
like  a  softly  imdulating  cloth,  fastened  to  the 
points  of  abutment,  and  along  the  ribs,  but  raised 
as  if  by  an  upward  breeze  —  matle  a  much 
stronger  impression  of  life  and  animation  than 
the  flat  wooden  ceiling  ;  and,  compared  with  the 
old  Basilican  style,  the  Romanesque  was  a 
decided  progress,  though  it  generally  makes 
a  somewhat  heavy,  and  not  fully  harmonious 
impression. 

IV.  The  Gothic  style  realized  all  the  aspirations 
of  the  Romanesque.  Retaining  the  ground-plan 
and  general  arrangement  such  as  they  had  been 
fixed  by  the  Romanesque  style,  the  Gothic  seized 
upon  the  new  principle  of  construction  intro- 
duced, but  only  feebly  developed,  by  the  Roman- 
esque, —  the  arch,  —  and  carried  it  out  to  its  last 
consequences  and  to  its  highest  perfection,  pro- 
ducing buildings  which  are  marvels  of  audacity, 
and  marvels  of  beauty. 

The  difference  between  the  Romanesque  and 
the  Gothic  style  arises  from  the  substitution  by 
the  latter  of  the  pointed  arch  for  the  round.  To 
whom  the  invention  of  the  pointed  arch  belongs 
is  not  known ;  but  true  lancet  arches  were  much 
use<l  in  Asia  by  the  Saracens  at  the  time  of  the 
first  crusade,  and  it  is  probable  that  it  was  the  cru- 
saders who  brought  this  novelty  back  to  Europe, 
as  we  find  it  introduced  almost  simultaneously 
in  France,  England,  Germany,  Spain,  and  Italy. 
The  most  palpable  advantage  which  the  pointed 
arch  has  above  the  semicircular  is,  that  it  nuikes 
it  as  easy  to  vault  an  oblong  as  a  square  place  liy 
allowing  arches  of  different  span  to  enter  into  the 
same  system.  They  need  only  to  be  constnuitcd 
on  different  radii  in  order  to  be  carried  to  the 
same  height.  But  still  greater  consequences  were 
involved  in  the  principle.  The  pre.ssuro  of  the 
pointed  arch  is,  of  course,  more  perpendicular 
than  that  of  the  semicircular.  The  side-thrust 
is  smaller.  Thus  it  becomes  easier  with  the 
pointed  arcli  to  gather  the  whole  pressure  of  the 
vault  in  a  few  single  points,  and  to  break  up 
completely  tlie  Hat  stretch  of  wall,  folding  it  into 
clustered  colunms,  and  giving  each  shaft  at  th<! 
sustaining  point  its  own  part  of  the  vault  to 
carry.  Thereby  all  the  lines  of  the  construction 
assume  an  upward  tendency,  which  wholly  oblit- 
erates the  idea  of  a  mechanical  contrivance,  and 
actually  produces  the  inqire.ssioti  of  organic 
growth.  It  is  the  great  triumph  of  tin?  Gothic 
style  that  it  alone,  among  all  styles,  has  been 
able  to  give  the  aspect  of  movement  to  stationary 
forms,  the  illusion  of  life  to  dead  iiiass»<. 


The  style  arose  in  the  twelfth  century,  culmi- 
nated in  the  thirteenth,  degenerated  by  excesses 
(such  as  the  Flamhoijant  in  France,  and  the  Per- 
pentlicular  in  England)  in  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries,  and  finally  gave  way  to  the 
Renaissance.  The  earliest  fully-developed  ex- 
ample is  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Denis,  consecrated 
in  1144  ;  and  in  Northern  France  the  style  reached 
its  highest  perfection  in  the  cathedrals  of  Notre 
Dame  in  Paris  (11G3-1312),  Chartres  (1195-1260), 
Rheims  (begun  in  1212),  Amiens  (1220-88),  etc. 
Also  in  England  it  produced  a  number  of  exceed- 
ingly fine  buildings,  such  as  the  Cathedral  of  Can- 
terburv  (1174),  Westminster  Abbey  in  London 
(1245-69),  the  cathedrals  of  Salisbury  (1220-58), 
Exeter  (1327-69),  etc.  But  the  difference  between 
Gothic  architecture  in  France  and  in  England, 
though  a  difference  of  national  taste  only,  not 
of  artistic  principle,  is,  nevertheless,  very  pro- 
nounced, and  strikes  the  beholder  at  the  very  first 
glance :  the  English  cathedral  is  'long  and  low, 
stately  and  solemn  ;  the  French  is  short  and  high, 
airy  and  spirited.  In  Germany,  Spain,  and  Italy* 
the  Gothic  style  developed  less  originality,  though 
in  the  first-mentioned  country  it  produced  two 
magnificent  buildings,  —  the  Church  of  St.  Ste- 
phan  in  Vienna,  and  the  Cathedral  of  Cologne. 

V.  27(6  Heiiaixgance  style,  which  in  the  course 
of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centui'ies  complete- 
ly superseded  the  Ciothic,  has  sometimes  been 
designated  as  a  I'eturn  to  Paganism.  It  was,  at 
all  events,  a  return  to  the  classical  forms.  It  be. 
gau  as  eclecticism.  The  round  arch,  the  cupola, 
the  column  in  its  classical  proportions  and  sig- 
nification, etc.,  were  once  more  resorted  to;  but 
it  ended  in  merely  copying  antique  temples  ;  that 
is,  the  shell  of  them  being  transferred  into  mod- 
ern cities  by  means  of  a  most  minute  imitation. 
Between  these  two  points,  the  Renaissance  period 
has  a  very  varied  history,  of  great  interest  to  the 
architect  proper,  but  not  so  very  impressive  to 
the  student  of  Christianity  and  its  influence  on 
the  world.  Its  chief  monument  is  the  Church  of 
St.  Peter  in  Rome,  commenced  in  1506  by  Bra- 
mante,  continued  by  R.aphael  (1514-20),  Peruzzi 
(lij20-46),  Michelangelo  (1546-64),  Carlo  Ma- 
derno  (lCO.j-29),  and  finished  by  Bernini  in  1667. 

Like  the  Romanesque,  the  Renaissance  style 
bore  the  character  of  being  a  transition,  with  the 
difl'erence,  however,  that  it  did  not  lead  to  any 
thing.  In  modern  times  church-building  is 
generally  a  more  or  li?ss  strict  adajitation  of  some 
older  style,  without  any  distinct  ideas  of  its  own. 
Sometimes  it  is  a  mixing-together  of  all  styles; 
sometimes  a  renunciation  of  style  altogether. 
The  latter  is  especially  the  case  in  America.  A 
great  number  of  churches  is  built  here;  but, 
though  some  of  them  are  very  costly  and  more 
or  loss  magnificent  structures,  most  of  them  are 
constructeil  merely  with  regard  to  convenience 
and  comfort. 

Lit.  —  For  the  three  last  divisions  of  this 
article,  see  the  pertiruMit  chapters  of  the  general 
history  of  architecture  by  Ivutji.iou,  LiJDKK  (Clar- 
ence Cook's  translation),  Vioi.i.kt-i.k-Duu,  and 
Fi'.HOUSoM,  and  moni  especially  BitowN  :  Sacred 
Architecture,  London.  1845;  Ciiahi.ks  Ei.iot 
NoitroN  :  Studies  itf  ('htircli-huildinf/  in  the  Middle 
A//CS,  New  York,  1880.  —  See,  on  this  general  sub' 
ject,  DiKi'oi.DKu:  Dcr  Tempclbau  der  vurchrisllichen 


ARCHONTICI. 


133 


ARGENTINE. 


u.  christliclien  Zeit,  oiler  die  hildenden  KUnste  im 
Dienste  der  Religion  bei  den  Ileiden,  Juden,  Moham- 
viedanerii  u.  Christen,  Leipzig,  1881. 

ARCHONTICI,  a  sect  of  the  fourth  century, 
composed  a  peculiar  kind  of  works  which  they 
called  rerelalion.i  (see  Pseudepiguaphs  of  the 
O.  T.),  in  one  of  which,  "  The  Symphony,"  tliey 
treated  of  the  seven  heavens,  each  of  which  had 
a  ruler,  lip.tui',  of  its  own.  Of  these  rulers,  whose 
mother  was  a  certain  Thotina,  they  said  that  they 
fed  on  human  souls,  and  could  not  exist  without 
such  food.  The  ruler  of  the  seventh  he.aven  they 
called  Zabaoth  (So/Jautf);  and  the  devil,  who  was 
identical  with  the  god  of  the  Jews,  was  one  of 
his  sons.  They  rejected  baptism ;  but  some  of 
them  used  to  sprinkle  the  head  of  the  dead  with 
water  or  oil,  thereby  intending  to  make  them  in- 
visible, and  raise  them  above  the  reach  of  the 
heavenly  powers.  The  sect  was  started  by  Peter 
of  Capharbaricha,  near  Jerusalem,  and;  especially 
under  the  vigorous  preaching  of  his  disciples, 
spread  among  rich  and  prominent  people.  Its 
doctrines,  Gnostic  in  general,  were  afterwards 
carried  into  the  Greater  and  Lesser  Armenia. 
See  Bauk:  Die  christliche  Gnosis,  Tubingen,  1835. 
The  source  of  all  our  knowledge  is  Epiphanius, 
Haer.  xl.     Later  writers  merely  copy  him. 

ARCHPRESBYTER.    See  Archdeacons. 

ARCIMBOLDI,  Giovanni  Angelo,  b.  in  Milan 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century,  d. 
there  in  1555,  studied  law,  obtained  an  appoint- 
ment in  the  service  of  the  Roman  curia,  became 
protonolarius  et  referendarius  apostolicus  for  all 
financial  matters  concerning  the  erection  of  the 
Church  of  St.  Peter,  and  was  in  1514  made 
commissary-general  for  the  sale  of  indulgences  in 
Northern  Germany  and  Scandinavia.  In  Den- 
mark he  staid  two  years,  and  realized  immense 
profits  by  selling  "forgiveness  for  all  kind  of 
crimes,  restitution  to  the  state  of  innocence  and 
purity  at  the  time  of  baptism,  and  free  entrance 
through  the  gates  of  heaven."  But  when,  in 
order  to  achieve  a  similar  success  in  Sweden,  he 
tried  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the  Swedish 
grandees  by  betraying  to  them  the  plans  of  the 
Danish  king,  all  the  propei-ty  he  had  amassed  in 
Denmark,  consisting  of  money,  jewelry,  iron, 
butter,  and  eggs,  was  confiscated.  He  had  to  flee 
for  his  life,  and  a  formal  accusation  of  treachery 
was  raised  against  him  in  Rome.  The  pope, 
however,  acquitted  or  forgave  him,  as  the  Danish 
king  proved  himself  favorable  to  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  Arcimboldi  afterwards  served  Charles 
v.,  was  made  Bishop  of  Novara  in  1525,  and 
Archbishop  of  Milan  in  1550.  In  literary  history 
he  acquired  a  name  by  his  discovei'y  of  the  five 
first  books  of  the  Annates  of  Tacitus  in  the  library 
of  the  Monastery  of  New-Corvey. 

ARCOSOLIUM,  from  aixus,  an  "arch,"  and 
solium,  a  "throne,"  a  "bath-tub,"  a  "cofiin," 
denotes  a  peculiar  tomb-arrangement  found  in 
the  Roman  catacombs,  and  employed  at  the 
graves  of  martyrs  and  other  eminent  persons. 
The  arrangement  is  this:  au  arch  is  hewn  into 
the  living  rock,  and  imderthis  arch  the  sarcopha- 
gus is  placed,  or  the  niche  is  closed  by  masonry 
to  the  height  of  a  common  table,  and  the  tomb 
thus  formed  covered  by  a  loose  slab.  Often  the 
background  of  the  uiche  is  painted,  or  ornament- 
ed in  various  other  ways. 


AR'ETAS.  1.  A  contemporary  of  the  Jewish 
high  priests  Jason  and  Menelaus,  and  of  the 
King  of  Syria,  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  B.C.  170 
(2  .Mace.  V.  8). 

2.  The  King  of  Arabia,  Nabata;a,  and  father- 
in-law  of  Herod  Antipas ;  but,  when  the  latter 
divorced  himself  from  his  (Aretas')  daughter  to 
make  way  for  Ilerodias,  Aretas  revenged  the 
insult  by  arms,  and  completely  defeated  the 
army  of  Herod  Antipas.  Antipas  complained  to 
his  patron,  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  who  commis- 
sioned Tellius,  Governor  of  Syria,  to  attack 
Aretas.  But  the  death  of  Tiberius  prevented 
him.  The  jiew  emperor,  he  thought,  might  not 
desire  to  continue  the  feuds  of  his  predecessor. 
The  interesting  point  in  this  history  is,  that 
to  Aretas,  having  now  the  good  graces  of  the 
Romans,  Caligula  restored  the  government  of 
Damascus,  and  thus  the  accuracy  of  Paul  is  fully 
sustained.  It  was  while  Aretas  was  king,  that 
the  governor  of  that  city,  incited  by  the  Jewish 
priests,  desired  to  apprehend  Paul.  This  was 
A.D.  38  or  39.  Mionnet,  Descript.  de  medailles 
antiques,  tom.  V.,  p.  285,  mentions  a  coin  from 
Damascus  with  the  name  of  Aretas  upon  it, 
which  is  to  be  set  down  as  probably  from  A.D. 
37  or  38. 

Lit.  — Karl  Wieseler  :  Clironoloyie  des  aposlo- 
lischen  Zeitalters,  Gottingen,  1848,  p.  142  sq., 
107  sq.  ;  ScHiJRER  :  Neutestamenlliche  Zeitye- 
schichte,  p.  233.  K.  WIESELER. 

ARETIUS,  Benedictus,  a  native  of  Biitterkind- 
en,  in  the  canton  of  Bern,  Switzerland,  studied 
at  Marburg,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  the- 
ology in  1563,  in  Bern,  where  he  died  in  1574. 
His  i^rincipal  work  —  Tlieoloijim  Problemata,  Gen- 
eva, 1579,  republished  in  1617  —  was  highly 
valued,  and  found  many  imitators.  His  Examen 
Theologicum  is  also  a  useful  book,  and  run 
through  six  editions  in  fourteen  years.  His 
commentary  on  the  New  Testament,  published  in 
1580,  was  republished  in  101(3,  and  his  commen- 
tary on  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Psalms  in  1618. 
He  also  gave  a  commentary  to  Pindar,  and  a 
description  of  the  fiora  of  .Stockhorn  and  Riesen. 
See  Melch.  Adam  :    Vil<e  Theolog. 

ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC,  The,  extending  be- 
tween the  Andes  to  the  west  and  the  Atlantic  to 
the  east,  between  Patagonia  to  the  south  and 
Bolivia  to  the  north,  was  discovered  by  Juan 
Diaz  de  Solis  in  1510,  occupied  by  the  Spaniards 
in  the  following  decades,  and  organized  as  a  part 
of  the  viceroyalty  of  Peru.  In  1778  a  separate 
viceroyalty  was  established,  with  Buenos  Ayres 
as  its  capital,  and  comprising  Bolivia,  Paraguay, 
Uruguay,  and  the  states  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata. 
In  1810,  after  the  dethi-onement  of  the  Bourbon 
dynasty  in  Spain,  a  revolution  broke  out  in  this 
group  of  colonial  lands,  which  ended,  in  1842,  with 
the  formal  recognition  of  their  independence  by 
the  mother-country.  But  at  the  same  time  an 
internal  war  began  between  the  several  members 
of  the  group,  which  finally  resulted  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  so  many  independent  republics. 

With  the  Spaniards  the  Roman-Catholic  Church 
came  into  the  country ;  and  it  is  still  the  church 
of  the  state,  having  five  bishoprics,  —  Buenos 
Ayres,  Cordova,  Salta,  Sarana,  and  Cuyo.  The 
liberal  ideas,  however,  which,  since  1813,  have 
reigned  in  the  government,  and  prevailed  in  the 


ARIANISM. 


134 


ARIANISM. 


people,  hare  considerably  modified  the  position  of 
the  Koman  Church,  ilost  of  the  convents  have 
been  suppressed,  and  their  property  confiscated  ; 
and  the  government  has  assumed  the  administra- 
tion of  the  tithes,  applying  one  part  of  them  for 
educational  purposes.  In  1825  religious  tolera- 
tion was  established,  and  in  1834  mixed  mar- 
riages were  recognized. 

As  long  as  the  mission  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
Jesuits  (15S6-17G7),  great  results  were  effected. 
Large  numbers  of  Indiaus  were  reclaimed  from 
the  savage  state,  and  led  into  the  paths  of  a 
Christian  and  civilized  life.  They  were  induced 
to  settle  in  villages  around  the  missionary  sta- 
tions ;  they  were  taught  agriculture  and  trade ; 
they  received  the  first  elements  of  education ; 
and  on  every  occasion  they  showed  a  most  re- 
markable docility  towards  their  teachers.  But, 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  —  now  represented  by  the  Do- 
minican and  Franciscan  orders — became  indo- 
lent, greedy,  and  tj'rannous.  It  lost  its  hold  on 
the  hearts  of  the  people ;  and  thousands  of  In- 
dians relapsed  into  heathenism  and  savagery. 

Protestant  missionaries  first  came  to  tlie  coun- 
try in  1835,  and  several  flourishing  stations  have 
been  established,  especially  by  the  Methodists. 
A  special  aid  in  their  work  the  Protestant  mis- 
sionaries have  found  in  the  circumstance  that  of 
late  a  great  number  of  Protestant  settlers  have 
emigrated  to  the  country.  See  the  Iteporl  vfllie 
Miss.  Sue.  of  the  Meth.  Ep.  Church  fur  1879,  New 
York.  188U.' 

ARiANISIVI,  so  called  from  its  leader — Arius 
("Apf(of),  a  presbyter  of  Alexandria  (d.  336),  see 
Amus  —  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  and  tena- 
cious christological  heresies  in  the  history  of  an- 
cient Christianity.  It  was  during  a  part  of  the 
fourth  century  the  ruling  creed  in  the  Eastern 
Church,  though  under  constant  vigorous  protest 
of  the  orthodox  party.  It  was  also  at  first  the 
creed  of  most  of  the  barbarian  Teutonic  races, 
before  they  were  converted  to  Catholicity. 

1.  History  of  Arianistn.  The  roots  of  the  Arian 
conflict  lie  deep  in  the  differences  of  the  ante- 
Nicene  doctrine  of  the  Logos,  especially  in  the 
contradictory  elements  of  Origi'n's  Cliri.stology, 
which  was  clainu'd  by  both  parties.  Origen,  on 
the  one  hand,  attributed  to  Christ  eternity  and 
other  divine  attributes,  which  lead  to  tlie  ^icene 
doctrine  of  the  identity  of  substance  (/i(imo-uusia); 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  in  his  zeal  for  the  per- 
sonal distinctions  in  the  Godhead,  he  taught  with 
equal  emphasis  a  separate  essence  and  the  sub- 
ordination of  the  Son  to  the  Father,  calling  him 
"  a  secondary  God,"  without  the  article,  while 
the  Father  is  "  l/ie  God."  lie  taught  tlie  eti^nal 
generation  of  the  Son  from  the  will  of  the.  Father, 
but  represented  it  as  the  communication  of  a 
secondary  divine  substance.  Athanasius  laid 
stress  on  tin?  first,  Arius  on  the  second  element 
in  tlie  Christology  of  Urigen. 

(1)  llisiorij  of  Ariaiiisin  from  318  to  the  Coun- 
cil of  yi<ii:a  (325).  —  The  controversy  broke  out 
at  .Uexandria,  A.D.  318.  According  to  the  ac- 
count of  Socrates,  AlexamliT,  tlie  bishop  of  A1(!X- 
aiKlria,  gave  the  first  impulse  by  insisting,  in  a 
meeting,  on  the  eternity  of  the  Son  ;  whereupon 
Arius  openly  opposed,  and  charged  liim  with  Sa- 
belliauism.      lie  reasoned  thus:   "If  the  Father 


begat  the  Son,  he  must  be  older  than  the  Son,  and 
there  was  a  time  when  the  Son  was  not;  from 
this  it  further  follows,  that  the  Son  has  his  sub- 
stance (hi/poslaxis)  from  nothing."  The  accounts 
of  Sozomenus  and  Epiphanius  differ  in  this,  that 
they  date  the  conflict  from  discussions  among  the 
presbyters  and  laymen,  and  Sozomenus  repre- 
sents Alexander  as  at  first  wavering  between  the 
two  opinions.  In  321  Alexander  convened  a 
council  of  about  a  hundred  Jigyptian  and  Ly- 
bian  bishops  at  Alexandria,  which  excommuni- 
cated Arius  and  his  followers  for  their  open  denial 
of  the  true  deity  of  Christ.  But  Arius  spread 
his  views  all  the  more  zealously  in  an  entertaining 
half-poetic  work,  Thalia  (the  Banquet),  of  which 
only  fragments  remain  in  Athanasius.  He  found 
powerful  friends  in  Eusebius  of  Nicoraedia,  Eu- 
sebius  of  Caesarea  (the  famous  church  historian), 
and  other  bishops,  who  either  shared  his  view,  or 
at  least  considered  it  innocent.  In  a  short  time 
the  whole  Eastern  Church  was  turned  into  a 
metaphysical  battle-field.  The  Emperor  Constan- 
tine  was  at  first  inclined  to  look  upon  the  contro- 
versy as  a  mere  logomachy,  and  never  understood 
its  deeper  import.  But,  for  political  considera- 
tions, he  called,  at  the  suggestion  of  some  bishops, 
the  first  oecumenical  synod  of  the  church,  to  settle 
the  Arian  controversy,  together  with  the  question 
of  the  time  of  celebrating  Easter,  and  the  Mele- 
tian  schism  in  Egypt. 

(2)  The  Couned  of  Nic(ta  (32.5).  — The  first 
oecumenical  council,  held  at  Nicfea,  Bithynia 
(now  a  miserable  Turkish  village,  —  Is-nik),  con- 
sisting of  three  hundred  and  eighteen  bisliops 
(about  one-sixth  of  all  the  bishops  of  the  Graeco- 
Koman  Empire),  resulted  in  the  formal  condem- 
nation of  Arius,  and  the  adoption  of  the  "Nicene 
Creed,"  so  called,  which  affirms  in  unequivocal 
terras  the  doctrine  of  the  eternal  deitj-  of  Christ 
in  these  words  ;  "  (We  believe)  in  one  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  the  only  Son  of  God,  begotten  of  the 
Father  [the  only  begotten,  of  the  essence  of  the 
Father,  God  of  God],  Light  of  Light,  very  God 
of  very  God,  begotten,  not  made,  being  of  one 
substance  with  the  Father,  by  whom  all  things 
were  made  [in  heaven  and  on  earth]  ;  who  for  us 
men,  and  for  our  salvation,  came  down  and  was 
incarnate,  and  was  made  man  ;  he  suffered,  and 
the  third  day  he  rose  again,  and  ascended  into 
heaven;  from  thence  he  cometh  to  judge  the 
quick  and  the  dead."  The  passages  enclosed  ia 
brackets  were  omitted  or  changed  in  the  so-called 
Constantinopolitan  Creed  (381).  To  the  original 
Nicene  Creed  is  added  the  following  anathema  : 
"And  those  who  say:  there  was  a  time  when  he 
(the  Son)  was  not  ;  and:  he  was  made  out  of 
nothing,  or  out  of  another  substance  or  tiling,  or 
the  Son  of  God  is  created,  or  changeable,  or 
alterable;  —  they  are  condemned  by  the  holy 
catholic  and  apostolic  Church."  This  anathema 
was  likewi.se  omitted  in  that  form  of  the  Nicene 
Creed  which  is  usually,  though  incorrectly,  traced 
to  the  Constantinopolitan  .synod  of  381,  and  which 
since  the  Council  of  Chaicedon  in  451  entirely 
sujier.siMled  the  original  Nicene  Creed  of  325. 
(See  below.) 

The  creed  was  signed  by  nearly  all  the  bish- 
ops, llosius  at  the  liead,  even  by  Eusebius  of 
Ca'sarea,  who,  before  and  afti^rwards,  occupied  a 
middle  position  between  Athanasius  and  Arius. 


ARIANISM. 


135 


ARIANISM. 


This  is  the  first  instance  of  such  signing  of  a 
doctrinal  symbol.  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia  and 
Theognis  of  Nicsea  signed  the  creed,  but  not  the 
condemnatory  formula  appended,  and  for  this 
they  were  deposed,  and  banished  for  a  short  time. 

Only  two  Egyptian  bishops  —  Tlieonas  and  Se- 
cundus  —  persistently  refused  to  sign,  and  were 
banished,  with  Arius,  to  Illyria.  This  is  the 
first  example  of  the  cip'd  punislinient  of  here.sy, 
and  opened  the  "long  and  dark  era  of  persecutions 
for  all  departures  from  the  catholic  or  orthodox 
faith.  The  books  of  Arius  were  burnt,  and  his 
followers  branded  as  enemies  of  Christianity. 
The  Nicene  Creed  has  outlived  all  the  subse- 
quent storms,  and.  in  the  improved  form  given  to 
it  at  Constantinople  in  381,  it  remains  to  this 
day  the  most  generally  received  creed  of  Chris- 
tendom, and,  if  we  omit  the  later  Latin  insertion, 
FiliiHjiie,  a  bond  of  union  between  the  Greek,  the 
Roman,  and  the  orthodo.x  Protestant  churches. 

(3)  From  the  Council  i>f  Niaea  (32.5)  to  the  Coun- 
cil of  Coiirilaiitiiiople  (381). — -After  the  Nicene 
Council  an  Arian  and  semi-Arian  reaction  took 
place,  and  acquired  for  a  time  the  ascendency  in 
the  Roman  Empire.  Arianism  now  entered  the 
stage  of  its  political  power.  This  was  a  period 
of  the  greatest  excitement  in  Church  and  State  : 
Council  was  held  against  council  ;  creed  was  set 
up  against  creed;  anathema  w-as  hurled  against 
anathema.  "  The  highways,"  says  the  impartial 
heathen  historian,  Ammianus  JVlarcellinus,  "were 
covered  with  galloping  bishops."  The  churches, 
the  theatres,  the  hippodromes,  the  feasts,  the 
markets,  the  streets,  the  baths,  and  the  shops 
of  Constantinople  and  other  large  cities,  were 
filled  with  dogmatic  disputes.  In  intolerance 
and  violence  the  Arians  even  exceeded  the  ortho- 
dox. The  interference  of  emperors  and  their 
court  only  poured  oil  on  the  flame,  and  height- 
ened the  bitterness  of  contest  by  adding  confis- 
cation and  exile  to  the  spiritual  punishment  of 
synodical  excommunication.  The  unflinching 
leader  of  tlie  orthodox  party  was  Athanasius,  a 
pure  and  sublime  character,  who  had  figured 
at  the  Council  of  Nicsea  as  a  youthful  archdeacon, 
in  company  with  Bishop  Alexander  of  Alexan- 
dria, and  after  his  death  became  his  successor 
(328),  but  was  again  and  again  deposed  by  im- 
perial despotism,  and  spent  twenty  years  in  exile. 
He  sacrificed  every  thing  to  his  conviction,  and 
.had  the  courage  to  face  the  empire  in  arms 
("Athanasius  contra  mundum  ").  He  was  a  man  of 
one  idea  and  one  passion,  —  the  eternal  divinity 
of  Christ,  —  which  he  rightly  considered  as  the 
cornerstone  of  the  Christian  system.  The  po- 
litico-ecclesiastical leader  of  the  Arian  party  was 
Eusebius  of  Nicomedia  (not  to  be  confounded 
with  the  historian),  afterwards  Bishop  of  Con- 
stantinople, who  baptized  Constantine  on  his 
death-bed.  Constantine  was  turned  favorably 
to  Arius,  he  recalled  him  from  exile,  and  ordered 
him  to  be  solemnly  restored  to  the  communion  of 
the  Catliolic  Church  at  Constantinople ;  but,  on 
the  day  preceding  his  intended  restoration,  the 
heretic  died  suddenly  (330).  See  Arius.  In 
the  year  following,  Constantine  himself  died, 
and  his  son  Constantine  II.  recalled  Athanasius 
from  his  first  exile,  into  which  his  father  had 
sent  him.  But  in  the  East,  where  Constautius, 
the  second  son  of  Constantine  the  Great,  ruled, 


Arianism  prevailed,  and  was  maintained  with 
fanatical  zeal  by  the  court,  and  by  Eusebius  of 
Nicomedia,  now  transferred  to  Constantinople 
(since  338).  Athanasius  was  deposed  a  second 
time,  and  took  refuge  with  Julius  of  Rome  (340), 
who,  with  the  great  body  of  the  Western  Church, 
sided  with  the  Nicene  Creed,  and  gloried  in 
Athanasius  as  a  martyr  of  the  Christian  truth. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  follow  the  varying  fortunes  • 
of  the  two  parties,  and  the  history  of  councils, 
which  neutralized  one  another,  without  materially 
advancing  the  points  in  dispute.  The  most  im- 
portant are  the  Synod  of  Antioch,  A.l).  341, 
which  set  forth  an  orthodox  creed,  but  depcsed 
Athanasius ;  the  orthodox  Council  of  Sardica, 
A.I).  343  (not  347,  as  formerly  supposed  ;  see 
Hefele,  Concilienyeschiclitf,  I.,  515  sqq.)  ;  and  the 
Arian  counter-synod  of  Philippopolis;  the  coun- 
cils of  Sirmium,  351  ;  Aries,  353;  Jlilan,  355;  the 
second  council  at  Sirmium,  357;  the  third,  358; 
at  Antioch,  358;  at  Ancyra,  3.58;  at  Constanti- 
nople, 360.  Aided  by  Constantius,  Arianism, 
under  the  modified  form  represented  by  the  term 
homoi-ousion  (similar  in  essence,  as  distinct  from 
the  Nicene  homo-ousion  and  the  strictly  Arian 
helcro-ousion)  gained  the  power  in  the  empire ; 
and  even  the  papal  chair  in  Ronie  was  for  a 
while  desecrated  by  hei-esy  during  the  Arian 
interregnum  of  Felix  11.  But  the  death  of 
Constantius  in  361,  the  indifference  of  his  suc- 
cessor, Julian  the  Apostate,  to  all  theological 
disputes,  the  toleration  of  Jovian  (d.  364),  and 
especially  the  internal  dissensions  of  the  Arians, 
prepared  the  way  for  a  new  triumph  of  orthodoxy. 
The  Eusebians,  or  semi-Arians,  taught  that  the 
Son  was  similar  in  substance  {homoiousios)  to  the 
Father;  while  the  Aetians  (from  Aetius,  a  deacon 
of  Antioch)  and  the  Eunoraians  (from  Eunoraius, 
Bishop  of  Cyzicus  in  Mysia)  taught  that  he  was 
of  a  different  substance  (Jieteroousios) ,  and  unlike 
(a)ioiHoios')  to  the  Father  (hence  the  names  Hete- 
ro-ousiasts  and  Anomoeans).  A  number  of 
synods  and  creeds  of  compromise  were  devoted 
to  the  healing  of  these  dissensions,  but  without 
permanent  effect. 

On  tlie  other  hand,  the  defenders  of  the  Ni- 
cene Creed,  Athanasius,  and,  after  his  death 
(373),  the  three  Cappadocian  bishops,  —  Basil 
the  Great,  Gregory  of  Nazianzum,  and  Gregory 
of  Nyssa,  —  triumphantly  vindicated  the  Catholic 
doctrine  against  all  the  arguments  of  the  opposi- 
tion. When  Gregory  of  Nazianzum  was  called 
to  Constantinople  in  379,  there  was  but  one  small 
congregation  in  the  city  which  had  not  become 
Arian ;  but  his  able  and  eloquent  sermons  on  the 
deity  of  Christ,  which  won  him  the  title  of  the 
"Theologian,"  contributed  powerfully  to  the  res- 
urrection of  the  Catholic  faith ;  and  two  years 
afterwards  he  presided  over  the  second  oecumeni- 
cal council.  The  rising  influence  of  monasticisra, 
especially  in  Egypt,  was  bound  up  with  the 
cause  of  Athanasius ;  and  the  more  conservative 
portion  of  the  semi-Arians  gradually  approached 
the  orthodox  in  spite  of  the  persecutions  of  the 
violent  Arian  emperor,  Valens. 

(4)  T/ie  Jinal  triumph  of  the  Nicene  orthodoxy 
under  Theodosius  the  Great  (381). — This  emperor 
was  a  Spaniard  by  birth,  and  reared  in  the  Nicene 
faith.  During  his  long  and  powerful  reign  (379- 
395)  he  completed  externally  the  spiritual  and 


ARIANISM. 


136 


ARIANISM. 


intellectual  victory  of  orthodoxy  already  achieved. 
He  convened  the  second  oecumenical  council  at 
Constantinople  (3S1),  which  consisted  of  only  one 
hundred  and  fifty  bishops,  and  was  presided  over 
succe.ssively  by  Meletius,  Gregory  of  Nazianzuni,  i 
and  Xectai-ius  of  Constantinople.  The  council 
condemned  the  Pneuraatomachian  heresy,  which 
denied  the  divinity  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  virtu- 
ally completed  the  orthodox  dogma  of  the  Holy 
Trinity.  The  Nicene  Creed  now  iu  common  use 
(with  "the  exception  of  the  Latin  clause  Filioque 
which  is  of  much  later  date,  and  rejected  by  the 
Greek  Church)  is  usually  traced  to  this  synod  of 
Constantinople,  but  existed  at  an  earlier  date  :  \i 
is  found  in  the  Ancoralus  of  Epiphanius,  A.U. 
373,  and  derived  by  him  from  a  still  older  source, 
namely  the  baptismal  creed  of  the  Church  of 
Jerusalem.  It  is  not  iu  the  original  acts  of  the 
Council  of  Constantinople,  but  was  afterwards 
incorporated  in  them.  Dr.  Hort  derives  it  mainly 
from  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  about  362-364.  See  his 
Disseiiaiioiis  quoted  below,  and  the  art.  Nicene 

CliEKD. 

The  emperor  gave  legal  effect  to  the  doctrinal 
decisions  and  disciplinary  canons,  and  in  July, 
381,  he  enacted  a  law  that  all  church-property 
should  be  given  up  to  those  who  believed  in  the 
■equal  divinity  of  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the 
Holy  Spirit.  Arianism,  after  forty  years'  reign, 
was  forcibly  driven  out  of  all  the  churches  of 
Constantinople,  and  generally  forbidden  through- 
out tlie  enqiire.  M'e  meet  the  last  traces  of  it 
in  Constantinople  under  tlie  Emperor  Anastasius 
(491-518). 

After  Theodosius,  Arianism  ceased  to  exist  as 
an  organized  moving  force  in  theology  and  church- 
history  ;  but  it  re-appeared  from  time  to  time  as 
an  isolated  theological  opinion,  especially  in 
England.  Emlyn,  Winston,  Whitby,  Samuel 
Clarke,  Lardner,  and  many  who  are  ranked 
among  Socinians  and  Unitarians,  held  Arian  sen- 
timents; but  Milton  and  Isaac  Newton,  though 
aj^proaching  the  .\rian  view  on  the  relation  of 
the  Son  to  the  Father,  differed  widely  from  Arian- 
ism in  spirit  and  aim. 

(5)  Ariaiii.iiii  amoiii/  the  Barbarians.  —  The 
church  legislation  of  Theodosius  was  confined,  of 
course,  to  the  limits  of  tlie  Roman  Empire.  Be- 
yond it,  among  the  barbarians  of  the  West,  who 
had  received  Christianity  in  the  form  of  Arian- 
ism during  the  reign  of  tin;  Emperor  Valens,  it 
maintained  itself  for  two  centuries  longer,  though 
more  as  a  matter  of  accident  tlian  clioice  and 
conviction.  The  Ostrogoths  remained  Arians  till 
553;  the  Visigoths,  till  the  Synod  of  Toledo  iu 
589;  the  Suevi  in  Spain,  till  560;  the  Vandals, 
who  conquered  North  Africa  in  429,  and  furi- 
ously ))ersecuted  the  Catliolics,  till  530,  when  they 
were  exjielled  by  Helisarius;  the  IJurgundian.s, 
till  their  incorporation  in  the  Frank  Empire  (in 
534)  ;  the  Longobards  in  Italy,  till  the  middle  of 
the  seventh  century.  Alaric,  the  first  conqueror 
of  Rome,  Genseric,  the  conqueror  of  North  Africa, 
Theodoric  the  Great,  King  of  Italy,  and  hero  of 
the  NklKtHnijenlwit,  were  Arians ;  and  the  first 
Teutonic  translation  of  the  Scriptures,  of  which 
imjiortant  fragments  remain,  came  from  the 
Arian  or  semi-Arian  missionary  Ulfila.s. 

II.  Tlie  Creed  of  Arianimn. — The  Father 
a\one  is  God :   he  afone  is  uubegotteu,  etcrual, 


wise,  good,  unchangeable.  He  is  separated  by 
an  infinite  chasm  from  man.  God  cannot  create 
the  world  directly,  but  only  through  an  agent, 
the  Logos,  who  is  himself  created  for  the  purpose 
of  creating  the  world.  The  Son  of  God  is  pre- 
existent,  -  before  time  and  before  the  world," 
and  "before  all  creatures."  He  is  a  middle 
being  between  God  and  the  world,  the  perfect 
image  of  the  Father,  the  executor  of  his 
thoughts,  yea,  even  the  Creator  of  the  world. 
In  a  secondary  or  metaphorical  sense  he  may  be 
called  "God."  But,  on  the  other  hand,  Christ 
is  himself  a  "creature,"  —  the  first  creature  of 
God,  through  whom  the  Father  called  other 
creatures  into  existence.  He  is  "made,"  not  of 
"the  essence"  of  the  Father,  but  "out  of  noth- 
ing," by  "the  will"  of  the  Father,  before  all 
conceivable  time,  j'et  iu  time:  he  is  therefore  not 
eternal,  and  there  "was  a  time  when  he  was  not." 
Neither  is  he  unchangeable,  but  subject  to  the 
vicissitudes  of  a  created  being.  With  the  limita- 
tion of  Christ's  duration  is  necessarily  connected 
a  limitation  of  his  power,  wisdom,  and  knowl- 
edge. It  was  expressly  asserted  by  the  Arians 
that  the  Son  does  not  perfectly  know  the  Father, 
and  therefore  cannot  perfectly  reve.al  him.  He 
is  essentially  different  from  the  Father  (lietero- 
ousios,  in  opposition  to  the  orthodox  formula, 
honioousios,  co-equal,  and  the  semi-Arian  homoi- 
ousios,  similar,  in  essence).  Aetius  and  Eunomius 
afterwards  more  strongly  expressed  this  by  call- 
ing him  u.tiike  the  Father  (ano^noios) . 

As  to  the  humanity  of  Christ,  Arius  ascribed 
to  him  only  a  human  body  with  an  animal  soul, 
not  a  rational  soul.  He  anticipated  Appollina- 
rius,  who  substituted  the  divine  Logos  for  the 
human  reason,  but  from  the  opposite  motive, — 
of  saving  the  unity  of  the  divine  personality  of 
Christ. 

The  subsequent  development  of  Arianism  by 
Aetius  aud  Eunomius  brought  out  no  new 
features,  except  many  inconsistencies  and  con- 
tradictions, and  the  negative  and  downward  ten- 
dency of  christological  error.  The  controversj' 
degenerated  into  a  heartless  and  barren  meta- 
physical war.  The  eighteen  or  more  creeds 
which  Arianism  and  semi- Arianism  produced 
between  the  first  and  the  secoiul  oecumenical 
councils  (325-381)  are  leaves  viithout  blossoms, 
and  lu'anclies  without  fruit. 

The  Arians  supported  their  doctrine  from  those 
passages  of  the  Bible  which  seem  to  place  Christ 
on  a  par  with  the  creature  (Prov.  viii.  22-25: 
Acts  ii.  36;  Col.  i.  15),  or  which  ascribe  to  the 
incarnate  Christ  (not  the  pre-existent  Logos)  in 
his  state  of  humiliation  lack  of  knowledge, 
weariness,  sorrow,  and  other  changing  affections 
and  states  of  mind  (Luke  ii.  .52;  Mark  xiii.  32: 
lleb.  v.  8,  9;  John  xii.  27,  28;  Matt.  xxvi.  39), 
or  which  teach  some  kind  of  subordination  of 
the  Son  to  the  Father  (especially  John  xiv.  28  : 
"  The  Father  is  greater  than  I,"  which  refers,  not 
to  the  essential  miture,  but  to  tin;  state  of  humili- 
ation). Arins  was  forced  to  admit,  in  his  first 
letter  to  Eusebius  of  Nicoinedia,  that  Christ  was 
called  (jod  (even  v'KijpiK  Sfb^  iun>iiyn'7i(,"i\n- iwW, 
only-begotten  God,"  according  to  the  famous  dis- 
puted reading  for  fiomytyrif  ii/of,  "only-begotten 
Son,"  ill  John  i.  18.  See  on  this  the  first  Disser- 
tatiou  of  Professor  Ilort,  Loud.,  1876).     But  he 


ARIANISM. 


137 


ARISTARCHUS. 


reduced  this  expression  to  the  idea  of  a  subordi- 
nate, secondary,  created  divinity.  The  dogmatic 
and  jihilosoiiliical  arguments  were  chiefly  nega- 
tive and  rationalistic,  amounting  to  this:  The 
Nicene  view  of  tlie  essential  deity  of  Christ  is 
unreasonable,  inconsistent  with  monotheism,  witli 
the  dignity  and  absoluteness  of  the  Father,  and 
of  necessity  leads  to  Sabelliauisra,  or  the  Gnostic 
dreams  of  emanation. 

On  the  other  liaud,  Arianism  was  refuted  by 
an  array  of  scriptural  passages,  which  teach 
directly  or  indirectly  the  divinity  of  Christ,  and 
liis  essential  equality  with  tlie  Father.  The  con- 
ception of  a  created  Creator,  who  existed  before 
the  world,  and  yet  himself  began  to  exist,  was 
.sliown  to  be  self-contradictory  and  untenable. 
There  can  be  no  middle  being  between  Creator 
and  creature;  no  time  before  the  world,  as  time 
is  itself  a  part  of  the  world,  or  tlie  form  under 
which  it  exists  successively;  nor  can  the  un- 
changeableness  of  the  Father,  on  which  Arius 
laid  great  stress,  be  maintained,  except  on  the 
ground  of  the  eternity  of  his  Fatherhood,  which, 
of  course,  implies  the  eternity  of  the  Sonship. 
Athanasius  charges  Arianism  with  dualism,  and 
even  polytheism,  and  with  destroying  the  whole 
doctrine  of  salvation.  For  if  the  Son  is  a  crea- 
ture, man  still  remains  separated,  as  before,  from 
God:  no  creature  can  redeem  other  creatures, 
and  unite  them  with  God.  If  Christ  is  not 
divine,  much  less  can  we  be  partakers  of  the 
divine  nature,  and  in  any  real  sense  children  of 
God. 

The  Ariau  system  is  a  refined  form  of  Pagan- 
ism, and  substitutes  a  created  demigod  for  the 
eternal  uncreated  Logos.  It  lowers  Christianity 
to  a  merely  relative  value.  It  separates  God 
and  the  world  by  an  impassable  gulf,  and  makes 
a  real  reconciliation  and  atonement  impossible. 
It  represented  the  Erastian  principle  of  the  By- 
zantine Empire,  and  associated  itself  with  the 
secular  political  power,  without  which  it  soon 
lost  its  vitality.  Its  logical  tendency  is  down- 
ward to  Socinianism,  Unitarianism,  and  Ration- 
alism, until  the  untenable  conception  of  a  second- 
ary God,  who  originated  before  the  world,  out 
of  nothing,  gives  way  to  the  idea  of  Christ  as 
a  mere  man.  The  cause  of  Christian  civilization 
was  bound  up  with  the  defeat  of  Arianism,  and 
the  triumph  of  the  Niceue  doctrine  of  the  Holy 
Trinity. 

Lit.  —  (1)  The  sources  of  the  early  history  of 
Arianism  are:  (a)  on  the  orthodox  side,  the 
church-histories  of  Rufinus,  Sockatks,  Sozo- 
MEN,  and  Theodoret,  and  most  of  the  Fathers 
of  the  fourth  century,  especially  the  dogmatic 
and  polemic  works  of  Athanasius  (his  Orations 
a(/(iinst  the  Arians,  etc.,  all  in  Tom.  I.,  pars  I.  and 
11.  of  the  Bened.  ed.  of  Athax.  Opera),  Basil 
{Adc.  Eunomium),  Gregory  of  Nazianzum 
(Orationes  Theologicce),  Gregory  of  Nyssa 
{Contra  Eunom.),  Epiphanius  (Ancoratiis),  Hila- 
ry (De  Trinitate),  Ambrose  (De  Fide),  Augus- 
tine (Z>e  Trinitate,  and  Contra  j\laximum  Aria- 
num).  The  material  of  the  synodical  transactions 
is  collected  in  Mansi,  Concil.  Tom.  II.  and  III.  — 
(b)  On  the  Arian  side,  fragments  of  the  Thalia 
and  two  Epistles  of  Arius,  one  addressed  to  Eu- 
sebius  of  Nicomedia,  and  one  to  Alexander  of 
Alexandria,  preserved  in  Athanasius,  Epiphanius, 


.Socrates,  and  Theodoret ;  the  fragments  of  the 
church-history  of  Philostougius  (3.50-425); 
FnKjmenta  Arianorum  in  Angelo  Mai's  Scrijitnrum 
Velerum  Nooa  Collectio,  Iloin.,  1828,  vol.  HI. 

(2)  Later  literature.  Bull:  Defe.nsio  Fiiki  Ni- 
cajKf,  Oxf.,  1703  (new  tran.slation  18.")1).  Maim- 
kurg:  Histiiire  (Je  rAriani.tiui;  I'iir'ia,  1075.  Ciik. 
W.  F.  Walcii  :  Vollstundii/c  Ilistorie  der  Ketze- 
reien,  Leipz.,  1762  sqq.,  vols.  2d  and  3d  (exceed- 
ingly minute,  but  exceedingly  dry).  GinnoN: 
Decline  and  Fall,  ch.  xxi.  Mohlek:  Athanasius, 
Mainz,  2d  ed.,  184-1.  J.  II.  Newman  :  T/ie  Arians 
iif  the  Jflh  Century,  1838;  2d  ed.  (unaltered), 
Lond.,  1854.  Baur:  GeschicJde  der  Lehre  con  der 
Dreieinifjkeit  und  Menschwerdunf/,  Tubingen,  1841- 
43,1.,  3U0-825.  Dorner  :  Entwicklunr/si/escUichte 
der  L.  v.  d.  Person  Christi,  2d  ed.,  Stutt.,  1854,  I. 
773-1080  (Engl,  transl.  by  Alexander  and  Simon, 
Edinburgh,  1861).  Hefele:  ConcUieni/esckichte, 
Freib.,  1855,  fl.  I.,  219  ff.  H.  Voigt  :  Die  Lehre 
des  Athanasius,  Bremen,  1801.  Fu.  Nitzsch 
Dogmengeschichte  I.,  210-230  (with  full  literary 
notices).  Hort  :  Two  Dissertations  on  fiovoyevri^ 
■HcoQ  and  on  the  "  Constantinopolitan  "  Creed  and  other 
Eastern  Creeds  of  the  Fourth  Century,  Cambridge 
and  London,  1876.  (Important  for  the  origin  of  the 
Nicene  Creed.)  Fr.  Bohringer:  Athanasius  und 
Arius,  oder  der  erste  grosse  Kampf  der  (h-thodoxie 
und  Heterodoxie,  Leipzig,  1874.  W.  Rolling: 
Geschichte  der  arianischcn  Hdresie  his  zur  Entschei- 
dung  in  Nicaa,  GUtersloh,  1876,  sqq.  E.  Revil- 
LOUT :  Le  Concile  de  Apiece,  Paris,  1881.  P. 
ScH.\Kr:  Art.  Arianism  and  Arius  in  Smith  and 
Wace,  "  Diet,  of  Christian  Biogr."  I.,  155  sqq., 
102  sqq.  (on  which  this  art.  is  based  with  omi.s- 
sions  and  some  important  additions).  Art.  ^W- 
anismus,  by  Moller,  in  Herzog,  vol.  I.,  620-637, 
1877  Dean  Stanley:  The  Council  and  Creed 
of  Constantinople,  in  his  "Christian  Institutions," 
Ijond.  and  New  York.  1881.  Ad.  Harnack  :  Art. 
Konstant.  Symbol,  in  Herzog,  vol.  VIII.  (1881),  pp. 
212-230.  Henry  Melvill  Gwatkin  :  Studies 
of  Arianism,  London,  1882.         rillLll'  .sciI.-iFF. 

ARIAS  MONTANUS,  Benedictus,  b.  at  Fresce- 
ual  de  la  Sierra,  in  Estremadura,  in  1527 ;  d.  in 
Sevilla,  in  1598;  studied  in  the  University  of 
Alcala;  entered  the  Benedictine  order;  went  to 
Antwerp,  and  edited  the  so-called  Antwerp  Poly- 
glot, or  "  Biblia  Regia,"or  "Biblia  Plautiana," 
which  appeared  in  eight  volumes  from  1568  to 
1573.  After  his  return  to  Spain  he  was  made 
librarian  at  the  Escorial,  and  pirior  of  the  Convent 
of  St.  Jago,  but  was  much  annoyed  by  the 
Jesuits,  who  accused  him  of  heresy,  and  had  to 
make  several  journej's  to  Rome  in  order  to  clear 
himself  of  their  calumnies. 

ARIMATHE'A  (heights),  a  town  in  Judaea,  the 
birthplace  of  Joseph,  in  whose  sepulchre  the 
body  of  Jesus  was  laid  (Matt,  xxvii.  .57 ;  Mark 
XV.  43;  Luke  xxiii.  51;  John  xix.  38).  Some 
identify  it  with  Ramah,  tlie  birthplace  of  Sam- 
uel, and  this,  again,  with  the  modern  Ramleh, 
situated  in  the  plain  of  Sharon,  eight  miles 
south-east  of  Joppa,  and  twenty-four  miles  north- 
west of  Jerusalem ;  but  the  latter  part  of  this 
identification  is  now  generally  discredited.  See 
Ramaii. 

ARISTAR'CHUS,  the  fellow-laborer  of  Paul; 
was  a  native  of  Thessalonica,  and  accompanied 
the  apostle  ou  his  last  journey  to  Jerusalem  from 


ARISTEAS. 


138 


ARISTOTLE. 


Troas  (Acts  xix.  29,  xx.  4)  ;  shared  his  iraprisou- 
ment  at  Ciesarea  (Col.  iv.  10),  and  accompanied 
him  on  the  perilous  sea-voyage  to  -Rome  (Acts 
sxvii.  2).  but  seems  to  have  left  him  very 
soon  after  their  arrival  thither  (2  Tim.  iv.  11). 
According  to  tradition,  he  was  Bishop  of  Thessa- 
lonica  or  Apamsea,  and  suffered  martyrdom  under 
Xero  in  Rome. 

ARISTEAS,  a  high  officer  at  the  Egyptian 
court;  was  sent  by'PtoIemy  Philadelphus  with 
an  embassy  and  rich  gifts  to  Jerusalem  to  procure 
an  authentic  copy  of  the  Old  Testament  for  the 
Alexandrian  Library,  and  brought  back  with  him 
not  only  the  copy,  but  also  seventy  learned  Jews, 
who  translated  it  into  Greek.  This  account  of  the 
origin  of  the  Septuagint,  often  mentioned,  and 
generally  accepted  both  by  Jewish  and  Chris- 
tian writers  of  the  three  or  four  next  centuries, 
is  based  upon  a  reputed  letter  from  Aristeas  to 
his  brother,  printed  at  Basel,  1561,  at  Oxford, 
1692;  in  Gallandius:  Biblhlh.  Patriim,  IL,  771, 
translated  into  English  by  Lewis,  London,  1715; 
and  is  discredited  by  scholars. 

ARISTIDES,  by  profession  a  teacher  of  rheto- 
rics and  philosophy,  but  by  faith  a  Christian, 
presented,  about  133,  an  apology  for  the  Chris- 
tians to  the  Emperor  Hadrian.  The  work  itself  is 
now  lost,  except  a  fragment  discovered  in  Venice 
in  1878.  It  was  of  a  philosophical  character, 
highly  valued  in  the  church,  and  used  by  Justi- 
nius.  See  Sancti  Akistidis  Philosophi  Atheniensis 
Sermones  duo,  Venetiis,  1878;  Baux.\ud:  De'cou- 
verle  d'un  fragment  de  I'Apoloffie  de  S.  Arixliilie  d' 
Athenes,  traduit  de  I'arme'nien,  Arras,  1879  (15  pp.); 
A.  IL\RXACK :   Griech.Apologelen.  Leipzig.  1882. 

ARISTOBULUS,  a  Jewish  priest  residing  iu 
Egypt  during  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  VL  (Philom- 
eter).  and  spoken  of  in  2  Mace.  i.  10  as  a  man  of 
influence  in  the  Jewish  community,  and  as  the 
''teacher"  of  the  king.  He  is  by  some  identi- 
fied with  the  peripatetic  philosopher  .\ristobulus, 
who  dedicated  to  Ptolemy  VI.  (Philonieter)  an 
allegorical  exposition  of  the  Pentateuch,  in  which 
he  tried  to  show  that  the  doctrines  of  the  peripa- 
tetic school  were  derived  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Of  the  work  itself,  some  fragments  have 
been  preserved  by  Clement  of  Alexandria  and 
Eusebius. 

ARISTOBULUS  is  the  name  of  several  notice- 
able persons  in  the  last  period  of  Jewish  history. 
— I.  Aristobulus,  asonof  John  Ilyrcanus,  assumed 
the  power  and  also  the  title  of  king  after  the 
death  of  his  father  (107  B.C.),  though  by  the 
will  of  the  latter  the  government  was  intrusted 
to  his  mother.  He  had  both  his  mother  and  his 
brothers  murdered  in  order  to  secure  the  spoils  of 
the  usurpation,  but  died  himself  soon  after  (106), 
stricken  with  terror  and  remorse.  —  II.  Aristo- 
bulus, a  younger  son  of  Alexander  Janna;u8  and 
Alexandra,  compelled  his  elder  brother,  llyrcanu.s, 
to  renounce  the  crown  and  high  priesthood  iu  his 
favor  (70  B.C.).  Hyrcanus,  however,  repented 
of  the  renunciation,  an<l  fled  to  ,\rabia  Petraca, 
whose  king,  Aretas,  invaded  Juihea,  and  besieged 
Jerusalem  (05  B.C.).  Aristobulus  succeeded  in 
driving  him  out  of  Judasa  by  the  aid  of  the 
Romans,  but  wa.s  less  succe.ssful  in  dealing  with 
liis  powerful  ally.  Ponipey  finally  took  Jerusa- 
lem, and  carried  Aristobulus  a  prisoner  to  Rome. 
He  escaped,  returned  to  Judxa,  and  begun  a  war 


against  the  Romans,  but  was  defeated  by  Ga 
binius,  the  lieutenant  of  Porapej^  and  sent  to 
Rome  a  second  time  as  a  prisoner.  In  49,  hov,- 
ever,  Julius  Caesar  set  him  free,  and  sent  him 
back  to  Judsea  to  work  iu  his  interest  against 
Pompey;  but  he  died  on  the  journey,  poisoned  by 
Pompey's  spies.  —  III.  Aristobulus,  a  son  of 
Herod  the  Great  and  ilariamne,  was  educated  in 
Rome,  together  with  his  brother  .Alexander,  in 
the  house  of  PoUio,  and  afterwards  married  to 
his  cousin,  Berenice,  a  daughter  of  Salome. 
Having  become  suspicious  in  the  eyes  of  their 
father,  the  two  brothers  led  a  very  precarious  life 
at  home,  and  twice  called  upon  the  defence  of 
foreigners,  —  first  of  Augustus,  and  afterwards  of 
King  Archelaus  of  Cappadocia,  the  father-in-law 
of  .Vlexander,  —  yet  finally  they  both  fell  victims 
to  their  father's  cruelty.  They  were  strangled  at 
Sebaste  0  B.C. — IV.  Aristobulus  the  Younger, 
a  son  of  the  preceding,  was  educated  in  Rome, 
together  with  Claudius,  whose  favorite  he  was. 
He  remained  all  his  life  in  private  station.  — 
V.  Aristobulus,  a  son  of  Herod,  King  of  Chalcis, 
and  a  great-grandson  of  Herod  the  Great ;  was 
made  king  of  Armenia  Minor  in  55  A.D.,  of 
Armenia  j\lajor  in  61,  and  of  Chalcis  in  52. 
He  was  married  to  Salome,  a  daughter  of 
Herodias. 

ARISTOTLE,  b.  at  Stagira  in  Thrace  384 
B.C.:  d.  at  Chalcis  322;  became  the  pupil  of 
Plato  in  367,  and  remained  with  him  for  twenty 
years;  lived  after  the  death  of  Plato,  in  347, 
three  years  at  the  court  of  Hermias  in  Mysia, 
and  seven  years  at  the  court  of  Philip  of  Alace- 
don,  where  he  became  the  tutor  of  Alexander  the 
Great;  opened  his  school  in  the  Lyceum  shortly 
after  the  accession  of  Alexander,  and  taught 
there  for  twelve  years,  but  retired  to  Chalcis 
after  the  death  of  Alexander,  when  the  anti- 
Macedonian  party  got  the  ascendency  in  Athens. 

The  philosophy  of  Aristotle  is  a  strongly  pro- 
nounced dualism  :  matter  and  form,  God  and  the 
world,  are  distinct  though  inseparable  existences. 
The  harmony  of  this  duality  is  an  equally 
pronounced  Pantheism :  God  is  an  act  rather 
than  a  will,  a  process  and  not  a  person.  But 
the  dualism  of  Aristotle  is  not  materialistic  :  the 
form,  (iod,  is  the  principal  constituent  ;  and  his 
Pantheism  is  absolutely  monotheistic,  directly 
opposed  to  every  form  of  polytheism.  There- 
fore it  might  be  inferred  that  ho  would  not  fail 
to  win  at  least  some  .sympathy  in  the  Christian 
Church;  and  so  while  some  of  tlie  Fathers  attack 
him  vehemently,  as,  for  instance,  Irenaeus,  and 
others,  such  as  Justinus  Martyr,  pass  him  by  in 
silence,  there  are  those  among  tlicm,  as,  for  in- 
stance, Clement  of  Alexandria,  who  consider 
him  a  precursor  of  Christ,  holding  the  truth  such 
as  it  could  be  held  before  Christ  came.  Then, 
when  the  dialectical  elaboration  of  the  Christian 
dogmas  began,  his  great  labors  on  logic  were 
by  no  means  neglected.  The  heretics  used  them 
in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  and  the  Catho- 
lics followed  the  example  in  the  sixth  and 
seventh. 

In  the  Latin  Church  Aristotle  was  introduced 
by  Boiithius  and  Cassiodorus.  The  study  ot 
hnn  received  a  jiowerful  impulse  from  the  Jew- 
ish and  Arabic  doctors,  who  translated  his  works 
into  Syriac  and  Arabic ;  and  the  anxiety  which 


ARIUS. 


139 


ARK. 


the  Roman  Church  felt  with  respect  to  his  meta- 
physical woiks,  and  which  led  to  their  con- 
demnation, anil  exclusion  from  the  uiuversities, 
disappeared  after  the  time  of  Albertus  Magnus 
and  Thomas  Aquinas.  The  Renaissance,  which 
brought  till'  works  of  Aristotle  to  the  West  in 
the  original  Greek  text,  developed  an  Aristotelian 
and  a  Platonic  school;  but  when  the  Renaissance 
grew  into  the  Reformation,  and  the  splendid  edi- 
fice which  had  been  built  U[)  on  Plato  and  Aris- 
totle —  the  medifeval  scholasticism  —  tumbled 
down,  Aristotle,  lost  at  once  and  forever  his  in- 
fluence on  Christian  theology.  See  Scholasti- 
cism. 

Lit.  —  The  best  edition  of  the  text  of  Aristotle 
is  by  Immaxuel  Bkkker,  Berlin,  1831-70,  5  vols. 
For  treatises  see  Lewes  :  Aristotle :  a  Chapter  from 
the  History  of  Science,  London,  1804;  G.  Grote  : 
Aristotle,  London,  1872;  .Sir  A.  Grant:  Ethics 
of  A  ristotle,  illustrated  icith  Essai/s  ami  Notes,  3d 
ed.,  London,  1874.  There  is  a  good  translation 
of  Aristotle  in  Bohn's  Library  :  separate  trans- 
lations, with  notes  and  excursnses  by  Mr.  Poste 
and  others,  are  mentioned  in  the  art.  ''Aristotle" 
in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  (9th  ed.).  A 
translation  of  the  First  Book  of  The  Metaphysics 
by  a  "Cambridge  graduate"  appeared,  London, 
1881. 

ARIUS  ("Apfiof),  one  of  the  most  famous  here- 
tics ;  b.  about  256,  in  Libya  (according  to  others, 
in  Alexandria) ,  d.  336,  at  Constantinople.  He 
was  educated  by  Lucian,  presbyter  in  Antioch, 
and  held  a  prominent  position  as  presbyter  in  the 
Church  of  Alexandria  when  the  Arian  controversy 
with  Bishop  Alexander  began  (about  318)  con- 
cerning the  eternal  deity  of  Christ  and  his  equal- 
ity with  the  Father  (honwousia),  which  he  denied, 
holding  that  Christ  was  of  a  different  essence, 
and  a  creature  of  the  Father,  though  created 
before  the  world.  He  is  de.scribed  as  a  tall,  lean 
man,  with  a  downcast  brow,  very  austere  habits, 
considerable  learning,  and  a  smooth,  winning 
address,  but  quarrelsome  disposition.  The  si- 
lence of  his  enemies  conclusively  proves  that  his 
general  moral  character  was  irreproachable  (like 
that  of  Nestorius  and  Pelagius);  and,  if  it  had 
not  been  for  his  heresy,  he  would  have  been 
liighly  esteemed.  His  enemies  said  that  the  real 
cause  of  his  opposition  to  Alexander  was  a  per- 
sonal grudge,  because  he  was  not  himself  elected 
bishop;  but  the  subordination  views  which  he 
had  imbibed  in  the  Antiochian  school  are  suffi- 
cient to  explain  the  direction  of  his  development 
and  the  course  of  his  life.  Condemned  by  the 
synod  of  Alexandria  (320),  he  left  the  city;  but 
he  was  kindly  received  both  by  Eusebius  of 
Csesarea  and  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  and  it  was 
evident  that  not  a  few  of  the  Asiatic  churches 
favored  his  ideas.  A  reconciliation  was  brought 
about  between  him  and  Alexander;  but  hardly 
had  he  returned  to  Alexandria  before  the  strife 
broke  out  again,  and  with  still  greater  violence. 
A  letter  from  Constantine,  addressed  to  Alexan- 
der and  Arius,  and  carried  to  Alexandria  by 
Hosius  of  Cordova,  availed  nothing :  the  whole 
Christian  world  rang  with 'the  contest.  But,  in 
spite  of  his  many  and  powerful  friends,  Arius 
was  defeated  at  the  Council  of  Niccea  (32.5),  and 
banished  to  Illyria.  Soon,  however,  a  re-action 
in  his  favor  set  in.    The  Eusebian  party  espoused 


his  cause  more  openly,  and  through  Constantia, 
the  sister  of  the  emperor,  he  got  access  to  the 
court.  He  was  formally  recalled  from  banish- 
ment; and  all  the  chiefs  of  the  Eusebian  party 
were  as.sembled  in  Constantinople  to  receive  him 
back  into  the  bosom  of  the  church,  when  he 
suddenly  died  the  day  before  the  solemnity  (336), 
at  the  age  of  over  eighty  years,  at  a  time  and  in 
a  manner  that  seemed  to  the  orthodox  party  to 
be  a  direct  interposition  of  Providence,  and  a 
condemnation  of  his  doctrine;  while  his  friends 
attributed  the  death  to  poison.  Athanasius  re- 
lates the  fact  in  a  letter  to  Serapion,  on  the  au- 
thority of  a  priest,  Macarius  of  Constantinople 
(De  Morte  Arii,  Opera,  ed.  Bened.  torn.  I.,  pp. 
I.,  340),  and  ventures  to  interpret  Providence  in 
the  uncharitable  style  of  his  age,  yet  not  without 
some  reluctance  of  his  better  Christian  feeling. 
Epiphanius  (Hcer.  68,  c.  7)  compares  his  death 
to  that  of  Judas  the  traitor.  Socrates  (Hist. 
Eccl.  L,  38)  gives  the  following  account :  "  Going 
out  of  the  imperial  palace,  attended  by  a  crowd 
of  Eusebian  partisans  like  gua,rds,  Arius  paraded 
proudly  through  the  midst  of  the  city,  attracting 
the  notice  of  all  the  people.  On  approaching 
the  place  called  Constantine's  Forum,  where  the 
column  of  porphyry  is  erected,  a  terror,  arising 
from  the  consciousness  of  his  wickedness,  seized 
him,  accompanied  by  a  violent  relaxation  of  the 
bowels.  He  therefore  inquired  whether  there 
was  a  convenient  place  near,  and,  being  directed 
to  the  back  of  Constantine's  Forum,  he  hastened 
thither.  Soon  after,  a  faintness  came  over  him, 
and,  together  with  the  evacuations,  his  bowels 
protruded,  followed  by  a  copious  hemorrhage, 
and  the  descent  of  the  smaller  intestines.  More- 
over, portions  of  his  spleen  and  liver  were  carried 
off  in  the  effusion  of  blood,  so  that  he  almost 
immediately  died."  Sozomen  (/7.  E.,  XL,  30)  gives 
a  similar  account,  and  adds,  that,  for  a  long  period, 
everybody  avoided  with  horror  the  spot  on  which 
Arius  died,  until  a  rich  Arian  bought  the  place 
of  the  public,  and  built  a  house  on  the  site,  that 
there  might  be  no  perpetual  memorial  of  his 
death. 

His  principal  work,  called  QuXna,  The  Banquet, 
which  he  wrote  during  his  stay  with  Eusebius  at 
Nicomedia,  was  a  defence  of  his  doctrine  in  an 
entertaining  popular  form,  half  poetry,  half 
prose  ;  but,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  frag- 
ments in  the  tracts  of  Athanasius,  it  is  lost.  A 
letter  of  his  to  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  and  one 
to  Alexander  of  Alexandria,  ,are  still  extant. 
(See  Fabricius,  Bihlioth.  Gr.,  VIIL,  p.  309.)  His 
doctrine  on  the  divinity  of  Christ  and  his  rela- 
tion to  the  Father  has  given  him  a  notoriety 
far  outstripping  his  talents  and  learning.  Nean- 
der  {Cli.  11.,  IV.,  685)  ascribes  to  him.  an  acute 
but  contracted  intellect  without  the  intuitive 
faculty.     See  Arianism  and  Athanasius. 

Lit.  —  The  chief  sources  on  the  life  and  char- 
acter of  Arius  are,  besides  the  fragments  of  his 
own  works,  the  writings  of  Athan.\sil'S,  the 
68th  and  69th  Hmreses  of  Epiphanius,  the 
church  histoi'ies  of  Socrates,  Sozomen,  Theod- 
oret,  and  Philostorgius.  See  also  the  works 
quoted  under  Arianism,  and  Schaff 's  art.  Ahius 
in  Smith  and  Wace  I.,  102  sq. 

ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT.  This  was  a  chest, 
made  in  the  Wilderness  by  express  divine  com- 


ARKITE. 


140 


ARMENIA. 


mand.  three  feet  uine  inches  in  length,  two  feet 
three  inches  in  width  and  height,  made  of  shittiiu- 
wood,  and  covered  with  gold  plates  within  and 
without,  encircled  near  the  top  by  a  border  or 
crown  of  gold,  and  covered  bj-  a  lid  of  solid  gold, 
■which  was  called  the  "mercy-seat."  On  each 
end  of  the  "mercy-seat"  was  placed  the  golden 
image  of  a  cherub  (see  Cherubim),  facing  in- 
ward, and  bending  down  the  ark.  Two  gold 
rings  were  attached  to  the  body  of  the  ark  on 
each  side,  through  which  passed  the  staves  or 
poles,  made  also  of  shittim-wood,  and  overlaid 
with  gold:  these  were  used  in  carrying  the  ark 
from  place  to  place,  and  were  never  taken  out. 
The  ark  was  so  called  because  in  it  were  the  two 
tables  of  the  law,  of  the  covenant  between  God 
and  Israel  (Exod.  xxv.  10  sqq.). 

The  cherubim  upon  it  indicated  the  place  where 
God  revealed  himself,  made  his  presence  felt 
among  the  Israelites :  consequently  the  Holy  of 
holies,  in  which  was  the  ark,  was  the  dwelling 
of  God.  This  being  so,  we  see  the  propriety  of 
covering  the  ark,  of  keeping  it  behind  curtains, 
so  tliat  only  the  high  priest  saw  it,  and  of  in- 
trusting it  to  the  care  of  a  particular  Levitical 
family,  the  Kohathites.  The  high  priest  could 
only  see  it  when  surrounded  by  clouds  of  in- 
cense. 

Tiie  contents  of  the  ark  were  the  two  tables  of 
the  law,  the  pot  of  manna,  and  Aaron's  rod  that 
budded  (Heb.  ix.  4;  cf.  Dent.  xxxi.  "26;  Exod. 
xvi.  33;  Num.  xvii.  8).  It  is  probable  that  the 
two  last  were  lost  while  the  ark  was  among  the 
Philistines  ;  for,  when  Solomon  brought  the  ark 
into  the  temple,  there  was  nothing  in  it  save  the 
two  tables  of  stone. 

From  the  time  of  Joshua  until  that  of  Eli,  the 
ark  was  at  Shiloh  in  the  tabernacle,  except  once 
it  was  brought  to  Bethel  (Judg.  xx.  26,  27 ; 
"  house  of  (jod  "  in  the  authorized  version  should 
be  Bethel).  For  seven  months  it  was  among  the 
Philistines  in  Eli's  time,  and  when  returned  was 
lodged  at  Kirjath-jearim  (1  Sam.  v.  6,  vii.  1) ; 
here  it  remained  until  David's  day,  when,  after  an 
interruption,  it  was  |iut  under  a  new  tent  (2  Sam. 
vi.).  Solomon  put  it  in  the  temple  (2  Chron.  v. 
2-10).  jNIanasseh  displaced  it  by  a  carved 
image ;  but  Josiah  restored  it  (2  Chron.  xxxiii. 
7,  xxxv.  3).  It  was  probably  burnt  up  in  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar ; 
and  in  the  tractate  Yonia  (see  Atonkment,  Day 
ok)  it  is  said  that  there  was  a  stone  in  the  Holy 
of  holies  on  the  spot  where  the  ark  should  have 
stood ;  and  on  this  stone  the  postcxilian  high 
jiriests  set  the  censer.  VOLCK. 

ARK'ITE,  Thei  the  designation  (in  Gen.  x. 
17  ;  1  Cor.  i.  15)  of  one  of  the  families  in  Canaan. 
The  town  was  called  Arka,  and  to-day  its  ruins 
bear  the  same  name.  They  are  upon  the  sea- 
coast  twelve  miles  nortli  of  Tripoli,  at -the  foot 
of  Mount  Lebanon.  See  Robinson's  Bih.  Re- 
Kearches  (1812),  HI.  pp.  u79-o81  Renan,  Afhsion 
lie  Phinice  (18U1),  pp.  H.j,  124.  Under  the 
emperors  it  w.os  called  C'a;sarea  Libani,  and  was 
an  im]iortant  place.  It  contained  a  temple  dedi- 
cated to  Alexander  the  Great,  and  there  Alexan- 
der .Severus  was  born,  A.l).  20.5.  It  was  a 
famous  stronghohl  in  the  days  of  the  crusades  ; 
besieged  vainly  for  two  months,  in  10i)9,  by 
Kaimoud  of  Toulouse,  but  taken  by  William  of 


Sartauges.  In  1202  it  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake.  See  the  travels  of  Shaw,  who  was 
there  in  1722  (2d  ed.  17o7)  ;  Burkhardt,  1812 ; 
(Rei.ten,  ed.  Gesenius,  1823,  pp.  271  sq.,  520  sq.), 
Robinson  and  Smith,  1852  (Later  Researches, 
1857,  pp.  7.54-759).  wolf  baudissin. 

ARMENIA,  extending  from  the  Black  to  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  from  the  Caucasus  to  the  Tau- 
rus, and  divided  by  the  Euphrates  into  Greater 
Armenia  to  the  east,  and  Lesser  Armenia  to  the 
west,  is  the  most  elevated  portion  of  AVestern 
Asia.  Here  the  Old  Testament  locates  Paradise 
(Gen.  ii.  10)  ;  and  for  a  second  time  this  country 
became  the  cradle  of  the  human  race,  when  the 
ark  of  Noah  rested  on  Mount  Ararat  (Gen.  viii. 
4),  to  which  event  the  names  of  several  places  re- 
fer, such  as  Erevan,  "appearance,"  the  spot  where 
Noah  first  discovered  land;  Akorri  "he  plants  the 
vine,"  the  place  where  Noah  first  planted  the 
vine,  situated  on  Mount  Ararat,  but  utterly  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake  in  1840;  Marand  "the 
place  of  the  mother,"  with  the  tomb  of  Noah's 
wife;  .<4rrnoyo^«"atthefeetof  Noah,"  where  Noah 
is  buried,  etc.  In  Scripture,  the  country  is  men- 
tioned under  various  luinies,  which,  however,  seem 
to  apply  to  various  parts  of  it.  Thus  it  is  prob- 
able that  Ararat  (Gen.  viii.  4  ;  2  Kings  xix.  37  ; 
Isa.  xxxvii.  38 ;  Jer.  !i.  27)  indicates  the  eastern 
jiart,  the  dominion  of  the  most  ancient  rulers  : 
the  natives  use  tliis  name  only  for  one  of  the  fif- 
teen provinces  of  Greater  Armenia,  and  the  cele- 
brated mountains  they  call  Masis.  Farther  to 
the  west,  immediately  on  the  Euphrates,  and 
south-east  of  Cappadocia,  lay  Togarmah  (Gen. 
X.  3  ;  1  Chron.  i.  0  ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  14,  xxxviii.  6); 
and  still  farther  to  the  west,  in  Northern  Phrygia, 
Ashkenaz  (Gen.  x.  3;  Jer.  li.  27).  The  Greeks 
and  Romans  knew  tlie  country  only  under  the 
name  of  Armenia,  which  they  derived  from  Ar- 
menus,  or  Armenius,  who  is  sometimes  rejire- 
sented  as  one  of  the  companions  of  Jason  ;  but 
the  natives  themselves,  though  they  know  this 
name,  and  derive  it  from  Aramenak  or  Arnien.ak, 
the  son  of  Ilaik,  or  from  Aram,  the  sixth  ruler 
after  Ilaik,  never  u.se  it.  They  call  themselves 
Haikh,  after  the  great-grandson  of  Japhet,  or  Tor- 
goraians,  after  the  father  of  Ilaik;  ami  they  trace 
their  history  l)ack  to  Noah,  curiously  blending 
mythical  lore  with  biblical  records.  Subject  to 
the  supremacy  successively  of  Assyria,  Babylo- 
nia, Media,  and  Persia,  the  country  was  concjuered 
by  Alexander  the  Great,  and  after  his  death 
governed  alternately  by  M.acedonian  and  Seleu- 
cidian  governors,  until,  in  the  middle  of  the  sec- 
cond  century  B.C.,  the  Parthian  king,  .Vrsaces 
the  Great,  succeeded  in  establishing  his  brother 
as  its  king.  The  dynasty  of  tlie  Arsacida; 
reigned  till  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century 
A.D.,  when  it  became  extinct,  and  then  the  By- 
zantine emperors  and  tlie  Persians  fought  for 
centuries  about  the  possession  of  the  country, 
until,  in  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century,  peace 
and  national  independence  W'ere  once  more  re- 
stored l>y  the  Pagratid  dynasty,  descending  from 
a  Jewi.sh  family  to  whioli  the  .\rmenians  apply 
the  promise  of  the  Lord  to  Abraham  (Gen.  xvii. 
Hi).  After  th.'  downfall  of  tlie  Pagratid  dy- 
n.'isty  (1015),  another  branch  of  the  same  family, 
the  RuUuiians  or  Rhu[ienians,  held  sway  over  the 
country;  but,  after  the  inviision  in  1375  by  the 


ARMENIAN. 


141 


ARMENIAN. 


Mamelukes,  the  nation  became  scattered,  and 
the  country  divided  :  at  present  Russia,  Turkey, 
and  Persia  hold  each  one  part  of  it. 

Lit. — MosKS  Chouenensis  :  Hislon'n  Armc- 
nke,  edit,  in  Armenian  and  Latin  by  W.  et  (J. 
AVhisto.vius,  London,  17:W  ;  St.  Makti.n  :  Mi'- 
moires  sur  VAnnenie,  Paris,  1819;  Ciiamicii  : 
History  of  Armenia,  translated  by  M.  1.  Avdall, 
Calcutta,  1827;  Elisa-:us  :  Histori/  of  Vnrlan, 
translated  by  Neumann,  London,  1830;  Smith 
and  DwiGHT :  Researcheit  in  Armenia,  Boston, 
1833  ;  V.  S.W'GLOia  :  Collection  des  hist.  anc.  el 
mod.  de  I'Arm.,  Paris  (not  yet  finished). 

Armenian  Church.  —  It  is  now  impossible  to 
decide  how  much  truth  there  may  be  in  the 
somewhat  mythical  stories  of  the  correspondence 
between  Christ  and  .Vbgarus,  and  the  missionary 
activity  and  martyrdom  of  Thaddseus,  Bartholo- 
mew, Simon  of  Cana,  and  Judas  Lebbreus ;  but 
it  is  certain  that  Christianity  was  introduced 
very  early  in  .\rmenia.  Unmistakable  traces 
of  it  may  be  found  in  the  second  century;  and  in 
the  fourth  the  country  became  a  Christian  king- 
dom, the  first  Christian  state.  Grigor  or  Greg- 
ory, the  Illuminator,  is  the  apostle  of  Armenia. 
Supported  by  King  Tiridates,  he  christianized 
the  whole  country.  Gi'eek  and  Syrian  priests 
were  invited,  churches  were  built,  bishoprics 
were  formed,  and  he  liiraself  was  consecrated 
primate  or  patriarch  of  Armenia  by  Leontius, 
Archbishop  of  C-esarea.  For  a  long  time  the 
patriarchate  remained  in  his  family.  Nerses  the 
Great  was  his  grandson.  In  3(34  Nerses  con- 
vened a  synod  at  Ashtistat,  which  regulated 
marriages  between  relatives,  limited  the  excessive 
mourning  over  the  dead,  and  founded  the  first 
monasteries,  the  first  asylums  for  widows,  or- 
phans, and  the  sick,  and  the  first  caravansaries 
for  travellers ;  and  in  366  another  synod,  at  Wa- 
larshapat,  defined  the  power  of  the  patriarch,  or 
catholicos, — -as  he  now  was  called, — -and  decreed, 
that,  in  the  future,  he  should  be  elected  and  con- 
secrated by  the  Armenian  bishops  themselves, 
and  not  by  the  Archbishop  of  Caisarea.  Under 
Sahak,  the  son  and  successor  of  Nerses,  the  Bible 
was  translated,  the  breviary,  the  ritual,  and  the 
liturgy  were  composed,  and  the  calendar  was 
arranged.  The  final  arrangement,  however,  of 
the  Armenian  calendar  such  as  it  is  still  in  use 
did  not  take  place  until  5.51,  at  a  synod  convened 
in  Dwin  by  the  catholicos  Jloses  II.  :  a  new  era 
was  then  established,  beginning  on  .July  11,  55'2, 
so  that  our  year  of  1881  corresponds  to  the  Ar- 
menian year  of  1329.  At  the  close  of  the  sixth 
century  a  violent  controversy  arose,  which  occa- 
sioned a  breach  between  the  Greek  and  the  Ar- 
menian  Church,  and  much  p.arty-division  within 
the  iVrmenian  Church  itself.  The  Council  of 
Chalcedon  (451)  having  taken  place  during  the 
frightful  persecutions  of  the  Christians  by  Yez- 
dejerd  II.,  its  decrees  had  never  become  fully 
known  in  Armenia;  and  in  491,  at  a  synod  in 
Walarshapat,  the  .Vrmenian  bishops  signed  the 
Henotikon  of  the  Emperor  Zeno,  whicli  implied 
a  condemnation  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon.  A 
century  afterwards  Kyrion,  catholicos  of  Georgia, 
and  a  man  well  vei-sed  in  the  Greek,  Armenian, 
and  Persian  languages  and  literatures,  accepted 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon ;  but  when  .\braham, 
the  catholicos  of  Armenia,  who  had  consecrated 


him,  hearil  this,  he  remonstrated  witii  him.  de- 
raand<'il  that  he  should  retiact,  and  finally  put 
him  under  the  ban.  Kyrion  complained  to  the 
Emperor  Mauritius;  and  in  597  a  council  was 
convened  in  Constantinople,  but  no  agreement 
was  arrived  at.  One  part  of  the  Armenian 
Church  continued  to  reject  the  Council  of  Chal- 
cedon, and  separated  cnnipleti'Iy  from  the  Greek 
Church;  and  of  the  other  ]>art,  which  .accepted 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  only  one  fraction  could 
be  incorporated  with  the  (ireck  Church,  while 
the  rest  split  into  many  minor  divisions.  Great 
exertions  were  afterwards  made,  both  from  the 
Greek  and  Armenian  side,  to  bring  about  a 
reconciliation.  In  1160  the  emperor,  Manuel 
Comnenus,  and  Michael,  the  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, sent  the  Greek  theologian,  Theoria- 
nus,  to  Armenia;  and  a  long  disputation  took 
place,  not  altogether  without  results.  In  1179  a 
synod  of  Hromkla,  at  which  three  hundred  and 
thirty-three  Armenian  bishops  and  a  great  num- 
ber of  priests  and  monks  were  present,  declared 
itself  prepared  to  adopt  the  Greek  views  on 
several  important  points  of  doctrine.  But  at 
the  same  time  an  intercommunication  had 
sprung  up  between  the  .\rmenian  Church  and 
the  Roman  see,  and  the  jealousy  and  intrigues 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  soon  frustrated  every 
attempt  at  i-ecouciliation.  Grigor  Pahlavuni  was 
the  first  Armenian  catholicos  who  entered  into 
closer  relations  with  the  papal  see.  lie  was 
present,  on  the  invitation  of  Pope  Innocent  II., 
at  the  synod  of  Aiitiochia  (1141),  and  accom- 
panied afterwards  the  p.apal  legate  to  Jerusalem. 
The  pope  sent  him  the  staff  and  the  veil,  the 
symbols  of  the  patriarchal  dignity;  and  an  oppor- 
tunity to  give  all  these  compliments  a  practical 
bearing  soon  offered  itself.  Leon  II.,  the  Arme- 
luan  ruler  of  Cilicia,  wished  to  obtain  the  royal 
crown  from  the  Latins,  and  addressed  himself  to 
Pope  Coelestine  III.  and  Emperor  Henry  VI. 
concerning  the  matter.  Both  the  pope  and  the 
emperor  were  willing  to  grant  him  the  favor  on 
the  conditions  that  he  would  celebrate  the  reli- 
gious festivals  on  the  same  d.ays  as  the  Roman 
Church,  and  hear  the  mass  in  the  church,  and 
together  with  the  congregation.  But,  the  closer 
the  relation  became  between  the  Armenian  and 
the  Roman  churches,  the  more  exasperated  the 
Greeks  felt.  They  broke  off  all  official  connec- 
tion with  the  Armenians,  though  they  continued 
to  cause  much  confusion  by  their  intrigues.  The 
attempt  of  Johannes  of  Kherrni,  in  1330,  to  re- 
organize the  whole  Armenian  Church  after  the 
Roman  model,  at  one  sweep,  proved,  of  course,  a 
miserable  failure;  but  the  measures  which  the 
popes  adopted  fov  the  same  purpose  proved  more 
successful,  because  they  were  more  cautious.  Pius 
IV.  gave  the  Armenians  a  church  in  Rome,  in 
1562,  and  established  an  .\rmenian  printing-press 
from  which  the  Psalms  were  issued  in  1567,  and, 
later  on,  also  other  works.  Gregory  XIV.  even 
thought  of  founding  a  school  in  Rome  for  the 
education  of  young  Armenians,  but  he  died  before 
i  he  could  realize  the  plan.  Such  an  institution, 
however,  was  successfully  established  in  1717, 
when  the  Mekhitarists  (which  see)  settled  in  the 
I  Island  of  S.  Lazzaro  at  'S'enice.  There  are  be- 
i  tween  seventy-five  and  one  hundi-ed  thousand 
I  Armenians  now  belonging  to  the  Roman  Church 


ARMENIAN. 


Hi 


ARMENIANS. 


A  reformatory  movement  in  an  evangelical  direc- 
tion has  also  been  started.  The  Armenian  Bible 
was  published  in  1S13  by  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society,  and  in  lbl7  by  the  Russian  Bible 
Society;  ancl  in  1831  the  American  Board  of 
Foreign  Missions  established  a  Protestant  mis- 
sion among  the  Armenians,  which  has  worked 
with  considerable  success,  not  only  in  Turkey 
and  Asia  Minor,  but  also  in  Armenia  Proper. 
(See  below.) 

Lit.  —  Giov.-^XNi  de  Serpo  :  Compendio  Slori- 
co,  etc.,  Venice,  1786;  Clem.  Galanus  :  Concil- 
ialio  Eccl.  Ann.  cum  Rom.,  Rome,  1650-61;  Hls- 
loire.  Dogmes,  etc.,  de  I'Eglise  Armi'nienne,  Paris, 
1855;  S.  C.  Malan:  The  Life  and  Times  of  S. 
Gregory,  1868;  and  The  Divine  Liturgy  of  the 
Armenian  Church,  London,  1870. 

Armenian  Literature.  —  The  Armenian  litera- 
ture is  wholly  Christian,  and  pre-eminentlj'  theo- 
logical. Only  by  Moses  Chorenensis  some  ex- 
tracts from  Pagan  Armenian  writers  and  some 
old  popular  songs  have  been  presei'ved ;  and 
history  is  the  only  field,  beside  theology,  in 
which  Armenian  literature  has  produced  any 
thing  great.  Its  golden  era  falls  in  the  fifth 
century,  and  is  inaugurated  by  the  labors  of 
Mesrob  and  Sahak.  Up  to  that  time  the  Arme- 
nian language  was  written  with  Greek  or  Syrian 
or  Persian  characters;  but  this  means  of  redu- 
cing Armenian  speech  to  writing  proved  utterly 
insufficient,  and  a  great  impediment  to  literary 
progress.  Mesrob  has  the  honor  of  having  in- 
vented, or  at  least  completed  and  introduced,  the 
Armenian  alphabet  now  used.  It  was  first 
applied  to  the  translation  of  the  Bible.  Sahak 
translated  the  Old  Testament;  Mesrob,  the  New  : 
but  as  all  Cireek  books  had  been  destroyed,  and 
w-ere  forbidden  by  the  Persians,  the  translation 
was  made  from  the  Syrian  version,  and  not  from 
the  original  text.  Twice,  however,  men  were 
sent  to  Edessa,  Alexandria,  Athens,  and  Con- 
stantinople, to  study  the  Greek  language,  and 
examine  authentic  copies  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures ;  and  the  result  of  these  great  exertions  was 
a  truly  admirable  translation.  The  first  printed 
edition  of  the  Armenian  15ible,  given  l>y  Bishop 
0.scon.  Amsterdam,  1666,  is.  from  a  codex  inter- 
polated from  the  Vulgate.  A  critical  edition 
was  not  given  until  1805,  by  the  Mekhitarists. 
In  spite  of  the  unfavorable  state  of  political 
and  social  affairs  in  .\rmenia  during  this  epoch, 
more  than  six  hundred  (jreek  and  Syrian  works 
were  translated  within  the  first  forty  years 
after  the  translation  of  the  Bible ;  and  as  in 
many  cases  the  original  works  have  perished, 
while  the  translations  have  been  preserved,  the 
great  importance  of  this  whole  literary  activity 
is  apparent.  Among  vvoi'ks  which  in  this  way 
have  come  down  to  us  are  several  books  by 
Philo  Alexandrinus,  on  Providence,  on  Rea.son, 
commentaries,  etc.;  the  Chronicle  of  Eusebins, 
nearly  complete ;  the  Epistles  of  Ignatius,  trans- 
lated from  a  .Syrian  version;  fifteen  Homilies  by 
.Severianus;  the  exegetical  writings  of  Ephraim 
Syru.s,  previously  completely  unknown,  on  the 
histfjrical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  sy- 
noi)tical  Gospels,  the  parables  of  Jesus,  and  the 
fourteen  Pauline  epistles;  the  Hexahemerou  of 
Basil  the  Great;  the  Catechesis  of  Cyril  of 
.Jerusalem ;  several  homilies  by  Chrysostom,  etc. 


The  period,  however,  was  not  characterized  by 
translations  only.  Several  of  the  disciples  of 
Mesrob  and  Sahak  left  original  works.  Esuik 
wrote  four  books  against  heretics,  printed  at 
Venice  in  1826,  and  translated  into  French  by  Le 
Vaillant  de  Florival,  Paris,  1853.  A  biography 
of  Mesrob  by  Koriun,  honnlies  by  Mambres,  ani 
various  writings  by  the  philosopher  David,  have 
been  published;  and  the  works  of  Moses  Chore-" 
nensis,  published  in  Venice  in  18i2,  and  agaiu 
in  1864,  have  acquired  a  wide  celebrity :  his  his- 
tory of  Armenia  has  been  translated  into  Latin, 
French,  Italian,  and  Russian.  Another  flourish- 
ing period  falls  in  the  twelfth  century  during  the 
reign  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Rubeuians.  Nerses 
Klajensis  and  Nerses  Lambronensis  belong  to  this 
period ;  also  Ignatius,  whose  commentary  to  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Luke  appeared  in  Constantinople, 
1735  and  1824;  Sargis  Shnorhali,  whose  commen- 
tary to  the  catholic  epistles  was  published  in  Con- 
stantinople in  1743,  and  again  in  1826 ;  Matthew 
of  Edessa,  whose  history,  comprising  the  period 
from  952  to  1132,  and  continued  by  Gregory  the 
Priest  to  1163,  contains  many  interesting  notices 
concerning  the  crusades ;  Samuel  Aniensis,  the 
chi'onologist,  Michael  Syrus,  whose  history  has 
been  edited  with  a  French  translation  by  V. 
Langlois,  Paris,  1864,  Mekhitar  Kosh,  of  whom  a 
hundred  and  ninety  fables  appeared  at  Venice. 
1780  and  1812.  A  most  powerful  impulse  the 
Armenian  literature  received  in  the  eighteenth 
century  by  the  foundation  of  the  Mekhitarist 
monastery  in  Venice,  from  whose  press  the  treas- 
ures of  the  Armenian  literature  were  spread  over 
Europe,  aud  new  works,  explaining  and  complet- 
ing the  old,  were  added.  The  Armenian  liturgy 
was  published  in  1826,  the  breviary  iu  1845,  the 
ritual  in  1831. 

Lit.  —  Quadro  delle  opere  Iradatte  in  Armenia, 
Venice,  1825;  Quadro  della  storia  lelteraria  di 
Armenia,  Venice,  1829;  K.\rikin  :  Histoire  de 
la  Lilterature  Arme'nienne.  [F.  M.  Bedrossian  : 
.4  New  Armenian-English  Dictionary,  Venice, 
1875-79.]  H.  PETEIMANN., 

Armenians,  Protestant.  It  was  not  the  in- 
tention of  the  .\mi'ricau  missionaries  to  found  a 
separate  Protestant  church.  The  leport  made  by 
Messrs.  Smith  and  Dwight  of  the  character  of 
the  church  aud  the  people  was  so  favorable,  that 
it  was  believed  that  missionaries  would  be  favor- 
ably received  by  tliem,  and  that  the  church  might 
be  reformed  and  spiritualized  without  any  dis- 
ruption. This  hope  was  cherished  for  many 
vears  by  the  missionaries;  but,  as  their  influence 
increased  among  the  people,  the  hierarchy  of  the 
chiu'ch  took  alarm,  and  commenced  persecuting 
those  who  adopted  evangelical  views.  As  the 
constitution  of  the  Turkish  Empire  gave  to  ''.he 
patriarch  the  right  to  fine  and  imprison  his  peo- 
pli%and  as  his  ex-coininunication  made  them  out- 
laws witliout  civil  rights,  he  was  able  to  persecute 
them  (!ven  to  the  death.  This  persecution  be- 
came at  last  so  violent  and  widely  extended,  that 
the  missionaries  reluctantly  took  measures  to 
form  a  separate  Protestant  church.  This  could 
only  be  done  by  decree  of  the  .Sultan;  but  this 
was  at  last  obtained  through  the  influence  of 
Lord  Stratford,  the  English  amba.ssador.  This 
charter  of  the  Protestant  community  recognizes 
no  particular  form  of  Protestantism,  and  stipu- 


ARMINIANISM. 


143 


ARMINIANISM. 


Jates  that  the  Vekit,  or  oflicial  representative,  must 
be  a  layman  ;  but,  as  the  missionaries  were 
mostly  from  non-episcopal  churches,  most  of  the 
I'rotestants  of  Turkey  have  adopte<l  similar  views. 

The  spirit  of  the  Armenian  Church  is  now  very 
different  from  what  it  was  when  this  disruption 
took  place.  There  is  a  fj''iiP''al  recognition  of  the 
fact  that  the  church  nee<ls  reform,  and  a  new  de- 
velopment of  spiritual  life.  The  Bible,  which 
was  translated  by  the  American  missionaries 
into  the  modern  language,  has  been  generally 
circulated  and  read.  Great  progress  lias  been 
made  in  education,  and  great  changes  have  taken 
place  in  the  hierarchy  of  the  church.  Friendly 
relations  exist  between  the  Protestants  and  the 
old  church,  and  it  would  not  be  strange  if  the 
separate  organization  were  finally  given  up  as 
the  whole  church  becomes  evangelical. 

The  whole  number  of  Armenians  is  about 
three  millions,  of  whom  two-thirds  are  in  Turkey; 
but  the  Catholicos,  or  head  of  the  chui'ch,  resides 
in  Russia. 

The  American  missionaries  commenced  their 
work  in  Turkey  among  the  Armenians  in 
1831.  The  Protestant  community  was  consti- 
tuted in  1850.  It  has  now  some  seventy- 
live  churches,  five  thousand  communicants,  and 
twenty-five  thousand  adherents.  There  are  three 
theological  schools,  two  colleges,  —  in  addition  to 
Robert  College  of  Constantinople,^— which  is  not 
connected  with  the  mission,  but  is  a  fruit  of  it, — 
fifteen  boarding-schools  for  girls,  and  primary 
schools  in  all  the  Protestant  communities.  —  See 
Rev  Dr.  Anderson's  Hist,  of  Miss,  of  the  A.  B. 
C.  F.  M.  to  the  Oriental  Churches,  Boston,  1872, 
2  vols.  G.  WASHLiURN  (of  Constantinople). 

ARMINIANISM,  Historical.  It  should  not  be 
considered  an  isolated  and  merely  incidental 
phenomenon  in  the  history  of  the  Reformed 
Church.  That  revival  of  the  Augustinian  doc- 
trines of  predestination  and  grace  which  character- 
izes the  Reformation  in  general  developed  within 
the  pale  of  the  Reformed  Church  into  a  somewhat 
one-sided  and  particularistic  view  of  an  uncon- 
ditional election  by  which  the  universality  of  the 
divine  grace  seemed  to  become  lost;  and  it  is  as 
a  re-action  against  this  view  that  Arminianism 
arose  naturally  and  necessarily.  In  the  Uni- 
versity of  Leyden  a  contest  gradually  grew  up, 
not  so  much  between  the  dogmatics  of  Zwingli 
and  that  of  Calvin,  as  between  a  biblico-psycho- 
logical  tendency  and  a  stiff  dogmatism ;  the 
former'represented  by  the  mild  but  somewhat 
vague  catecliisffi  of  Heidelberg,  the  latter  by 
the  acute  but  somewhat  rigid  Conjessio  Belgica. 
In  this  contest  Jacobus  Arminius  is  the  great 
champion,  if  not  the  originator,  of  the  view  of  a 
conditional  election,  the  opposition  against  the 
reigning  tradition,  the  re-action. 

Arminius  (Harmensen)  Jacobus,  b.  in  1560  at 
Oudewatei  an  der  Yssel  (whence  Vetera(iuinas), 
d.  at  Leyden,  Oct.  19, 1609;  studied  (1575-82)  at 
the  University  of  Leyden  under  Lambert  Uaniius, 
who  made  him  an  ardent  disciple  of  Petrus 
Ramus,  the  declared  enemy  of  the  Aristotelian 
philosophy,  and  afterwards  (1582-87)  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Geneva,  under  Theodore  Beza,  at  that 
time  considered  the  best  expounder  of  the  dog- 
matics of  Calvin.  He  also  visited  Padua  and 
Rome,  and  was   in    1588   appiointed  preacher  in 


Amsterdam.  In  this  city  the  writings  of  Dirik 
Volkaerts  zoon  Koornheert  hail  caused  consider- 
able commotion.  Thougli  a  layman  only,  he  had 
openly  attacked  the  Reformed  Church,  more  es- 
pecially Calvin's  doctrines  of  jiredestiuation.  A 
disputation  was  arranged,  and  Koornheert,  not 
convinced,  refused  to  retract,  and  was  declared  a 
heretic.  The  board  of  supervisors  now  invited 
Arminius  to  refute  Koornheert's  writings,  and  as 
at  the  same  time  a  controvensy  had  In-oken  out 
between  the  Supralapsarians  and  Infralapsarians, 
Lydius  of  Franecker  also  was  anxious  (hat  he 
should  come  to  the  support  of  the  pure  faith,  — 
the  views  of  Beza.  But,  while  pondering  the 
question,  Arminius  felt  himself  more  and  more 
strongly  drawn  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  the 
public  noticed  the  change.  A  sermon  he  deliv- 
ered on  Rom.  vii.  14  occasioned  an  accusation 
for  Pelagianisra.  This  time  he  stilled  the  alarm 
by  declaring  that  he  would  teach  notiiing  which 
was  against  the  catechism  of  Heidelberg  and  the 
confession  of  the  Church  of  the  Netherlands. 
But  another  sermon  on  Rom.  ix.  caused  new 
troubles.  New  investigations  were  instituted, 
new  disputations  took  place  ;  but  the  only  result 
was,  that  Arminius  felt  more  and  more  convinced 
that  the  Calvinistic  dogmatics  were  mistaken 
with  respect  to  predestination  and  grace.  In 
spite,  however,  of  his  suspected  orthodoxy,  he 
was  called  to  a  chair  in  the  University  of  Leyden 
after  the  death  of  Junius,  in  1603;  and  a  prelimi- 
nary parley  with  his  future  colleague,  Gomarus, 
led  to  a  satisfactory  result.  But  in  1004  he  fell 
out  with  Gomarus  on  the  question  of  predestina- 
tion, and  the  controver.sy  soon  grew  very  hot. 
In  order  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation,  a  general 
synod  was  spoken  of  in  1606,  and  a  formal  dis- 
putation was  held  in  1608.  But  no  result  was 
arrived  at,  and  in  the  mean  time  Arminius  died. 
He  was  a  learned  and  able  divine,  of  a  meek, 
Christian  spirit.  "  Condemned  by  others,"  Gro- 
tius  said,  "he  condemned  none." 

After  his  death,  however,  his  ideas  continued 
to  spread;  and,  while  spreading  in  the  masses, 
they  began  to  undergo  an  internal  development. 
Originally  Arminianism  simply  meant  the  asser- 
tion of  universal  grace  and  conditional  election; 
but  gradually  it  came  to  denote  a  much  more 
comprehensive  tendencj'  of  liberality,  both  in  re- 
ligion and  morals.  Thus  the  Gomarists  consid- 
ered the  symbolical  books  as  the  absolute  norm 
for  the  explanation  of  Scripture  ;  while  the  Armi- 
nians  vindicated  a  complete  exegetical  freedom, 
and  would  be  bound  by  the  s3'mboIical  books, 
only  so  far  as  they  agreed  with  Scripture.  The 
movement  rapidly  took  hold  of  the  people;  and 
in  1610  the  Arminians  presented  a  Remunstrantia 
(whence  the  name  "Remonstrants"),  consisting 
of  five  articles,  to  the  estates  of  Holland  and 
West  Friesland.  The  first  of  these  articles 
reads  :  "  By  an  eternal  and  inscrutable  decree, 
before  the  foundation  of  the  world,  God  ordained 
to  save  in  Christ,  because  of  Christ,  and  through 
Christ,  from  out  of  the  human  race,  which  is 
fallen  and  subject  to  sin,  those  who  by  the  grace 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  believe  in  His  Son,  and  who, 
by  the  same  grace,  persevere  unto  the  end  in  that 
faith  and  the  obedience  of  that  faith,"  etc.  The 
second  article  says  that  Jesus  Christ,  the  Saviour 
of  the  world,  died  for  all  and  each  one,  etc.  • 


ARMINIANISM. 


144 


ARMINIANISM. 


the  third,  that  man  of  himself  and  by  the  power 
of  his  free  will  camiot  do  or  think  any  thing 
good,  etc.  ;  the  fourth,  that  the  grace  of  God, 
though  not  irresistible,  is  the  beginning,  the 
progress,  and  the  perfection,  of  every  thing  a 
good  man  does  or  thinks,  etc  ;  and  the  fifth,  that 
those  who  are  grafted  into  Christ,  and  partake 
of  his  vivifyingspirit,  have  the  means  by  which 
to  fight  against  Satan,  sin,  the  world,  and  their  ^ 
own  fiesh,  and  to  obtain  victory  by  the  aid  of  the 
grace  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  etc. 

Against  this  Remonstraniia  the  Gomarists  pre- 
sented a  Contra- Remonstrantia  :  but  it  was  drawn 
up  in  much  less  moderate  expressions,  and  the 
negotiations  which  were  attempted  only  made 
the  controversy  more  bitter.  In  1614  the  Estates 
of  Holland  forbade  all  discussion,  and  com- 
manded peace  and  patience;  but  the  Gomarists 
set  themselves  against  the  civil  authorities,  and 
the  political  parties  became  involved.  Olden- 
barneveldt  (John  of  Barneveldt,  1547-1619),  at 
the  head  of  the  Republicans,  favored  the  Remon- 
strants; and  Maurice  of  Orange,  at  the  head  of 
the  Monarchists,  favored  the  Contra-Ilemon- 
strants. 

In  order  to  stop  these  disturbances,  which  be- 
came more  and  more  violent,  the  famous  synod 
of  Dort  was  convened  (Xov.  13,  1618-May  9, 
1619).  Bogermann,  an  ardent  adversary  of  the 
Remonstrants,  presided;  and  the  assembly  at 
once  constituted  itself  accuser  and  judge.  The 
five  ai-ticles  were  condemned :  the  Catechism  of 
Heidelberg  and  the  Confessio  Delr/ica  were  sanc- 
tioned. About  two  hundred  Remonstrant  minis- 
ters were  deposed,  and  such  among  them  as  would 
not  consent  to  keep  silent  were  banished.  (The 
execution  of  Oldenbarneveldt,  however,  and  the 
imprisonment  of  Grotius,  had  principally  politi- 
cal reasons.)  Most  of  the  deposed  ministers 
gatnered  in  Amsterdam;  and  from  there  they 
sent  forth  a  defence,  very  adroitly  drawn  up,  in 
which  they  refuted  the  charge  of  conspiracy 
against  the  prince-stadtholder.  This  defence, 
and  also  the  very  acts  of  the  synod,  published  in 
1620,  made  a  favorable  impression  on  the  govern- 
ment; and  when,  in  1625,  Prince  Henry  succeeded 
his  brother  Maurice  as  stadtholder,  the  Remon- 
strants obtained,  first,  toleration,  and  tlien  (in 
1630)  liberty  to  live  in  any  town  or  place  in  Hol- 
land, and  to  build  churches  and  schools.  In  1621 
and  1622  Simon  Episcopius,  the  ablest  dogmatical 
writer  among  the  Uemonstrant.s,  published  in 
Dutch  and  Latin  a  Confessio  in  twenty-five  chap- 
ters, which  gave  a  clear  and  succinct  statement 
of  their  faith;  and  the  Censura  oi  this  Confessio 
issued  by  four  professors  of  Leyden,  was  ably 
met  with  the  A/iologia  of  the  same  author.  Sin- 
gularly enough,  however,  as  soon  as  the  persecu- 
tions ceased,  and  the  party  could  settle  down  in 
peace  and  (luietness,  its  number  began  to  de- 
crea.se. 

For  their  organization  the  Arminians  are  in- 
debted to  Uytenbogaert.  The  constitution  is 
very  simple.  A  synod  composed  of  all  the 
preachers,  —  at  jiresent  twenty-one,  —  the  profess- 
ors of  the  .seminary,  and  clelegates  from  the 
congregations,  exercises  the  highest  authority. 
It  assembles  every  year,  alternately  in  Amster- 
ilam  and  Rotterdam.  The  current  business  is 
managed  by  a  committee  of  five  members.     Gen- 


erally speaking,  however,  the  Arminians  form  a 
theological  party,  rather  than  a  religious  sect. 
They  call  themselves  members  of  the  Reformed 
Church.  Their  seminary  in  Amsterdam  has  had 
many  eminent  theologians  among  its  professors, 
—  Episcopius,  Curcellffius,  Limborch,  Le  Clerc, 
not  to  speak  of  the  philosopher  Grotius ;  but  the 
congregational  bond  is  somewhat  loose.  From 
the  Arminians  properly  speaking,  the  Qiiinfiuar- 
ticulares  must  be  distinguished,  a  branch  of 
anti-trinitarian  Remonstrants.  Heterodox  par- 
ties, such  as  the  Socinians,  have  often  found  it 
easy  to  amalgamate  with  the  Arminians,  and 
their  inclination  towards  Semi-Pelagianism  has 
now  and  then  given  them  a  direction  towards 
Romanism. 

Lit.  —  The  writings  of  Arminius  were  collected 
and  published  at  Leyden,  1629.  English  transla- 
tion in  3  vols.  The  preferable  edition  is  London, 
1825,  1828,  and  1875  (vols.  1  and  2  by  James 
Xichols,  vol.  3  by  William  Nichols).  American 
edition.  Auburn  and  Buffalo,  1853,  3  vols.  (vol.  3 
translated  by  W.  R.  Bagnall).  His  life  was  writ- 
ten by  Caspar  Brandt:  Historia  Vit(r  I.  Arminii, 
Amsterdam,  1724,  and  by  Bangs:  Life  <f  Armin- 
ius, New  York,  1843. 

The  history  of  Arminianism  has  been  written 
by  L'ytenbogaert :  KercUetijrhe  Historic,  Amster- 
dam, 1647:  by  Gerhard  I-irandt:  Hislorice  Refor- 
matiani.i  Belfficie,  Anisterdain.  1671-1704,  trans,  by 
Chamberlayne,  London  1720,  vols.  4;  Limborch: 
Relalio  Historica,  etc.,  appended  to  his  Tlieotogia 
Christiana,  1714. 

The  best  docti-inal  expositions  besides  those 
already  mentioned  have  been  given  by  Catten- 
burgh :  Bibliotheca  Scriplorum  Remonstraiiliuiu, 
Amsterdam,  1728;  and  G.  S.  Fraucke  :  L>e  Historia 
Do(/iiiatiiiii  Anniri.,  Kiel.  1813.  I'KI.T. 

ARMINIANISM,  the  (Five)  Articles  of.  The  Ar- 
ticles constituted  the  positive  part  of  the  nemon- 
strance  drawn  up  by  Uytenbogaert,  signed  by 
forty-six  ministers,  wiiich  was  presented  to  the 
States-General  of  Holland  and  West  Friesland  in 
1610  by  the  party  of  Arminius  (1.560-160!)).  The 
Calvinists  issued  a  Counter-Remonstrance:  hence 
the  party  names.  Remonstrants,  Counter-Remon- 
.strants.  On  account  of  the  number  of  Article.s- 
discu.ssed,  the  controversy  arising  lias  been  called 
the  f/uinf/uarlicular.  The  Remonstrance  is  first 
negative,  stating  the  five  Calvinistic  Propositions, 
in  order  to  reject  them,  and  then  positive,  stating 
the  five  Arminian  Aiticles,  as  follows :  — 

Article  I.  —  That  God,  by  an  eternal,  unchangea- 
ble purpose  in  Jesus  Chri.st,  his  Son,  before  the  fiiun- 
dation  of  the  world,  liath  ileterniiniMl.  out.  of  the 
fallen,  sinful  race  of  men,  to  save  in  Christ,  for 
Christ's  sake,  and  through  Christ,  those  wlio,  tlu'ough 
the  grace  of  the  Holy  Gliost,  shall  believ(^  on  this  his 
Son  .resus,  and  shali  pcvsevrre  in  this  faith  and  obe.- 
dimice  of  faith,  tlu'ougli  lliis  grace,  even  to  the  enil: 
and,  on  tlie  other  hand,  to  leave  tlie  incorrigililo  ami 
unbelieving  in  sin  and  under  wrath,  and  to  condeinii 
them  a.s  aliiniate  from  Christ,  according  to  the  word 
of  the  gospel  in  John  iii.  .'Hi:  "  He  that  believeth  on 
the  Son  hath  everlasting  life;  and  he  that  lieliev<'tli 
not  the  Son  shall  not  .see  life;  hut  the  wrath  of  (;o<l 
aliideth  ou  him,"  and  according  to  other  passages  o( 
.Scripture  also. 

AuT.  II.  —  That,  agreeably  thereto,  Jesus  Christ, 
the  Saviour  of  the  world,  died  for  all  men  and  for 
every  man,  so  that  he  has  obtained  for  them  all,  by 
liis  death  ou  the  cross,  redemption,  and  the  forgive 
ness  of  sins:  yet  that  no  one  actually  enjoys  this  for 


ARMINIANISM. 


14.', 


ARMINIANISM. 


giveness  of  sins,  except  the  believer,  according  to  the 
word  of  the  Gospel  of  Jolin  iii.  Ki:  "God  so  loved 
the  world  that  he  gave  his  only-liegotten  Son,  that 
whosoever  believeth  in  liini  shoulil  not  perish,  but 
liave  everlasting  life;  "  and  in  tlie  First  Epistle  of 
John  ii.  2:  "  And  he  is  the  propitiation  for  our  sins; 
and  not  for  ours  only,  but  also  for  tlie  sins  of  tlie 
whole  world." 

AuT.  III.  — That  man  has  not  .saving  grace  of  him- 
self, nor  of  the  energy  of  his  free-will,  inasmuch  as 
he,  in  the  state  of  apostasy  and  sin,  can  of  and  l)y  him- 
self iH-itliiT  think,  will,  nor  do  anything  that  is  truly 
good  (sui'h  as  saving  faith  eminently  is);  Init  that  it 
is  needful  that  he  be  born  again  of  God  in  Christ, 
through  his  Holy  Spirit,  and  renewed  in  understand- 
ing, inclination,  or  will,  and  all  his  powers,  in  order 
that  he  may  rightly  understand,  tinnk,  will,  and 
effect  what  is  trul.y  good,  according  to  the  word  of 
Christ,  John  XV. 5:  "Without  me  yecau  do  nothing." 

Art.  IV.  —  That  this  grace  of  God  is  the  beginning, 
continuance,  and  accomplishment  of  all  good,  even 
to  this  extent,  that  the  regenerate  man  himself,  with- 
out prevenient  or  assisting  awakening,  following, 
and  co-operative  grace,  can  neither  think,  will,  nor 
do  good,  nor  withstand  any  temptations  to  evil;  so 
that  all  good  deeds  or  movements  that  can  be  con- 
ceived must  be  ascribed  to  the  grace  of  God  in  Christ. 
But,  as  respects  the  mode  of  the  operation  of  this 
grace,  it  is  not  irresistible,  inasmuch  as  it  is  written 
concerning  many  that  they  have  resisted  the  Holy 
Ghost,  —  Acts  vii.,  and  elsewhere  in  many  places. 

Art.  V.  —  That  those  who  are  incorporated  into 
Christ  by  a  true  faith,  and  have  thereby  become  par- 
takers of  his  life-giving  spirit,  have  thereby  full 
power  to  strive  against  Satan,  sin,  the  world,  and 
their  own  flesh,  and  to  win  the  victory,  it  being  well 
understood  that  it  is  ever  through  the  assisting  graci- 
of  the  Holy  Ghost;  and  that' Jesus  Christ  assists 
them  through  his  spirit  in  all  temptations,  extends  to 
them  liis  hand;  and  if  only  they  are  ready  for  the 
conflict,  and  desire  his  help,  and  are  not  inactive, 
keeps  them  from  falling,  so  that  they,  by  no  craft  or 
power  of  Satan,  can  be  misled,  nor  plucked  out  of 
Christ's  hands,  according  to  the  word  of  Christ, 
John  X.  28:  "  Neither  shall  any  man  pluck  them  out 
of  my  hand."  But  whether  they  are  capable,  through 
negligence,  of  forsaking  again  the  first  beginnings  of 
their  life  in  Christ,  of  again  returning  to  this  present 
evil  world,  of  turning  away  from  the  holy  doctrine 
which  was  delivered  them,  of  losing  a  good  con- 
science, of  becoming  tlevoid  of  grace,  that  must  be 
more  particularly  determined  out  of  the  Holy  Scriji- 
tures  before  we  ourselves  can  teach  it  with  the  full 
persuasion  of  our  minds. 

These  Articles,  thus  set  forth  and  taught,  the 
Remonstrants  deem  agreeable  to  the  word  of 
God,  tending  to  edification,  and,  as  regards  this 
argument,  sufficient  for  salvation,  so  that  it  is  not 
necessary  or  edifying  to  rise  higlier,  or  to  descend 
deeper.  See  Schaff  :  Creeds  of  Christendotn, 
vol.  iii.  pp.  .54.5-49;  cf.  Vol.  i.  §  65,  p.  508  sq. 

ARMINIANISM  (Wesieyan).  — Doctrinal iMeth- 
odism  claims  to  adhere  to  original  Arminianism 
as  set  forth  by  Arminius  himself,  and  developed 
by  Episcopius,  Limborch,  and  others,  without 
the  freethinking  tendency  taken  on  by  the  inter- 
mediate Englisli  Arminianism,  symptoms  of 
which  had  appeared  in  some  of  the  early  Remon- 
strants, such  as  Grotius  and  Curcellajus.  John 
Wesley,  the  founder  of  Methodism,  was  of  Ar- 
minian  stock;  his  father  Samuel,  in  common 
with  many  of  the  Anglican  divines,  inclining 
strongly  against  Calvinism  (see  Tyerman's  Life 
of  Samuel  Wedeij,  p.  144)  ;  and  "the  Holy  Club" 
at  Oxford  contained  both  these  elements,  the 
Wesleys  ultimately  separating,  on  this  ground 
alone,  from  Whitefield,  who  became  the  father 
of  the  Welsh  or  Calvinistic  branch  of  Methodism. 
The  Wesleyans  throughout  the  British  Empire, 
11  — I 


and  the  Methodists  in  America,  are  universally 
Arminians;  and  whatever  may  be  their  differ- 
etices  in  church  organization,  social  sentiments, 
or  pr.actical  views  of  evangelical  economy,  or 
even  their  individual  opinions  on  minor  points  of 
theological  dogma,  they  heartily  concur  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  e.ssential  Calvinian  doctrine  of  God's 
absolute  jn-edestination  concerning  men's  ever- 
lasting destiny.  Thi.s  they  all  regard  as  incom- 
patible with  divine  equity  and  human  freedom. 
It  will  suffice  here  to  show  briefly  the  relations 
of  this  cardinal  theme  to  the  great  redemptive 
scheme  as  conceived  by  all  the  followers  of  Wes- 
ley, both  in  this  country  and  abroad.  This  will 
be  their  best  discrimination  and  vindication  from 
Pelagianism  on  the  one  side,  and  Augustinianism 
on  the  other.  On  all  the  essential  points  of  vital 
Christianity,  such  as  the  Trinity,  human  deprav- 
ity, the  atonement,  the  necessity  of  regeneration 
and  personal  holiness,  of  course  they  do  not  differ 
from  other  evangelical  denominations. 

1.  Wesleyanism,  or  Methodist  Arminianism, 
while  maintaining  God's  supremacy  as  strenu- 
ously as  Calvin  himself,  makes  a  radical  distinc- 
tion between  the  desires  and  the  purposes  of  God, 
ju-ecisely  as  it  does  between  the  wishes  and  the 
determinations  of  man.  The  divine  foreknowl- 
edge is  regarded  as  logically  preceding  the  divine 
volitions,  and  not  as  an  inference  resulting  from 
them.  Hence,  when  God  resolves,  it  is  in  view 
of  all  the  contingencies  and  circumstances  of 
the  case,  and  his  prescience  is  simply  intuitional. 
What  he  knows,  —  whether  as  to  the  past,  the 
present,  or  the  future,  —  although  absolutely  cer- 
tain, is  not  necessitated  by  that  cognition.  He 
not  only  knows  that  it  has  taken,  or  is  taking, 
or  will  take,  place,  but  also  that  it  miyht  have 
been  or  could  be  otherwise.  This  is  considered 
a  fundamental  difference  between  the  Arminian 
and  the  Calviiuan  conception  of  God. 

2.  As  a  corollary  from  the  foregoing  distinc- 
tion, Wesleyans  hold,  that  while  God  absolutely 
—  or  if  any  prefer  to  say  arbitrarily  —  deteriuines 
natural  (i.e.,  physical)  e-,  ents,  he  has  not  done  so 
with  occurrences  belonging  to  the  moral  sphere, 
but  has  left  these  contingent  upon  the  volitions 
of  his  rational  creatures  within  certain  limits. 
This  forms,  in  their  view,  the  basis  of  human 
probation  and  free-will. 

3.  Especially  they  believe,  that  while  man  is 
born  with  corrupt  moral  affections,  and  therefore 
is  of  himself  unable  either  to  love  or  to  serve 
God  acceptably,  yet  by  virtue  of  the  universal 
atonement  of  Christ,  and  the  general  distribution 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  such  gracious  aid  is  supernat- 
urally  afforded  to  every  man  as  is  sufficient  to 
enable  him  to  overcome  the  bias  of  his  depraved 
affections,  and  the  weakness  or  perverseness  of 
his  ■will  ;  so  that,  (/"  he  chooces,  he  may,  through 
the  appointed  means,  lay  hold  upon  the  salvation 
of  the  gospel.  Just  at  this  pivotal  point  occurs 
the  practical  or  anthropological,  in  distinction 
from  the  theoretical  or  theological,  difference 
between  Wesleyan  Arminianism  and  Calvinism, 
whether  of  the  old  or  the  new  school.  In  a  last 
analysis  the  precise  element  or  force  which  turns 
the  scale  in  favor  of  a  new  life,  or  otherwise, 
is  believed  by  Wesleyans  to  be  the  will  of  the 
subject  himself,  acting  freely  under  its  own  im- 
pulses, in  view  of,  but  not  constrained  by,  mo- 


ARMINIANISM. 


146 


ARMY. 


tives,  aud  yet  stimulated  and  guided  by  divine 
light  and  grace.  AVitliout  an  original  and  con- 
tinued influence  from  God,  the  will  would  never 
move  in  the  right  direction :  yet  this  influence  is 
never  coercive,  however  powerful  or  effectual  it 
may  be.  God's  Spirit  is  therefore  held  to  be  the 
efficient  agent  which  renews  the  moral  nature  of 
the  subject  upon  the  decisive  act  of  acquiescence, 
as  soon  as  it  is  accompanied  by  a  positive  element 
of  acceptance,  which  latter  is  saving  faith.  The 
man  does  not  save  himself,  but  only  consents  to 
be  saved  of  God,  and  rests  upon  Christ  for  that 
purpose.  The  penitence  and  faith  involved  in 
this  are  indeed  potentially  the  gift  of  God;  but 
their  actual  use  and  exercise  are  the  conscious, 
voluntary,  and  personal  act  of  the  man  himself. 
Wesleyans  conceive  this  to  be  the  accurate  and 
consistent  account  of  conversion  or  regeneration, 
involving,  in  due  balance  and  just  responsibility, 
the  human  and  the  divine  co-operation.  They 
think  it  relieves  them  from  the  overwhelming 
divine  influence  which  Augustinianism  seems  to 
them  to  introduce,  and  at  the  same  time  from 
the  charge  of  hunianitarianism  justly  brought 
against  Pelagianism,  New  Divinity,  etc.  With 
any  modern  or  moderate  Calvinists  who  may 
accept  this  statement  or  explanation  of  the  phe- 
nomena, the}'  have,  of  course,  no  controversy  on 
this  central  point  of  experimental  Christianity. 

4.  Wesleyan  Methodists,  as  we  have  shown, 
believe  that  conversion  is  the  result  of  conscious 
faith,  and  that  it  involves  a  conscious  change  in 
the  feelings.  They  therefore  universally  main- 
tain that  it  is  the  privilege  of  every  child  of  God 
to  know  his  gracious  state.  Further,  they  believe 
that  sound  experience,  no  le.ss  than  Scripture, 
warrants  the  expectation  of  a  special  divine  in- 
ward testimony  to  the  fact  of  the  changed  relation 
towards  God;  and  this  they  call  "the  witness  of 
the  Spirit  "  to  the  adoption.  This  is  held  to  be 
a  distinct  but  concomitant  assurance  in  addition 
to  the  consciousness  spoken  of  above,  and  also 
different  from  a  rational  conclusion  derived  by 
the  person  himself  from  his  own  altered  de- 
uieanor. 

b.  Methodist  Arminians,  without  exception, 
argue,  from  the  foregoing  doctrine  of  free  grace, 
tliat  it  is  likewise  /"uW,  i.e.,  able  to  remove  entirely 
the  innate  depravity  of  the  human  heart  during 
the  present  life.  This,  of  course,  they  qualify 
by  the  obvious  liabilities  to  relapse,  and  by  the 
imjierfections  inseparable  from  the  present  state 
of  probation ;  and  they  differ,  to  some  extent, 
among  themselves,  as  to  whether  tlie  act  or 
)irocess  of  entire  purification  is  instantaneous  or 
progressive,  and  whether  it  takes  place  immedi- 
ately upon  conversion,  or  subsequently  ;  but  they 
all  unite  in  insisting  upon  the  entire  sanctifica- 
tioM  of  believers  as  necessary  prior  to  death,  and 
piossible  indefinitely  before  that  event.  This 
sanctification  they  hold  to  be  the  joint  product  of 
divine  grace  and  the  subject's  watchfulness,  faith, 
and  obedience. 

U.  Finally,  holding  the  above  views  of  the 
fearful  power  of  the  human  will  to  accept  or  re- 
ject salvation,  \VesleyanH,  without  exception, 
believe  that  it  equally  extends  to  the  retention  or 
loss  of  the  divine  pardon,  ])eace,  and  purity,  at 
any  period  during  i>robation.  Tliey  therefore 
reject  the  doctrine  of  the  impossibility  of  lapsing 


utterly  and  finally  from  grace,  and  believe  that 
any  may,  and  that  many  actually  do,  lose  their 
state  of  acceptance,  and  their  love  of  holy  things, 
and  ultimately  perish.  They  do  not  maintain 
that  any  one  is  competent  to  keep  himself  in  a 
condition  of  holiness,  any  more  than  to  attain  it 
unaided  at  first,  but  that  the  same  gracious  assist- 
ance is  vouchsafed  to  the  child  of  God  through- 
out his  earthly  career,  on  precisely  the  same  terms 
of  acceptance  and  co-operation. 

Lit.  —  This  is  very  copious  :  we  name  only  the 
most  important  works.  The  earliest,  and  still  the 
best  and  most  generally  recognized  authority  on 
Wesleyan  or  Methodist  Arniinianism  is  Fi.etch- 
KR  :  Clieck's  lo  Anlinominianism  (originally  pub- 
lished Loud.,  1771  sq.,  as  separate  pamphlets  in 
answer  to  Toplady,  and  often  reprinted  collect- 
ively in  England  and  America),  a  rem.arkable 
specimen  of  clear,  calm,  and  cogent  controversy. 
A\'esley  :  Sermons  (contained  in  his  II'oHs.  often 
printed)  is  next  in  importance  as  a  standard ;  but 
these  are  necessarily  discursive  and  diffuse.  The 
whole  subject  is  topically  treated,  in  connection 
\Yith  general  theologj',  in  the  three  great  text- 
books of  Methodist  divinity  hitherto  published; 
namely,  Richard  W.\tson' :  Inslilnles  (Lond., 
1822-28,  often  reprinted  in  one  or  two  vols,  in 
England  and  America) ;  William  B.  Pope  : 
Christian  Thcolnyij  (Lond.,  1875-77,  revised  ed., 
Lond.  and  N.Y.,  1879  sq.,  3  vols.);  and  Miner 
Raymond:  Systematic  J'/ieo/o^i/ (Cincinnati,  1877- 

79,  3  vols.).  JAMES  STRONG. 

ARMY.  The  Hebrew  army  consisted  originally 
of  infantry  only  (Num.  xi.  21  ;  1  Sam.  iv.  10, 
XV.  4),  though  it  had  to  fight  against  people 
using  cavalry  (Josh.  xi.  9 ;  Judg.  iv.  3,  16 ; 
1  Sam.  X.  IS)  and  chai-iots  of  iron  (Josh.  xvii. 
16;  Judg.  i.  19,  iv.  3,  v.  22;  1  Sam.  xiii.  5). 
This  and  other  circumstances  determined  Solo- 
mon to  organize  a  division  of  cavalry,  which  he 
distributed  throughout  the  towns  of  the  country 
(1  Kings  ix.  19,  x.  26),  and  which  his  successors 
often  re-enforced  with  Egyptian  mercenaries  (Isa. 
xxxi.  1,  xxxvi.  9;  2  Kings  xviii.  24).  Everj' 
citizen  was  bound  to  serve  from  his  twentieth  to 
his  fiftieth  year  (Num.  i.  3,  xxvi.  2;  2  Chron. 
XXV.  5)  ;  but  under  certain  circuuLstances  exemp- 
tions were  admitted.  When  a  war  broke  out, 
each  tribe  furnished  a  proportional  number  of 
armed  men  (Num.  x.xxi.  4;  Josh.  vii.  3;  Judg. 
XX.  10).  \Mien  an  enemy  suddenly  invaded  the 
country,  the  n.ation  rose  en  masse,  called  out  by 
the  sound  of  the  trumpet,  or  informed,  either  by 
signals  erected  on  the  mountains,  or  by  mes- 
.sengcrs  sent  through  the  land  (Judg.  iii.  27,  vii. 
24;  Jcr.  iv.  5;  Ezek.  vii.  14;  Judg.  vi.  35). 
The  host  was  divided  into  bodies  of  a  thousand, 
a  hundred,  .and  fifty,  each  of  which  had  a  cap- 
tain of  its  own  (Num.  xxxi.  11;  Judg.  xx.  10; 
1  Sam.  viii.  12  ;  2  Kings  i.  9,  xi.  4  ;  2  Chron.  xxv. 
5).  The  general-in-chief  ami  the  captains  of  the 
divisions  formed  the  council  of  war  (1  Chron. 
xiii.  1).  The  soldiers  wore  no  uniform,  and  had 
to  maintain  thcmselvi's,  though  a  commissariat 
is  mentioned  already  in  Judg.  xx.  10.  The  arms 
were  those  commonly  used  by  Eastern  nations  in 
antiquity,  —  the  shield  of  wood,  covered  with 
leather,  f.agtened  to  the  shoulder-strap  during  the 
march  (2  Sara.  i.  21 ;  Isa.  xxi.  5),  and  kejit 
under  some  kind  of  covering  (Is.i.  xxii.  6)  ;  the 


ARNAUD. 


147 


ARNAULD. 


helmet  of  brass  (1  Sam.  xvii.  5;  1  Mace.  vi.  36); 
the  coat  of  mail,  protecting  the  che.st  and  the 
stomach  (1  Sam.  xvii.  5;  2  Chroii.  xxvi.  14); 
the  sword,  with  double  edges,  borne  in  a  scab- 
bard on  tlie  left  side  (1  Sam.  xvii.  39  ;  2  Sam. 
XX.  8;  Ezek.  xxi.  3;  1  Chron.  xxi.  27;  Judg. 
iii.  l(i ;  Prov.  v.  4);  the  spear  of  wood,  tipped 
with  a  point  of  brass  (2  .Sam.  xxi.  10  ;  Josh.  viii. 
IS,  20)  ;  the  bow,  of  wood  or  brass,  carried  in  a 
cover  of  leather  (Gen.  xxi.  20;  1  Sara.  xxxi.  3; 
2  Sam.  xxii.  35 ;  Fs.  xviii.  34  ;  llab.  iii.  9,  etc.). 
'I'lie  numerical  force  of  the  Hebrew  army  often 
reached  very  high  figures,  which,  however,  need 
cause  no  wonder,  as  the  question  is  of  a  rising  of 
tlie  whole  nation  ett  ?nasse. 

During  the  reigu  of  Saul  the  first  traces  occur 
of  a  standing  army,  —  a  force  of  three  thousand 
men,  levied  from  all  the  tribes,  and  completed 
by  volunteers  (1  Sam.  xiii.  2,  xiv.  52,  xxiv.  2). 
David  followed  the  example,  and  organized  a 
national  army,  which  was  able  to  place  a  divis- 
ion of  twenty-four  thousand  men  fit  for  active 
service  in  the  field  every  month  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 

1  sqq.).  Under  his  successors  the  institution 
l)ecarae  a  necessity,  as  the  Hebrews  every  now 
and  then  found  themselves  implicated  in  the 
wars  of  their  powerful  neighbors  (1  Kings  iv.  20; 
*2  Chron.  xvii.  14 ;  2  Kings  xi.  4  :  2  Chron.  xxv. 
5,  xxvi.  11;  2  Kings  i.  9).  After  the  exile, 
under  the  Maccabees  the  army  was  completely 
re-organized,  and  bodies  of  foreign  troops  were 
enlisted.  Under  Herod  the  Great,  nearly  the 
whole  army  consisted  of  mercenaries;  and  its 
organization,  armament,  and  tactics  were  those 
of  the  Roman  legions.  Of  the  method  of  carry- 
ing on  war  originally  employed  by  the  Hebrews, 
there  exist  only  some  aphoristic  notices.  Before 
entering  upon  a  campaign,  the  divine  will  was 
consulted  (Judg.  xx.  27;  1   Sam.  xiv.  37,   xxiii. 

2  ;  1  Kings  xxii.  6  ;  2  Chron.  xviii.  4).  When  the 
array  arrived  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy,  a 
sacrifice  was  ordered  (1  Sam.  vii.  9,  xiii.  9);  a 
priest,  or  the  general-in-chief,  harangued  the 
soldiers  (Deut.  xx.  2;  2  Chron.  xx.  20);  the 
trumpet  gave  the  signal  for  attack  (Num.  x.  9; 
2  Chron.  xiii.  12),  and  the  attack  was  made  with 
yelling  and  noise  (1  Sam.  xvii.  .52;  Isa.  xiii.  13; 
Amos  i.  14;  Jer.  1.  42;  Ezek.  xxi.  22).  The 
combat  took  place  man  to  man;  but  complex 
movements,  sm'prises,  circumventions,  etc.,  were 
effected  (Judg.  vii.  16 ;  Josh.  viii.  2-12 ;  1  Sam. 
XV.  5;  2  Sam.  v.  23).  Prisoners  were  treated 
with  great  harshness.  The  dead  were  pillaged 
(1  Sam.  xxxi.  8;  2  Mace.  viii.  27);  the  living 
were  killed  (Judg.  ix.  45;  2  Sam.  xii.  31;  2 
Chron.  xxv.  12),  or  mutilated  (Judg.  i.  6 ;  1 
Sam.  xi.  2),  or  reduced  to  slaveiy.  Women  and 
children  were  not  spared  (2  Kings  xv.  10,  viii. 
12;  Isa.  xiii.  10;  Amos  i.  13;  Ilos.  x.  14,  xiii. 
16  ;  Nahum  iii.  10 ;  2  Mace.  v.  13).  The  conquered 
cities  were  often  burnt  or  destroyed  (Judg.  ix. 
45;  1  Mace.  v.  28,  x  84).  The  Pagan  sanc- 
tuaries were  always  destroyed  (1  Mace.  v.  68). 
Victory  was  celebrated  with  cries  of  joy,  and 
triumphal  songs  and  dances  (Judg.  v. ;  1  Sam. 
xviii.  0;  2  Sam.  xxii.;  Judg.  xvi.  2;  1  Mace.  iv. 
24).  Conquered  arms  were  deposited  in  the 
temple  (2  Kings  xi.  10;  1  Chron.  x.  10). 

ARNAUD,  Henri,  b.  in  1041,  at  La  Torre  in 
Piedmont;  d.  in  1721,  at  Schbnberg,  in  Wtirtem- 


berg ;  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  those  Vau- 
dois,  who,  because  they  had  embraced  the  re- 
formed faith,  were  expelled  from  their  homes  by 
Victor  Amadous  of  Savoy,  and  led  them  back  to 
their  native  valleys,  defeating  a  French-Savoyan 
army  which  was  sent  against  them.  Political 
circumstances:  the  influence  of  William  of  Or- 
ange, and  a  breach  with  France,  compelled  Victor 
.A.madaeus  to  give  his  assent  to  their  return;  but, 
when  a  change  in  politics  brought  about  a  new 
alliance  with  France,  he  again  drove  them  away 
from  the  country,  and  Arnaud  accompanied  them 
in  their  exile  as  their  spiritual  leader,  and  re- 
mained with  them  in  Schdnberg  as  their  pastor, 
in  spite  of  the  brilliant  offers  he  received  from 
England.  Ills  Ilislnire  de  la  i/!uricuse  Henlree  des 
VaudoU  dans  teurs  Vallees  was  publi-shod  in  1710, 
and  translated  into  f^nglish  by  II.  D.  Ackland, 
London,  1827.  K.  H.  Klaibkk  :  llcnri  Arnaud. 
Nach  den  Que/li:n,  Stuttgart,  1880. 

ARNAULD,  Angelique  (Mere  An(/c'lir/ue  de  Si. 
.Jean),  b.  Nov.  24,  1024  ;  d.  Jan.  29, 1684;  was  edu- 
cated at  Port-Royal  by  her  aunt,  ;Marie  Angelique 
de  Ste.  Magdeleine;  took  the  veil  in  1644;  became 
subprioress  in  1653,  and  abbess  in  1078;  and  was 
the  leader  and  principal  support  of  the  nuns  of 
Port-Royal  during  the  controversy  between  the 
Jansenists  and  the  Jesuits,  from  the  time  when,  in 
1061,  they  refused  to  sign  the  Formulary  of  .Vlex- 
ander  VH.,  and  were  scattered  by  the  jiolice,  till 
1069,  when  the  Peace-edict  of  Clement  IX.  again 
freed  them  from  police  surveillance.  Among 
other  works  she  wrote  Mimoires  pour  seroir  a  I'liis- 
toire  de  Port-Royal,  published  in  three  volumes 
by  Barbeau  de  la  Bruyere,  Utrecht,  1742.  See 
Jansenism.  Fkances  Martin:  Anf/elique  Ar- 
iiauhl.  AhhtKs  of  Port-l!oi/al,  London,  1873. 

ARNAULD,  Antoine,  b.  in  Paris,  Feb.  8,  1012; 
d.  in  Brussels,  Aug.  8,  1694;  was  educated  at 
C'alvi  and  Lisieux,  and  began  to  study  law,  his 
father  being  a  famous  menilier  of  that  profession, 
but  afterwards  changed  jurisprudence  for  theol- 
ogy; studied  under  Lescot,  the  confessor  of  Riche- 
lieu; entered  the  Sorbonne  in  1034;  and  took  his 
degree  as  doctor,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1041. 
In  1643  he  published  his  De  la  Frequente  Com- 
munion, and  with  this  book  began  his  life-long 
contest  with  the  Jesuits.  It  was  sanctioned  by 
many  bishops  and  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne ;  and 
the  whole  result  of  the  intrigues  and  machina- 
tions of  the  Jesuits  was  the  censure  by  the  pope 
of  one  sentence  in  the  preface.  But  in  1644  Ar- 
nauld  entered  into  the  controversy  concerning  the 
Augustinus  of  Jansen  by  his  first  and  second  Apo- 
logie  de  Jansenim.  In  1055  he  published  his  two 
letters,  of  which  the  second  contains  the  famous 
distinction  between  a  decision  dejure  and  de  facto; 
and  in  1056  he  was  expelled  from  the  Sorbonne, 
and  deprived  of  his  doctorate.  The  Peace-edict 
of  Clemens  IX.  (1068)  made  his  social  position 
safe  once  more ;  and  from  1669  to  1674  he  pub- 
lished his  Grande  Perpetuke  de  la  Foi  de  I'Etjlise 
as  a  defence  of  Jansenism  against  the  accusation 
that  it  led  to  Calvinism.  "But  in  1069  he  also 
published  the  first  volume  of  his  Morale  Pratique 
des  Jesuites,  of  which  the  eighth  and  last  volume 
was  published  in  1094;  and  this  work  again 
brought  the  hatred  of  the  Jesuits  into  full  flame. 
In  1079  he  was  compelled  to  leave  France,  and 
settled  in  1082  in  Brussels,  steadily  pursued  by 


ARNAULD. 


148 


ARNOBIUS. 


the  Jesuits.  Here  lie  -nrote  Des  Vraies  et  des 
Faii^^ges  Idc'es  (16S3)  and  Reflexions  Philosophiqitcs 
et  Thcolofiif/uas  (lUSo)  against  ^Slalebranche. 
AVlien  he  died,  he  was  buried  in  secret,  and  only 
his  heart  was  sent  to  Port-Royal  to  be  interred. 
His  collected  works  were  published  in  forty-five 
Yolumes,  in  Paris  and  Lausanne,  1775-83.  See 
Jaxskxism. 

ARNAULD,  Henri,  b.  in  Paris  in  1597;  d.  at 
Angers,  June  8,  1694;  a  brother  of  Antoine;  was 
first  an  advocate,  but  embraced  the  ecclesiastical 
profession,  and  became  successively  Abbot  of  St. 
Nicholas,  Bishop  of  Toul,  and  Bishop  of  Angers. 
He  wa.s  a  stanch  Jansenist,  and  very  active  in 
the  practical  affairs  of  the  State  and  the  Church. 
He  left  a  work,  Nc'ijolialions  a  la  Cour  <!e  Rome, 
whicli  was  published  in  five  volumes  in  1748. 

ARNAULD,  Jacqueline  Marie  (Marie  Anr/elique 
de  Sle.  Magdeleine),  b.  Sept.  8,  1591;  d.  Aug.  0, 
1661.  She  was  the  second  daughter  of  the  fa- 
mous advocate  Antoine  Arnauld,  and  sister  of 
the  preceding.  By  her  father's  influence  she 
was  nominated  Abbess  of  Port-Royal  when  only 
eleven  years  old.  At  first  she  discharged  her 
duties  with  increasing  dislike  as  she  was  better 
able  to  appreciate  her  position ;  but  in  1608  she 
was  converted,  reformed  her  life,  performed  a 
severe  penance,  and  wrought  a  revolution  in  the 
convent.  She  was  subsequently  Abbess  of  Mau- 
bisson  1618-23,  of  Port-Royal"  1623-26,  then  of 
Port-Royal  de  Paris,  as  the  new  house  of  the 
community  was  called.  She  resigned  her  posi- 
tion, and  spent  the  rest  of  life  in  pious  labor  at 
different  posts.  See  Frances  Maktin  :  An- 
gelique  Arnauld,  London,  1873. 

ARNAULD  D'ANDILLY,  Robert,  b.  in  Paris  in 
1588;  (1.  there  Sept.  27,  1674;  the  eldest  brother 
of  .\ntoine;  held  various  positions  in  the  govern- 
ment and  at  the  court,  but  retired  in  1640  to  Port- 
Royal,  and  devoted  liimself  to  literary  pursuits. 
His  Haintx  Peres  du  Desert  was  translated  into 
English  :  Lives  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Desert,  Lou- 
don, 1757,  2  vols. 

ARNDT,  Johann,  b.  at  Ballen.stadL  .\nhalt, 
Dfc.  27,  1555;  d.  at  C'elle,  Hanover,  May  11, 
1621,  studied  theology  at  Helmstedt,  Wittenberg, 
Strassburg,  and  Basel;  and  was  appointed  minis- 
ter at  Badeborn,  a  village  of  Anhalt,  in  1581,  but 
was  discharged  in  1.590  by  Duke  Johann  Oeorg, 
who  leaned  towards  Calvinism,  and  demanded 
the  abolition  of  images  and  of  the  exorcism. 
In  tlie  same  year,  however,  lie  was  appointed 
minister  at  Quedlinburg ;  in  1.599  he  moved  to 
Brunswick  as  pastor  of  St.  ihirtiu;  and  in  1611 
he  was  called  to  Celle  as  court-preacher.  Of 
his  celebrated  work,  Vom  wahren  Chrislenlhum, 
the  first  part  w:is  published  in  1605,  the  three 
otliers  in  1609.  It  made  immediately  a  deep 
impression.  Edition  followed  edition.  Transla- 
tions were  made  into  Latin  and  into  all  European 
languages;  into  English  by  A.  W.  Boehm,  1712, 
and  by  William  .Jaques,  1815,  the  first  part  hav- 
ing liiH-n  transhited  as  early  as  l(i4(i.  Few  books 
of  devotion  have  etiualled  its  popularity  ;  but 
at  the  sauK!  time  it  also  e.xcited  much  opjiosition 
and  bitter  criticism.  The  delay  in  tlie  ]Jul)lication 
of  the  tlir(!i!  last  parts  was  due  to  tlie  opjiosition 
of  his  colleagues  and  superiors  in  Brunswick. 
Combining  an  iiiduence  from  Tauler  and  tiie 
other  mediajval  mystics  with  a  decided  practical 


tendency,  it  was  indeed  a  precursor  of  tlie  later 
pietism,  and  came,  naturally  enough,  in  conflict 
with  the  Lutheran  orthodoxy  in  its  lifeless, 
scholastic  form.  Of  his  other  writings,  his  Para- 
diesycirtlein  roller  christlichen  Tiir/enden,  1612.  also 
became  very  popular.  English  translation.  ■•  The 
Garden  of  Paradise,"  London,  1716.  The  first 
collected  edition  of  his  works  was  given  by  Ram- 
bach,  1734,  3  vols.  A  revised  edition  of  the 
"True  Christianity"  mentioned  above  appeared, 
Philadelphia,  1868.  See  Frd.  Arndt:  Johann 
Arndt,  Berlin,  1838. 

ARNO,  b.  in  the  diocese  of  Freising,  in  whose 
official  records  he  occurs  as  deacon  and  presbyter 
up  to  the  year  of  779 ;  d.  as  the  first  Archbishop 
of  Salzburg,  Jan.  24,  821 ;  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Alcuin  while  Abbot  of  Elnon.  in  flainanlt, 
between  779  and  785,  and  was  in  the  latter  year 
made  Bishop  of  Salzburg  by  Duke  Tassilo  of 
Bavaria.  His  attempt  to  interfere  between  Tas- 
silo and  Charlemagne  failed;  in  788  Bavaria 
was  incorporated  with  the  Frankish  Empire. 
But  Arno  gained  the  favor  and  confidence  of  the 
new  ruler,  and  Charlemagne  confirmed  the  Church 
of  Salzburg  in  the  possession  of  all  its  estates 
on  which  Arno  made  a  report  to  him  :  Congestuni 
(Indicidus)  Arnonis,  ed.  by  Keinz,  Munich.  1869. 
After  the  close  of  the  war  with  the  Avars,  all  the 
conquered  lands  were  placed  under  the  spiritual 
authority  of  the  see  of  Salzburg;  and,  on  April 
20,  798,  Arno  was  consecrated  Archbishop  of 
Salzburg,  and  metropolitan  of  Bavaria,  by  the 
pope  himself.  In  the  literary  circle  of  the 
Fr.ankish  court  he  bore  the  name  of  Aquila 
("e.agle,"  the  Latin  translation  of  his  name, 
Am  =  Ar=  eagle),  and  enjoyed  great  respect. 
He  was  present  when  the  Emperor  Charleiuange 
made  his  will.  See  Alcuin's  letters  to  Arno  in 
tlie  Mdiiumenta  Alcuiniana,  edd.  AVattenbach  et 
Dui'ininlor,  Berol.,  1873. 

ARNOBIUS  was  a  teacher  of  rhetoric  at  Sicca, 
in  the  Roman  province  of  Africa,  and  had  taught 
and  written  much  against  Christianity,  when, 
frightened  by  a  dream,  he  was  converted,  and  em- 
braced the  Cliristian  faith.  The  Bishop  of  Sicca, 
however,  felt  suspicious,  and  refused  to  admit 
him  into  the  church;  and  then  he  wrote  (about 
303),  and  probably  on  the  demand  of  the  bishop, 
his  Adrersiis  nnlioncs  lihri  VII.  On  this  work 
.Teronie  has  passed  a  very  severe  judgment  (episl. 
46) ;  and  it  must  be  conceded  that  the  author 
commits  mistakes,  and  shows  a  rather  limited 
knowledge  of  Christianity.  Thus  he  s.ays  that 
the  .soul  is  not  created  by  God,  and  not  immortal, 
according  to  its  nature;  and  his  conception  of 
atonement  is  very  v.ague,  Christ's  office  being 
simply  to  make  God  known  by  his  teachings  and 
liis  miracles.  Nevertheless  the  book  is  not 
witliout  a  certain  genuine  warmth,  .and  its  at- 
tacks on  Paganism  are  vigorous  and  hitting.  It 
was  edited  by  Orf.i.i.i,  Ziirich,  1816;  by  Hii.dk- 
nuANDT,  HaUe,  1844;  and  by  RKii'Fi:i!scm;ii), 
Wien,  1875;  the  hast  edition  being  by  far  the 
best.  P.  R.  Jleyer:  De  ralione  Arnobiana,  Haf- 
nia^  (Copenliagi'u),  IS].'). 

ARNOBIUS  the  rounger  was  a  priest  of  Gaul; 
a  Semi- Pelagian,  who  wrote  a  commentary  on  the 
Psalms,  found  in  Mac.  Bilil.  toiii.  VIII.  See 
TKLTiK.r, :  (j'eschichte  dir  rOinischen  IJlle'altir,  iid 
ed.,  1875,  pp.  923  sqq. 


ARNOLD. 


14'J 


ARNOLD. 


ARNOLD  OF  BRESCIA,  b.  at  Brescia  in  tin- 
besiiiiiiiig  of  tlu'  tvvclltli  century;  d.  in  KoiiU' 
1155;  first  appears  in  the  humble  position  of  a 
lector  in  the  cliurch  of  his  native  city ;  studied 
afterwards  in  Paris  under  Abelard,  and  became 
one  of  his  most  ardent  adherents;  attracted,  on 
his  return  to  Brescia,  general  attention  by  tlie 
austere  purity  of  his  life  and  the  fire  of  his 
eloquence,  and  develo[ied  by  degrees  into  an 
enthusiastic  ecclesiastical  reformer.  His  reforms 
were  all  of  a  jiractical  char.acter.  To  tlie  doc- 
trines of  the  Roman  Church  lie  seems  to  have 
offered  very  little  opposition.  But  comparing 
the  first  Christian  congregation,  the  church  of 
the  apostles,  with  the  church  of  his  own  time, 
he  felt  scandalized  at  tlie  difference.  The  root 
of  the  evil  he  found  in  the  wealth  of  the  church. 
All  the  vices  and  all  the  worldliness  of  the 
clergy  he  ascribed  to  their  riches.  The  first 
reform  he  demanded  was,  th.at,  like  the  apostles, 
the  priests  should  hold  no  property,  but  content 
themselves  with  the  voluntary  offerings  of  tiie 
faithful.  How  these  ideas  originated  with  Ar- 
nold has  been  differently  explained  ;  but  there  is 
no  reason  to  seek  the  origin  outside  of  his  own 
moral  consciousness.  He  was  a  gifted  man, 
upright  and  fervent.  The  frightful  corruption 
of  the  church  naturally  struck  him,  and  in  the 
Bible  itself  he  found  the  corrective.  In  Brescia 
and  its  neighborhood  his  preaching  made  a  deep 
impression,  and  caused  considerable  commotion. 
Finally  Bishop  Manfred  laid  the  case  before  the 
.synod  convened  at  the  Lateran  in  1139,  and  Ar- 
nold was  banished  from  Brescia,  and  forbidden 
to  preach.  He  went  to  France,  where  at  that 
moment  the  controversy  between  Abelard  and 
St.  Bernard  was  at  its  height.  With  great  zeal 
Arnold  espoused  the  cause  of  his  teacher,  but 
thereby  he  only  jirovoked  the  wrath  of  St.  Ber- 
nard. The  synod  of  Sens  condemned  both  him 
and  Abelard ;  and  the  pope,  confirming  the 
verdict,  ordered  the  Arclibishops  of  Kheims  and 
Sens  to  imprison  the  two  heretics.  Arnold  fled 
to  Switzerland  in  1140,  and  found  protection  in 
tlie  diocese  of  Constance  by  Bishop  Herrmann. 
But  St.  Bernard  continued  to  pursue  him,  and 
urged  the  Bishop  of  Constance  to  expel  or  im- 
prison him.  He  fled  again ;  and  this  time  he 
found  refuge  with  the  papal  leg.ate,  Cardinal 
Guido  a  Castellis,  a  friend  of  Abelard.  But 
even  here  he  was  not  safe.  The  Abbot  of  Clair- 
vaux  was  irreconcilable,  and  the  legate  dared  not 
defy  hiin.  Meanwhile  Innocent  II.  died,  and 
Arnold  determined  to  return  to  Italy.  During 
his  absence  from  Italy,  perpetual  contests  had 
taken  place  in  Rome  between  the  pope  and  the 
people;  and  it  is  probable  that  Arnold's  ideas 
were  known  in  Rome,  though  he  himself  had 
never  been  there.  After  1145,  liowever,  he 
began  to  preach  publicly  in  Rome,  and  with  great 
effect.  For  his  religious  ideas  the  Romans  had 
no  sense  ;  but  tlie  practical  consequences  of  these 
ideas,  their  influence  on  social  life,  fired  tlie 
enthusiasm  of  the  light-minded  populace.  Then, 
again,  the  enthusiasm  of  the  audience  re-acted  on 
the  preacher.  He  himself  forgot  the  religious 
starting-point,  and,  inspired  by  the  remembrance 
of  the  grandeur  of  old  Rome,  he  became  a  politi- 
cal reformer.  Rome  should  stand  free,  independ- 
ent of   the   pope  and  the  emperoi',  ruled  by  no 


single  man,  but  by  the  senate  and  the  people; 
and,  when  thus  the  old  liberty  was  restored,  the 
old  greatne.ss  would  follow.  The  people  became 
mucli  excited;  and  in  1155  a  new  constitution 
was  framed,  and  Adrian  IV.  was  demanded  to 
sanction  it.  The  pope  refused,  and  withdrew  to 
Orvieto.  Shortly  after,  he  laid  the  interdict  on 
the  city,  and  ]mt  Arnold  under  the  ban;  and  as 
Frederick  Barbarossa  at  the  same  moment  a]i- 
proaclied  the  city  at  the  head  of  a  great  army, 
a  panic  cauglit  tlie  inhabitants:  Arnold  was  ex- 
pelled, and  the  pope  returned.  For  .some  time 
Arnold  found  shelter  with  the  nobility  of  the 
Campania,  but  was  afterwards  surrendered  to 
Frederick  Barbaross.a,  who  misjudging  his  most 
powerful  ally  in  a  contest  with  the  papal  see,  and 
eager  to  buy  the  imperial  crown  at  any  price, 
surrendered  him  to  the  pope;  and  by  the  pope 
he  was  hanged,  burnt,  and  his  ashes  thrown  into 
the  Tiber. 

Lit.  —  Otto  Frising  :  De  Gestis  Frid.  I.,  lib. 
II.,  cap.  20;  Guntiier  :  Lir/iirinus,  lib.  HI.,  p. 
2Q2  ;  S.  Bern.  :  Ejjisl.  195, 19ti,  198;  Gerhohus: 
De  Investiyal.  Antichrist,  in  Grcttseri  0pp.  XII., 
prulegaia.  ;  Muii.\TOi!i:  Antiquit.  Ital.  Medii  JEvi. 
HI.,  I.,  441;  Bakoxius:  Ann.  Eccl.  ad  ann. 
1155  ;  Kiiiii.Ki:  :  De  Anwldo  Bri.ciensi,  Gottingen, 
174:2 ;  Fi!.\NKi.: :  Am.  v.  Br.  undtieine  Zeit,  Ziirich, 
1825  ;  Bext  :  Exsai sur  Arnold  de  Brescia,  Geneve, 
1856;  Guii!.\l:  A.  de  B.  el  les  Hohcnstauffen, 
Paris,  18G8;  Clavel:  A.  de  B.  el  les  Romains. 
Paris,  1808;  Giov.wxi  de  Castro:  Arnaldo  di 
Brescia,  Livorno,  1875.  C.  SCHMIDT. 

ARNOLD,  Gottfried,  b.  at  Annaberg,  Saxony. 
Sept.  5,  lOGG;  d.  at  Perleberg,  Prussia,  May,  1714  ; 
studied  theology  at  Wittenberg,  but  received  by 
far  the  strongest  spiritual  influence  from  the 
works  of  Spener;  acted  for  some  time  as  a 
tutor  in  a  noble  family,  and  was  in  1697  ap- 
pointed professor  of  history  in  Giessen,  but 
resigned  this  position  in  the  next  year,  and  lived 
in  retirement  at  Quedlinburg,  till,  in  1704,  he 
became  minister  and  ecclesiastical  inspector  at 
AVerben,  whence  he  moved  in  1707  to  Perleberg. 
His  great  work,  UnjHirteiische  Kirchen-  und  Kel- 
zer-liisturie,  of  which  the  two  first  volumes  ajv 
peared  in  1699,  the  two  last  in  1700,  made  an 
epoch  in  the  study  of  church-history.  The  prin- 
ciple on  which  this  book  rests  —  that  none,  either 
individual  or  sect,  shall  be  condemned  because 
the  church  of  his  time  h.as  condemned  him  — 
has  been  generally  accepted,  though  the  author 
himself  often  went  too  far  in  its  application. 
The  polemical  bent  of  his  mind,  and  his  pietisti- 
cal  view  of  Christianity,  often  made  him  partial 
to  heretics,  and  exposed  him  to  very  severe  at- 
tacks from  the  orthodox  party.  Of  his  other 
works  —  fiftj'-three  in  number,  and  some  of  con- 
siderable size  —  many  are  still  in  use  among  tlie 
German  Pietists  ;  as,  for  instance.  Die  erste  Liche, 
edit,  by  Liimmert,  Stuttgart,  1844 ;  Die  Verldii- 
ruiKj  Jesu  Cliristi  in  der  Seek,  1704;  Wahre  AhhU- 
dunfj  des  inicendigen  Chrislenlhuins,  1709,  etc.  See 
Arnolds  gedoppelter  Lchenslaiif,  Leipzig,  1716;  Di- 
BELius:   Gottfried  Arnold,  Berlin,  1873. 

ARNOLD,  Nicolaus,  b.  at  Lissa  (Lesna),  Po- 
land, Dec.  17,  1618;  d.  at  Franecker,  Holland, 
Oct.  15,  1680  ;  received  his  first  instruction  from 
Amos  Comenius  ;  went  in  1635  to  Dantzic,  where 
he  studied  philosophy  and  rhetoric  ;  then  in  1611 


ARNOLD. 


150 


ARNULPHUS. 


to  Franecker,  where  he  studied  theology  under 
Maccovius  (Maccovsky)  and  the  famous  Coccejus; 
visited  the  academies  of  Groeningen,  Leyden, 
and  Utrecht;  travelled  in  England;  and  was  ap- 
pointed minister  at  Beetgum  in  1645,  and  profess- 
or of  theology  at  Franecker  in  1651.  He  edited 
the  works  of  Maccovius.  His  own  works  are 
mostly  polemical.  Against  Socinianism:  Relu/io 
Sociiiaiia  seu  Calechcsis  Nacovidim  major  publicis 
(lispp.  refulttla.  16oi ;  AtlieUnius  Sociniantts,  1650. 
Against  Konianism :  Apologia  Amesii  contra 
Erhrmannum.  Against  the  prophecies  of  Co- 
menius,  concerning  the  millennium  :  Discur.fii.i 
Iheot.  contra  Comenli  priEtensam  lucem  in  tenchris, 
1660. 

ARNOLD,  Thomas,  b.  at  West  Cowes,  in  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  June  13,  1795;  d.  at  Rugby,  June 
12,  184'2  ;  was  educated  at  Warminster  and  Win- 
chester ;  entered  the  University  of  Oxford  in 
1811;  became  a  fellow  of  Oriel  College  in  1815; 
was  ordained  a  deacon  in  1818,  and  settled  in 
1819  at  Laleham,  where  he  established  a  pre- 
paratory school  for  young  men  who  wislied  to 
frequent  the  universities.  In  1828  he  was  or- 
dained priest,  and  appointed  head  master  of  the 
school  at  Rugby;  and  in  1841  he  was  made 
regius-professor  of  modern  history  at  Oxford, 
but  he  delivered  only  one  course  of  lectures. 
His  influence  was  due  more  to  his  character  as 
a  man  than  to  any  particular  talent.  His  jiroper 
field  was  education,  and  the  chief  element  of  his 
educational  method  was  religion.  His  religious 
views  have  made  themselves  felt  far  beyond  the 
school,  both  in  the  literature  and  in  the  church. 
He  was  a  strong  adversary  of  the  Oxford  Tracta- 
rian  movement,  and  became  the  founder  of  the 
Broad-Church  party,  which,  though  not  very 
numerous,  comprises  some  of  the  greatest  Eng- 
lish preachers  and  writers.  His  ideas  of  the 
Christian  Church,  and  its  relation  to  the  State, 
are  fully  expressed  in  the  two  pamphlets  :  Cliurdi 
Reform,  1833,  and  Fragment  on  the  C/iurch,  which 
latter  is  directed  against  the  Tractariaus.  Among 
his  other  religious  writings  are  five  volumes  of 
Sermons.  His  historical  works  comprise,  beside 
an  annotated  edition  of  Thucydides,  the  History 
of  Rome,  3  vols.,  London,  1.S38-43,  unfinished ; 
Histori/  of  the  Later  Roman  Commonwealth,  2  vols., 
1845,  2d  ed.,  1849;  Lectures  on  Modern  History, 
Oxford,  1842.  See  Stanley:  The  Life  and  Corre- 
spondence of  Thomas  Aniotil,  London,  1844,  2  vols. 

ARNOLDI,  Bartholemaeus,  b.  at  I'singen  14G3; 
d.  at  Erfurt  1532;  an  Augustine  monk,  professor, 
first  of  philosopliy,  then  of  theology,  at  Erfurt, 
and  the  teacher  of  Luther.  .-Vrdently  ojiposed  to 
Humanism,  he  was,  nevertheless,  eager  for  a  puri- 
fication of  thescholastical  theology;  but  when  this 
purification,  in  the  hands  of  Luther,  became  a 
tlioroughgoing  religious  reform,  -Vrnoldi  recoiled, 
and  after  1521  he  becanii^  an  active  and  ojien 
adversary  of  the  reformatory  movement.  A  list 
of  his  works  is  found  in  Hiiii.N's  Chronologia  I'ro- 
vincia  Rhenei-Suericm  Ordinis  Fr.  Eremitarum.,  p. 
166. 

ARNOLDISTS,  a  sect  which  maintained  the 
ideas  of  Arnold  of  Brescia  for  half  a  century 
after  his  death,  but  became  lost,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  twelfth  century,  among  other  factions  lios- 
tile  to  the  church  and  the  clergy,  and  at  that 
period  very  numerous  in  Northern  Italy.     The 


Arnoldists  are  first  mentioned  when  condemned  by 
Pope  Lucius  III.  at  the  Council  of  Verona,  1184 
{Mansi  XXII.,  476).  A  short  time  after  (about 
1190),  Bonacursus  speaks  of  them  in  an  oration 
delivered  at  Milan  against  the  Catharers.  It  is 
not  improbable,  that  at  the  time  of  Bonacursus, 
about  thirty  years  after  the  deatli  of  Arnold, 
there  were  opponents  to  the  clerical  hierarchy 
who  still  used  the  name  of  the  great  reformer, 
and  called  themselves  his  disciples;  but  it  is 
doubtful  wliether  such  was  the  case  at  a  later 
period,  though  the  name  of  Arnoldists  still  con- 
tinues to  occur,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  laws  of 
Frederick  II.  against  heretics  from  1224  (Mansi 
XXIII.,  586).  At  that  time  no  other  trace  is 
found  of  a  distinct  sect  calling  itself  Arnold- 
ists. It  seems  most  probable,  therefore,  that  the 
emperor  took  the  name,  like  several  others,  from 
the  decrees  of  Lucius  HI.,  and  cited  them  only 
to  be  sure  to  condemn  all  heretical  parties,  with- 
out any  exception.  From  Frederick's  laws  the 
name  then  went  over  in  the  bulls  of  later  popes, 
and  the  works  of  various  writers  against  heresy ; 
but  the  sect  was  extinct  before  the  beginning  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  C.  SCHMIDT. 

ARNON,  the  present  Wadi/  el  Mojeli,  a  river 
which  once  formed  the  boundary  between  Moab 
and  the  Amorites  (Num.  xxi.  13,  26;  Deut.  iii. 
8),  and  afterwards  between  Moab  and  the  Israel- 
ites (Josh.  xii.  1);  enters  the  Dead  Sea  from  the 
east,  after  a  course  of  fifty  miles  through  a  mouth 
ninety  feet  wide,  and  from  four  to  ten  feet  deep. 
The  banks  of  the  river  are  in  many  places,  espe- 
cially in  its  western  course,  very  high,  precipitous, 
and  wild,  presenting  many  ruins  of  forts,  bridges, 
etc.  The  river  itself  is  full  in  winter,  but  dry 
during  summer. 

ARNOT,  William,  D.D.,  an  eminent  and  popu- 
lar Scotch  divine;  li.  at  Scone,  in  Perthshire, 
Nov.  6,  1808;  d.  in  Edinburgh,  June  3,  1875.  He 
was  ordained  in  1839,  and  subsequently  joined 
the  Fi-ee-Cliurch  movement  (1843).  In  1873  he 
was  a  delegate  to  the  meeting  of  the  Evangelical 
Alliance  in  New  York,  and  won  great  popularity 
as  a  preacher  and  lecturer  by  his  sturdy  good 
sense,  fervor,  and  earnestness.  His  writings  are 
inuch  read :  they  aboiind  in  apt  illustrations. 
The  best  known  of  them  are  :  Laivs  from  Heaven 
for  Life  on  Earth:  Illustrnlions  of  the  Book  of  Prov- 
erbs, London,  1869,  2  vols.  ;  The  Parables  of  our 
Lord,  1870 ;  Life  of  James  Hamilton,  1870.  See 
Autobiography  and  Memoir,  1877. 

ARNULPH,  Bishop  of  Lisieux,  accompanied 
Louis  VH.  to  the  Holy  Laud  in  1147,  on  the 
.second  crusade;  went  to  F^ngland  in  1160  as  the 
legate  of  Alexander  III.  to  restore  harmony  be- 
tween Henry  II.  and  Thomas  Becket;  retired 
afterwards  to  the  Abbey  of  St.  Victor  at  Paris, 
and  died  there  Aug.  31,  1182.  Some  poems 
and  essays  by  him  are  found  in  th(>  Bibliolh.  Sacr. ; 
but  of  much  more  interest  for  the?  history  and 
character  of  his  age  are  his  letters,  edited  by 
TuiiNKiiius,  Paris,  1585,  and  by  J.  A.  Giles, 
Oxford.  IS  11. 

ARNULPHUS,  St. (more correctly  ARNULFUS), 
b.  about  .582,  near  Nancy;  d.  Aug.  "l  6,  641;  distin- 
guished wliile  young,  both  as  warrior  and  states-, 
man,  and  in  (ill  or  612  made  Bishop  of  Metz.  In 
this  ]>osition  he  exercised  considerable  influence 
on  the  government  of  the  Frankisli  Empire,  en- 


ARPHAXAD. 


151 


ARTEMON. 


joyiner  at  the  same  time  the  fi-ioii(lshi]i  of  Pipiii 
the  Elder,  and  the  confidence  of  the  Austrasian 
nobility.  But  in  027  he  abdicated,  and  retired 
into  the  wilderness  of  the  Vosges,  where  he  lived 
as  a  hermit,  and  acquired  the  fame  of  a  saint. 
His  remains  rest  in  the  church  in  Metz  named 
after  him.  Through  his  sou  Ansegis,  who  mar- 
ried Pipin's  daughter  Begga,  he  became  the  an- 
cestor of  the  Carolingian  dynasty.  There  is  an 
older  vita  of  liim  (Mauillon:  Ada  SS.  II.,  150) 
and  a  more  recent  one  (Boll.\ndist8:  Ada  SS., 
July  IV.,  435);  but  the  former  is  by  far  the  most 
reliable. 

ARPHAX'AD.  The  names  in  the  table  in 
Gen.  X.  being  those,  not  of  individuals,  but  of 
tribes  or  lands,  Arphaxad  (Gen.  x.  '22,  24,  xi. 
10)  means  the  district  called  Arrapachitis  by 
the  Greeks.  To-day  the  name  is  preserved  in 
Af/Jdiak  and  Albakh,  by  which  the  Armenians  and 
Kurds  designate  the  mountain-land  east  of  Gor- 
dyene.  In  the  chapter  cited  above,  the  course  of 
the  sons  of  Shem  is  described  by  the  names  as 
from  south  to  north,  then  west,  and  finally  south- 
east to  the  Euphrates  again;  for  this  is  the  order, 
Elam,  Asshur,  Arphaxad,  Lud,  and  Aram. 

In  regard  to  the  etymology  of  the  name,  there 
has  been  much  discussion.  The  interpretations, 
"  the  border  of  the  Chaldseans,"  "  the  stronghold 
of  the  Chaldaeans,"  are  open  to  objection  because 
of  the  erroneous  conception  of  the  word,  as  a 
union  of  Hebrew  and  Arabic.  It  is  better  to 
interpret  "dispersion,"  and  to  read  in  the  word 
that  the  Hebrew  race,  whose  remote  ancestor 
is  called  Arphaxad  in  this  chapter,  had  originally 
its  seat  in  Arrapachitis,  and  from  there  pressed 
first  to  Mesopotamia,  then  over  the  Euphrates 
to  Canaan  and  Arabia.  It  is  confirmatory  of 
this  view  that  the  progenitors  of  the  Hebrews 
are  said  to  have  come  from  Ur  of  the  Chaldees 
(Gen.  xi.  22  sq.).  See  Knobel  :  Die  Volkcrtafel 
der  Genesis.     Giesseu,  1850.  SPIEGEL. 

ARROWSMITH,  John,  b.  March  29,  1602,  near 
Newcastle-ou-the-Tyne ;  d.  February,  1658  (9). 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  where  he  became 
fellow  of  Catherine  Hall,  subsequently  a  preacher 
at  Lynn,  in  the  county  of  Norfolk,  was  called  from 
thence  to  take  part  in  the  Weslmiiislei  Assembli/. 
Robert  Baillie  describes  him  as  "a  man  with  a 
glass  eye  in  place  of  that  which  was  put  out  by 
an  arrow,  a  learned  divine,  on  whom  the  Assembly 
jnut  the  writing  against  the  Antinomians."  He 
was  on  the  committee  to  draw  up  a  confession  of 
faith,  and  preached  thrice  before  Parliament,  the 
sermons  being  published  :  The  Cooenanl  Aven- 
ijiiKj  Sword  Brandished  (Lev.  xxvi.  25),  London, 
1643,4to,  pp.  28;  England's  Ehenezer  (I  Sam.  vii. 
12),  London,  1645,  4to,  pp.  34;  A  great  Wonder 
in  Heacen ;  or,  a  lirely  Picture  of  the  Militant 
Church,  drawn  hi/  a  Dirine  Penman  (Rev.  xii. 
1,  2),  London,  1617.  4to,  pp.  44.  In  1644  he  was 
appointed  by  Parliament  master  of  St.  Johns 
College,  Cambridge,  and  subsequently  became 
master  of  Trinity  College,  and  Professor  of  Di- 
vinity in  the  University,  resigning  the  professoi-- 
ship  in  1655,  but  retainiug  the  mastership  until 
his  death.  Whilst  at  Cambridge  he  published 
Tadica  Sacra,  sice  de  Millte  Spirituali  Puynante, 
Vincente,  et  Triumphale  Dissertatio,  Cantab.,  1657, 
4to, pp.  363,  containing  also  three  Oraliones  Ami 
Weigeliame.     After  his   death   there  were   pub- 


lished :  A  rmiUa  Catechelira,  A  Chain  of  Princi- 
ples ;  or,  an  orderhj  Convatenalion  of  Theological 
Aphorisms  anil  Exercitalions,  wherein  the  chief 
Heads  of  Christian  lielif/ion  are  asserleil  and  im- 
/iroreil,  Cambridge,  1659,  4to,  pp.  490;  an  un- 
finished work  designed  to  form  a  complete  body 
of  divinity  in  thirty  aphorisms,  only  six  of  which 
were  completed,  covering  for  the  most  part  the 
ground  of  the  first  twenty  questions  of  the  Larger 
Westminster  Catechism,  in  essentially  the  same 
order;  also  Theanthro/ios,  or  God- Man,  London, 
1660,  4to,  pp.  311,  an  exjjosition  of  the  Gospel  of 
Johni.  1-18,  discussing  tlie  divinity  and  humanity 
of  Christ,  and  maintaining  the  catholic  doctrine 
against  all  heresies.  C.  A.  BRIGGS. 

ARSENIUS,  deacon  in  Rome,  was  recommended 
by  Bishop  Damasus  to  Theodosius  the  Great,  on 
account  of  his  learning  and  piety,  and  obtained 
the  position  as  tutor  to  Arcadius,  383.  The 
emperor  held  him  in  such  esteem,  that  he  com- 
pelled the  son  to  receive  his  instruction  standing, 
while  the  tutor  was  sitting;  but  Arcadius  felt 
provoked,  and  is  said  to  have  attempted  the  life 
of  his  tutor.  At  all  events,  Arsenius  renounced 
his  place  at  the  court  (394),  and  retired  into  the 
wilderness  of  Scetis,  in  Egypt,  where  he  lived 
as  a  hermit  till  his  ninety-fifth,  or,  according  to 
others,  till  his  one  hundred  and  twentieth  year. 
He  is  commemorated  in  the  Greek  Church  on 
May  8;  in  the  Roman,  on  July  19.  He  is  called 
the  Great,  and  is  one  of  the  most  famous  of  all 
the  Egyptian  monks.  About  him  many  stories 
are  told.  One  of  his  sayings  is  worth  remem- 
bering, "  Often  have  I  been  sorry  for  having 
spoken,  never  for  having  been  silent."  See 
Acta  ^'5.  on  the  later  date;  S.mith  and  Wage: 
Diet,  of  Christ.  Bioijraphi/. 

ARSENIUS,  a  monk  of  Nictea;  lived  for  some 
time  as  a  hermit  on  Mount  Athos,  and  become 
finally  ■  patriarch  of  Constantinople.  Theodore 
Lascaris  II.,  Emperor  of  Nicea,  intrusted  his  son 
to  his  guardianship;  but,  after  his  death  (1259), 
Michael  Paloeologus  usurped  the  throne,  and  put 
out  the  eyes  of  young  Lascaris.  Arsenius  ex- 
communicated the  usurper,  and  refused  to  re-admit 
liim  to  the  church,  unless  he  restored  the  throne 
to  the  legitimate  heir.  But  a  council  convened 
in  Constantinople  in  1202  deposed  and  banished 
Arsenius,  and  he  died  in  one  of  the  islands  of 
the  Propontis  in  1267.  Although  his  successor 
Joseph  remitted  the  sentence  of  excommunica- 
tion, there  was  a  party  in  the  Greek  Church 
which  considered  these  proceedings  irregular, 
and  in  1312  Arsenius  was  declared  a  saint. 

ARTAXERX'ES  (great  warrior).  The  honorary 
title  of  Persian  kings.  Two  are  so  called  in  the 
Old  Testament.  1.  Pseudo-Smerdis  the  Magian, 
the  pretended  son  of  Cyrus,  and  brother  of  Cam- 
byses,  who  seized  the  throne  B.C.  522,  and  was 
murdered  after  eight  months  (Ez.  iv.  7-24). 
2.  Ez.  vii.  7  and  Neh.  ii.  1  both  speak  of  a 
second  Artaxerxes,  who  is  generally  regarded  as 
identical  with  Ai'taxerxes  Longimanus,  son  of 
Xerxes,  who  reigned  B.C.  464-425.  Therefore 
Ezra's  journey  can  be  set  down  in  B.C.  457,  and 
Nehemiah's  B.C.  444.  FR.  W.  SCHULTZ. 

ARTEMON,  or  ARTEMAS,  the  founder  of  an 
anti-trinitarian  sect,  the  Arlemonites,  taught  in 
Rome  in  the  beginning  of  the  third  century,  and 
asserted   that   Christ  was  a  mere   man,  thougli 


ARTICLES. 


ARTICLES. 


superior  to  any  of  the  prophets,  and  that  the  doc- 
trine of  his  divinity  was  a  mere  invention,  and  a 
relapse  into  Pagan  polytheism.  His  views  were 
afterwards  adopted  and  further  developed  by 
Paul  of  Samosata;  but  all  we  know  about  Arte- 
mon  himself  depends  upon  a  few  notices  by  Eu- 
sebius,  Epiphanius,  Tlieodoret,  and  Photius. 

ARTICLES  OF  FAITH,  the  particul.ar  points  of 
doctrine,  which  together  make  up  the  sum  of 
Christian  belief.  The  great  majority  of  churches 
draw  them  up.  and  require  a  public  assent  to 
them  by  their  ministers  and  church  officers,  while 
to  the  laity  they  are  explained,  and  from  them  a 
general  assent  is  expected.  The  word  thus  is  syn- 
onvmous  with  Crked,  which  see. 

ARTICLES  OF  RELIGION,  English,  Thirty- 
Nine,  the  Reformation  Creed  of  the  Cliurch  of 
J^ngland  and  her  daughters  in  the  Colonies  and  in 
thelJnited  States.  They  differ  from  the  lengthy 
confessions  of  the  sixteenth  century  in  form,  but 
agree  with  thera  in  spirit.  The  Ten  Articles  of 
lo-36,  and  the  Six  Articles  of  1539,  under  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.,  prepared  the  way  for  a  brief 
statement  of  the  doctrinal  controversies.  But  the 
Six  Articles  were  a  step  backwards,  by  impos- 
ing upon  all  Englishmen  a  belief  in  transubstan- 
tiatiou,  clerical  celibacy,  and  auricular  confes- 
sion. They  were  therefore  called  the  "bloody 
.\rticles,"  and  "  a  whip  with  six  strings."  King 
Henry  VIII.  never  was  a  Protestant,  except  in 
opposing  the  pope,  preferring  to  be  a  pope  him- 
self in  his  own  dominion ;  but  he  did  the  dirty 
work  of  the  English  Reformation  by  destroying 
the  foreign  power  of  the  papacy,  and  its  domestic 
stronghold,  monasticism.  The  positive  Reforma- 
tion was  first  fairly  introduced  during  the  reign 
of  his  sun  and  successor,  Edward  VI.  (1547-53), 
under  the  lead  of  Archbishop  Cranmer.  He  at 
first  entertained  the  noble  but  jireraature  project 
of  framing  an  evangelical  catholic  creed,  in  which 
all  the  Reformed  churches  could  agree  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  Church  of  Rome,  then  holding  the 
Council  of  Trent,  and  invited  the  surviving  Con- 
tinental reformers  —  Melanchthon,  Calvin,  and 
BuUinger  —  to  London  for  the  purpose.  Calvin 
was  willing  to  cross  ten  seas  for  such  a  work  of 
Christian  union,  and  so  replied  to  Cranmer  in 
15.52.  (.See  tlie  correspondence  in  Cranmer's 
Wfirti,  Parker  Soc.  ed.,  vol.  II.,  pp.  430-433). 
But  political  events  prevented  the  conference, 
and  the  formulation  of  the  doctrinal  consensus  of 
the  Reformed  churches.  Failing  in  this  scheme, 
Cranmer  framed,  with  tlio  aid  of  his  fellow- 
reformers, —  Ridley  and  Latimer,  the  royal  cliap- 
lains,  and  the  foreign  divines,  Bucer,  Peter  Mar- 
tyr, and  John  Ji  Lasco,  whom  he  had  drawn  to 
England,  —  tlie  Fortij-two  Articles  of  RelKjion  for 
the  English  Reformed  Ciuirch.  After  passing 
through  several  revisions,  they  were  completed 
in  November,  1552,  and  published  in  15.53  by 
"royal  authority"  and  with  the  apiuoval  of  con- 
vocation. The  re-establishment  of  the  papacy 
under  the  short  but  bloody  reign  of  Mary  (15.53- 
58)  set  them  a-side,  t<)gether  witli  the  Edvvariline 
Book  of  Common  Prayer.  Under  Elizabetli 
(155fi-l(iU3)  the  Arliol(^s  were  revised  and  per- 
manently restored.  They  were  reduced  to  lliirli/- 
niue,  and  brought  into  that  shape  and  form  which 
they  have  retained  ever  since  in  tlio  Churcii  of 
England.    The  Latin  editiou  was  prepared  under 


the  supervision  of  Archbishop  Parker,  \yith  the 
aid  of  Bishop  Cox  of  Ely  (one  of  the  Marian 
exiles)    and    Bishop    Guest    of    Rochester,    ap- 
proved  by    convocation,    and   published   by  the 
royal  press,  1503.     The  English  edition,  which  is 
of  equal  authority,  though  slightly  differing  from 
the  L.-itin,  was  adopted  by  convocation  in  1.571, 
and  issued  under  the  editorial   care  of   Bishop 
Jewel    of    Salisbury,    1571.     They   were    made 
binding  on  all  ministers  and  teachers  of  religion, 
and  students  in  the  universities;  but  subscription 
was  not  always  enforced  with  equal  rigor,  and 
bitterly  complained   of   by  the   Nonconformists, 
who  had  scrupulous  objections   to  the  political 
articles.     The  Act  of  Uniformity  under  Charles 
II.  imposed   greater  stringency  than   ever ;    but  ' 
the  Toleration   Act  of  William   and  Mary  gave 
some   relief   by  exempting  dissenting   ministers  \ 
from  subscribing   Arts.    XXXIV.    to   XXXVI.  ' 
and  a  portion  of  Art.  XXVII.     Subsequent  at- 
tempts to  relax  or  abolish  subscription  resulted  . 
at  last  in  tlie  University  Tests  Act  of  1871,  which  1 
exempts  all  students  and  graduates  in  the  univer- 
sities of  Oxford,   Cambridge,   and   Durham,  ex-  | 
cept  divinity  students,  fellows,    professors,    and 
heads  of  colleges,  from  subscription,  and  throws 
these  institutions  open  to  Dissenters. 

The  Thirty-nine  Articles  are  among  the  most 
important  doctrinal  formulas  of  the  Reformation 
period.  They  cover  nearly  all  the  heads  of  the 
Christian  faith,  especially  those  which  were  then 
under  dispute  with  the  Roman  Catholics.  They 
affirm  (1)  the  old  orthodox  doctrines  of  the 
Trinity  and  incarnation ;  (2)  the  Augustinian 
views  on  free-will,  total  depravity,  divine  grace, 
faith,  good  works,  election ;  and  (3)  tlie  Protes- 
tant doctrines  on  the  church,  and  the  sacraments 
of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  They  are 
borrowed,  in  part,  from  Lutheran  standards; 
namely,  the  Augsburg  Confession  of  Melanchthon 
(1530)  and  tlie  Wiirteniberg  Confession  of  Rren- 
tius  (1552);  but  on  the  sacraments,  especial!}' 
the  much-disputed  doctrine  of  the  real  presence 
in  the  Euchari.st,  they  follow  the  Swiss  reform- 
ers, Bullinger  and  Calvin.  In  the  political 
sections  they  are  purely  English,  .and  ti'.ach  the 
Erastian  doctrine  of  the  spiritual  as  well  as  tem- 
poral supremacy  of  the  sovereign  as  the  supreme 
governor  of  the  Churcli  of  England.  They  have, 
therefore,  an  eclectic  and  coniprehcnsive  charac- 
ter, which  distinguishes  the  Anglican  Church 
from  the  Lutheran  and  the  strictly  Calvinistic 
churches  of  the  Continent  and  Scotland,  and 
from  the  dissenting  denominations  of  England. 
They  have  often  been  interpreted  and  misinter- 
preted in  the  interest  of  particular  schools  and 
parties;  while  all  claim  them  as  favoring  them- 
selves. They  must  be  understood  in  their  plain 
granim.atical  sense;  and,  when  this  is  doubtful, 
the  Prayer-Book,  the  two  books  of  Homilies,  the 
Catechism,  and  the  private  writings  of  the  Eng 
lisli  reformers  and  the  Elizabethan  divines,  must 
be  called  to  aid.  The  doctrinal  decisions  in  the 
Gorhani,  liennet,  and  other  recent  controversies, 
favor  great  latitudi^  in  their  inti>rpretation. 

The  Protestant-Episcoiial  Church  in  the  United 
States,  after  effecting  an  independent  organiza- 
tion and  ejiiscopate  in  consequence  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution,  formally  adopted  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles  of  the  mother-church    at  the  General 


ARTICLES. 


153 


ASA. 


Convention  held  in  Trenton,  N.J.,  Sept.  12,  1801, 
but  with  sundry  alterations  and  omissions  in  the 
political  articles  (Arts.  XXI.  ami  XXXV'II.), 
which  the  .separation  of  Church  and  State  made 
necessary,  and  which  are  real  improvements. 
The  only  doctrinal  difference  is  the  omission  of 
all  allusion  to  the  Athanasian  Creed  (Art. 
Vill.),  which  is  also  excluded  from  the  Ameri- 
can editions  of  the  Prayer-l?ook.  By  this  omis- 
sion the  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States 
has  escaped  the  agitation  of  the  Knglish  Cliurch 
on  that  creed,  whose  damnatory  clauses  make  it 
quite  unsuitable  for  public  worship. 

The  thirty-five  Articles  of  Reliyion  of  the  Re- 
formed Episcopal  Church  in  America,  adopted 
by  the  Third  General  Council,  Chicago,  May  18, 
1875,  are  based  upon  the  Thirty-nine  Articles; 
similarly  are  the  twenty-five  Methodist  Articles 
of  Religion  drawn  up  by  John  Wesley  for  the 
American  Methodists  in  17S4.  Both  are  given 
in  ScHAFF  :  Creeds  of  Christendom,  vol.  III.,  pp. 
807  sq.,  814  sq. 

Lit.  —  II.\udwick:  Histori/  of  the  Articles  of  Re- 
%('««, Cambridge, 2d ed.,  1859;  Thomas  Rogers: 
Expositioti  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  London,  1579, 
new  ed.,  Cambridge,  1854  ;  Burnet  :  Ilistori/  of 
the  English  Reformation  (many  eds.),  and  Expo- 
sition of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  Oxf.,  1715,  1814, 
and  other  eds. ;  Laurence  :  Bampton  Lectures  for 

1834,  Oxf.,  3d  ed.,  1838;  Lamb:  Historical  Ac- 
counl  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles;  Dr.  H.  Browne 
(now  Bishop  of  Winchester)  :  Exposition  of  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles,  London,  1850,  9th  ed.,  1871 
(the  most  useful  commentary).  Am.  ed.,  by 
Bishop  Williams  of  Connecticut,  New  York, 
1809;  Forbes:  An  Explanation  of  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles,  Lond.,  1867;  Bishop  White:  Memoirs 
of  the  Prot.  Episc.  Ch.,  3d  ed.,  by  De  Costa,  New 
York,  1880;  Perry:  Journals  of  the  General  Con- 
vention of  the  Prot.  Episc.  Ch.  in  the  U.  S.,  1785- 

1835,  vol.  I.,  pp.  279  sqq.  ;  Schaff  :  History  of 
the  Creeds  of  Christendom,  New  York,  3d  ed., 
1881,  vol.  L,  pp.  592  sq..  III.,  f>p.  485-522,  where 
the  text  is  given  in  Latin  and  English,  with  the 
American  changes.  PHILIP  SCHATF. 

ARTICLES  OF  RELIGION,  Irish.  These  arti- 
cles are  one  hundred  and  four  in  number;  were 
probably  composed  by  the  learned  Archbishop 
James  Ussher,  then  professor  of  divinity  in  Dub- 
lin, and  adopted  by  the  convocation  of  the  Irish 
Episcopal  Church  at  its  first  meeting  (1615),  and 
approved  by  the  viceroy  in  the  same  year.  They 
are  important  as  proving  the  decided  Calvin- 
ism of  the  Irish  Church  at  that  time,  and  still 
more  so  as  the  connecting  link  between  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles  and  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession, and  as  the  chief  source  of  the  latter,  "  as 
is  evident  from  the  general  order,  the  headings 
of  chapters  and  subdivisions,  and  the  almost  lit- 
eral agreement  of  language  iu  the  statement 
of  several  of  the  most  important  doctrines."  By 
a  decree  of  the  convocation,  the  teaching  of  any 
doctrine  contrary  to  these  articles  was  forbidden. 
But  the  Irish  convocation  of  1635  formally 
adopted  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  and  quietly 
ignored  the  others.  Archbishop  Ussher  requited 
subscription  to  both  articles.  Eventually,  how- 
ever, the  Irish  articles  were  lost  sight  of,  and  no 
mention  was  made  of  them,  when,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  this  century,  the  United  Church  of  Eng- 


land and  Ireland  was  organized.  See  Schaff; 
The  (h-eeds  of  Christendom,  vol.  I.,  pp.  662-665; 
vol.  HI.,  526-544. 

ARTICLES    OF    RELIGION,    the     Lambeth. 

They  are  a  Calvinistic  appendix  to  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles,  composed  by  Dr.  William  Whita- 
ker  (d.  1595),  the  regius-professor  of  divinity  at 
Cambridge,  have  never  had  full  .symbolical  au- 
thority, but  are  of  great  historical  interest  as 
proof  of  the  Calvinistic  bent  of  the  English  theo- 
logians at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  University  of  Cambridge  was  at  tliis  period 
the  scene  of  a  fierce  discu.ssion  iqion  predestina- 
tion, which,  for  settlement,  was  finally  referred 
to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  held  a 
consultation  with  Dr.  Whitaker  and  Dr.  Tyndal, 
Dean  of  Ely,  representatives  of  the  university, 
and  a  number  of  other  learned  divines,,  and  as  a 
result  we  have  the  so-called  Lambeth  Articles, 
adopted  Nov.  20,  1595.  They  are  nine  in  num- 
ber, strongly  Calvinistic,  although  Whitaker's 
original  language  was  slightly  softened.  Queen 
Elizabeth  was  offended  at  the  calling  of  the  synod 
without  her  permission  ;  and  the  archbishop  was 
obliged  to  suppress  the  articles.  Dr.  Reynolds 
at  the  Hampton  Court  Conference  of  January, 
1604,  requested  the  addition  of  these  articles 
to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles.  See  Schaff:  the 
Creeds  of  Christendom,  vol.  I.,  pp.  658-662;  vol. 
III.,  pp.  522-525. 

ARUNDEL,  Thomas,  Lord  Chancellor  and 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  b.  at  Arundel  Castle 
1353;  d.  at  Canterbury,  Feb.  20,  1413.  He  was 
the  second  son  of  the  Earl  of  Arundel  and  War- 
ren. Twice  he  held  the  position  of  lord  chan- 
cellor, 1386-89,  1391-96.  He  was  made  Bishop 
of  Ely  1374,  Archbishop  of  York  1388,  of  Canter- 
bury, January,  1396,  —  the  first  instance  of  a 
translation  from  York  to  Canterbury.  In  1397 
he,  his  brother  the  Earl  of  Arundel,  and  the  Duke 
of  Gloucester,  were  impeached  on  a  charge  of 
high  treason,  and  banished.  He  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  kindly  received,  and  nominated 
Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews.  He  plotted  against 
Richard  II.,  crowned  Henry  IV.,  and  was  by  him 
restored  to  his  see.  He  entered  heartily  into  the 
persecution  of  the  Lollards,  and  made  himself 
especially  conspicuous  in  the  prosecution  of  Lord 
Cobham  on  the  charge  of  heresy.  He  procured 
a  prohibition  of  the  vernacular  translation  of 
the  Scriptures.  He  was  a  zealous,  shrewd,  far- 
sighted  pirelate,  and  spent  himself  and  his  riches 
in  the  service  of  the  church.  See  Cobham, 
Lollards. 

A'SA  (Jiealinf)  was  the  son  and  successor  of 
Abijam  on  the  throne  of  Judah  for  forty-one 
years,  —B.C.  955-914  (1  Kings  xv.  8-24).  The 
first  piart  of  his  reign  was  religiously  and  po- 
litically active  and  blessed:  the  latter  part, 
although  successful,  lacked  the  divine  blessing. 
He  tried  to  uproot  idolatry,  and  deposed  his 
grandmother  Maachah,  who  was  queen-mother, 
because  she  had  an  idol  in  a  grove.  He  made 
use  of  the  peace  he  enjoyed  to  fortify  and  build 
several  cities,  and  to  augment  and  drill  his  army. 
Accordingly  he  was  able  to  defeat  Zerah,  the 
Ethiopian  king  who  invaded  Judah  at  the  head 
of  one  million  men  and  three  hundred  chariots. 
The  battle  was  fought  at  Mareshah,  and  was  one 
of  the  most  important  in  Jewish  history  (2  Chron. 


ASAPH. 


154 


ASHDOD. 


xiv.).  He  caused  his  people,  at  the  suggestion 
of  the  prophet  Azariah,  to  renew  their  vows  to 
God  at  a  great  festival  (2  Chron.  xv.).  This 
revival  of  jahvism  causing  many  to  come  from 
Israel  to  the  Holy  City,  Baasha,  King  of  Israel, 
built  Ramah,  on"  the  frontier,  to  prevent  them. 
Asa  made  a  league  with  Benhadad,  King  of 
Syria,  who,  in  violation  of  his  compact  with 
Baasha,  attacked  the  King  of  Isi-ael,  .and  com- 
pelled him  to  stop  fortifying  Ramah  (1  Kings 
XV.  16-22;  2  Chron.  xvi.  1-G).  But,  for  thus 
deserting  the  Lord,  the  prophet  Hanani  was  sent 
to  rebuke  Asa;  which  obedience  cost  the  prophet 
his  liberty  for  a  time.  Asa  died  of  a  disease  in 
his  feet  (pei-haps  gout)  [the  severity  of  the  dis- 
ease may  be  accepted  as  an  extenuating  circum- 
stance for  his  occasional  acts  of  tyranny],  and 
showed,  not  only  in  his  sufferings,  but  in  his  pre- 
vious life,  -too  much  reliance  upon  human  aid. 
He  was  buried  with  great  pomp  (2  Chron.  xvi. 
U).  FR.  M-.  SCUULTZ. 

A'SAPH  (collector).  Three  of  the  name  are 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament;  but  only  one  is 
at  all  prominent :  he  was  a  Levite,  the  chief 
leader  of  the  temple  service,  and  the  author  of 
twelve  psalms  (Ps.  1.  and  Ixxiii.  to  Ixxxiii.  in- 
clusive), and  was  honored  by  the  title  "seer" 
(2  Chron.  xxix.  30).  His  descendants  inherited 
his  gift  and  his  position  ;  but  perhaps  "  the  sons 
of  .\saph  "  means  a  >:clioo!  of  musicians. 

ASBURY,  Francis,  b.  Aug.  20,  1745,  at  Hands- 
worth,  Staffordshire,  Eng. ;  "d.  March  31,  1816,  at 
Spottsylvania,  Va.  ;  became  an  itinerant  Meth- 
odist minister  iu  1767;  sent  by  AV'esley  in  1771 
to  America  as  a  missionary,  and  was  iu  1772  ap- 
])ointed  Wesley's  "general  assistant  in  America," 
with  power  of  supervising  all  the  JSIethodist 
preachers  and  societies  of  America,  but  in  a 
year  was  superseded  by  Thomas  Rankin,  who, 
however,  returned  to  England  on  the  outbreak  of 
ho.stilities,  while  Asbury  remained  from  choice. 
During  the  war,  like  other  non-jurors,  lie  suffered 
some  per.secution  arising  from  misunder.standing; 
but,  when  it  was  seeu  that  he  was  patriotic,  he  re- 
sumed his  e.xtonsive  labors  unmolested.  At  the 
close  of  the  war  the  Methodists  w-ere  organized 
into  an  independent  church,  according  to  Wes- 
ley's scheme.  Asbury  was  elected  bishop,  and 
ordained  by  Dr.  Coke,  Doc.  25,  1784.  No  better 
selection  could  have  been  made.  A  man  who 
did  not  know  what  fear  was  when  in  the  course 
of  duty,  a  man  of  rugged  frame,  who  never  knew 
weariness;  a  man  of  keen  wit  and  uncommon 
shrewdness ;  a  man  of  strict  private  life,  and  a 
stern  disciplinarian, — such  was  Asbury.  He  gave 
dignity  to  iiis  office.  In  labors  he  was  even  more 
abundant  than  he  had  been  before,  althougli  he 
had  seemed  energy  itself.  He  was  wonderfully 
active.  Deficient  in  early  education,  he  made 
up  for  it  as  far  as  possible  by  careful  economy  of 
time,  and  incessant  study,  and  acquired  consider- 
able knowledge.  He  was  also  far-sighted,  and 
a  good  organizer.  A  vivid  picture  of  his  life 
and  success  is  given  bj-  the  simple  statement  of 
Bishop  Janes  in  his  Life  of  Ashurij:  "In  his  un- 
paralleled itinerant  career  lie  preached  about 
sixteen  thousand  five  hundred  sermons,  or  at 
least  one  a  day,  and  travelled  about  two  hundred 
and  seventy  thousand  milcH,  or  six  thousand  a 
year,  presiding  in  no  less  than  two  hundred  and 


twenty-four  annual  conferences,  and  ordaining 
more  than  four  thousand  preachers."  When  he 
came  to  America,  the  Methodists  numbered  ten 
preachers  and  six  hundred  members :  when  he 
died,  after  forty-five  years  of  work,  they  had  six 
hundred  and  ninety-five  preachers  and  214,235 
members.     What  hath  God  wrought ! 

Asbury  remained  single ;  his  zeal  to  do  all  he 
could,  rather  than  his  views,  preventing  him  from 
matrimony.  His  salary  was  sixty-four  dollars  a 
year.  His  genei-osity  tempted  him  beyond  his 
means.  Cf.  Asbury  :  Journah,  3  vols.,  X. Y., 
1852;  Stp.icklaxd:  Life  of  Asburi/,  "S-Y.,  1858; 
Janes:  Life  of  Anliwy/N.Y.,  1872.  For  Wesley's 
deprecation  of  Asbury's  and  Coke's  assumption 
of  the  title  "  bislio]i."  see  Uriin's  Cliurchiimu's 
Life  of  ]Veslei/,  pp.  I(j8-170. 

ASCETICISM  as  a  principle  of  conduct  is  not, 
strictly  speaking,  of  Christian  origin.  It  was 
found  with  the  Essenes  among  the  Jews,  among 
the  Hindoos  and  Buddhists,  with  the  Pythago- 
reans and  Stoics  among  the  Greeks,  and  it  was 
introduced  into  Christianity  through  contact  with 
the  Alexandrian  school  of  philosophy.  In  the 
two  first  centuries,  when  the  Christian  Church 
still  was,  in  the  truest  sense  of  the  word,  an 
ecclesia  mililatis,  fighting  by  day  and  by  night 
for  its  very  existence,  Christianity  itself  was 
a  danger  and  a  suffering,  a  continuous  sacrifice 
and  self-denial,  and  is  justly  represented  by 
Clement  of  Alexandria  as  an  limijaif  (Slrom.  IV. 
22).  But  gradually,  as  Christianity  spread  among 
the  masses,  it  was  compelled  to  amalgamate 
with  very  various  secular  interests,  and  so  as  the 
Christian  Church  became  a  settled  institution, 
with  more  or  less  of  social  security  and  political 
guaranty,  a  distinction  arose  between  that  seri- 
ousness which  ought  to  characterize  all  Christian 
life,  aud  a  certain  austerity  which  claimed  to  i-ep- 
resent  a  higher  stand-point.  In  the  earliest 
Christian  sects  this  distinction  is  very  apparent. 
All  the  various  foi-ms  of  Gnosticism  adopted 
ascetism'as  the  true  principle  of  conduct,  —  the 
disciples  of  Saturninus  and  Basilides,  of  Cerdo 
and  Mai'cion,  etc.  Matter  was  in  itself  some- 
thing evil ;  and  to  escape  this  contamin.ation,  to 
make  one's  self  independent  of  nature,  to  shut 
up  every  door  through  which  the  world  enters 
into  converse  with  the  human  soul,  was  the  great 
problem  of  holiness.  But  Gnosticism  was  the 
first  sour  and  unripe  fruit  of  the  contact  between 
Christianity  and  the  .\lcxandrian  philosophy. 
And  again,  when  iu  the  third  century,  through 
the  exam[>le  of  Anthony,  Paul,  Amnion,  and 
others,  asceticism  was  made  the  basis  of  a  whole 
new  order  of  Christian  life,  it  may  have  been  the 
Decian  persecution  which  started  the  movement; 
but  it  was  the  teaching  of  the  Alexandrian  school 
which  directed  and  organized  it;  and  to  that 
source  must  be  traced  back  the  doctrine  of  a 
double  moral  principle,  one  obligatory  td  all, — 
that  of  controlling  the  passions;  and  one  availa- 
ble only  for  the  select  few,  —  that  of  extirpating 
the  passions,  —  a  doctrine  which  received  a  strik- 
ing development  in  the  history  of  monasticism. 
See  ZiicKi.KU :  Kritisrhc  Gescliichle  tier  Aslcese, 
Frankfort,  1863 ;  and  the  articles  on  Monasti- 
cif-ivi,  and  liTiius  in  this  Dictionary. 

ASH'DOD  (slronf/lniiil,  ca.slle),  the  Azotus  of  the 
New    Testament   (.Vets   viii.   40).     The   present 


ASHER. 


155 


ASS. 


village  of  Estlud  was  one  of  the  five  chief  cities 
■  of  the  Philistines  (Josh.  xiii.  ;i ;  1  Sam.  vi.  17), 
situated  midway  between  (iaza  and  Joppa.  three 
miles  from  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  allotted 
to  Judah  (Jo.sh.  xv.  46),  and  was  taken  by  Uz- 
ziah  (2  C'hroii.  xxvi.  6);  but  the  Israelites  never 
came  ilito  permanent  |)Ossession  of  it.  It  was  a 
great  and  sjilendid  city,  the  chief  seat  of  the 
Dagon-worship;  and  its  location  on  the  road  from 
Egypt  to  Syria,  and  near  the  frontier  of  Juda?a, 
made  it  a  point  of  great  strategical  importance. 
It  was  taken  by  Tartan,  besieged  for  twenty- 
nine  years  by  Psammetichus,  and  destroyed  by 
the  Maccabees.  Philip  preached  there  (Acts 
viii.  40). 

ASHER,  Ben.    See  Aaron  ben  Asher. 

ASH'ERAH.     See  Astarte. 

ASH'IMA,  one  of  the  divinities  worshipped  by 
the  Haniathites,  i.e.,  the  inhabitants  of  the  king- 
dom of  Ilamath,  whose  capital,  originally  called 
Hamath,  but  later  Epiphania,  was  on  the  Orontes, 
north  from  Antilebanon.  These  people  were 
transported  into  Samaria  by  the  As.syrians  to 
replete  that  depopulated  district.  The  god  has 
not  yet  been  identified.  See  Baudissin;  Studten 
zur  sevtitiiichen  Religionsgeichiclite  I.,  1876,  pp.  27-5, 
277.  WOLF  BAUDISSIN. 

ASH'KELON  (migration),  one  of  the  five  prin- 
cipal cities  of  the  Philistines,  was  taken  by  Judah 
(Judg.  i.  18),  but  not  permanently  held.  It  was 
afterwards  conquered  twice  by  Jonathan  theMac- 
cabee  (1  Mace.  x.  86,  xi.  60).  It  had  a  Temple 
of  Derketo,  a  goddess  with  a  fish-tail :  the  temple 
stood  in  the  centre  of  a  large  pond,  and  traces  of 
this  pond  are  still  visible.  It  was  the  birthplace 
of  Herod  the  Great,  and  afterwards  the  residence 
of  his  sister  Salome.  During  the  crusades  it  was 
captured  and  destroyed  several  times,  and  now  it 
is  in  ruins;  but  the  ruins,  ten  miles  north  of  Gaza, 
still  bear  witness  to  its  former  greatness. 

ASHTORETH.     See  Astarte. 

ASH-WEDNESDAY  (dies  cineris  et  cilicii)  is  the 
first  day  of  Lent,  the  first  of  those  forty  days  of 
fast,  which  already  in  the  ancient  church  were 
kept  before  Easter  in  memory  of  Moses  (Exod. 
xxiv.  18)  and  Elijah  (1  Kings  xix.  8),  and  more 
especially  in  memory  of  the  forty  days  during 
which  our  Lord  fasted  in  the  desert.  The  name 
is  not  simply  a  general  allusion  to  the  penance 
in  sackcloth  and  ashes  of  which  the  prophets  of 
the  Old  Testament  speak,  but  refers  more  directly 
to  a  peculiar  rite  in  the  Roman  Church.  The 
palm-branches  consecrated  in  the  church  on 
Palm-Sunday  the  year  previously  are  burnt  to 
ashes,  and  the  ashes  gathered  in  a  vessel,  and 
placed  on  the  altar,  before  the  beginning  of  the 
mass.  The  priest,  dressed  in  a  violet  pluviate, 
the  color  of  ecclesiastical  mourning,  prays  that 
God  will  send  one  of  his  angels  to  consecrate  the 
ashes,  in  order  that  they  may  become  a  remedium 
salubre  to  all  penitents.  After  sprinkling  the 
ashes  thrice  with  holy  water,  and  striking  them 
thrice  with  the  perfumed  clouds  from  the  cen- 
ser, the  officiating  priest  kneels  down,  and  strews 
silently  ashes  on  his  liead.  Finally  the  congre- 
gation approach  the  altar,  and  kneel  down,  while 
the  priest  strews  ashes  on  their  head  with  the 
words :  Memento  homo,  quia  pulvis  es  et  in  pul- 
verem  revertaris  ("remember  man,  that  thou  art 
dust  and  unto  dust  thou  shalt  return  ").     Gener- 


allv.  however,  the  ashes  are  not  actually  strewn 
on  the  heads,  only  the  sign  of  the  cross  is  made 
on  the  forehead;  in  Paris  by  a  fine  brush.  In 
Protestant  churches  the  Lent  sermons  generally 
begin  on  Ash-Wednesday,  but"  a  special  ser- 
vice is  performed  only  in  the  Churcli  of  Eng- 
land. 

ASINARII,  originally  a  nickname  given  to  the 
.Tews,  because  they  were  said  to  worship  an  ass, 
but  afterwards  also  applied  to  the  Christians,  of 
wliom  the  same  story  w'as  told.  It  is  possible 
that  the  Jews  were  the  first  to  shift  the  reproach 
from  themselves  on  to  the  Christians.  TertuUian 
(Apolog.  c.  16;  Ad  Nat.  I.  14)  tells  of  a  man,  a 
former  Jew,  who  was  hostile  to  the  Christians, 
that  he  exhibited  in  Carthage  a  picture  super- 
scribed, Deus  c/trisli<inormn  dvoKoirirri(  and  repre- 
senting this  god  with  ass-ears,  a  hoof  on  the  one 
loot,  a  book  in  the  hand,  and  dressed  in  a  toga. 
From  about  the  same  time  is  the  mock-crucifix 
discovered  in  1858  in  the  ruins  of  the  paadago- 
gium  for  the  imperial  pages  on  the  southern 
declivity  of  the  Palatine.  It  was  scratched  on 
the  wall  with  a  stijlns,  evidently  by  some  page,  in 
derision  of  some  Christian  comrade,  and  repre- 
sents a  man  with  the  head  of  an  ass  hanging  on 
a  cross,  and  to  the  left  another  figure  in  an  atti- 
tude of  worship,  the  whole  explained  by  the 
superscription  :  ' AXt^n/ievog  aeiSere  t)iov.  The  char- 
acter of  the  letters  shows  that  it  dates  from  the 
beginning  of  the  third  centurj'. 

ASMODE'US  (demon  of  desire),  a  demon  who 
is  first  mentioned  in  the  Book  of  Tobit  as  being 
led  through  his  love  for  Sara,  the  daughter  of 
Raguel  at  Ecbatana,  to  murder  her  seven  suc- 
cessive husbands  upon  the  wedding-night.  But 
Tobias,  under  the  direction  of  Raphael,  married 
Sara,  and  drove  away  the  demon  by  burning  in 
the  bride-chamber  the  heart  and  liver  of  a  fish 
he  caught  in  the  Tigris.  When  Asmodeus 
smelled  the  fumes,  "  he  fied  into  the  uttermost 
parts  of  Egypt,  and  the  angel  (Raphael)  bound 
him"  (Tolp.  iii.  8,  viii.  3). 

This  demon  is  Parsi  in  origin,  and  is  to  be 
identified  with  ^"Eshma,  of  whicli  the  same  things 
ai-e  told.  In  the  Talmud,  Asmodeus  has  insight 
into  secrets,  vEshma  is  the  source  of  all  knowl- 
edge; the  latter  is  a  head  of  the  Dievas;  Asmo- 
deus is  a  king  of  the  demons.  A  Talmudic  tale 
relates  that  Asmodeus  once  drove  Solomon  out 
of  his  kingdom,  but  Solomon  at  length  forced 
him  to  work  for  him  in  building  the  temple. 

Lit.  — EiSENME.N'GER  :  Entdecktes  Judenthum 
(1711),  I.  8,  pp.  351-361,  823.  Benfey  and 
Stekn  :  Monatsnamen  (l^'iG),  p.  201.  Kohut  : 
Jild.  Anijelo/ogie  u.  Ddnionologie  in  ihrer  Abhangig- 
l.-eit  vom  Parshmus  (1866).       WOLF  BAUBISSIN. 

ASMON/EANS.     See  Maccabees. 

ASS.  An  animal  indispensable  in  the  East. 
It  is  so  frequently  referred  to  in  the  Bible,  that 
the  quotation  of  texts  is  superfluous ;  but  its 
principal  uses  deserve  mention.  (1)  For  ruling, 
the  she-ass,  which  was  also  valued  for  its  milk, 
was  particularly  liked ;  and  of  colors  the  white  was 
preferred.  No  saddle  was  used,  but  a  mere  cloth 
or  mantle  ;  and  the  driver  went  alongside  or 
behind  the  beast.  (2)  For  carrying  burdens  of 
every  kind.  (3)  For  ploughing.  (4)  For  grind- 
ing. Asses  do  not  appear  to  have  been  used  by 
the  Hebrews,  after  Solomon's  day,  for  warlike 


ASS. 


156 


ASSEMANI. 


purposes  :  consequently  the  Messiah,  as  the  Prince 
of  peace,  is  represented  as  riding  upon  an  ass. 

The  ass  was  an  unclean  animal :  therefore  its 
first-born  was  not  to  be  oftered  to  the  holy  God, 
but  redeemed  with  a  lamb,  or  else  its  neck  broken 
(Exod.  xiii.  13,  xxxiv.  20).  The  Egyptians  dedi- 
cated the  ass  to  Seth-Typhon,  the  god  of  war 
and  of  strangers,  and  probably  in  this  way  the 
stupid  charge  which  Josephus  is  at  such  pains  to 
refute  (c.  A/iioii.  11.  7),  that  the  Jews  worshipped 
an  ass's  head,  may  have  arisen.  RtJETSCHI.  . 

ASS,  The  Feast  of  the,  like  the  Feast  of  Fools, 
the  performance  of  mysteries,  and  many  minor 
points  in  the  Roman-Catholic  ritual  and  liturgy, 
originated  in  perfect  good  faith,  and  was  em- 
ployed by  the  priests  as  means  by  which  to 
explain  the  contents  of  sacred  history,  and  im- 
press its  events  upon  the  sloven  imagination  of 
people  who  received  no  religious  instruction, 
either  at  home  or  in  any  school,  and  who  could 
not  read.  The  feslum  asiiwrum  was  in  great  favor 
in  Xortheru  France,  and  celebrated  in  various 
manners  in  the  various  cities.  In  Rouen  the 
celebration  took  place  shortly  before  Christmas, 
and  consisted  in  the  representation  of  a  little 
drama,  in  whose  principal  scene  Balaam's  ass  (a 
priest  concealed  between  the  legs  of  an  ass)  ap- 
peared before  the  altar  of  the  cathedral,  and  pre- 
dicted the  early  coming  of  Christ.  In  Beauvais 
the  celebration  took  place  on  Jan.  14,  and  con- 
sisted in  a  j>rocessiou,  which  had  reference  to 
the  flight  of  Joseph  and  Mary  to  Egypt.  In  the 
fifteenth  century  these  feasts  were  forbidden,  be- 
cause they  had  become  a  scandal.  When  the 
mass  was  said,  the  priest  brayed  thrice,  like  an 
ass,  instead  of  saying,  "  Ite,  missa  est;  "  and  the 
whole  congregation  answered  with  •'Ilin-han," 
instead  of  Deo  yralias.  Such  scurrilities  could, 
of  course,  not  be  tolerated  from  the  moment  they 
ceased  to  be  necessary. 

ASSEBURC,  Rosamunde  Jullane  von,  b.  in 
November,  ltl72,  at  Eigenstedt,  near  IMagdeburg  ; 
received,  according  to  her  own  statement,  divine 
revelations  and  glorious  visions  while  only  seven 
years  old.  She  saw  thi;  Saviour  himself  in 
various  apparitions,  and  heard  him  speak  of  his 
sufferings  and  of  the  future  of  his  kingdom,  etc. 
In  Magdeburg  and  neighborhood  she  produce<l  a 
deep  impression  ;  and  the  sensation  soon  spread 
wlien  she  became  acquainted  with  Petersen,  the 
chiliast,  at  that  time  superintendent  at  Liine- 
burg.  lie  invited  her  to  his  house,  and  in  a 
jjaraphlet  —  Die  Species  facti  von  deiii  wJetir/en 
Friiuleui  Uosamunda  Juliana  von  tier  Asscbuiy ; 
also  containing  an  essay  :  Ob  Gott  nach  der  Auf- 
fahrt  Ckristi  nicht  mehr  heulii/es  Tages  durch 
yOlltiche  Krscheinung  den  Menschenkindeni  sich 
offenharen  irollle  und  sich  dessen  ijanz  beyelien  liabe? 
—  he  addressed  in  1(J91  all  the  foremost  theolo- 
gians of  Germany,  asking  them  whether  they 
accepted  tlie  revelations  of  Miss  Asseburg  as 
divine  inspirations  or  not.  Some  answered  in 
favor,  others  were  violently  opposed.  Spener  w;i.s 
too  cautious  to  express  any  opinion.  Meanwhile 
her  name  became  known  in  France,  England, 
and  Denmark  ;  and  the  court  of  Hanover  seemed 
to  regard  lier  witli  favor.  Tlie  magistrates,  how- 
ever, and  tlie  preacliers  of  Luneburg,  took  anotlier 
view  of  the  case ;  and,  in  accordance  with  a  ver- 
dict of   the   theological   faculty   at    Ilelmstiidt, 


Petersen  was  deposed  in  1692,  and  banished  from 
the  country.  Miss  Asseburg  accompanied  him, 
and  lived  afterwards  in  the  house  of  a  pious  old 
countess ;  but  she  rapidly  lost  her  prestige,  and 
sank  into  oblivion.  The  date  of  her  death  is 
unknown.  Leibnitz  defended  her  moral  and  re- 
ligious character;  and,  with  respect  to  her  visions, 
he  compared  her  to  Brigitta,  Hildegard,  Mech- 
tildis.  and  other  virgins  among  the  saints  of  the 
middle  ages.  See  Petersen's  Autobiography,  2d 
edition,  1719. 

ASSEMANI  is  the  name  of  a  Maronite  family 
of  which  three  members  became  celebrated  in  the 
eighteenth  century  by  opening  np  to  European 
students  the  Oriental  literatures,  especially  that 
of  Syria.  —  I.  Joseph  Simon  Assemani,  b.  on 
Mount  Lebanon  in  1GS7;  d.  in  Rome,  Jan.  31, 
1768;  was  educated  in  the  Maronite  college  of 
Rome ;  received  while  yet  a  very  young  man  a 
position  in  the  library  of  the  Vatican ;  was  sent 
by  Clement  XI.  to  the  East  (1715-17)  to  collect 
manuscripts ;  visited  Cairo,  the  monasteries  of 
the  Nitrian  Desei-t,  Damascus,  Aleppo,  etc.,  and 
brought  great  literary  treasures  back  to  Rome  ; 
made  a  second  journey  to  the  East  (1735-38), 
and  was  made  custodian  of  the  library.  When 
he  died  he  left  a  great  number  of  works  in  man- 
uscript (more  than  one  hundred  volumes),  partly 
continuations  of  earlier  publications,  partly  new 
literary  enterprises ;  but  a  large  part  of  his  work 
was  destroyed  by  a  fire  which  broke  out  in  the 
apartments  adjacent  to  the  library,  Aug.  30,  1768. 
Ills  principal  works  are:  1.  Biblinlheca  orienlalis 
Clemenlino-Vaticana,  3  vols,  fob,  Rome,  1719-28, 
forming  the  first  part  only  of  a  larger  work  des- 
tined to  comprise  four  parts.  Considerable  prepa- 
rations, however,  w'ere  m.ade  for  the  seven  vol- 
umes forming  the  second  part,  and  treating  of  the 
Syrian  and  Arabian  translations  of  the  Bible,  the 
religious  books  of  the  Syrians,  the  Syian  and 
Arabian  councils,  etc.  2.  Ephr.  Sijri  Opera, 
Greece,  Syriace,  Laline  in  VI.  tomes  (Rom., 
1732-46).  (Only  the  first  three  tomes.)  3. 
liudiinenla  liitgucc  Arabica:,  Rome,  1732.  4.  Ab- 
rah.  Ecclielleiisis:  Clironicon  urientalc,  printed  in 
Scriplares  Ilislorice  Byzaiitina'T.  XVII.  5.  Cliron- 
icon Siculum  (827-963),  after  an  Arabian  manu- 
script, printed  in  Carusii  Bibliollicca  Ilislorica 
Itegni  SiciliiE,  T.  I.  6.  Kulendaria  ccclesiiv.  univer- 
ses, of  which  only  the  first  six  volumes  appeared 
(Rome,  1755),  treating  of  the  Slavica  Kcclesia  sice 
Grmcu-Mosclia.  The  six  following  volumes,  treat- 
ing the  .Syrian,  Armenian,  Egyptian,  .Ethiopian, 
Greek,  and  Roman  saints,  were  partly  prepared, 
but  were  burnt.  7.  De  sacris  iniayinibus  et  reli 
ijuiis,  destined  to  comprise  five  volumes.  Part;" 
of  the  manuscript  were  saved  ;  and  extracts  frora. 
it  were  given  by  .lo.  Bottarius,  Home,  1776, 
For  a  complete  list  of  his  works,  published  or  ii 
manuscript,  see  Anckl.  M.vi  ;  Scriptorum  Vcle- 
rutn  jVo«i  CoUcctioe  Vaticanis  Cmld.  ICililn,  T.  III., 
P.  II.,  p.  106.  —  Joseph  Aloysius  Assemani, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  was  profe.s.sor  of  Ori- 
ental languages  in  Home,  and  died  there  Feb.  9, 
1782.  Ills  two  principal  works  are:  1.  Codex 
lilurgicns  Ecclesice  universce,  13  vols.,  Rome,  1749- 
66,  unfinished.  2.  Comment,  de  Cat/iolicis  s.  Pa- 
triiirr/iis  Clialdiiuniin  it  .Vestoriaiiorum,  1775.  — 
Stephan  Evodius  Assemani,  a  cousin  of  the  two 
preceding,  held  rich  benefices  in  Italy,  was  titu- 


ASSEMBLY. 


157 


ASSYRIA. 


I 


lary  archbisliop  of  Apam.Ta  in  S3'ria,  member  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  London,  etc.  He  worked. 
together  with  .Joseph  Simon,  on  the  edition  of 
Ephraem  Syrus,  and  on  a  catalogue  of  all  the 
manuscripts  of  the  Vatican  library.  Of  the 
latter  work  three  volumes  were  printed,  and 
eighty  pages  of  the  fourth;  but  they  were  all 
burnt  in  17(i8.  lie  al.so  gave  a  catalogue  of  all 
the  Oriental  nianuscrijits  in  the  Medica;an,  Lau- 
rentian,  and  Palatine  libraries,  Florence,  1742; 
and  edited  Ada  SS.  Marh/rmn  orientalittm,  qui 
in  Perside  passi  sunt,  etc.,  Florence,  1748,  2  vols., 
Syriac,  with  Latin  translation.  The  first  pai-t 
gives  the  history  of  all  the  martyrs  who  suffered 
during  the  reign  of  Sapor,  Varanes,  etc. 

ASSEMBLY,  General  (the  name  comes  from 
Heb.  xii.  2^3),  the  highest  court  of  the  Presbyte- 
rian church.     See  Pkesbyterian  Church. 

ASSYRIA  first  designated  the  land  and  king- 
dom, whose  capital,  Asshur  —  thus  called  from 
the  principal  god  there  woi'shipped,  Axiihur,  "the 
good  god  "  —  stood  on  the  western  bank  of  the 
Tigris,  a  few  miles  south  of  Mosul,  at  the  present 
Kaleh  Sherghat.  The  name  was  retained  when, 
later  on,  the  kingdom  expanded  north  to  Arme- 
nia, east  to  ]\Iedia,  south  to  the  Little  Zab,  west 
towards  the  Euphrates,  comprising  an  area  cor- 
responding to  the  classical  Aturia  or  Adiabene, 
though  the  royal  residence  was  now  moved  far- 
ther to  the  north,  and  a  new  capital,  Nineveh, 
was  built  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris,  oppo- 
site Mosul,  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  Tigris 
and  the  Great  Zab.  Still  later  on,  when  this 
kingdom  grew  into  one  of  the  greatest  empires 
which  antiquity  ever  saw,  comprising  the  whole 
region  between  the  Tigris  and  the  IMediterranean, 
the  Armenian  Mountains,  and  the  Persian  Gulf, 
the  name  was  retained,  only  abridged  into 
"  Syria"  by  the  classical  writers.  This  vague- 
ness in  the  application  of  the  name  is  still  fur- 
ther increased  by  the  peculiar  relations  which 
existed  between  Assyria  and  Babylonia.  Nei- 
ther geographically  nor  historically  can  the  two 
countries  be  wholly  distinguished  from  each 
other.  They  were  inhabited  by  the  same  people, 
a  branch  of  the  Shemitic  race  (Gen.  x.  22) ;  and 
in  botli  countries  this  people  spoke  the  same  lan- 
guage, held  the  same  religion,  developed  the 
same  science  and  art,  etc.,  only  with  the  differ- 
ence, that,  in  all  these  respects,  Babylonia  ap- 
pears to  be  the  mother-country.  Politically  they 
also  generally  belonged  together,  Assyria  being 
a  Babylonian  province  at  one  time,  and  Baby- 
lonia an  Assyrian  province  at  another.  But  this 
latter  difference  was  often  overlooked,  as,  for  in- 
stance, when  Nebuchadnezzar,  King  of  Babylon, 
is  called  King  of  As.syria  (2  Kings  xxiii.  29). 

The  Bible  and  the  classical  historiographers, 
Herodotus,  Diodorus,  Dio  Cassius,  and  Ammi- 
anus  Marcellinus,  who,  partially  at  least,  based 
their  reports  on  older  writers,  —  the  Greek  Ctesias 
and  the  native  Berosus,  —  were  for  a  long  time 
the  only  sources  from  which  any  knowledge  could 
be  drawn  concerning  the  history  of  this  country 
and  the  civilization  of  this  people.  But  the 
knowledge  thus  derived  was  scanty,  and  full  of 
irreconcil.able  contradictions.  But  in  1843  Botta 
and  Layard  succeeded  in  uncovering  a  series  of 
Assyrian  palaces  at  Kouyunjik  and  Khorsabad; 
and  here,  scattered  among  the  ruins,  was  found  a 


multitude  of  tablets  of  a  greenish  gypsum,  cov- 
ered all  over  with  cuneiform  inscriptions.  By 
means  of  these  inscriptions  it  became  possible, 
not  only  to  prove  the  general  correctness  of  the 
notices  which  the  Bible  contains,  and  the  utter 
nntrustworthiness  of  the  .stories  which  many  of 
the  classical  historiographers  give,  but  also  to 
form  a  tolerably  full  outline  of  this  interesting 
chapter  in  the  history  of  mankind.  What  Ctesias 
tells  about  the  founding  of  Nineveh  by  Ninus 
and  Semiramis,  etc.,  is  mere  fable,  and  so  is  his 
story  about  a  first  destruction  of  Nineveh  (about 
800  B.C.),  when  Sardanapalus  burnt  up  himself, 
liis  harem,  his  treasures,  and  his  palace  in  one 
huge  jiile.  Ninus  and  Semiramis  are  charac- 
ters in  the  great  mythical  epic  of  As.syria,  and 
have  no  more  reality  than  Apollo  and  Diana. 
What  the  Bible  tells  (Gen.  x.  11)  about  the 
colonization  of  Assyria  by  emigrants  from  Baby- 
lonia is  true,  and  the  date  of  this  emigration  can 
be  approximately  fixed.  As  the  succession  of 
Assyrian  kings  is  given  in  the  inscriptions  up 
to  the  year  of  1450  B.C.,  and  As.syrian  kings  are 
spoken  of  before  that  time,  it  seems  warrantable 
to  place  the  date  of  the  founding  of  Asshur  in 
the  twentieth  century  B.C.  From  the  ninth  cen- 
tury B.C.  to  the  destruction  of  Nineveh  and  the 
downfall  of  the  Assyrian  Empire,  the  succession 
is  complete  in  all  its  details;  and  the  connection 
between  this  succession  of  kings  and  the  abso- 
lute chronology  is  made  ■with  certainty  by  means 
of  the  eclipse  of  June  1.5,  763  B.C.  The  names 
of  this  succession  are,  Tiglath-Adar  IT.,  889- 
884  ;  Assur-natsir-pal,  883-859  ;  Shalmaneser  II., 
858-824;  Samas-Rimmon,  823-811;  Rimmon- 
nirari,  810-782;  Shalmaneser  III.,  781-772; 
Assur-dan-il,  771-754;  Assur-nirari,  753-746; 
Tiglath-Pileser  (probably  Pul)  11.,  745-728;  Shal- 
maneser IV.,  727-723;  Sargon,  722-706;  Sen- 
nacherib, 705-682;  Esarhaddon,  6S1-0G9;  Assur- 
bani-pal  (Sardanapalus),  608-626;  Assur-ebil-ili, 
625.  .  .  . 

This  period  of  Assyrian  history,  from  900  to 
6.50  B.C.,  is  not  only  the  best  known,  but  also  the 
culminating  point  of  jiower  and  success.  Assur- 
natsir-pal,  the  builder  of  the  magnificent  North- 
west Palace  at  Calah,  made  Tyre,  Sidon,  Byblus, 
and  Aradus  tributary.  Rimmon-nirari  subdued 
the  whole  "  west  land,"  including  Phoenicia, 
Philistasa,  Edom,  and  the  land  of  the  house  of 
Omri ;  that  is,  Northern  Israel.  Tiglath-Pileser 
II.  pushed  forward  to  Gaza  on  the  Egyptian 
frontier.  Sargon  defeated  the  Egyptians  in  the 
great  battle  of  Raphia.  Sennacherib's  campaign 
failed;  but  Esarhaddon  conquered  all  Egypt, 
penetrated  into  Nubia,  and  styled  himself,  "King 
of  the  Kings  of  Egypt  and  Cush."  Under 
Assur-bani-pal,  an  Oriental  despot  in  the  true 
sense  of  the  word,  magnificent,  sensual,  and  cruel, 
the  empire  extended  from  Media  and  Persia  to 
the  Mediterranean,  and  from  Armenia  to  the 
Arabian  Desert;  but  signs  of  decay  ah-eady  be- 
gan to  show,  or  rather  signs  of  the  impossibility 
of  keeping  together  so  vast  a  complex  of  lands 
by  devices  of  government  so  imperfect  as  those 
as  yet  invented.  A  general  rising  took  pilace. 
Sammughes,  the  brother  of  Assur-bani-pal,  and 
viceroy  in  Babylonia,  who  headed  the  revolt  in 
this  )iart  of  the  realm,  was  captured  and  burnt. 
The  tril)es  of  Northern  Arabia ^ Kedar,  Zobah, 


ASSYRIA. 


158 


ASSYRIA. 


Nabathaea.  etc.  —  were  again  subdued.  But 
Egypt,  under  the  guidance  of  Psammetichus,  re- 
covered its  independence.  Under  Assur-ebilili  the 
revolt  was  repeated  ;  Nineveh  was  taken  by  Cj'axa- 
res  of  Media  and  Nabopolassar  of  Babylonia,  and 
the  Assyrian  Empire  came  to  an  end,  625  B.C. 

The  Assyrian  Government  was,  like  that  of  the 
other  great  Oriental  monarchies,  an  absolute  and 
untempered  despotism,  organized  on  a  crude 
military  plan,  and  centring  in  the  harem.  One 
of  the  "principal  officers  of  the  realm  was  the 
Rahsarh.  the  commander  of  the  eunuchs  (2  Kings 
xviii.  17) ;  and  the  eunuchs  themselves,  this 
institution  so  characteristic  for  an  Oriental  court, 
were  at  once  the  government,  the  science,  and  the 
art  of  the  people.  Foreign  countries,  when  con- 
quered, were  generally  left  in  the  state  in  which 
they  were  found.  The  king  became  a  vassal,  and 
paid  tribute;  but  no  closer  relation  sprang  up 
between  the  two  peoples.  If  the  king  revolted, 
and  was  defeated,  he  was  burnt,  and  his  soldiers 
were  massacred.  If  the  whole  people  partook  in 
the  revolt,  they  were  transferred  in  a  body  from 
their  native  soil,  and  settled  in  some  distant  re- 
gion. If  the  revolt  succeeded,  the  victor  became 
at  once  the  ruler  of  the  whole  realm,  the  "great 
king."  In  the  relation  between  Assyria  and  Is- 
rael we  find  many  of  these  features  of  crude  and 
awkward  political  art  strikingly  manifested. 

In  his  western  campaigns  Assur-natsir-pal  over- 
ran Palestine;  and  Shalmaneser  II.  compelled 
Jehu,  thatenth  king  of  Israel,  to  pay  tribute,  and 
recognize  the  supremacy  of  Assyria.  Rimmon- 
nirari  again  exacted  tribute  from  the  "land  of 
Omri ; "  and  Tiglath-Pileser  II.  found  opportunity 
to  interfere  still  more  effectively  in  its  affairs. 
lie  received  tribute  from  Menahera,  King  of 
Israel  (2  Kings  xv.  19),  and  afterwards  also 
from  Aliaz,  King  of  Judah  (2  Kings  xvi.  7), 
whom  he  supported  against  Pekah.  the  son  of 
Alenahem,  and  King  of  Israel,  and  Rezin,  Kingof 
Damascus.  The  kingdom  of  Damascus  was  de- 
stroyed ;  and,  after  the  death  of  Pekah,  Tiglath- 
Pileser  II.  placed  Iloshea  as  his  vassal  on  the 
throne  of  Israel.  So  heavily,  however,  pressed 
the  Assyrian  tribute  on  Israel,  that  Hoshea  made 
an  alliance  with  the  Egyptian  king,  So  (2  Kings 
xvii.  4),  to  throw  off  the  As.syrian  yoke.  Shal- 
maneser IV.  then  invaded  Israel,  and  besieged 
the  capital,  Samaria,  which  w;is  taken  by  his  suc- 
cessor, Sargon,  who  carried  away  Iloshea  and  agreat 
number  of  his  subjects  into  captivity  ;  while  for- 
eign settlers  from  the  East  came,  and  took  posses- 
sion of  the  land  of  Israel.  Also  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  paid  tribute  to  Sargon ;  and,  in  spite  of  Sen- 
ii.'icherib's  unfortunate  campaign  against  .ludah 
and  Egypt,  Judah  remained  tributary  to  Assyria 
till  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Assur-bani-pal. 

In  science  and  art  the  Assyrians  were,  as  above 
mentioned,  merely  the  pupils  and  imitators  of 
the  Babylonians.  Their  office  was  to  spread 
rather  than  to  produce;  and  it  is  their  great 
merit  to  have  brought  the  results  of  Babylonian 
science — as,  for  instance,  the  sexigesimal  division 
of  time  —  into  common  use  in  Western  .Vsia, 
whence  it  reached  Europe.  They  were,  however, 
not  altogether  without  originality.  'I'he  circum- 
stance that  they  hail  stone,  plenty  and  of  good 
quality,  while  tiie  Babylonians  were  absolutely 
confined  to  the  use  of  brick,  gave  their  architec- 


ture and  sculpture  a  strong  impulse  :  and  there 
was  something  in  their  national  character  which 
contributed  still  more  to  give  their  architecture  a 
peculiar  development.  The  Babylonians  were 
priests,  and  built  temples  :  the  Assyrians  were 
soldiers,  and  built  palaces.  It  is  now  also  gen- 
erally acknowledged  that  the  Assyrians,  and  not 
the  Egyptians,  were  tlie  first  teachers  of  the 
Greeks,  both  in  architecture  and  sculpture.  Less 
originality  can  be  ascribed  to  the  Assyrian  litera- 
ture. The  great  institutions  for  learning  and 
education  existed  in  Babylonia,  at  Erech  and 
Borsippa ;  and  for  many  centuries  all  literary 
activitj'  in  Assyria  seems  to  have  consisted  in 
copying  and  re-editing  Babylonian  works.  There 
were,  nevertheless,  royal  libraries  in  all  the  great 
cities,  —  Assur,  Calah,  Nineveh,  etc.,  —  in  which 
the  books,  clay-tablets  with  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions, were  kept  in  perfect  order,  and  stood  at 
the  disposal  of  the  students  ;  and  the  literary 
remains  from  the  reign  of  Assur-bani-pal  are  of 
the  highest  interest,  consisting  of  grammars,  dic- 
tionaries, primers  of  all  kinds,  historical  records, 
and  state  papers.  Of  poetry  some  hymns  have 
been  discovered  strongly  resembling  the  Psalms, 
not  only  in  form,  but  also  in  tone ;  and  two  epic 
poems,  —  the  Deluge,  and  the  Descent  of  Istar 
iuto  Hades,  —  which  seem  to  have  formed  parts 
of  a  greater  epic  poem.  But  these  have  evident- 
ly been  merely  copied  from  Babylonian  sources. 

Also  with  respect  to  religion,  some  individual 
traits  developed  in  Assyria.  The  Assyro-Baby- 
lonian  religion  was  a  star-worship  of  nou-Shemitie 
origin,  iuto  which  a  genuinely  Shemitic  element 
was  introduced,  —  a  principle  of  dualism  based  on 
the  natural  difference  of  sex.  Thus,  beside  the  god 
Anu  stands  the  goddess  Anab;  beside  Bel,  Bilit, 
etc.  But  while  in  Babylonia,  El,  ''god"  (whence 
Babel  or  Bab-ilu,  the  "  gate  of  god  "),  stands  at 
the  head  of  the  whole  mythological  system,  this 
position  is  in  Assyria  occupied  by  Assur,  or  Asshur, 
the  "good  god ;  "  and  while,  among  the  other  gods, 
Sin,  the  moon-god,  Merodach,  Nebo,  and  Bel, 
are  most  zealously  worshipped  in  Babylonia,  the 
Assyrians  show  a  preference  for  Adar,  the  god 
of  fii-e  and  war,  and  Istar,  Astarte,  the  goddess 
of  hunting  and  battle.  Similar  differences  ex- 
isted probably  also  with  respect  to  the  lowest 
sphere  of  the  religious  system,  —  the  field  of 
spirits;  but  they  have  not  yet  been  recognized. 
See,    for    further   information,    the   articles    on 

B.\l!YLO.NIA,     ClI.\I,I>,t;.^,      Cu.NElFOUM     I.XSCUIP- 

TioN.s,  Dici.ijGi;,  NiNKVEH,  SiiicMiTic  Kack,  etc. 
Lrr. —  Opi'EKr:  Jlisloire  (Its  Junpiri.i  ile  Chahle'e 
et  tl'Asxi/rie,  Paris,  1865;  Lenoumant  .  jI/ohuW 
d'/lisloire  ancienne  de  V  Orient,  Paris,  1869,  and 
Les  ])remih-es  Civilisations,  Paris,  1871;  Sciihadek: 
KeilinscliriJ'tcn  u.  dus  a.  Testament,  Giessen,  1872 ; 
the  same:  Die  Hollenfahrt  der  Jstar,  Giessen,  1874; 
and,  Keilinschriflen  u,  Gescliiclttsforschxnuj,  Giessen, 
1878;  Geougk  Rawlinson:  The Fice  Great  Monar- 
chies of  the  Ancient  Eastern  World,  2d  ed.,  London, 
187:i,  Ji  vols.,  reprint,  N.y.,  1881,3  vols.;  Geohgb 
SMrni:  The  Assyrian  Eponijm  CoiioH,n.d.(1875'i')', 
the  same:  Assyrian  Discorerics  (XSiy^,  Chaldean  Ac- 
count of  Genesis  (1876, revis.  ed.  1881),  London,  G. 
iJE  Duiioit:  Assi/rie  et  Chaldce,  1879;  Funz  Hum- 
mel :  Aliriss  der  bahtjlonisch-assyrisrhen  u.  isrneliti- 
schen  Geschichle  von  den  dltesten  Zeiten  bis  zur 
ZerstOrung  Babel's,  in  Tabellen/orm,  Leipzig,  1880. 


ASTARTB. 


159 


ASTERIUS. 


ASTARTE  and  ASH'ERAH.     1.   Astarte.    The 

Greek  and  Latin  name  for  tin;  i>riMcii>al  Plueni- 
ciau  female  divinity  (called  in  Hebrew  Ashtoreth, 
and  very  frequently  in  plural  form  Ashtarotli), 
the  correlative  of  Baal,  the  iirincipal  male  divin- 
ity. She  is  called  the  goddess  of  the  Sidonians 
(i  Kings  xi.  5),  but  was  worsiiipped  also  by  the 
Philistines,  even  in  the  time  of  Abraliam,  as  is 
shown  by  the  name  of  the  city  Ash'teroth-Kar- 
na'im.  Afterward,  in  the  days  of  Saul,  we  read 
of  a  Philistine  temple  in  her  honor  (1  Sam. 
xxxi.  10).  Solomon  introduced  her  worship  into 
Jerusalem  (1  Kings  xi.  5)  ;  and  the  bamoth,  or 
artificial  mounds  surmounted  by  altars  (-'high 
places"),  he  had  built,  were  not  destroyed  until 
Josiah's  day  (2  Kings  xxiii.  13).  When  the 
plural  form  Axltlaroth,  cf.  Baalim,  is  employed,  it 
indicates,  as  Geseuius  holds,  the  statues  of  Ash- 
toreth and  Baal.  In  the  Phoenician  inscriptions 
the  goddess  is  called  Ashlarl :  hence  the  Greek 
Astarte.  The  name  entered  into  the  composition 
of  proper  names.  The  Island  of  Tj're  was  sa- 
cred to  her.  Her  worship  spread  throvigh  all  the 
Phoenician  colonies.  Ilii-am,  the  contemporary 
of  Solomon,  built  sanctuaries  to  her  and  Baal- 
Melkart.  The  Phosnicians  regarded  her  as  the 
revealer  of  Baal.  The  Philistines  appai'ently 
regarded  her  as  the  goddess  of  war,  for  they  put 
the  arms  of  the  fallen  Saul  in  her  temple. 

Astarte  was  not  originally  a  Phoenician,  but  an 
old  Babylonian  goddess,  where  she  was  called, 
according  to  the  cuneiform  inscriptions,  Istar.  It 
is  a  mooted  point  whether  she  was  not  derived 
from  an  older  Turanian  people.  Istar  (plural 
Istarat),  as  a  Babylonian  goddess,  is  sometimes 
the  general  name  for  female  divinities,  some- 
times the  name  of  a  particular  goddess.  In  the 
library  of  King  Assur-bani-pal  (seventh  century 
B.C.)  are  mythological  tales  about  Istar,  both  as 
the  dispenser  of  life  and  fruitfulness,  —  so  that 
on  one  occasion,  when  she  went  into  the  under- 
world, procreation  and  birth  ceased  upon  the 
earth,  —  and  as  a  war-goddess,  carrying  quiver 
and  bow.  See  Smith's  Chaldean  Account  of  Gene- 
sis (revis.  ed.,  N.Y.,  1881),  p.  243. 

According  to  the  astrological  inscriptions,  Istar 
was  Venus ;  but  such  identification  was  of  com- 
paratively recent  date.  By  far  the  older  is  that 
which  puts  Istar  side  by  side  with  Ilu,  and  re- 
gards them  as  moon  and  sun  respectively :  these 
two  were  the  chief  divinities  of  Ancient  Arabia. 
Istar  appears  in  connection  with  Thammuz  and 
with  the  Grnaco-Phoenician  Adonis.  It  is  indeed 
true  that  Sin  is  called  the  moon-c/o*/  upon  the 
Assyrian  inscriptions;  but  he  was  either  a  local 
god  originally,  or  else,  when  men  recognized  the 
importance  of  the  moon  as  a  divider  of  time  and 
as  a  cause  of  certain  events,  they  represented  it 
by  a  male  divinity,  rather  than  by  a  female.  Sin 
was  the  father  of  Istar;  and  so  Istar,  instead  of 
being  paired  with  the  sun-god,  was  later  on  rep- 
resented as  the  Venus-star,  guiding  the  sun. 

Astarte  was  the  ovfiaviii  'AippodiTii  of  Ascalon,  and 
the  "  Cslestis  "  of  Carthage,  identified  with  Juno 
by  the  Latins.  She  was  also  the  "  Queen  of 
Heaven,"  to  whom  the  women  made  moon-shaped 
cakes,  and  poured  libations  (Jer.  vii.  18,  xliv. 
17).  The  rites  of  Aphrodite  came  to  the  Greeks 
from  the  Phoenicians. 

The  prototype  of  the  deus  Venus,  the  bearded 


A]ihroditeof  Cyprus,  is  found  in  an  androgynous 
Istar.  The  prohibition  (Ueut.  xxii.  .0)  against 
tlie  sexes  wearing  each  other's  clothes,  probably 
originated  in  the  prescribed  excliange  in  the  wor- 
ship of  this  Venus. 

2.  Asherah.  There  was  a  goddess  of  this 
name,  because  we  read  of  images  or  itlols  of 
Asherah  (1  Kings  xv.  13;  2  Kings  xxi.  7;  2 
Chron.  XV.  IG),  vessels  and  tents  for  Asherah 
(2  Kings  xxiii.  4,  7),  and  prophets  of  Asherah 
(1  Kings  xviii.  19).  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
true  that  many  passages  require  the  rendering 
"statue"  or  "sanctuary,"  e.g.  Exod.  xxxiv.  13; 
Judg.  vi.  2.5;  Isa.  xvii.  8.  [The  authorized  ver- 
sion uniformly  translates  Asherah  by  "grove."] 
The  Asherah  was  evidently  made  of  wood. 

The  service  of  Asherah  was  early  introduced 
into  Israel  (cf.  Judg.  iii.  7),  and  maintained 
itself  throughout  their  history  in  both  the  North- 
ern and  Southern  kingdoms  (1  Kings  xiv.  15  ;  2 
Kings  xxi.  3,  7).  It  was  by  preference  carried 
on  under  green  trees  upon  high  hills  (2  Kings 
xvii.  10;  Jer.  xvii.  2).  Asherah  was  worshipped 
at  one  altar  with  Baal,  since  the  two  are  named 
together  (see  texts  quoted).  The  image  of  Ash- 
erah was  by  the  side  of  the  altar  of  Baal  (Judg. 
vi.  2.5).  In  her  service  were  sodomites  and  devotee 
i:>rostitutes  (Gen.  xxxviii.  21 ;  Deut.  xxiii.  18 
1  Kings  xiv.  24;  Job  xxxvi.  14;  Hos.  iv.  14) 
but  we  know  no  particulars  of  her  sensual  rites 
for  the  word  "  honor  "  used  to  describe  her  idol 
(1  Kings  XV.  13;  2  Chron.  xv.  16,  see  marg.), 
does  not  necessarily  mean  phallus ;  but  in  gen- 
eral we  know  that  the  Phoenician  and  Syrian 
female  divinities  were  worshipped  licentiously. 

It  is  not  as  yet  determined  whether  Asherah 
was  only  another  name  for  Astarte.  But  the 
idea  so  generally  adopted  since  Movers,  that 
Astarte  vv-as  the  virgin  and  destruction-bringing 
goddess  of  war,  while  Asherah  was  the  sensual 
and  procreative  goddess  of  love,  is  scarcely  well 
founded ;  since,  as  shown  above,  Astarte  herself 
has  these  two  qualities.  But  it  is  not  at  present 
possible  satisfactorily  to  distinguish  between  the 
gods  and  goddesses. 

Lit. — -Selden:  de  Diis  Syris,  London,  1617; 
MuNTEU:  lieliy.  der  Karlkayer,  2d  ed.,  1821; 
MovEiis :  Die  Phoniziei;  vol.  1,  Berlin,  1841;  De 
VoolJE:  Melanges  d'archeotoyie  orientale,  Paris, 
1808.  —  Upon  the  Assyrian  Istar:  FiNZi:  Ricerche 
per  1(1  studio  dell  antichila  Assira,  1872  ;  Schra- 
dek;  Holleiifahrt  der  Istar,G'iessen,lS7-i:;  Geouge 
S.MiTii  :  Assi/rian  Discooeries,  London  and  N.Y., 
1875  ;  the  same :  Tlie  Chaldean  Account  of  Genesis, 
Lontlon  andN.Y.,  1876,  revis.  ed.,  1881  ;  P.  Ber- 
GEU  :  L'anr/e  d' Astarte,  Paris,  1879.  —  Upon  the 
connection  between  Aphrodite  and  Astarte  :  La- 
.iaud:  Recherches  sur  le  culte  de  Venus,  Paris, 
1837  ;  M.\URY :  Histuire  des  religions  de  la  Grece 
anti(jue,  Paris,  1859,  vol.  HI.,  pp.  191-259.  —  See 
also  in  general,  Baudissin  :  Jahre  el  Moloch, 
Leipzig,  1871;  [Scholz  :  Gbtzendienst  und  Zauher- 
icesen,  Regensburg,  1877J.       WOLF  BAUDISSIN. 

ASTERIUS.  In  the  ancient  Greek  Church, 
there  were  two  men  of  this  name.  1.  The  one,  an 
Arian,  was  the  pupil  of  that  Lucianus,  jiresbyter 
of  Antiochia,  who,  together  with  Dorotheus,  is 
generally  mentioned  as  the  founder  of  the  school 
of  Antiochia.  During  tlie  lifetime  of  Arius  he 
was  one  of  the  most  important  authors  writing 


ASTROLOGY. 


IGO 


ASYLUM. 


in  defence  of  Arianism.  He  died  about  330. 
2.  Different  from  him  is  Asterius,  Bishop  of 
Amasea  in  Pontus,  d.  about  410.  His  sermons 
were  spoken  of  with  praise  at  the  second  synod 
of  NicKa.  Several  ascribed  to  him  are  still  ex- 
tant. CoMBEFis  gives  eleven  in  the  first  tome 
of  his  Ai(cliiariiiin  Novum,  besides  extracts  from 
ten  others,  made  by  Photius,  and  an  eulogy  of 
Stephanus,  the  first  martyr,  which  up  to  that 
time  had  been  generally  ascribed  to  Proclus, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople.  Kight  homilies, 
given  by  Cotelier  in  his  Monumenta  Eccl.  Gi:, 
are  by  him  ascribed  to  Asterius  of  Amasea,  but 
by  AuDix  and  Dupix  to  Asterius  the  Arian. 

"astrology  (the  acience  of  the  stars)  con- 
sisted of  two  departments,  natural  and  judicial 
astrology:  the  former  referred  only  to  the  natural 
sphere  of  phenomena,  the  latter,  only  to  the  moral. 
The  former  was  a  science,  or  developed  into  the 
science  of  astronomy.  The  latter  was  an  illu- 
sion, but  retained  its  hold  on  men's  minds  up  to 
the  dawn  of  modern  science.  Astrology,  in  the 
latter  sense  of  the  word,  ascribed  to  the  stars  a 
subtle  and  mysterious  influence  on  the  human 
will,  consequently  on  the  destiny  of  man,  and 
pretended  to  be  able  to  trace  out  this  influence, 
and  predict  its  result,  by  inferences  drawn  from 
the  relative  j^ositions  of  the  stars  in  a  given 
moment.  It  was  much  cultivated  by  the  Chal- 
dees,  and  from  them  it  spread  into  the  Greek 
and  Roman  world.  At  the  time  of  the  first 
emperors,  the  Chaldsean  astrologers  belonged 
to  the  most  feared  and  most  flattered  persons 
in  Roman  society.  The  Barbarians,  so  called, 
who  overran  the  Roman  Empire,  took  a  great 
fancy  to  this  occult  science;  and  during  the  dark 
ages  the  sounder  and  stronger  minds  among  the 
Christian  clergy  found  it  very  hard  to  oppose 
this  kind  of  sorcery  and  magic.  Thesiiperstition 
was  not  completely  destroyed  until  the  elabora- 
tion of  the  Copernican  system,  when  it  gradually 
receded  into  the  nurseries. 

ASTRONOMY  never  developed  among  the 
ancient  Israelites  into  a  real  science.  They 
never  attained  to  a  distinction  between  comets, 
planets,  and  fixed  stars.  Their  studies  were  con- 
fined to  such  observations  as  the  sheplierd  would 
make  while  leading  his  flock.  Nevertheless,  the 
distinction  between  the  sun  and  the  moon  and 
the  other  stars  was  very  old,  and  so  was  the 
division  of  time  after  tlie  course  of  the  moon. 
Tlie  arrival  of  the  new  moon  was  saluliui  by 
sound  of  trumpets,  and  celebrated  with  sacri- 
ficial feasts  (Num.  x.  10,  xxviii.  11-1.'),  xxix.  1; 
Ezek.  xlvi.  6;  1  Chron.  xxiii.  31;  2  Chron. 
ii.  4,  viii.  13).  The  whole  complex  of  stars  was 
called  the  "host  of  heaven"  (Isa.  xl.  20;  Jer. 
xxxiii.  22) ;  but  (juite  a  number  of  single  stars 
were  distinguished;  sucli  as  "the  morning  star;" 
the  planet  Venus  (Isa.  xiv.  12;  Rev.  ii.  28); 
"the  seven  stars,"  the  Pleiades  (Job  ix.  !), 
xxxviii.  31;  Amos  v.  8);  "Orion,"  poetically 
represented  as  a  giant  bound  by  chains  to  the 
firmament  of  heaven  (Job  ix.  0,  xxxviii.  31)  ; 
"  Arcturus,"  the  Great  Bear  (Job  ix.  0);  "the 
Crooked  Serpent;  "the  Dragon  (Job  xxvi.  13); 
and  "  Castor  and  Pollux,"  the  Twins  (Acts  xxviii. 
11). 

ASTRUC,  Jean,  b.  at  Sauvc  in  Languedoc, 
March  19,  1681;  d.  in  Paris,  May  5,  17G0;  stud- 


ied medicine  at  Montpellier,  and  was  professor  of 
anatomy,  first  in  Toulouse,  then  in  Montpellier,  and 
finally  in  Paris.  In  1753,  in  his  .seventieth  year, 
he  published  anonymously  his  Conjectures  sur  les 
vh'moires  oriijinuux  dont  il parait  que  Moise  s'est  servi 
pour  composer  le  Here  tie  la  Genise,  Brussels  and 
Paris,  in  which,  on  the  ba.sis  of  the  use  of  the  two 
divine  names,  Elohim  and  Jehovah,  in  different 
parts  of  the  book,  the  theory  was  advanced  that 
Moses  formed  Genesis  by  combining  a  number  of 
older  documents.  This  theory  was  epoch-making 
in  the  critical  study  of  the  Pentateuch  (see  art.). 
Two  years  later  on  he  published  Sur  I'lmmortalite, 
rjmmate'rialiti',  et  la  Liberie  tie  I'Ame,  Paris. 

ASYLUM  (um'Aov,  i.e.,  inciolahle)  means,  in 
Greek  antiquities,  a  place  in  which  not  only 
force  becomes  powerless,  but  even  the  law  grows 
silent,  a  refuge,  an  escape.  Among  all  people 
the  awe  of  the  holy  made  it  an  offence,  or  even 
a  crime,  to  use  force  in  a  place  consecrated  to  the 
Divinity  and  divine  worship;  and  far  back  into 
antiquity  the  beneficial  influence  may  be  seen 
of  the  protection  which  such  consecrated  places 
offered  against  the  prevailing  arbitrariness  and 
violence.  The  Mosaic  law  jirovides  "cities  of 
refuge"  (Exod.  xxi.  13;  Deut.  xix.  7-10,  see 
title),  and  with  both  the  Greeks  and  the  Ro- 
mans, their  temples  and  altars  formed  inviolable 
asylums,  not  only  to  the  persecuted,  but  even  to 
the  criminal. 

In  the  Christian  world  the  right  of  asylum  was 
extended  from  the  altar  and  the  temple  to  all 
ecclesiastical  buildings.  Various  imperial  con- 
stitutions regulated  the  details  of  this  privilege 
{Cod.  Theodof.  Lib.  IX.,  Tit.  XLV.  ;  Cod.  Jus- 
tinian, Lib.  I.,  Tit.  XII.).  In  431  Theodosius  II. 
ordered  that  not  only  the  altar  and  the  nave  of 
the  church  .should  be  considered  sacred,  but  also 
the  alriuin,  the  garden,  the  b.aths,  and  the  cells; 
and  when,  in  466,  Leo  I.  confirmed  these  consti- 
tutions, he  added  that  the  steward  and  the  advo- 
cate of  the  church  (see  title)  should  subject  every 
person  who  demanded  protection  to  a  close  exam- 
ination, and  act  upon  the  evidence  thus  obtained. 
The  privilege,  however,  gave  rise  to  many  mis- 
uses. -Vlready  in  392  Theodosius  the  Great  ex- 
cluded (lel)tors  to  the  state  from  the  privilege ; 
and  Justinian  added  (Xorclla,  XVII.,  c.  7)  mur- 
derers, adulterers,  and  people  who  had  com- 
mitted rape. 

The  church  has  always  considered  it  a  special 
duty  to  protect  any  one  who  asked  for  its  aid. 
The  Council  of  Sardica  (347)  established  this 
maxim;  and  in  441  the  synod  of  Orange  or- 
dered tluit  fugitives  should  not  be  surrendered. 
Tlie  .synod  of  Orleans  (511)  conferred  the  privi- 
lege to  the  bi.shop's  residence,  and  extended  the 
a.sylum  lor  thirty  paces  from  the  building,  the 
.so-called  trii/inia  iccUsiastiri  jiassus. 

In  Knglan<l  tlic  riglit  of  asylum  was  recog- 
nized by  thir  laws  of  .Ufred;  and  no  considerable 
cliange  took  ]ilace  in  tlie  matter  until  1487,  when 
a  bull  of  hinoccMit  VIll.  declared  that  thieves, 
robbers,  and  murderers  who  tried  to  continue 
their  criminal  life  under  the  shelter  of  the  asy- 
Inin,  should  immediately  be  given  up  to  the 
king'.s  officers.  In  1534  an  act  of  Parliament  ex- 
cluded people  accused  of  treason  from  the  benefit 
of  the  privilege,  and,  whi^n  the  Reformation  was 
established  under  Elizabeth,  the  jirivilege  itself 


ATARGATIS. 


Idl 


ATHANASIUS. 


I 


was  lost  to  the  cluinih.  In  Oermany  various 
crimes,  such  as  liighway  robbery,  conspiracy, 
etc.,  excluded  from  the  asyhiiu;  and  new  crimes 
■were  added  to  tlie  list  in  coarse  of  time,  as,  for 
instance,  in  1418  by  Martin  V.,  and  in  ISOi  by 
Julius  III.  The  privilege,  however,  was  not 
sntirely  abolished  until  the  last  part  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  In  France  the  privilege  began 
to  be  limited  by  Francis  the  First,  by  the  edict  of 
1,'J39 :  Ordon.  sur  le  faicl  (!k  la  juxlim.  During 
the  Revolution  it  was  abolished.  See  Wai.lon  : 
Droit  d'A.fijle,  Paris,  1837.  H.  F.  JACOBSON. 

ATAR'GATIS.  This  Syrian  goddess  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  Bible;  but  in  2  Mace.  xii.  20 
her  temple  at  Karnion,  the  same  place  as  Asht.a- 
roth  Karnaim  (Gen.  xiv.  5),  is  spoken  of.  She 
was  the  Syrian  form  of  Astarte.  The  Greek 
and  Roman  writers  represent  her  as  a  fish-god- 
dess, the  cause  of  the  seas'  fruitfulness.  From 
this  idea  came  "Aphrodite  Anadyomene  "  (Venus 
rising  from  the  sea).  According  to  Ctesias,  Se- 
mii-amis,  a  celebrated  queen  of  Assyria  (fl.  1250 
B.C.),  was  the  daughter  of  Derketo  (Atargatis)  by 
a  beautiful  youth,  under  the  influence  of  Aphro- 
dite. Overcome  by  shame  at  her  conduct,  the 
goddess  destroyed  the  youth,  set  her  daughter  in 
a  desert,  where  she  was  fed  by  doves,  and  threw 
herself  into  the  sea  by  Ascalon,  and  was  changed, 
all  except  the  face,  into  a  fish  ;  and  in  this  shape 
she  was  pictured.  Fish  and  doves  thus  became 
holy  to  the  Syrians,  and  were  not  eaten.  Asca- 
lon and  Hierapolis  were  the  chief  seats  of  her 
worship.  Lucian  speaks  of  her  in  his  book  De 
Syria  dea,  calls  her,  however.  Here,  and  says  she 
combined  traits  of  Athene,  Aphrodite,  Selene, 
Rhea,  Artemis,  Nemesis,  and  the  Moirais  (the 
three  Fates).  He  describes  her  as  decked  with 
gold  and  many  precious  stones,  girded  like 
Aphrodite,  sitting  upon  a  lion  ;  near  her  is 
Zeus,  upon  a  bull.  In  one  hand  she  holds  a 
sceptre,  in  the  other  a  spindle ;  upon  her  head, 
surrounded  by  rays,  she  wears  a  tower ;  one  of 
the  jewels  on  her  forehead  illumines  the  temple 
at  night  through  its  radiance.  Twice  a  year 
water  was  brought  from  distant  places,  and 
poured  into  a  chasm  in  the  temple ;  because,  as 
Lucian  says,  according  to  tradition,  the  waters 
of  the  deluge  were  drained  away  tlirough  that 
opening.  About  her  temple  were  oxen,  horses, 
eagles,  bears,  and  lions,  sacred  to  the  goddess. 
A  fish-pond,  upon  which  was  a  floating  altar  for 
the  worship  of  the  fish,  was  near  the  temple. 
Her  rites  shared  the  impurity  of  the  Oriental 
nature-religions.  See  Astarte  for  further  in- 
formation, and  to  literature  there  given  add 
TiELE :  jEijyptische  en  mesopotamische  Godsdien- 
sten,  1872.  WOLF  BAUDlSSIJSr. 

ATHANASIUS,  the  "  Father  of  Orthodoxy,"  b. 
in  Alexandria  of  Christian  parents,  298  or  209 ; 
d.  there  May  2  or  3,.  373 ;  received  the  common- 
school  education  of  his  time ;  studied  the  Greek 
philosophers  and  poets ;  was  made  a  deacon  by 
Bishop  Alexander,  whose  amanuensis  he  became, 
and  played  a  most  prominent  part,  at  the  Council 
of  Nice,  in  the  definition  of  the  creed  named 
after  that  council.  After  the  death  of  Alexan- 
der, Athanasius  was  chosen  his  successor  (June  8, 
328),  and  was  received  with  enthusiasm  by  a  large 
majority  of  the  congregation,  but  fiercely  opposed 
by  the  adherents  of  Arius  and  the  renmauts  of 
12— T 


the  Meletian  party.  At  the  instance  of  Eu.se- 
bius  of  Nicomedia,  the  emperor  demanded  the 
re-admission  of  Arius  into  the  Church;  but 
Athanasius  refused,  and  immediately  the  storm 
broke  out.  lie  was  summoned  before  the  em- 
peror, at  tli.at  time  residing  in  Nicomi'dia,  and 
accused  of  conspiracy;  and  only,  after  long  and 
wearisome  exertions,  he  succeeded  in  jiroving  his 
innocence.  But,  immediately  after  his  return 
new  accusations  were  raised  against  him.  It 
was  said  that  he  had  killed  a  Meletian  bishop, 
Arsenius,  and  used  his  bones  lor  magic.  The 
emperor  commissioned  a  relative  of  his,  the 
censor  Dalmatius  of  Antiochia,  to  investigate 
the  case,  and  a  synod  was  convened  at  Coesarea 
(334).  But  Athanasius  refused  to  appear;  and, 
as  he  was  able  to  prove  that  Arsenius  was  still 
alive,  the  emperor  ordered  the  investig.ation  to 
be  discontinued.  Eusebius,  however,  succeeded 
in  changing  the  emperor's  mind;  and  an  imperial 
letter  ordered  Athanasius  to  ajijiear  at  the  synod 
of  Tyre,  335.  Athanasius  felt  obliged  to  obey; 
and  July  11,  335,  he  set  out  for  Tyre,  accom- 
panied by  fifty  bishops.  Arrived  at  Tyre,  he 
soon  understood  the  temper  of  the  assembly,  and 
repaired  to  Constantinople,  where  he  landed  Oct. 
30,  335.  He  succeeded  in  convincing  the  em- 
peror of  the  partiality  of  the  synod ;  and  the 
bishops,  who  in  the  mean  timj  had  moved  the 
convention  from  Tyre  to  Jerus<«Iem,  were  called 
to  Constantinople  to  vindicate  themselves.  A 
new  accusation,  however,  raised  against  Athana- 
sius by  the  two  Eusebiuses,  that  he  had  threat- 
ened to  stop  the  exportation  of  corn  from  Egypt 
to  Constantinople,  wrought  so  well  on  the  em- 
peror's mind,  that,  without  being  admitted  to  a 
hearing,  Athanasius  was  banished  to  Treves 
Nov.  16,  335. 

Constantine  died  May  23,  337 ;  and  in  the  fall 
of  338  Athanasius  returned  to  Alexandria.  He 
entered  the  city  in  triumph;  but  the  opposition 
and  intrigues  immediately  began  again,  and  his 
adversaries  this  time  went  so  far  as  to  accuse 
him  of  having  sold,  and  employed  for  his  own 
personal  purposes,  that  corn  which  the  late  em- 
peror had  destined  for  the  widows  of  Libya  and 
Egypt.  A  synod  of  bishops  from  Egypt,  Libya, 
and  the  Pentopolis,  declared  in  his  favor;  but,  as 
Constantius  stood  entirely  under  the  influence  of 
the  two  Eusebiuses,  he  had  to  go  into  exile  a 
second  time  (March  19,  340),  while  Gregorius.  a 
bishop  of  the  Eusebian  party,  took  possession  of 
his  see  by  military  force.  Athanasius  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  was  well  received  by  Bishop 
Julius ;  thence  to  Gaul  (in  343)  to  confer  with 
Hosius,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Sardica.  The 
Easter  of  344  he  celebrated  at  Naissus  in  Dacia; 
that  of  345,  at  Aquileia,  with  Constans,  who 
warmly  supported  his  cause.  Jleanwhile  a  pros- 
pect of  his  returning  to  Alexandria  was  opened 
up  by  the  death  of  Gregorius,  June  26,  345. 
The  see  was  not  filled ;  and  the  following  year 
Athanasius  repaired  to  Antioch,  where  he  was 
well  received  by  Constantius.  Over  Jerusalem 
he  returned  to  Alexandria,  and  entered  the  city 
Oct.  21,  346.  After  the  death  of  Constans,  how- 
ever (in  January,  350),  his  position  again  be- 
came unsafe ;  and  the  end  of  a  long  series  of 
intrigues  and  machinations  was,  that  the  dux 
Syriauus  and  ^he  imperial  notary  Hilarius  for- 


ATHANASIUS. 


162 


ATHANASIAN. 


mally  demanded  his  expulsion  from  the  city, 
and  broke  into  the  Church  of  St.  Theona  dur- 
ing service,  in  the  night  between  Feb.  8  and  9. 
Athanasius  fled,  and  a  great  massacre  ensued. 
In  Lent.  357,  Georgius  from  Cappadocia  was  ap- 
pointed his  successor ;  and  his  adherents  were 
discharged,  and  replaced  with  Arians.  During 
this  his  third  exile  (ooG  to  361)  he  found  refuge 
among  the  monks  and  liermits  of  the  Egyptian 
deserts :  but  at  times  he  also  lived  concealed  in 
or  by  Alexandria,  and  by  his  -writings  he  continued 
to  exercise  great  influence  on  the  congregation. 
Immediately  after  the  death  of  Constantius,  a  re- 
volt broke  out  in  Alexandria.  Georgius  the  bish- 
op and  the  comes  Dracontius  were  seized  by  the 
mob,  and  killed;  and  their  bodies  w-ere  dr.agged 
through  the  streets,  and  burnt.  The  edict  of 
Julian  concerning  the  exiled  bi.shops  allowed 
Athanasius  to  return  to  Alexandria  in  February, 
3(J2;  but  Oct.  2.5,  302,  a  special  edict  banished 
him  for  the  fourth  time.  He  lingered  in  various 
parts  of  Egypt  and  the  Thebais  until  he  heard  of 
the  death'of  Julian  (June  26,  363).  He  then 
repaired  to  Antiochia,  was  kindly  received  by 
Jovian,  and  returned  to  Alexandria  Feb.  20,  36-i. 
Once  more  he  was  in  danger.  An  edict  of 
Valens,  Jlay  5,  365,  reversed  the  edict  of  Julian 
concerning  the  exiled  bishops ;  and  Oct.  5,  365, 
tlie  prefect  Flavianus  broke  into  tlie  Church  of 
••^t.  l)ionysius,  and  compelled  Athanasius  to  flee. 
Valens,  however,  found  it  hazardous  to  deal  with 
the  great  and  populous  city  in  this  way;  and, 
though  he  continued  to  persecute  the  orthodox 
ill  other  places,  his  notary  Basidas  brought, 
Feb.  1,  366,  a  special  permission  for  Athanasius 
to  return,  and  he  w'as  left  in  peace  for  the  re- 
mainder of  his  lite. 

The  gre.atness  of  .-Vthanasius  is  liis  unswerving 
fidelity  to  the  idea  of  his  life,  his  constant  adhe- 
sion to  the  dogma  of  homo-ousion  as  the  only  full 
and  satisfactory  expression  of  the  godhead  of  tlie 
Son.  In  the  ancient  church  the  whole  meta- 
physical construction  of  Christianity  leads  to 
this  point,  and  from  it  starts  the  whole  specu- 
lative development  of  the  Trinity  and  the 
Christology.  To-  .\thanasius  this  dogma  was 
the  only  true  foundation  for  the  absoluteness  of 
tlie  Christian  religion.  The  redemption  and  sal- 
vation of  man  demand  that  God  has  not  only 
revealed  himself  to  man  tlirough  Christ,  but  has 
become  man  in  Christ,  h.as  been  incarnated. 
Against  the  Arian  doctrine,  that  the  Son  is  a 
creation  out  of  nothing,  foreign  to  the  divine 
substance,  not  eternal,  and  not  divine,  he  fought 
heroically  and  witli  all  the  weapons  available. 
AVith  equal  vigor  and  equal  consistency  he  op- 
posed the  older  cmanatory  views  of  God,  which 
made  the  world  not  simply  the  creation  of  God, 
l)ut  an  element  of  the  divine  substance,  and 
(Jod  not  simply  the  Ruler  of  the  universe,  but 
an  agency  involvinl  in  the  world-process.  To 
this  point,  the  dogmatical  centre  of  Christianity, 
most  of  his  writings  refer.  Some  of  them  have 
;ui  historical  character:  Ajiuloi/ia  cnnlni  Arianos, 
written  between  310  an.l  3.50;  Kj/isl.  Enci/cl.  ad 
K[).  Aei/.et  Lib.  ;  Ajiol.  ail  Impcrat.  Const.  ;  Apot. 
de  I'u(ja  sua ;  Hist.  Ariauorum  ad  Aloriaclios ;  ICp. 
ad  Scrap,  de  Marie  A  rii,  all  written  after  his  fliglit 
in  350;  l)c  Sipiodif  .t hhi.  W  iWenc,  written  in  3.")9, 
but  containing  some    later  additions.      Others 


have  a  more  dogmatical  or  polemical  character : 
Orntlones  IV.  adi\  Arianos  (356) ;  De  Decretis 
Xic.  Synod;  De  Senlentia  Dmii/sii ;  Expositio 
Fidei,  etc.  His  exegetical  writings,  Ep.  ad  Mar- 
cclUntim  in  Intcrpretationem  Psalmorum  and  Expn- 
silione.f  in  Psnlmos,  are  of  less  interest.  More 
especially  referring  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  are  the  four  epistles  Ad  Sei-apionem,  writ- 
ten during  his  stay  in  the  deserts;  and,  to  Chris- 
tology, tlie  epistles  Ad  Epicletum,  Adelphium, 
j\ra.rim.  P/iilos.,  as  well  as  the  two  works  Contra 
AjxyUinarinm  and  De  Incarnalione  Dei  Verhi, 
whose  genuineness,  however,  is  very  doubtful. 
Of  a  more  general  character,  or  referring  to 
other  points  of  the  Christian  system,  are  his  two 
earliest  works :  Contra  Gentcs  and  De  Incarna- 
tione ;  the  celebrated  Vita  S.  Antonii ;  and  a 
number  of  letters,  among  which  are  the  so-called 
Festid-Letters,  preserved  in  a  Syriac  version.  Col- 
lected editions  of  his  works  have  been  given 
by  B.  DE  MoNTFAtTCOs,  Paris,  1698,  three  vols, 
fol.  (the  Benedictine  edition),  to  which  some 
additions  have  been  made  in  Nov.  Coll.  Patr.  f. 
II.  ;  by  GiusTiNiANi,  Patav.,  1777  ;  and  by 
MiGXE  in  Script.  Or.  i.  25-28.  The  dogmatical 
works  have  been  edited  by  Tiiilo:  Dit/l.  Patr. 
Gr.  Dogm.  I.,  Lips.,  1853. 

Lit. — The  sources  to  the  life  of  Athanasius 
are,  besides  his  own  works,  especially  the  Festal 
Letters  (Cureton,  London,  1848),  the  so-called 
Uistoria  Acephala  {eA.  Patav.  III.,  69);  Greg- 
ouY  N.\zi.\NZ.  :  Oral.,  21,  and  extracts  from  an 
anonymous  Vita  At/ian.  (Phot.  Cod.  258). 
VoiGT :  Die  Lchre  des  Athan.,  Bremen,  1861; 
BoiiuixGKU  :  Athanasius  and  Arius,  Leipzig,  1874; 
L.  Atziserger:  Die  Loi/oslehrc  des  hi.  Athanasius, 
iliinchen,  1880.  [Tlie  Historical  Tracts  of  St. 
Athan.  and  Treatises  in  conlrorersi/  tcith  the  Arians 
are  translated  in  "The  Library  of  the  Fathers," 
Oxford,  1843.]  MOLLER. 

ATHANASIAN  CREED,  The  (also  called  i>H- 
bohim  QuicwKnte,  after  its  first  word),  consists, 
according  to  its  plan,  of  two  parts,  each  ending 
with  a  damnatory  clause.  The  first  part  (§§  1-20) 
treats  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  and  comprises  the 
doctrine  of  the  Fatlier,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit ;  the 
second  (!;!;  27-39)  treats  of  the  incarnation  of 
Christ  and  his  work  of  atonement.  The  doc- 
trine of  the  Holy  Trinity  is  given  in  short  and 
pointed  sentences;  and  tlie  influence  of  Augus- 
tine is  apparent.  In  the  .second  part  the  influ- 
ence of  tile  christological  controversies  (Nestorins 
and  Eutyches)  is  equally  apparent,  tnough  no 
direct  polemics  is  noticeable.  The  whole  creed 
seems  to  belong  to  a  time  when  all  controversies 
concerning  these  two  points  had  been  settled,  and 
the  settlement  universally  accepted  as  truth  not 
to  be  controverted  any  more.  It  is  also  charac- 
teristic, th.'it  both  in  the  introduction,  and 
towards  the  close,  the  false  view  is  propounded, 
that  adherence  to  the  formulas  of  a  creed  is 
necessary  in  order  to  be  saved.  —  From  tlie  latter 
part  of  tlie  eighth  century  .Vthanasius  was  gener- 
ally held  throughout  the  Western  Church  to  be  the 
author  of  this  creed;  and  its  nsi!  as  the  proper  doc- 
trinal symbol  spread  wider  and  wider,  especially 
on  the  northern  side  of  the  Alps.  In  the  inonas 
teries  the  monks  sung  it  every  day  at  tlie  prime. 
The  Greeks,  on  the  contrary,  who  did  not  becoma 
acquainted  with  it  until  about  the  year  1900,  re 


ATHEISM. 


168 


ATHBNAGORAB. 


jected  it  immediately,  because  it  teaclies  the 
double  procession  of  tlie  Spirit;  and,  as  they 
have  persisted  in  rejectins;  it,  it  is  erroneous  to 
call  the  symbol  oecumcnioal.  The  first  who  in 
the  Western  Church  attacked  the  authorship  of 
Athanasius  was  Gerhard  Joh.  Voss  (1(542);  and  it 
is  now  generally  acknowledged  that  Athanasius 
cannot  be  the  author,  though  great  micertainty 
]irevails  with  respect  to  tlie  real  author,  his  date 
and  place.  The  first  certain  trace  of  the  symbol 
is  found  with  Cwsarius  of  Aries  (503-543).  He 
quotes  passages  from  it,  and  appeals  to  it  as 
something  settled  and  acknowledged,  which  cir- 
cumstance shows  that  it  must  have  been  gen- 
erally accepted  in  Southern  Gaul  towards  the 
close  of  the  sixth  century.  [But  the  sermon 
which  contains  these  passages  is  probably  not 
the  composition  of  CiBsarius  at  all.  It  is  found, 
improperly,  among  those  of  Augustine  (Migne's 
ed.,  0pp.  v.  ser.  244,  p.  1147);  and  Gieseler  says 
(vol.  ii.  p.  74)  the  reference  of  it  to  Csesarius 
of  Aries  is  a  "  mere  conjecture."  Some  scholars 
maintain  that  Hilary  of  Aries  (420-431)  is  the  au- 
thor of  the  creed  ;  but  it  is  of  much  later  date,  see 
below.]  Most  critics  and  historians  have  sought 
for  tlie  author  there,  though  none  has  succeeded 
in  producing  sufficient  evidence.  6.  PLITT. 

In  the  Church  of  England  this  creed  must  be 
sung  thirteen  times  a  year.  The  damnatory 
clauses  naturally  awaken  most  scruples  of  con- 
science. In  1865  a  great  controversy  arose  over 
these  clauses ;  but,  although  the  royal  commis- 
sion were  predominantly  in  favor  of  removing 
the  compulsion  to  say  it,  the  obligation  yet  re- 
nuiins.  The  controversy,  however,  produced  a 
prolific  literature;  and  the  interesting  point  was 
brought  out,  that  there  is  no  certain  trace  of  the 
creed  higher  up  than  the  eir/Iith  century.  The  re- 
discovered Utrec/il  Psallo;  which  was  exhibited 
in  the  British  Museum  in  1873,  is  tlie  earliest 
manuscript  which  contains  it;  but,  according  to 
the  best  scholars,  it  is  not  earlier  than  the  ninth 
century.  The  second  part  of  the  creed,  contain- 
ing a  summai-y  of  the  Chalcedonian  Christology, 
has  been  found  separately,  as  a  fragment  of  a 
sermon  on  the  incarnation,  at  Treves,  in  a  manu- 
script from  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century, 
now  known  as  the  Colbertine  manuscript,  in 
Paris.  It  was  first  published  consecutively  by 
Professor  Swainson,  1871.  The  fact  that  Atha- 
nasius spent  some  time  in  Treves  may  possibly 
have  given  rise  to  the  tradition  that  the  great 
champion  of  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
composed  the  whole.  The  Episcopal  Church  of 
the  United  States  struck  this  creed  out  of  their 
revised  Prayer- Book  (1785).  See  Schaff  : 
Creeds  of  Christendom,  vol.  i.  pp.  34  sqq.,  where 
the  literature  is  given,  to  which  add  Ommaxf.y: 
Earhf  Hislory  of  the  Athanasian  Creed,  London, 
ISSO'. 

ATHEISM  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word  is  a 
denial  of  the  existence  of  God.  Originally 
the  word,  as  formed  and  appilied  by  the  Greeks, 
meant  simply  a  denial  of  a  certain  conception, 
viz.,  the  Greek  conception  of  God  ;  and  it  was 
one  of  the  gravest  accusations  raised  by  the 
Pagans  against  the  Christians,  that  they  were 
atheists,  because  they  denied  the  existence  of 
those  gods  which  the  State  recognized.  This 
mistake  A-e  find  repeated  over  and  over  again  in 


history.  Romanists  consider  Protestants  atheists, 
because  tlu^y  refuse  to  worship  Mary  as  "  the 
mother  of  God,"  and  to  recognize  the  divine 
office  of  the  saints.  Wlietu^ver  an  idol  has 
fallen  before  a  higher  and  more  spiritual  con- 
ception of  the  divine,  the  idolaters  have  never 
failed  to  cry,  "  Atheist!  "  l>ut  this  mistake  is 
also  made  in  the  opposite  direction,  when  various 
systems  of  pantheism  and  positivism  are  de- 
nounced as  atheistic,  though  lliey  do  not  deny 
the  existence  of  God,  but  simply  reject  that  con- 
ception of  him  which  has  been  developed  by  the 
Christian  theology,  or  decline  to  make  the  ques- 
tion the  subject  of  discussion.  It  begins,  how- 
ever, to  be  recognized,  that  any  positive  concep- 
tion of  a  spiritual  cau.se,  though  ever  so  feeble  and 
unripe,  is,  nevertheless,  always  one  step  away 
from  atheism,  and  a  tendency  has  sprung  up  to 
designate  every  such  conception  by  a  name  of 
its  own  ;  while  the  name  of  atheism  is  restricted 
to  that  state  of  mind,  which,  wholly  negative,  and 
utterly  incapable  of  any  kind  of  positive  con- 
struction, must  confine  itself  to  a  pure,  abstract 
denial,  —  a  state  of  rnind  which  appears  to  be  the 
result  of  conqilete  moral  indifference,  of  moral 
death.  In  this,  the  strict  sense  of  the  word, 
atheism  is,  of  course,  of  rare  occurrence  in  his- 
tory, and  generally  confined  to  unscientific  re- 
porters of  what  is  going  on  in  the  field  of  science; 
though  through  this  channel  it  has  sometimes 
penetrated  far  into  social  life,  and  reigned  there 
for  a  while,  half  in  the  form  of  a  fashion  and 
half  in  the  form  of  a  disease,  as,  for  instance, 
during  the  last  three  decades  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  But  it  is  a  striking  remark  of  Plutarch 
{Ado.  Cdlolem  XXXI.,  in  Moralia,  vol.  VI.,  p. 
2(35,  ed.  Tauchnitz),  and  one  which  holds  good 
this  very  day  :  "  There  has  never  been  a  state  of 
atheists.  You  may  travel  over  the  world,  and 
you  may  find  cities  without  walls,  without  king, 
without  saint,  without  theatre  or  gymnasium  ;  but 
j'ou  will  never  find  a  city  without  God,  without 
prayer,  without  oracle,  without  sacrifice.  Sooner 
may  a  city  stand  without  foundation  than  a  state 
without  belie  I  in  the  gods.  This  is  the  bond  of 
all  society  and  the  pillar  of  all  tegislation."  The 
intermediate  stages,  however,  between  atheism 
and  theism,  —  such  as  deism,  pantheism,  positiv- 
ism, materialism,  etc.,  —  are  of  much  greater 
importance,  and  have  been  the  characteristic 
marks  of  whole  ages,  just  as  they  are  the  charac- 
teristic marks  of  whole  sciences.  See  John 
C.\ii!xs:  Unbelief  in  the  Eiijldeenlh  Century,  Edin- 
burgh, 1S81. 

ATHENAGORAS.  Under  the  titles 'AiS^i-ayripou 
''kdrivaum  7ipeai3eia  ■nipl  xpi-^Tiavuv  (a  defence  of  the 
Chrixlixms  by  the  Christian  philosopher  Alhenayoras 
(f  Athens')  and  ....  ■R^pl  uTaoTaaFoi(  vcKpCiv  (of 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead),  two  works  have  come 
down  to  us,  whose  author  is  entirely  unknown  to 
the  tradition  of  the  church.  Eusebius,  Jerome, 
and  their  immediate  successors,  do  not  mention 
him;  and,  as  the  survey  which  Eusebius  gives  of 
the  apologetical  literature  of  the  second  century 
is  very  elaborate,  his  silence  with  respect  to 
Athenagoras  could  not  fail  to  attract  attention. 
Very  early  the  existence  of  an  apologist  of  that 
name  was  doubted,  and  the  work  w-as  ascribed 
to  Justin.  This  supposition,  however,  is  from 
internal  reasons  untenable.     The  first  testimony, 


ATHOS. 


164 


ATHOS. 


and  the  only  one  from  the  third  century,  of  the 
existence  of  the  apology  and  tlie  name  of  its 
author,  is  a  quotation  by  Methodius  (Epiph. 
Hares.  64,  c.  21).  Some  notices  by  an  unknown 
scribe  (Cod.  Barocc.  142,  fol.  216),  quoting  from 
Philippus  Sidetes,  from  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  century,  state  that  Athenagoras  was  director 
of  the  cate'chetical  school  of  Alexandria,  lived 
at  the  time  of  Hadrian  and  Antoninus,  and  was, 
like  Celsus,  occupied  with  searching  the  Scrip- 
tures for  arguments  against  Christianity,  when 
he  was  suddenly  converted;  but  most  of  these 
notices  are  palpably  erroneous.  In  spite,  liow- 
ever,  of  the  entire  absence  of  a  tradition,  and  the 
close  resemblance  to  the  apology  of  Justin,  the 
date  of  the  work  must  be  placed  somewhere  in 
the  second  century.  It  is  addressed  to  the  em- 
perors Marcus  Aurelius  and  Lucius  Aurelius  Com- 
modus,  and  various  passages  indicate  the  period 
between  176  and  178.  The  treatise  on  the 
resurrection,  which  contains  nothing  specifically 
Christian,  first  appeared  in  Latin,  Venice,  1408, 
then  in  Greek,  Louvain,  1541.  The  apology, 
together  with  the  treatise,  first  appeared  from 
the  pre.ss  of  H.  Stephanus,  1557.  The  principal 
editions  are  those  by  Dechair,  Oxford,  1700 ; 
Prudentius  Maranus,  Paris,  1742;  and  Otto 
in  Curp.  Apul.,  T.,  VIIL,  Jena,  1857.  There  are 
English  translations  of  the  Treatise  by  Richard 
PoRDER,  London,  1573,  and  of  the  Apology  by 
David  Humphreys,  London,  1714.  The  Du  vraij 
el  par/ail  Aiiiour,  iscrit  en  Grec  par  Athcnayoras, 
trwlnil  par  M.  Fumc'e  Heiyn.  de  GliiUIc,  Paris,  1599, 
is  a  forgery.  A.  HAENACK. 

ATHENS.     See  Greece. 

ATHOS.  Of  the  three  peninsulas  jutting 
out  into  the  .lEgean  from  Chalcis,  the  eastern- 
most ends  in  the  celebrated  promontory  of  Athos. 
The  peninsula  is  connected  with  the  mainland 
only  by  a  narrow  isthnrus,  rises  rather  abruptly 
from  the  sea,  reaches  in  the  marble  peak  of 
Mount  Athos  a  height  of  six  thousand  four  hun- 
dred feet,  and  is  cut  in  every  direction  by  deep 
ravines  and  narrow  defiles,  and  covered  all  over 
with  dense  forest.  Since  Xerxes  dug  the  canal 
through  the  isthmus,  numerous  classical  remem- 
brances gathered  .around  the  place,  and  in  tlie 
Christian  era  it  became  famous  as  the  seat  of 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  monastic  institutions. 
The  origin  of  this  institution,  ascribed  to  the 
Holy  Virgin  herself,  is  wholly  legendary.  Some 
historical  notices  tracing  it  back  to  the  time  of 
Constantine  may  contain  some  truth ;  but  the 
first  reliable  account  w'e  possess  dates  from  the. 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Basilius  Macedo,  who,  by 
a  decree  of  885,  assumed  the  protectorate  over 
\he  hermits  of  the  mountain.  According  to  the 
Golden  Hull,  there  nmst  have  been  monastic  or- 
ganizations settled  in  the  peninsula  in  921;  and 
in  903  the  Abbey  of  Laura,  the  eldest  of  the  now 
existing  monasteries,  was  built  by  tin;  Emperor 
Kicophorus  I'liocas.  Tlie  Ivoron  and  the  Vato- 
piidi  were  built  in  980;  and  the  constitution  issued 
in  1040  by  Constantinus  Monomachas  mentions 
one  hunilred  and  eighty  establishments  with 
seven  hundred  monk.s.  In  Wn:  beginning  of  the 
twelftli  century  Mount  Athos  was  at  its  highest, 
both  lis  a  seat  of  learning  and  .as  a  focus  of  in- 
fluence. Tliat  curious  connection  betwiuin  the 
court    and    the   monastery    which    characterizes 


Byzantine  history  was  fully  established,  and 
the  monks  mixed  in  the  most  singular  man- 
ner w'ith  politics.  But  the  crusades  brought 
stormy  days.  The  place  was  sacked  several 
times  ;  and,  in  spite  of  their  pride  of  orthodoxy, 
the  Greek  monks  had  to  submit  to  the  authority 
of  the  Roman  pope  in  order  to  secure  his  protec- 
tion. Though  treated  with  the  greatest  regard 
by  the  popes,  who  confirmed  all  their  privileges, 
and  spoke  of  them  as  a  celestial  army,  the  monks 
of  !Mount  Athos  seized  the  very  first  opportunity 
(1313)  to  throw  off  their  .allegi.ance  to  the  pope  ; 
and  the  Abbey  of  Amalfitones,  founded  by  the 
Latin  Church,  never  prospered.  B^roni  the  begin- 
ning, however,  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Mount 
Athos  commenced  to  decline;  and  when  the  Turks 
conquered  Constantinople  (in  1453),  the  monks 
threw  themselves  with  singular  subserviency  on 
the  mercy  of  the  Mussulmans,  without  asking  for 
the  aid  of  Western  Europe.  They  succeeded,  how- 
ever, in  maintaining  themselves  in  comparative 
independence  on  their  territory  by  paying  an  an- 
nual tribute  (five  hundred  thousand  piastres,  or, 
according  to  others,  onlj'  seventy  tliousand)  to  the 
sultan.  At  present  there  are  twenty,  or,  accord- 
ing to  another  account,  twentj'-one  monastical 
establishments  on  the  peninsula,  of  which  seven 
are  of  Slavic  and  the  rest  of  Greek  origin.  The 
Laura,  Ivoron,  Vatop.adi,  and  Russico  occupy  the 
first  rank,  both  with  respect  to  size,  splendor, 
riches,  and  celebrity.  The  town  of  Karyiis,  with 
the  Monastery  of  Protaton.  stands  in  the  centre 
of  the  country.  Most  of  the  other  monasteries 
arc  situated  along  the  coast,  and  provided  each 
with  a  small  port,  or  harbor  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  fishing  and  coasting  vessels.  These  ports 
are  generally  fortified,  and  so  are  the  monasteries 
themselves,  being  surrounded  with  high  walls. 
All  the  establishments  are  dedicated  to  the  Holy 
Virgin,  each  referring  to  .some  speci.al  point 
of  her  life.  The  government  is  very  different. 
Some  of  the  monasteries  are  governed  by  abbots 
(lietptmeno.i),  whose  power  is  absolute;  in  others 
all  the  affairs  of  the  establishment  are  settled  .at 
general  meetings  of  the  members.  This  demo- 
cratic form  of  govermnent  seems  to  be  of  very 
old  date  among  the  Athos  monks,  and  is  applied 
to  all  general  affairs  common  to  all  the  establish- 
ments, which  are  settled  by  delegates  from  the 
various  monasteries  meeting  at  Karyiis.  The 
number  of  inhabitants,  of  course,  varies  from 
time  to  time :  at  present  it  comprises  about  six 
thousand  ecclesiastics  and  a  few  laymen.  Not  all 
the  monks,  however,  called  by  the  Greek  name 
c(do(jeri,  "good  old  men,"  live  together  in  the  mon- 
asteries. Some  of  them  inhabit  huts  in  tlie 
neighborhood,  where  they  practise  the  severest 
asceticism ;  others  le.ad  a  complete  hermit-life 
in  cells  in  the  forests;  and  some  are  always 
travelling  about  in  pursuit  of  trade,  in  which 
iictivity  tliey  are  said  to  evince  as  much  zeal  as 
talent.  The  principal  sources  of  income,  how- 
ever, are  the  contributions  from  the  Danubian 
jirincipalities  and  from  Russia:  the  proceeds  of 
the  g.arden  cultivation,  handicraft,  and  trade, 
would  be  insnflicient  to  the  maintenance  of  the 
establisliment.  The  days  when  Mo\nit  Athos 
was  a  seat  of  l(;arning  have  jiassed  by  long  ago. 
Among  the  jircsent  monks,  there  are  a  few  who 
understand  a  little  Old-Greek,  and  know  some- 


ATONEMENT. 


165 


ATONEMENT. 


thing  about  the  traditions  of  the  phice  ;  but  tliat 
is  about  .all.  The  archives  and  libraries  are  in 
complete  disorder. 

Lit.  —  I.  CoMNENUS  :  Descriptin  AJanlis  Al/io, 
etc.,  in  Mon'tfaucon:  PaUvDf/mphin  (incca; 
GKOlUiiUENKS  :  Description  of  I'ri'senl  Stale  of 
Mounl  Allws,  London,  1678;  II.  Curzon  :  Vi.tils 
lo  the  Monaslerifis  of  III n  Levant,  London,  1850; 
Victor  Laxglois  :  /,p  Mont  Al/ios,  I'aris,  1807; 
[A.  .\.  Nkyrat  :  L'Allioa,  nolea  iTun  excursion  ala 
monlniqnc  ile.i  moines,  Paris,  1880.]  G.\SS. 

ATONEMENT.  I.  The  Word.  — 1.  The  ety- 
moloiiy  and  usage  of  the  Enr/lish  word,  (1)  Sup- 
posed to  be  derived  from  -'at-one-ment,"  and  its 
primary  signification,  "reconciliation;"  (2)  At 
present  universally  used  in  the  sense  of  "expia- 
tion," "satisfaction  for  an  offence,"  "propitia- 
tion," "price  of  redemption." 

2.  In  the  authorized  version  the  word  occurs 
only  once  in  the  New  Testament  (Rom.  v.  11), 
and  there  is  the  translation  of  HaraXAayi/,  "  recon- 
ciliation." In  the  Old  Testament  it  occurs  fre- 
quently as  the  translation  of  "'S?,  "  to  cover  with 
sacrificial  blood,"  and  hence  to  "expiate,"  to  "  ap- 
pease." to  "purge  away,"  to  "ransom." 

a.  The  biblical  equivalents  of  the  word.  In 
the  Old  Testament,  "^23  to  make  an  atonement 

(Exod.  XXX.  15,  16).  133  a  ransom  (Exod.  xxx. 
12),  a  satisfaction  (Num.  xxxv.  31,  32).  □■133 
an  atonement  (Exod.  xxx.  10;  Lev.  xxiii.  27). 

In  the  New  Testament,  (1)  As  it  respects  sin 
i'/MCKcaSm,  to  expiate,  to  make  propitiation  for 
(1  John  ii.  2,  iv.  10;  Heb.  ii.  17;  Rom.  iii.  25). 
(2)  As  it  respects  the  sinner,  uynpiilitiv,  to  redeem 
by  blood  (1  Cor.  vi.  20;  Rev.  v.  9);  iiuyopuCav,  to 
redeem  from  the  curse  of  the  law  (Gal.  iii.  13); 
'Avrpovv,  to  release  for  a  ransom,  middle  voice,  to 
ransom  (1  Pet.  i.  18  ;  Heb.  ix.  12),  Christ  saves 
us  by  being  our  lirpov,  or  ransom. 

II.  The  Doctrine.  —  1.  The  Patristic  Doctrine. 
—  The  Fathers,  alike  those  who  immediately  fol- 
lowed the  apostles,  and  those  who  flourished 
before  and  after  the  Council  of  Nice  (A.D.  325), 
adhered  to  the  sacrificial  language  of  the  Old 
Testament  and  to  the  terms  used  by  the  apos- 
tles in  the  New  Testament ;  yet  they  failed  to 
express  their  views  definitely,  or  to  maintain  them 
consistently.  It  is,  however,  certain,  that,  more 
or  less  clearly,  they  always  held  the  doctrine 
of  expiation  and  satisfaction  subsequently  held 
by  the  whole  church  (Polycarpus,  Ail  Pkilipp., 
1.  8.  Clemens  Romanus,  Ail  Corinthios,  7.  32. 
Athanasius,  De  Incarnatione,  c.  VII.  See  Out- 
ram,  Z)/.v.  l,ch.  17);  while  together  with  this,  and 
often  disguising  the  more  biblical  view,  there 
prevailed  from  the  time  of  Origen  (d.  254)  to 
that  of  Anselm  (d.  1109),  and  especially  em- 
phasized by  Irenseus,  and  taught  even  by  Augus- 
tine, a  belief  that  Cliri-st  was  offered  to  Satan 
as  a  ransom  in  the  behalf  of  men,  in  whom  he 
had  acquired  rights  of  conquest.  This  they  de- 
rived from  such  passages  as  Col.  ii.  15  and  Heb. 
ii.  U. 

2.  The  Anselinic  Doctrine.  —  The  view  which 
had  been  implicitly  received  by  the  Fathers  was 
first  scientifically  defined  by  Anselm  (d.  1109), 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in  his  epoch-making 
book.  Cur  Dtus  Homo?  He  taught  that  sin  is 
debt   (guilt) ;    that,    under  the   government  of 


(Jod,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  this  debt 
should  be  paid,  i.e.,  that  the  penalty  incurred 
by  the  guilt  of  sin  should  be  suffered ;  that  this 
necessity  has  its  ground  in  the  infinite  perfections 
of  the  divine  nature  ;  that  this  penalty  must  be 
inflicted  upon  the  sinner  in  person,  unless  a  sub- 
stitute can  be  found  liaving  all  legal  qualifica- 
tions for  his  oflice.  This  was  alone  realized  in 
.lesus  Christ,  a  divine  person  embracing  a  human 
nature.  The  best  of  the  .schoolmen,  such  as 
Bonaventura,  Alexander  Hales,  Albertus  Magnus, 
and  Thomas  Aquinas,  agreed  with  Anselm,  ex- 
cept that,  while  holding  the  moral  necessity  for 
an  atonement,  they  insisted  that  God  possessed 
power  to  forgive  sin  by  mere  will,  as  involved  in 
the  metaphysical  notion  of  omnipotence. 

Abelard  (d.  1142)  resolved  the  moral  perfec- 
tions of  God  into  benevolence  and  the  liberty 
of  indifference.  He  held  that  sin  could  be  abol- 
ished, and  the  sinner  received  into  favor,  by  the 
simple  volition  of  God.  Duns  Scouis  (d.  1308) 
denied  that  sin  is  an  infinite  evil,  or  that  the 
sacrifice  of  Christ  has  an  infinite  value,  and  held 
that  "tantum  valet  omne  creatum  oblatum,  pro 
quanto  acceptat  Deus  illud,  et  non  plus."  Hence 
God  accepted  (acceptilatiu)  by  a  sovereign  act  the 
work  of  Christ  as  a  sufficient  compensation  to 
his  law,  instead  of  the  condign  punishment  of 
sinners. 

The  "Reformers  before  the  Reformation," 
e.g.,  Wycliffe  (d.  1384)  and  John  Wessel  (d. 
1489)  and  the  ancient  Waldenses,  held  the  strict 
Anselmic  doctrine.  This  has  subsequently  been 
adopted  in  the  creeds  of  the  entire  Christian 
Church.  Dec.  Cone.  Trent.,  sess.  6,  ch.  7. 
"  Jesus  Christ,  who  when  we  were  enemies  merit- 
ed justification  for  us  by  his  most  sacred  passion 
on  the  tree,  and  satisfied  God  the  Father  for  us." 
Cat.  Rom.  II.  5,  63  ;  Hase,  "  Libri  Symholici,"  p. 
684  (Form,  of  Concord.);  Heidelbenj  Cat.,  ques. 
60;  Second  Helcetic  Con/.,  ch.  15;  Gallic  Con/., 
art.  IS;  Behjic  Conf.,  art.  22;  Westminster  Conf., 
ch.  8,  §  5 ;  Thirtii-nine  Articles  of  the  Ch.  of  Eng- 
land, Arts.  28  and  31. 

3.  The  Mural  Injiuence  Theory  was  taught  by 
Abelard,  and  has  since,  in  various  forms,  been 
taught  by  Socinus,  and  such  Trinitarians  as 
JNIaurice,  Jowett,  Bushnell,  etc. 

According  to  Abelard,  benevolence  is  the  only 
divine  attribute  concerned  in  human  redemption. 
Christ  died  for  the  twofold  purpose  of  subduing 
the  rebellion,  and  removing  the  guilty  fears  of 
men  by  the  transcendent  exhibition  of  divine  love. 

Socinus  adopted  this  view,  and  emphasized  the 
additional  purpose  of  the  death  of  Christ  as  the 
necessary  prerequisite  to  his  resurrection,  where- 
by he  brought  light  and  immortality  to  light 
(Rac.  Cat.,  p.  265). 

Frederick  Denison  Maurice,  in  his  Theological 
Essays,  London,  1853,  and  elsewhere,  taught  that 
the  sufferings  and  death  of  Christ  were  the  only 
complete  sacrifice  or  self-surrender  of  the  spirit 
and  body  to  God  ever  accomplished,  designed 
"to  illustrate  the  principle  of  self-sacrifice  as 
due  from  all  God's  intelligent  creatures  to  Him 
who  made  them." 

Horace  Bushnell,  in  his  Vicarious  Sacrifice,  N.Y., 
1860,  taught  that  Christ  suffered  with  lis  through 
sympathy  and  fellowship,  the  result  of  which  was 
to  give  him  a  moral  power  over  men,  spiritually 


ATONEMENT. 


166 


ATONEMENT. 


quickening  them,  and  niouUliiig  them  bj-  his  love 
and  example. 

McLeod  Campbell,  in  his  Xuture  of  the  Atone- 
ment, London,  1856,  taught  that  Christ  has  by  his 
sympathy,  at  once  with  lis  and  with  the  righteous 
law  we  have  broken,  so  identified  himself  with  us 
as  sinners,  that  he  has  offered  up  to  God  a  per- 
fect confession  and  adequate  repentance  of  our 
sins.  This  repentance  meets  all  the  demands 
of  law,  which,  according  to  Maurice,  are  re- 
pentance or  punishment.  This  appears  to  oc- 
cupy the  middle  ground  between  the  "  moral " 
and  the  "satisfaction  "  theories. 

4.  The  Governmental  Theory  of  the  Atonement 
was  first  propounded  by  Hugo  Grotius  (d.  1645), 
a  great  lawyer,  iu  his  work  against  the  Socin- 
ians :  Defensio  Fidei  CathollccE  de  Satisfactiime 
Chriati.  He  taught  that  the  law  under  wliich 
man  is  held  is,  including  precept  and  penalty,  a 
positive  product  of  the  divine  will.  The  right  to 
relax  its  demands  at  will  belongs  to  God's  pre- 
rogative as  moral  governor.  But  since  the  gra- 
tuitous remission  of  the  penalty  in  the  case  of 
some  sinners  would  weaken  the  motives  restrain- 
ing from  disobedience  the  subjects  of  the  divine 
government  iu  general,  by  affording  an  example 
of  impunity,  the  benevolence  of  God  requires,  that, 
as  a  precondition  of  the  forgiveness  of  any  sin- 
ners, he  should  furnish  such  an  example  of  suffer- 
ing in  Christ  as  will  exhibit  his  determination 
that  sin  shall  not  escape  with  impunity.  This 
view  has  been  represented  subsequently  by  the 
Supernaturalists  of  the  last  age  in  Germany,  as 
Staudlin,  Flatt,  and  Storr,  and,  in  America,  by 
Jonathan  Edwards,  jun.,  Smalley,  Maxey,  Em- 
mons, Park,  and  others. 

The  Remonstrants,  or  Arminians,  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  in  Holland,  held  substantially  the 
same  ground,  while  they  adhered  more  closely  to 
the  use  of  biblical  language  and  metaphors. 
Limborch,  Apul.  Thes.  3.  21,  6.  "The  death 
of  Christ  is  called  a  sacrifice  for  sin ;  but  sacri- 
fices are  not  payment  of  debts,  nor  are  they  full 
sati-sfactions  for  sins  ;  but  a  gratuitous  remission 
is  granted  when  they  are  ott'ered." 

All  these  various  theories  which  have  been 
propounded  in  the  different  schools  of  Protestant 
tlieologians  have,  in  like  manner,  been  advocat- 
ed in  the  various  schools  of  Catholic  theologians. 
See  O.xenuam:  The  Catholic  Doctrine  of  the 
Atonement,  London,  lS(i!),  3d  ed.   1881. 

5.  The  Mystical  Theory,  which  exists  in  vari- 
ous forms,  may  be  generally  stated  thus:  The 
reconciliation  effected  by  Christ  is  brought  about 
by  the  mysterious  union  of  (iod  and  man,  accom- 
plished by  his  incarnation.  This  was  held  by 
the  Platonizing  Pathers,  by  followers  of  Scotus 
Erigena  during  the  middle  ages,  by  Osiander  and 
Schwenkfeld  at  the  Koformation,  and  the  dis- 
ciples of  .Schleiermaclier  among  modern  (ierraan 
theologians. 

[Lit.  —  Anski.m  :  Cur  Deus  Homo?  finished 
10U8;  modern  editions,  Berlin,  1857,  and  London, 
18(i:i,  translat<!d  in  the  Jilhliotheca  Sacra,  vol. 
XH.,  also  separately,  Oxford,  1805;  Hugo  Gho- 
Tius:  Defensio  Fidei  f'atholicce  de  Satisfactionc 
Chrisli,  Leyden,  1017,  modern  edition,  Oxford, 
18:10;  FuAN(;oi.s  TuiiUKTi.t  (1023-87):  The  Atone- 
ment of  Christ,  translati'il  by  .1.  R.  \V'ilson,  N.Y., 
1859 ;  ■  Joii.N    OwK.N    (1010-83):    The    Death   of 


Death  in  the  Death  of  Christ,  London,  1650  (  Works, 
vol.  9,  Philadelphia,  1865)  ;  Archbishop  William 
Magee  :  Discourses  and  Disputations  on  the  Scrip- 
tural Doctrines  of  Atone7)ient  and  Sacrifce,  London, 
1811,  8th  ed.,  1856,  also  in  his  Works,  London, 
1842,  2  vols.;  William  Symington  :  The  Atone- 
ment and  Intercession  of  Christ,  Edinburgh,  1834  f 

F.  C.  Baur  :  Die  christliche  Lehre  von  dcr  Versbhn- 
untj,  in  ihrer  geschichllichen  Entwickeluiig  von  der 
dltesten  Zeit  bis  auf  die  neusle,  Tubingen,  1838; 
Ralph  Wardlaw  :  Discourses  on  the  Nature  and 
Extent  of  the  Atonement  of  Christ.  Glasgow,  1840; 
Kurtz:  Das  Mosaische  Oj>fer,  Mitau,  1842;  Eng- 
lish translation.  Sacrificial  Worship  tfthe  Old  Testa- 
ment, Edinburgh,  1860;  F.  D.  J1.\uhice:  Theologi- 
cal Essays,  London,  1853,  3d  ed.,  1876;  the  same: 
The  Doctrine  of  Sacrifice :  A  series  of  SermonSy 
London,  1854,  new  ed.,  1879  ;  J.  McLeod  Camp- 
bell :  77(6  JS^atiire  of  the  Atonement,  London, 
1856,  4th  ed.,  1873;  E.  A.  Park:  Discourses  and 
Treatises  upon  the  Atonement  (by  different  writers), 
Boston,  1859 ;  Albert  Barnes  :  The  Atonement 
in  its  Relations  to  Laiv  and  Moral  Government, 
Philadelphia,  1859;  Thomas  W.  Jenkyn  :  The 
Extent  of  the  Atonement,  Boston,  1859  ;  W.  G.  T. 
Shedd:  Discourses  anti  Essays,  \nilover,\^&\;  re- 
vised ed.,  N.Y.,  1879;  Charles  Beecher:  Re- 
deemer and  Redeemed,  Boston,  1864 ;  Horace 
BusiiNELL :  The  Vicarious  Sacrifice,  N.Y.,  1800 ; 
the  same:  Forr/iveness  and  Law,  N.Y. ,  1874,  the 
two  volumes  have  been  issued  together  in  a  new 
edition  under  the  title.  The  Vicarious  Sacrifice, 
N.Y^.,  1870,  2  vols;  John  Y'oung  :  The  Life  and 
Light  o/J/cH,  London, 1866;  Robert  Candlish  : 
The  Atonement,  London,  1867;  A.  A.  Hodge: 
The  Atonement,  Phila.,  1867,  new  edition,  1877; 
George  S.meaton:  The  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement 
as  taught  by  Christ  Himself,  Edinburgh,  1868,  2d 
ed.,  1871;  the  same:  T  lie  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement 
as  taught  by  the  Apostles,  Edinburgh,  1870 ;  Thom.\3 
J.  Crawford:  The  Doctrine  of  Holy  Scripture 
respecting  the  Atonement,  Edinburgh,  1871,  3d  ed., 
1880;  R.  W.  Dale:  The  Atonement,  London  and 
N.Y.,  1870,  8th  ed.,  1881;  Alfred  Cave:  The 
Scriptural  Doctrine  of  Sacrifice,  Edinburgh.  1877; 

G.  W.  Samson  :  The  Atonement,  Philadelphia, 
1878;  John  Miley:  Atonement  in  Christ,  N.Y., 
1879.  —  See  also  the  historical  works,  .\ndrew 
Robertson  :  History  of  the  Atonement  Controversy 
in  the  Secession  Church,  London,  1846;  K.  R. 
nAGENB.\CH:  A  Text-Book  of  the  History  of 
Doctrines,  ed.  by  Professor  H.  B.  Smith,  N.Y., 
1809,  2  vols.;  revised  trans.,  E<linburgh,  1880,  2 
vols. ;  William  CuNNiNciii AM :  Historic<d  Theology, 
Edinburgh,  1870,  2  vols.;  W.  G.  T.  Shedd:  A 
History  of  Cliristian  Doctrine,  N.Y.,  1871,  2  vols.; 
.\liirecht  Ritschl  :  .4  Critical  Hi.^tory  of  the 
Christian  Doctrine  of  Justification  anil  RecnncUia- 
tion,  trans,  from  the  German,  Edinburgh,  1872. 
Also,  for  symbolical  statements  in  respect  of  the 
Atonement,  see  R.  Watson  :  Theological  Insti- 
tutes, N.Y.,  n.  d.,  2  vols.;  Charles  Hodge: 
Systematic  Theology,  N.Y.,  1872,3  vols.;  Philip 
Schafk:  7'he  Creeds  if  Christendom,  N.Y.,  3 
vols.,  vols.  H.  and  HI.]  A.  A.  IIODGK. 

ATONEMENT,  Day  of.  The  directions  for  its 
observiimiy  are  found,  Lev.  xvi.,  xxiii.  26-32; 
Num.  xxix.  7-11.  On  this  day  the  most  impos- 
ing acts  of  tlie  Mosaic  cultus  were  performed; 
for  sacrifices  were  offered  as  au  atonement,  not 


ATONEMENT. 


1G7 


ATONEMENT. 


only  for  the  people,  but  also  for  the  holy  place, 
"because  of  the  uucleanuess  of  the  chililreii  of 
Israel,  and  because  of  their  transgressions  in  all 
their  sins"  (Lev.  xvi.  IfJ).  Even  the  "holy 
place"  was  rendered  unholy  by  its  position  in 
the  midst  of  sinners.  It  is  evident  that  the 
acceptance  of  this  expiation  rested  upon  the  idea 
that  the  people  were  in  covenant  relations  with 
Jehovah ;  and  hence  it  was  not  made  for  flagrant 
crimes,  but  only  for  what  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  are  called  "  errors  "  (ix.  7,  cf.  v.  2). 

The  time  of  this  service  was  the  tenth  day  of  the 
seventh  month  (Tisri,  i.e.,  October).  The  day 
was  significant.  It  was  the  tenth  day,  to  indicate 
the  completeness  of  the  atonement;  it  was  the 
seventh  month,  because  the  month  closed  the  fes- 
tival half  of  the  Mosaic  year,  and  thus  in  a  sense 
formed  its  sabbath  ;  it  was  the  tenth  day  of  Tisri, 
because,  said  the  rabbins,  on  that  day  Adam 
sinned  and  repented,  Abraham  was  circumcised, 
and  Moses  came  down  from  the  mount,  and  made 
atonement  for  the  sin  of  the  golden  calf.  The 
day  thus  set  apart  was  strictly  and  solemnly 
kept ;  on  it,  and  on  it  alone,  was  there  a  fast  en- 
joined ;  all  work  was  forbidden  on  penalty  of 
excommunication ;  it  was  a  sabbath  (Lev.  xvi. 
29-31,  xxiii.  27-29)  ("afflict  your  .souls"  means 
fasting  in  addition  to  repentance  and  humilia- 
tion). 

The  ritual  of  the  day  was  the  following,  as 
detailed  in  Lev.  xvi.  The  high  priest  must  first 
bathe  his  entire  body  (the  ordinary  washing  of 
hands  and  feet  before  sacrificing  would  not  suf- 
fice) ;  and  then  dressed  in  pure  white  linen,  as 
prescribed,  without  his  ornaments,  —  how  can 
man  appear  before  (iod  except  in  simplicity'? 
and  how  more  appropriately  dressed  than  in 
white  linen,  the  symbol  of  holinessV — he  placed 
his  own  bullock  before  the  entrance  of  the 
tabernacle  as  a  sin  offering  for  himself  and  his 
house,  remembering  himself  and  his  first,  be- 
cause he  and  his  must  be  clean  when  he  enters 
the  presence  of  Jehovah.  He  then  took  the  two 
goats  furnished  by  the  congregation,  and  cast  lots 
upon  them,  —  one  lot  for  Jehovah,  and  the  other 
for  Azazel.  [Oehler  considers  it  settled  that 
Azazel  was  the  name  of  a  bad  spirit  living  in 
the  wilderness ;  but  see  art.  Az.\zel  in  this 
cyclopedia.]  The  order  of  the  rites  is,  (1)  The 
sacrifice  by  the  high  priest  of  his  own  bullock 
as  a  sin  offering  for  the  priests ;  (2)  He  takes 
a  censer  full  of  live  coals  from  off  the  altar  of 
burnt  olfering,  and  two  handfuls  of  "sweet  in- 
cense beaten  small,"  and,  according  to  tr.adition, 
without  looking  round,  he  goes  into  the  Holy  of 
holies ;  there  he  puts  the  incense  upon  the  fire, 
and  the  ascending  smoke  is  a  symbol  of  prayer, 
and  hence  a  protection  ;  (3)  Leaving  the  censer 
yet  smoking  (in  post-exilian  times  he  set  it  on 
the  stone  in  tlie  Holy  of  holies :  see  Auk  of  the 
Covenant),  he  goes  out  backwai'ds,  says  tradi- 
tion, and  fetches  the  blood  of  the  slain  bullock, 
which  he  sprinkles  with  his  finger  on  the  east 
side  of  the  mercy-seat,  and  seven  times  upon  the 
floor  in  front  of  it ;  this  completes  the  atone- 
ment for  the  priests ;  (4)  He  now  begins  the 
same  thing  for  the  people.  The  high  priest  kills 
the  goat  of  the  sin  offering,  that  is  for  the  peo- 
ple ;  and  (.5)  Bringing  the  blood  within  the  veil, 
sprinkles  it  as  before.     This  ends  the  expiatory 


rites  in  the  Holy  of  Holies.  Now  come  (6)  simi- 
lar rites  in  the  Tent  of  Meeting,  where  he  sprin- 
kled the  blood  of  the  bullock  and  of  the  goat 
before  the  altar  of  incense,  and  streaked  the  horns 
of  the  altar  (E.xod.  xxx.  10).  Meanwhile  the 
high  priest  was  all  alone  in  tlie  court  of  the  holy 
places,  because  the  presence  of  another  would 
be  a  defilement ;  (7)  The  atonement  for  the 
altar  of  burnt  offerings  was  made  in  similar 
fashion  by  .sprinkling  and  besmearing  with 
blood  ;  (8)  Then  followed  that  singular  cere- 
mony of  sending  the  living  goat  of  the  two  into 
the  wilderness.  We  read,  "  When  he  hath  made 
an  end  of  reconciling  the  holy  place,  and  the 
tabernacle  of  the  congregation,  and  the  altar,  he 
shall  bring  the  live  goat,  and  lay  both  his  hands 
upon  its  head,  and  confess  over  it  all  the  sins  of 
the  people."  The  form  of  confession,  according 
to  the  Mishna,  was  "  O  Lord,  thy  people,  the 
house  of  Israel,  have  transgressed,  they  have 
rebelled,  they  have  sinned  before  thee.  I  be- 
seech thee  now  absolve  their  transgressions,  their 
rebellion,  and  their  sin,  that  they  have  sinned 
against  thee,  as  it  is  written  in  the  law  of  Moses 
thy  servant,  that  on  this  day  he  .shall  make  'an 
atonement  for  you  to  cleanse  yon  from  all  your 
sins,  and  ye  shall  be  clean  '  "  {Yoma  xi.  2).  A 
"fit"  man  appointed,  says  tradition,  the  year 
before,  led  the  goat  away  into  a  district  from 
which  there  was  no  return-path.  But  nothing  is 
said  about  any  injury  inflicted  upon  the  goat. 
It  was  apparently  sufficient  to  prevent  the  goat 
from  returning;  the  idea  being,  that  thus  the 
sins  did  not  i-eturn,  but  God  had  cast  them  be- 
hind his  back.  The  man  who  had  led  the  goat 
could  not  re-enter  the  camp  until  he  had  washed 
his  clothes  and  himself. 

The  high  priest  then  took  off  his  linen  gar- 
ments, washed  himself,  put  on  his  usual  dress, 
came  out  of  the  tent,  offered  his  burnt  offering 
and  the  burnt  offering  of  the  people,  and  burnt 
the  fat  of  the  sin  offering  upon  the  altar.  This 
closed  the  day's  imposing  service.  And  tlie  bul- 
lock and  goat  for  the  sin  offering  were  carried 
forth  and  burnt  entire;  and  he  who  burnt  them 
must  wash  his  clothes  and  himself  ere  he  could 
re-enter  the  camp.  Tradition,  for  and  against 
which  there  is  nothing  decisive,  adds,  that,  after 
the  evening  sacrifice,  the  high  priest  put  on  his 
white  linen  garments,  and  returned  into  the  Holy 
of  Holies  to  fetch  out  the  censer  and  the  bowl. 

The  meaning  of  this  service  is  briefly  this:  the 
atonement  for  the  people,  their  priests,  and  their 
holy  things,  is  accomplished  by  blood,  for  with- 
out its  shedding  there  is  no  remission ;  and  upon 
this  day  especially  was  thij  idea  of  reconciliation 
through  blood  brought  out.  There  was  also  a 
fuller  acknowledgment  of  human  weakness  and 
sinfulness  than  was  made  by  the  ordinary  sacri- 
fices. The  Day  of  Atonement  thus  taught  the 
same  lesson,  only  nmch  more  impressively,  with 
every  sacrifice,  —  man  is  a  sinner,  imperatively 
needs  pardon,  can  ask  for  it,  and  will  get  it  if  he 
rightly  asks  by  shedding  blood.  The  day  also 
looked  forward  to  a  far  greater  day,  when  the 
victim  should  be  no  bullock  nor  he-goat,  but  the 
blameless  Son  of  God,  and  the  altar  of  sacrifice 
should  not  be  of  brass,  but  of  wood,  —  a  cross, 
rude  and  gory;  but  the  sacrifice  itself  would 
atone  for  the  sins  of  the  whole  world. 


ATONEMENT. 


168 


ATTICUS. 


Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  trac- 
tate Ynma.  In  it  are  elaborate  directions  for  the 
day;  and  although  they  are  preliminary,  comple- 
mentary, and  supplementary  to  the  Bible,  they 
yet  arevaluable  as  exhibiting  the  usages  of  the 
second  temple.  One  point  not  at  all  mentioned 
in  the  Pentateuch  is  dwelt  on  at  length, — the 
preparation  of  the  high  priest  for  the  day.  _  He 
must  live  for  the  seven  days  before  the  fast  in  a 
room  of  the  temple,  and  go  through  a  daily  re- 
hearsal of  every  rite  under  the  direction  of  one 
of  the  oldest  of  "the  Sanhedriu,  for  fear  he  should 
introduce  some  Sadducean  innovation.  On  the 
evening  of  the  day  he  took  a  solemn  oath  that 
he  would  not  in  any  wise  depart  from  his  instruc- 
tions. He  was  not  permitted  to  sleep  the  night 
before  the  day,  but  read,  or  was  read  to,  out  of 
the  Scriptures.  In  regard  to  the  day  itself,  there 
are  additional  rites  and  explanations  how  to  per- 
form those  prescribed.  For  instance,  the  high 
priest,  in  his  usual  dress,  offered  the  morning  and 
evening  sacrifices.  In  each  of  the  three  formula 
of  confession  used,  two  over  the  bullock  and  over 
the  goat,  the  sacred  name  was  uttered  three  times; 
and,  as  it  was  used  in  casting  the  lot,  it  was  heard 
ten  times.  Each  time  it  was  spoken,  the  people 
and  priests  prostrated  themselves,  crying  out, 
•'  Blessed  be  his  glorious  name  for  ever !  "  In  the 
second  temple's  Holy  of  Holies  there  was  no 
ark  of  the  covenant ;  and  consequently  the  high 
priest  was  instructed  to  sprinkle  the  blood  once 
upwards,  and  seven  times  downwards.  The 
stretcli  from  Jerusalem  to  the  wilderness  was 
divided  into  ten  sections :  at  each  was  a  hut  in 
which  was  food  and  water  for  the  refreshment 
of  the  man  who  drove  the  goat,  who  was  con- 
ducted from  station  to  station  by  appointed 
guards.  The  distance  was  twelve  Roman  miles. 
The  end  of  the  stretch  was  a  precipice,  over 
which  tlie  goat  was  thrust  backwards,  and  thus 
killed.  Along  the  route,  at  distances,  on  heights, 
watchers  were  placed;  and  thus  the  arrival  of  the 
goat  was  announced  in  Jerusalem.  As  soon  as 
he  kn(?w  it,  the  high  priest  read  Lev.  xvi.  and 
xxiii.  16  sq.,  and  offered  certain  prayers.  Dur- 
ing the  reading,  the  flesh  of  the  offerings  was 
burnt  as  prescribed.  In  order  that  there  might 
be  no  failure  of  the  rites,  a  substitute  to  the 
high  jiriest  was  sworn  in  the  day  before  the  Day 
of  Atonement. 

It  is  characteristic  of  the  mingling  of  super- 
stition and  degenerate  reverence  of  later  times, 
that  after  the  ceremonies  the  high  priest  made  a 
feast  to  his  friends,  who  congratulated  him  on 
getting  through  the  day  alive !  The  maidens,  in 
white,  danced  and  sang  songs  in  the  gardens 
below  Mount  Zion,  and  the  young  men  went 
there  to  select  their  wives.  But  religious  feast- 
ing ha<l  always  closi'<l  the  day. 

Since  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  the  Day  of 
Atonement  ha.s,  of  course,  not  been  observed  with 
imposing  ceremonial ;  but  yet  it  is  kept  up.  In 
place  of  the  sin  olfering,  there  is  the  expiatory 
prayer,  in  which  there  are  many  beautiful  pas- 
sages. A  very  curious  ceremony  is  practised 
among  strict  Jews.  On  the  day  previous  to  the 
Day  of  Atonement,  eacli  man  takes  a  cock,  and 
each  woman  a  hen,  and,  swinging  it  three  times 
about  the  head,  they  each  exclaim,  May  this  cock 
(hen^  be  my  substitute,  my  atonement!    This 


cock  (hen)  shall  go  to  death  that  I  may  go  into 
the  life  of  the  blessed  with  all  Israel.  Amen." 
The  fowls  are  then  killed,  and  given  to  the  poor, 
or  else  kept,  and  their  value  given. 

[Lit.  —  Spencer:  De  Lecjlbus  Hebraorum  Rilu- 
alibus,  lib.  iii.,  Dis.  viii.;  Lightfoot:  Temple  Ser- 
vice, c.  XV.;  Mislina,  ed.  by  Surenhusius,  vol.  ii., 
Yoma.  —  Bahr  ;  Si/mbolik  des  Mosaischen  Cullui, 
Heidelberg,  18:57— '59,  2  vols.,  2d  ed.  of  vol.  i.,  187-1 ; 
EwALD  :  The  Antiquities  of  Israel,  Eng.  tr.  Lond., 
Bost.,  1876,  p.  361  sqq.  For  modern  Jewish  cus- 
toms on  this  day  see  Buxtorf  :  Syna(jo(/a  Judnica, 
cap.  XX. ;  PiCART :  Ceremonies  et  cntilumes  reli- 
(jieuses,  vol.  1,  Amst.,  172B;  Edersiikim  :  Modern 
Jew,  Loud.,  n.d.]       OEHI.ER  (in  first  e.l.  of  Ilerzog;. 

ATRIUM,  in  the  church-architecture  of  the 
earlier  centuries,  denoted  an  open  space  in  front 
of  the  entrance  to  the  church,  surrounded  by 
porticos,  and  provided  with  a  fountain,  or  at  least 
a  large  vessel  containing  water.  Here  the  peni- 
tents who  were  not  allowed  to  enter  the  church 
assembled,  and  begged  the  faithful  to  pray  for 
them. 

ATTERBURY,  Francis,  b.  at  Milton-Keynes, 
Bucks,  England,  March  6,  1662;  d.  in  Paris, 
Feb.  15,  1732;  was  educated  in  Christ  Church 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  took  his  degree  in 
1687.  His  brilliant  success  as  a  controversialist, 
and  his  powerful  eloquence  in  the  pulpit,  soon 
attracted  attention  to  him ;  and  he  was  made  a 
chaplain  to  William  and  Mary  in  1692,  Dean  of 
Carlisle  in  1704,  Dean  of  Christ  Church  in  1712, 
and  Bishop  of  Rochester  in  1713.  ILiving  been 
coldly  received  as  a  Tory  by  George  I.,  he  took 
his  place  in  the  foremost  ranks  of  the  opposi- 
tion, refused  in  1715  to  sign  the  paper  in  which 
the  bishops  declared  their  attacliment  to  the 
House  of  Brunswick,  and  began  in  1717  to  cor- 
respond directly  with  the  Pretender,  and  carried 
on  his  intrigues  so  skilfully  that  his  most  inti- 
mate friends  did  not  suspect  them.  But  in  1722 
his  guilt  was  manifested:  he  was  committed  to 
the  Tower,  and  by  an  act  of  Parliimicnt  banished 
for  life  in  March,  1723,  and  all  British  subjects 
forbidden  to  hold  communication  with  him  ex- 
cept by  the  royal  permission.  He  went  to  the 
Continent,  and  lived  most  of  the  time  in  Paris, 
in  more  or  less  constant  correspondence  with  the 
Pretender,  for  whose  sake  he  had  sutt'ered  so 
much.  He  was  buried  iu  Westminster  Abbey, 
but  no  inscription  marks  the  grave.  He  was  a 
man  of  a  restless  aiul  pugnacious  character,  and 
of  great  surface-talent;  he  had  perfect  taste, 
but  "no  conviction,  great  wit  and  power  of  com- 
bination, but  no  learning.  He  was  always 
wrong;  but  the  mass,  which  is  caught  by  its  pre- 
judices and  dragged  along  by  its  passions,  alw.ays 
<lpclared  him  right.  Confusion  was  the  result 
of  his  work.  Ho  left  four  volumes  of  Sermons, 
London,  1710,  four  volumes  of  Correspondence, 
London,  1783-87,  and  a  number  of  controversial 
pamphlets.  See  Stackiiouse.  Memoirs  of  At- 
lerliuri/,  1727,  and  article  in  Enci/clojxedia  Dri- 
tannii-a,  written  by  Lord  Macaulay. 

ATTICUS,  b.  at  Sebaste,  in  Armenia;  repaired 
early  to  Constantinople;  was  made  a  presbyter; 
partook,  as  one  of  the  leaders,  in  the  conspir.acy 
against  Chrysostom,  and  testified  against  him 
in  the  synod  at  tlie  Oak.  Chrysostom  was 
expelled  June  10,  404.     His   successor,   the  old 


ATTO. 


109 


AUBURN. 


Arsacius,  died  Nov.  5,  405,  and,  after  four  months 
of  intri.Efue,  Atticus,  was  elected  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople  in  Marcli,  lOG,  which  (losition  he 
held  till  Ids  death  (Oct.  10,  120).  F(n-  a  long 
tiini'  he  refused  to  place  tlie  name  of  (.'hrysostom 
on  the  diptychs  of  the  church,  but  at  last  he  was 
friijhtened  into  submission  by  the  public  indig- 
nation. Four  letters  of  his  are  still  extant,  of  ] 
which  one  to  Cyril,  given  by  Nicephorns  (VII. 
2o),  is  very  cliaracteristic. 

ATTO,  or  HATTO,  Hishop  of  Vercelli,  Pied- 
mont, d.  about  900 ;  left  a  number  of  works,  in- 
teresting as  belonging  to  the  darkest  )ieriod  of 
the  history  of  the  Western  Church.  They  are  : 
I.  Slatula  Ecclesi/e  Vfrcellen.iis,  mostly  consisting 
of  extracts  from  older  collections,  but  important 
to  a  correct  miderstanding  of  the  state  of  ecclesi- 
astical affairs  at  that  time.  11.  De  Prexsuri.i 
Ecclesiasltcin,  complaining  that  ecclesiastics  are 
summoned  before  secular  courts ;  that  jirinces 
exercise  influence  on  the  election  of  bishops  ;  that 
the  revenues  of  vacant  episcopal  sees  are  seized 
by  the  State,  etc.  III.  Poh/j>tlcux  (^tvo'avtttvxo;, 
from  its  variegated  contents)  consi-sts  of  an 
enumeration  of  virtues  and  vices.  IV.  A  com- 
mentary to  the  Epistles  of  Paul,  mostly  composed 
of  extracts  from  Jerome  and  other  Fathers.  V. 
Letters  and  sermons.  Some  of  these  works  were 
incorporated  by  D'Archehy  in  his  Spicllerjium, 
T.  VIII.  A  collected  edition  was  given  by 
BuRANTi  DEL  SiGN'OKE,  Vercelli,  1708,  2  vols., 
fol.  In  manuscript  Atto's  works  are  found  in 
the  library  of  the  Vatican  and  in  the  archives  of 
Vercelli. 

ATTRITIO.     See  PE^fANCE. 

AUBERLEN,  Karl  August,  b.  at  Fellbach,near 
Stuttgart,  Nov.  19,  1S24;  d.  at  Basel,  May  2,  1804; 
studied  in  the  Seminary  of  Blaubeuren  (1837-41), 
and  theology  at  the  University  of  Tubingen 
(1841-44);  travelled  in  1840-47  through  Ger- 
many, Belgium,  and  Holland,  and  became  in 
1849  "repetent"  in  theology  at  the  University  of 
Tiibingen,  and  in  1851  professor  of  theology  in 
Basel.  As  a  young  man  he  was  much  attracted 
by  the  Goethe-Hegel  views  of  life,  and  very  en- 
thusiastic for  the  criticism  of  Baur;  but  the  in- 
fluence of  Richard  Ilothe,  who  wrote  the  preface 
to  his  first  book,  afterwards  brouglit  him  in  a 
more  direct  and  intimate  connection  with  bibli- 
cal Christianity,  and  he  finally  settled  down  as  a 
member  of  the  old  Wiirtemberg  circle  of  theolo- 
gians. —  Bengel,  Oetinger,  Uoos,  etc.  lie  pub- 
lished his  first  work.  Die  Tlieosopliie  Oetinr/erf:, 
Tubingen,  1847,  when  he  was  only  twenty-three 
years  of  age.  Then  followed,  Der  Prophet  Dtiniel 
und  (lie  Ojfiiibariuir/  Johanni.t,  Basel,  1854,  trans- 
lated into  English,  "The  Prophecies  of  Daniel 
and  the  Revelation,"  by  Adolph  Saphir,  Edin- 
burgh, 1850  :  it  is  not  a  commentary,  Ijut  a 
sketch  of  the  philosophy  of  history  according  to 
the  Bible,  and  exercised  a  deep  and  wide-spread 
influence.  A  second  or  revised  ed.  of  the  (ier- 
man  appeared  in  1857.  In  1801  he  published  the 
first  volume  of  Die  ijiildiclie  Offenhanm(j.  an  apolo- 
getical  work,  translated  into  English  by  Profes- 
sor Ilackett  in  Bibliolheca  Hacra,  1805.  A  volume 
of  sermons  appeared  in  1845 ;  a  volume  of  lect- 
ures on  the  Christian  faith  in  1801. 

AUBERTIN,  Edme,  b.  at  Chalons-sur-Marne, 
1596;  d.  in  Paris,  April  15,  10.52;  was  appointed 


minister  to  the  reformed  congreg.ation  of  Chartres 
1018,  and  of  Paris  1027,  and  juiblished  L'lCncha- 
ris/ie  lie  Patieii'ime  Jii/liae  (2d  ed.,  Geneva,  1033), 
which  attracted  much  attention,  and  caused  » 
great  deal  of  controversy. 

AUBICNE,  Th6odore-Agrippa  d' f  b.  neai 
Pons,  in  Saintonge,  Feb.  8,  15.52;  d.  in  Geneva, 
.May  9,  1030;  grew  up  under  very  strons;  impres- 
sions of  the  pei-secutioiis  to  which  the  Huguenots 
were  exposed.  His  first  tutor,  .Tean  Cottin,  was 
burnt  at  Rouen  for  heresy ;  his  .second  tutor, 
.Jean  Morel,  had  .a  brother  burnt  for  the  same 
reason.  On  the  scaffold  on  which  several  Protes- 
tants had  been  decapitated,  the  old  D'Aubigno 
n'lade  the  son  swear  that  he  would  hate  Roman- 
ism as  long  as  he  lived,  etc.  When  fifteen  years 
old,  he  entered  a  Huguenot  regiment,  and  fought 
with  great  distinction  in  the  wars  which  ended 
with  accession  to  the  throne  of  Henry  IV. 
After  the  abjuration  of  the  king,  D'Aubigne 
retired  to  his  estates  in  .Saintonge,  and  devoted 
himself  to  literary  work  ;  but,  after  the  death  cf 
Henry  IV.,  his  position  became  more  and  more 
difficult,  and  in  1020  he  was  compelled  to  leave 
the  country,  and  seek  refuge  in  Geneva.  Hia 
two  principal  works  are  :  Les  Ti-af/if/iiex,  an  epic 
poem  in  nine  thousand  verses,  first  published  in 
161G,  entirely  forgotten  during  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, but  recently  republished  in  three  editions, 
—  1857,  1872,  and  1876;  and  L'lIUtmre  Unicer- 
aelle,  treating  in  prose  the  same  subject  as  Les 
Tragupics  does  in  verse;  namely,  the  history  of 
his  time  from  15.50  to  1010.  The  latter  work  has 
had  the  same  fate  as  th.e  former.  Not  mnch  read 
in  the  days  of  its  publication,  and  afterwards 
entirely  overlooked,  it  is  now  reckoned  among 
the  valuable  and  interesting  fruits  of  French  his- 
tory. Cf.  Mi'moires  de  d'Aubii/ne,  preface  par 
LuD.  Lalanne,  Paris,  1854. 

AUBURN  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY.  This 
school  for  the  education  of  candidates  for  the 
ministry  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  is  in  Au- 
burn, N.Y.,  midway  between  Albany  and  Bulfalo, 
and  was  established  by  the  Synod  of  Geneva  in 
the  year  1819,  and  chartered  by  the  Legislature 
of  the  State  the  14th  of  April  of  the  year  follow- 
ing. The  Act  of  Incorporation  contains  the 
proviso  that  "no  student  of  any  Christian  de- 
nomination shall  be  excluded  from  a  participation 
in  the  privileges  of  the  institution  on  the  ground 
of  his  religious  persu.asion."  The  seat  of  the 
seminary  was  fixed  at  Auburn  in  consequence  of 
a  liberal  contribution  by  the  citizens  towards  its 
endowment.  A  finely  situated  piece  of  ground, 
including  some  ten  acres,  was  furuLshed,  which, 
by  the  growth  of  the  city,  has  now  become  quite 
central.  Upon  this  ground  there  was  erected  in 
the  years  1820  and  1821  the  original  seminary 
building,  afterwards  enlarged  at  a  cost  of  about 
forty  thousand  dollars.  It  included  a  chapel  and 
lecture-rooms,  and  dormitories  for  sixty  or  seventy 
students.  It  was,  however,  much  below  the 
standard  of  architectural  beauty  and  conven- 
ience now  desired  in  public  edifices  for  similar 
purposes.  These  defects  were  remedied  by  the 
erection,  in  the  years  1874  and  1875.  of  Morgaf 
Hall,  the  beautiful  and  complete  building  now 
used.  It  is  five  stories  in  height,  two  hundred 
and  sixteen  feet  long  by  forty-five  wide,  faces 
east  and  west,  and  provides  accommodation  foi 


AUBURN. 


170 


AUBURN. 


seventy-six  students,  each  having  a  parlor  and 
bedroom.  The  whole  building  is  heated  by 
steam,  and  supplied  with  gas  and  water.  The 
lower  floor  is  arranged  for  a  refectory,  at  which 
the  students  board  in  commons,  making  arrange- 
ments for  themselves,  by  association  in  a  club. 
The  cost  of  this  hall  was  about  a  hundred  thou- 
sand dollars,  of  which  three-fourths  was  the 
donation  of  Col.  Edwin  B.  Morgan  of  Aurora. 
Col.  Morgan  also  furnished  one  half  the  cost  of 
the  Dodge  and  Morgan  Liuuary  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  seminary  quadrangle ;  the  other 
half  having  been  previously  offered  by  the  Hon. 
William  E.  Dodge  of  New  York  city.  The 
entire  cost  of  this  building,  which  is  one  of  the 
finest  for  its  purpose  in  the  country,  and  is  shelved 
for  sixty  thousand  volumes,  was  forty  thousand 
dollars. 

^ludeitts.  —  The  first  class  of  students  was 
graduated  from  the  seminary  in  1824.  The 
total  of  graduates  down  to  the  present  time 
(1880)  is  about  eleven  hundred.  The  students 
engage  in  evangelistic  labors  during  their  course 
of  study,  so  far  as  possible;  w'hile  the  cultivation 
of  their  own  religious  life  is  carefully  provided 
for  by  weekly  meetings  for  prayer  and  exhorta- 
tion, both  in  common  and  by  the  separate  classes. 
AVorship  is  conducted  every  evening  in  the  chapel, 
and  every  lecture  or  recitation  is  opened  with 
prayer.  The  classes  in  the  seminary  are  senior, 
middle,  and  junior;  and  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion extends  over  three  years. 

Gorernment  of  the  Seminary.  —  The  Auburn 
Theological  Seminary  is  regarded  as  the  prop- 
erty of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  Its  financial 
administration  is  vested  in  a  body  of  trustees, 
who  hold  the  real  and  personal  estate  under  the 
provisions  of  the  charter.  These  trustees  are 
elected  by  the  "commissioners,"  wlio  compose 
the  co-ordinate  body  administering  the  affairs  of 
the  seminary.  This  chamber  consists  of  a  repre- 
sentation of  two  clergymen  and  one  layman  from 
each  of  the  presbyteries  constituting  the  synods 
of  Albany,  Central  New  York,  Geneva,  and 
Western  New  York.  These  presbyteries  are  at 
present  nineteen  in  number;  and  the  board  of 
commissioners  therefore  consists  of  fifty-seven 
members.  The  commissioners  apjioint  the  pro- 
fessors, and,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  trustees, 
make  all  necessary  appropriations  of  funds. 
Each  commissioner  holds  office  for  three  years  ; 
one  going  out,  and  the  presbytery  sujiplying  his 
place  by  a  new  election,  each  year.  A  body  of 
"examiners,"  coni|)osed  of  the  senior  commis- 
sioners of  each  presbytery,  attend  at  the  annual 
examination  of  the;  classes  at  the  end  of  the 
seminary  year  in  May. 

Dr/iarliiienls.  — •  The  board  of  instruction  in 
the  seminary  at  jiresent  consists  of  five  profess- 
ors in  the  several  departments  of  Christian 
theology,  church  history  and  government,  biblical 
criticism,  study  of  the  Hebrew  language  and 
literature,  and  the  chair  of  sacred  rhetoric  and 
pastoral  tlieology.  Each  jirofessor,  on  his  in- 
auguration, delivers  an  address,  and  subscribes 
the  following  pli'dgi; :  "  In  j>re.sence  of  the  omni- 
scient and  heart-searching  (jod  I  do  solemnly  and 
sincerely  affirm  and  declare  that  I  believe  the 
ijcriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  to 
be  the  word  of  God,  and  the  only  infallible  rule 


of  faith  and  practice  ;  that  I  do  receive  and  adopt 
the  confession  of  faith  and  the  catechisms  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States  of 
America  as  containing  the  system  of  doctrines 
taught  in  the  Holy  Scriptures;  that  I  do  approve 
of  the  government  and  discipline  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  as  prescribed  in  the  '  form  of  gov- 
ernment '  and  '  discipline  '  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  these  United  States ;  and  I  do  sol- 
emnly promise  to  maintain  with  zeal  and  fidelity 
the  truths  of  the  gospel,  and  to  be  diligent  and 
faithful  in  all  such  duties  as  may  devolve  upon 
me  as  a  professor  in  this  seminary,  according  to 
the  best  of  my  abilities."  This  pledge  indicates 
unmistakably  tliat  the  founders  of  this  institu- 
tion were  heartily  and  unreservedly  Calvinistic 
in  doctrine,  and  Presbyterian  in  their  views  of 
the  church.  The  first  corps  of  professors  was 
drawn  fi'oni  New  Jersey,  and  consisted  ot  divines 
warmly  in  sympathy  with  the  seminary  at  Prince- 
ton. Their  successors  ever  since  have  belonged 
to  the  school  of  the  most  thoroughly  developed 
evangelical  theology.  No  leaven  of  Pelagianisra 
or  Arminianism  has  ever  found  its  way  into  this 
school. 

This  statement  is  rendered  necessary  by  the 
misconception,  somewhat  prevalent  at  one  time, 
that  Auburn  Seminary  w'as  founded  in  the  inter- 
est of  a  loose  subscription  to  the  confession  of 
faith,  and  was  designed  to  be  the  organ  of  what 
was  known  as  the  '-New-School "  type  of  doctrine. 
Nothing  can  be  a  more  em]ihatic  disproof  of  this 
idea  than  the  contents  of  the  famous  "  Aunuux 
DeCLAKATIon."  SAMUEL  MILES  HOPKINS. 

AUBURN  DECLARATION.  The  "Exscinding 
Acts,"  so  called,  by  which  the  churches  within  the 
bounds  of  the  synods  of  Utica,  Geneva,  and  Gene- 
see, and  the  AVestern  Reserve,  were  declared  to  be 
"  neither  in  form  nor  in  fact  a  part  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Cliurch,"  were  passed  by  the  General 
Assembly  in  May  of  the  year  1S;!7.  On  the  17th 
of  August  following,  a  convention  of  representa- 
tives from  all  the  presbj'teries  in  these  synods 
assembled  in  Auburn  to  justify  themselves 
against  the  charges  of  unsoundness  in  the  faith, 
and  set  forth  the  views  in  theology  they  actually 
held.  It  consisted  of  about  two  hun<lred  leading 
divine.s,  and  a  nund)erof  distinguished  laynien. 
Of  this  convention,  the  Kev.  Dr.  .James  Kicliards, 
professor  of  theology  in  Auburn  Seminary,  was, 
with  eminent  fitness,  made  president.  As  the 
basis  for  the  "Exscinding  Acts,"  a  paper  had  been 
presented  to  the  General  Assembly  containing  a 
list  of  sixteen  heresies  alleged  to  be  held  by  the 
"  New-School  "  churches.  The  first  of  them  was 
this,  "that  (iod  wouUl  have  been  glad  to  prevent 
the  existence  of  ."iin  in  our  world,  but  was  not 
able  without  destroying  the  moral  agency  of 
man ;  or  that,  for  aught  that  appears  in  the 
liible,  sin  is  incidental  to  any  wise,  moral  sys- 
tem." The  divines  of  tho  Auburn  Convention 
disavowed  for  themselves  and  their  churches  the 
"  heresy"  cliarged,  and  replied  as  follows:  "We 
believe  that  (iod  )>frniitted  the  introduction  of  sin, 
not  because  he  was  unable  to  prevent  it  consist- 
ently with  the  moral  freedom  of  his  creatures, 
but  for  wise  and  benevolent  n^asons  which  he 
has  not  revealed."  In  replying  to  the  other 
charges  of  heresy,  the  Auburn  Convention  pro- 
nounced fully  in  the  sense  of   tho  We»tmiu8ter 


AUDIANS. 


171 


AUGSBURG. 


Symbols.  With  a  perhaps  unconscious  Supra- 
lapsariauism,  they  put  the  doctrine  of  election 
first  in  order,  and  ranged  all  the  other  facts  in 
the  process  of  redemption  after  it:  so  the  arrange- 
ment suggests  that  it  was  the  primary  purpose  of 
God  to  save  a  definite  numl>er  of  men  out  of  a 
race  to  be  thereafter  created ;  that  in  pursuance 
of  this  purpose  man  was  formed,  the  fall  decreed, 
and  an  atonement  provided  sufficient  to  meet  the 
case  of  that  predestined  number,  and  no  otliers. 
No  affirmation  of  the  universality  of  the  atone- 
ment is  found  among  these  sixteen  propositions. 
Original  sin,  total  depravity,  vicarious  atone- 
ment, Christ's  intercession  for  the  elect  previous 
to  their  conversion,  absolute  dependence  upon 
iri'esistible  divine  grace  for  the  renewal  of  the 
heart,  instantaneous  regeneration,  etc.,  all  these 
dogmas  are  emphatically  affirmed.  "  All  who  are 
saved  are  indebted  from  first  to  last  to  the  grace 
and  Spirit  of  God."  "  The  reason  why  God  does 
not  save  all  "  (the  thirteenth  proposition  affirms) 
"  is  not  that  he  wants  the  power  to  do  it,  but  that 
in  his  wisdom  he  does  not  see  fit  to  exert  that 
power  further  than  he  actually  does."  In  short, 
the  Auburn  Declaration,  contrary  to  the  popular 
belief  on  the  subject,  rises  well  up  to  the  highest- 
water  mark  of  the  Calvinistic  theology. 

This  declaration,  it  is  true,  has  no  symbolical 
force  in  AVestern  New  York  or  any  other  part  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church.  No  one  is  required  to 
subscribe  it  as  a  test  of  his  soundness  in  the 
faith  ;  but  at  the  same  time,  having  been  adopted 
under  circumstances  so  peculiar,  and  at  so  critical 
a  time  in  the  history  of  these  churches,  it  had  the 
effect  of  pledging  them  irreversibly  to  a  loyal 
adherence  to  the  Westminster  Confession.  It 
consolidated  the  exscinded  portion  of  the  church, 
invigorated  its  Presbyterianism,  made  it  jealous 
of  any  deviation  from  doctrinal  purity,  and 
jilaced  it  in  a  position  to  challenge  before  the 
highest  courts  of  the  country  any  impeachment 
of  its  ecclesiastical  standing.  From  that  time 
there  has  been  no  part  of  tlie  church  purer  in 
doctrine,  or  stricter  in  government  and  disci- 
pline, than  that  which  in  1837  was  abruptly  re- 
jected as  being  neither  in  form  nor  in  fact  a  part 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  See  the  full  text  in 
Philip  Schaff  :  Creeds  of  Christeiu/om,  Vol.  III., 
p.  777  sqq.  S.\MUEL  MILES  HOPKINS. 

AUDIANS,  or  ANTHROPOMORPHITES,  a 
Christian  sect  founded  by  Audius  of  Mesopo- 
tamia in  the  fourth  century.  He  appeared  first 
as  a  moral  reformer,  and  attacked  the  clergy  in 
his  sermons.  Having  thus  awakened  their  hos- 
tility, lie  finally  left  the  church,  with  his  adher- 
ents, and  had  himself  (illegitimately)  consecrated 
bishop.  He  was  then  banished  to  Scythia,  but 
•continued  to  labor  there  for  Christianity,  accord- 
ing to  his  conceptions,  to  his  death,  in  372. 
The  heresy  of  his  views  consisted  in  anthropo- 
morphism, which  he  supported  by  quotations 
from  the  Old  Testament,  especially  Gen.  i.  26. 
The  sect  disappeared  in  the  fifth  century.  Dif- 
ferent from  this  sect  were  the  Egyptian  monks, 
who  opposed  Origen ;  though  they,  too,  held  an- 
thropomorphic views. 

AUDIENTIA  EPISCOPALIS  is  the  term  of  the 
..fustinian  code  for  a  peculiar  arbitrative,  and  for 
a  time,  in  the  fullest  sense,  even  a  judicial  right 
given  to   bishops  in  ciL'tl,  not   criminal    aftairs, 


from  the  time  of  the  apostles  to  the  middle  ages. 
The  instructions  of  Paul  (1  Cor.  vi.  1  sq.)  and 
of  Chri-st  (Matt,  xviii.  15-lS)  naturally  led  the 
early  church,  in  its  constitutional  develojmient, 
to  take  cases  before  presbyters,  and.  later,  bish- 
ops, for  arbitration,  instead  of  into  the  courts, 
liy  Justin's  time  this  had  become  a  custom 
(cf.  Junth,  Tte  orii/iiiihux  el  pror/ressu  e/iixcopalis 
jwlicii  in  caiisis  ricitilius  laicorum  UKque  ml  Jitstini- 
ainim.  Berolin.,  1832,  p.  128)  ;  and  .so  when, 
under  Constantine,  the  State  recognized  the 
Church,  two  regulations  were  issued  on  this 
matter.  The  first  (in  321)  allowed  the  parties  at 
any  stage  of  the  proceedings  to  transfer  the  case 
to  the  decision  of  the  bishop  (XVff.  Const,  ijuas 
Jac.  Sismonilus  —  divuli/tinil,  ed.  Iliinel.  Bonn, 
1844).  The  second  (iii'331)  ordered  that  not  only 
should  the  episcopal  sentence  be  obeyed  by  all 
temporal  magistrates,  and  be  considered  conclu- 
sive, but  that  also  eilher  party  could  bring  the  case 
before  the  spiritual  authority.  The  latter  ex- 
traordinary privilege  Arca<lius  and  llonorins  in 
308  abolished,  and  reduced  the  court  to  ordinary 
limits  again;  and  in  this  form,  confirmed  by 
Valentinian  III.  (4.52),  it  has  passed  into  the 
Justinian  Code,  and  in  the  Orient,  at  a  later  day, 
came  into  greater  prominence  and  authority.  In 
the  West,  long  before  Constantine,  the  Aurlientia 
Episcijpalis  was  familiar,  even  to  the  heretical 
though  Christian  barbarians.  See  Dove  :  De 
jiirisdiclicniisecclesiaslica'  upud  Germanos  Gallosque 
profp'es.iii.     Berolin.  1855. 

AUDIN,  Vincent,  b.  at  Lyons  1793;  d.  in  Paris, 
Feb.  21,  1851 ;  studied  first  theology  in  the  sem- 
inary of  Argentifere.  afterwards  law,  but  devoted 
himself  finally  to  literature,  and  wrote :  Histoire 
de  la  Sainl-Barlkelemi/,  182(j ;  Histoire  de  Luther, 
1839,  3  vols.;  Histoire  de  Caloin,  2  vols.,  1841; 
Histoire  de  Henri  VIII. ,  1847;  and  Histoire  de 
Leon  A'.,  1851. 

AUGER,  Edmond,  b.  in  La  Brie,  France,  15.30; 
d.  on  a  voyage  to  Home,  1591  ;  entered  the  Soci- 
ety of  Jesu  in  1562  ;  became  confessor  to  Henry 
HI.  in  1575,  and  wrote  the  celebrated  Catechisme 
Franaiis.  See  his  Life  by  Bailly,  Paris,  1652, 
and  by  Dorigny,  Lyons,  1716,  reprinted  Avignon, 
1828. 

AUGSBURG,  Confession  of.  Jan.  21,  1.530, 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.  issued  letters  from  Bo- 
logna, inviting  the  German  diet  to  meet  in  .Augs- 
burg April  8.  for  the  purpose  of  discussing  and 
deciding  various  important  questions,  —  the  war 
with  the  Turks,  the  religious  dissensions,  etc. 
As  soon  as  the  letter,  which  was  written  in  very 
moderate  and  conciliatory  terms,  came  to  hand 
(March  11),  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  the  head  of 
the  Protestant  party,  on  the  advice  of  his  chan- 
cellor. Dr.  Briick,  summoned  the  principal  Protes- 
tant theologians  —  Luther,  Melanchthon,  Jonas, 
etc.  —to  meet  him  at  Torgau,  and  charged  them 
with  the  preparation  of  a  statement  of  the  Prot- 
estant faith,  to  be  laid  before  the  emperor  at 
the  diet.  Melanchthon  drew  up  the  document 
on  the  basis  of  earlier  labors  of  a  similar  kind 
by  Luther,  and  it  received  the  unconditional 
assent  of  the  latter.  It  was  then  signed,  not 
only  by  the  Elector  of  Saxony,  but  also  by  the 
Margrave  of  Brandenburg,  the  Duke  of  Liine- 
burg,  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  the  Prince  of 
Anhalt,  and  the"  magistrates  of  Nuremberg  and 


AUGSBURG. 


172 


AUGUSTINE. 


Reutlin^en,  and  it  was  agreed  to  lay  it  before 
the  diet  as  the  common  confession  of  the 
Protestant  party.  The  emperor  first  demanded 
that  the  document  should  be  presented  to  him 
in  an  informal  way;  but  the  princes  declared  that 
they  would  not  part  with  it  without  havinar  it 
reaS  aloud  in  the  diet.  Xext  the  emperor  called 
the  session  in  which  the  solemnity  should  take 
place,  not  in  the  larg-e  town-hall  in  which  the  diet 
used  to  meet,  but  in  the  small  chapel  of  the 
archiepiscopal  palace,  to  exclude  the  public  as 
far  as  po.ssible.  Finally  he  asked  to  have  it 
read  in  Latin  :  but  the  elector  answered.  "  We 
are  here  on  German  ground;"  and  June  2.5,  in 
the  afternoon,  it  was  read  aloud  to  the  diet  by 
Dr.  Bayer,  in  German,  and  so  slowly  and  dis- 
tinctly that  people  who  had  crowded  together 
heard  every  word.  The  impression  was  very  deep, 
even  on  the  Romanists.  The  original  copies  of 
the  Confession  in  Latin  and  German  are  lost. 

The  emperor  now  ordered  the  Roman  theolo- 
gians present  —  Eck,  Wimpina,  Cochla^ns,  etc.  — 
to  prepare  a  '•  confutation  ;  "  but  the  first  draught 
he  rejected  as  utterly  ineffective,  and  the  answer 
to  the  Confession  of  the  Protestants  was  not  read 
in  the  diet  initil  Sept.  3.  A  majority  imme- 
diately declared  that  the  Protestants  had  been 
completely  confuted,  and  they  were  commanded 
to  conform  to  the  Rom.an  views,  which,  of  course, 
they  declined  to  do.  IMeanwhile  Melanchthon 
prepared  the  "  .\pology  of  the  Confession,"  (see 
below)  which  Dr.  liriick  presented  to  the  em- 
peror Sept.  22,  but  which  the  emperor  refused  to 
receive.  Itwas  then  printed  and  published,  both 
in  Latin  and  German,  as  was  also  the  Confe.'ision. 
It  must  be  noticed,  however,  that  the  Confession 
was  not  immediately  established  among  the 
Lutherans  as  a  symbolical  book.  On  the  con- 
trary, Melanchthon  continued  to  make  changes 
in  it,  and  thus  arose  an  edilii)  rnn'iita  and  an  cilitin 
inrariald.  .•\t  the  disputation  of  Worms  (1541) 
Eck  called  attention  to  this  fact,  and  in  1561 
Flacius  denounced  the  edilin  vnriuia  as  altogether 
too  favorable  to  the  Calvinistic  views.  It  is  the 
eilkio  incariiita  which  was  taken  as  basis  for 
the  Formula  Concitnliii',  and  wliich  has  become 
the  chief  symbolical  book  of  the  Lutheran 
Church. 

Lit.  —  G.  Pmtt  :  Kinli'ilurxj  in  tlie  Ani/uxlana, 
Erlangen,  lS(i7 :  Die  Apoloi/ie  der  Ata/uslana, 
Erlangen,  1873:  II.  Ri.nn  :  Die  aiK/Mnirrji.iclie 
Confcssini),  mil  Eihleilnng  n.  Anmt'rkunf/en,  Giiter- 
sloh.  1870.  [Kli.\UTH  :  'J'/ie  Conxerralire  licfoniia- 
tiiiii,  Phil..  1872  :  S(-hakk  :  Creeds  nf  ('hristenddiu, 
I.,  225  St). |..  and  HI.  :!,  si|(i.]  '     (i.   ri.riT. 

AUGSBURG  CONFESSION,  Apology  of  the, 
prepared  by  iMcliuiclitliuu  at  the  instanci;  of  the 
Lutlierans  as  a  refutation  of  the  Roman  confu- 
tation of  the  Augslmrg  Confession,  read  in  tlie 
diet.  Sept.  3.  1530.  The  A/mlni/i/  was  presented 
to  the  diet,  although  not  signed  by  the  Lutheran 
princes,  tlirough  Chancellor  Mriick.  Sept.  22,  but 
refused.  On  the  23(1  Melanchthon  left  Augsburg, 
re-wrote  the  docnnu'nt  on  his  journey,  and  fin- 
ished and  ]publlslied  it,  together  with  a  very  free 
German  translation  by  Justu.s  .Tonas,  assi.sted  by 
.Mi'lanchthon,  at  Wittenberg,  April,  1531.  The 
original  ilraught  lia.s  no  autliority ;  but  the  Latin 
text  constitutes  a  synibolical  book  of  the  L\i- 
theran  Church.      It  i.s  s^vi  ii  limi-s  as  large  as  the 


Confession,  and  greatly  superior  to  it  in  point  of 
style  and  learning.  It  greatly  strengthened  the 
confidence  of  .scholars  in  Protestantism.  Its 
chief  value  to-day  is  as  an  authoritative  commen- 
tary upon  the  .Augsburg  Confession.  The  books 
mentioned  aliove  all  contain  an  account  of  it. 

AUGSBURG,  Interim  of.  After  the  Sm.alkal- 
dian  war.  Charles  V.  once  more  thought  of  re- 
establishing religious  unity  in  Germany;  and  at 
the  diet  of  .\ugsburg  (1547)  it  w.is  agreed  that  a 
provisional  arrangement  should  be  made  until 
the  Council  of  Trent  had  completed  its  work. 
The  plan  to  this  provisional  arrangement,  the- 
Interim,  was  prepared  by  Pflug,  Bishop  of  Naum- 
burg.  Michel  Helding.  and  .-Xgricola,  but  was 
rejected,  both  by  the  pope  and  by  the  Protestant 
princes.  Nevertheless,  after  being  revised  and 
altered  by  some  Spanish  monks,  it  became  a  law 
of  the  empire  (Jlay  15,  1548),  and  was  intro- 
duced by  force  of  arms.  Of  the  Protestant 
princes,  oidy  Joachim  of  Brandeidnirg  and  Lud- 
wig  of  the  Palatinate  accepted  it:  the  others  met 
it  with  energetic  o])position. 

AUGSBURG,  The  Peace  of,  was  concluded 
.Sept.  2.5,  1555.  and  settled  the  religio\is  question 
of  Germ.any.  The  principle  of  this  arrangement 
w.as  the  famous  maxim,  Cn/ns-  ref/io,  /ni/'us  re- 
lif/io:  that  is,  the  sovereign  had  the  choice  be- 
tween the  Augsburg  Confession  and  the  Roman 
Church;  and  as  he  chose,  all  his  subjects  had  to 
choose.  There  was  no  freedom  of  conscience, 
but  a  kind  of  freedom  of  territory.  People  were 
allowed  to  move  from  one  state  in  which  their 
religion  was  not  the  religion  of  the  sovereign  to 
another  in  which  it  was.  Though  this  arrange- 
ment was  a  most  miserable  compromise,  it  was, 
nevertheless,  a  great  defeat  of  the  policy  of 
Charles  v.,  who  had  labored  all  his  life  to  restore 
the  religious  unity  of  the  empire ;  and  he  was- 
not  present  in  person  at  the  negotiations,  but  luid 
transferred  all  his  powers  to  his  brother.  King 
Ferdinand. 

AUGUST!,  Johann  Christian  Wilhelm,  b.  at 
Eschcnberga,  in  the  Duchj'  of  .Saxe-Coburg, 
Oot.  27,  1772;  d.  at  Coblenz.  April  28,  1841; 
studied  theology  at  Jen.a.  and  became  profes.sor 
in  Oriental  literature  there  in  1803,  professor  of 
theology  in  Breslau  1812.  in  Bonn  1819,  and 
director  of  the  Consistory  of  Coblenz  in  1828. 
He  was  a  very  active  man  anil  a  very  prolific 
writer.  Among  his  works  are,  Denk'iriirdi(jl:eileii 
(lux  tier  chrisdicheii  Arclia-olof/ie,  12  vols..  Leipzig,. 
1817-31;  Lehrlnich  d.  c/irisd.  Diii/menfieschichle, 
Leipzig,  1825;  Einleiliitif/  in  d.  all.  '/'e.'<lamenl, 
Leipzig,  1827.  The  most  gener.ally  u.sed  of  his 
works  is  llandhuch  der  clirlxlliclien  Arrhuolnr/ie, 
Leipzig,  183()-30,  3  vols.  He  also  assi.sted  I)e 
Wette  in  translating  the  Bible  into  (Jerm.ui 
(1809-11). 

AUGUSTINE,  St.,  I'.ishnp  of  Hippo.  .See 
ArcfsriNTs. 

AUGUSTINE,  or  AUSTIN,  St.,  the  first  Arch- 
bishop of  Canti'rbury;  nothing  is  known  of  liis 
early  life.  In  5il(;,  when  he  was  the  abbot  of  tlie 
niona.stery  of  St.  .Andrew  .at  Rome,  (Jregory  the 
Great  (.5i"H)-()04),  who  for  many  years  had  taken 
deep  interest  in  the  English,  sent  him  at  tlie 
head  of  forty  of  his  monk.s  to  England  to  con- 
vert the  .\iiglo-S.ixons.  They  metso  maityobsta- 
cles  on  their  wav  to  the  coast,  that  tliev  relumed,. 


AUGUSTINE. 


173 


AUGUSTINIAN. 


and  asked  to  Ue  pxcused.  But  rjresjory  sent  them 
as.iin;  and  at  last  tliey  landed  at  Ebbe's  Fleet,  on 
the  Tsl(!  of  Tlianet.  Kthelbcrt,  the  Saxon  king, 
had  married  a  Christian.  licrtha.  a  daughter  of 
Cliaribert,  King  x>i  I'aris,  twenty  years  before; 
and  thus  the  way  was  (irovidentially  oi)ened. 
Kthelbert  was  baptized  (597),  and  his  tribe  was 
Christianized.  -Augustine  went  to  Aries,  whose 
metropolitan  consecrated  him  the  first  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  A  deputation  he  sent  to 
tell  Gregory  the  good  news  returned  laden  with 
presents,  and  bearing  the  pallinm.  which  made 
Augustine  independent  of  the  bishops  of  France. 
Gregory's  dream  of  converting  the  entire  island 
•to  the  Roman  Church  was  not  realized.  The 
British  bishops  of  Cornwall  and  Wales  refused 
to  obey  the  Roman  bishop.  But,  though  unsuc- 
cessful in  a  measure,  much  had  been  accom- 
plished when,  May  21!,  GOl,  Augustine  died.  He 
was  afterwards  canoni/.ed  on  the  ground  of  a 
reputed  miracle,  —  curing  a  Saxon  of  his  blind- 
ness. 

Lit.  —  Letters  of  Pope  Gregory  L,  in  Migne's 
■edition  of  Gregory's  Opera,  Vol.  III.;  also  in 
Hadi>.\n  and  Stubus:  Councils,  etc..  Vol.  III.,  5 
sqq. ;  Mont.xle.muk.rt  :  Monk-x  of  tlie  West,  Vol. 
III.,  Bk.  10,  chaps.  1  and  2;  Dean  Hook:  Arch- 
iishops  of  Canterburi/,  Vol.  I.  ;  Dean  Stanley  : 
Memorials  of  Caiiterliunj,  6t\j  ed.,  1872. 

AUCUStlNE,  Sister  (Amalie  won  Lasaulx),  b. 
at  Coblenz,  Oct.  19,  181-5  ;  d.  in  the  Hospital  of 
Vallendar,  Jan.  28,  1872;  entered  the  mother- 
house  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  at  Nancy  in  1838, 
but  felt  herself  drawn  towards  an  active  life  of 
charity,  mercy,  and  self-sacrifice,  rather  than 
towards  the  monotonous  devotion  of  the  monas- 
tery, and  labored  from  1812  to  1819  in  tlie  hos- 
pital of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  from  1819  to  1871  as 
superioress  of  the  Hospital  of  .St.  John  at  Bonn. 
In  the  Scldeswig-IIolstein  and  Austro-Pi'ussian 
wars  of  1861  and  1806  she  distinguished  herself 
by  her  great  talent  of  organization  ;  and  her 
strong  personality  and  sound  judgment,  no  less 
than  her  deep  and  genuine  piety,  brought  her  in 
connection  with  many  prominent  men.  But  she 
was  unable  to  accept  the  new  dogmas  of  the 
"Immaculate  Conception"  and  the  "Infallibility 
of  the  Pope;"  and  her  chureli,  which  considers 
absolute  submission  to  its  doctrinal  decisions  as 
essential,  called  her  a  heretic.  In  1871  she  was 
deposed,  and  transferred  to  V^allendar;  and,  when 
she  died,  the  usual  burial-rites  were  denied  to  her 
remains.  See  Erionerunijen  an  Amalie  von  La- 
saulx, Gotha,  1878;  Eng.  trans.  Sister  Aur/ustine. 
London,  1880,  New  York,  1881.  11.  Lecoultre: 
Amc'lie  de  Lasaiil.r,VaTis,  1879,  English  transla- 
tion, London,  18S0. 

AUGUSTINIAN  MONKS  AND  NUNS.  After 
receiving  baiitism,  Augustine  and  some  friends 
of  his  retired  to  the  neighborhood  of  Tagaste  for 
the  purpose  of  leading  a  purely  spiritual  life. 
Evodius,  Alypius,  and  Severus  came  with  him 
from  Italy ;  they  were  joined  by  Profuturus, 
Fortunatus,  Possidius,  Urbanus,  Bonifacius,  and 
Peregrinus.  The  community  was  formed  in  388; 
and  the  rich  donations  of  Bishop  Valerius  of 
Hippo,  and,  still  more,  the  accession  of  Augus- 
tine to  t!ie  episcopal  chair,  .soon  made  it  very 
flourishing.  In  the  beginning,  the  Gospels  served 
as   the  only  rule.     The   one   hundred  and  .ninth 


and  two  hundred  and  eleventh  Epistles  of  Augus- 
tine (Bened.  edit.),  dating  from  the  year  423, 
give  oidy  the  rides  for  the  nuns  of  Hijipo. 
When  and  wliere  the  so-called  rules  of  Augus- 
tine originated  is  uncertain;  hint  thi^y  belcjiig,  at 
any  rate,  not  to  him.  Similar  communities  were 
often  formed  in  Italy,  such  as  the  John-Bonites, 
the  Hernuts  of  Tuscany,  the  Brittinians,  etc., 
of  which  ('Specially  thi;  last-mentioned  distin- 
guished themselves  by  a  high  degree  of  austerity. 
These  com?nnnities  were  united  by  Innocent  IV., 
who,  by  a  bull  of  Jan.  17,  1244,  gave  them 
the  rules  of  St.  Augustine.  Alexander  IV.  was 
very  anxious  to  further  consolidate  the  union. 
Lanfranc  Sejitala  of  Milan  was  made  general  of 
the  order;  and  four  provincials,  respectively  for 
Italy,  Spain,  France,  and  (jermany,  were  ap- 
pointed. By  a  bull  of  April  13,  12.56,  the  whole 
organization  was  sanctioned.  After  this  time 
the  order  spread  rapidly.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  fifteenth  century  it  numbered  forty-two  prov- 
inces, besides  the  vicarates  of  India  and  Moravia, 
two  thousand  monasteries,  and  thirty  thousand 
monks.  In  1567  Pius  V.  gave  it  the  same  rank 
and  privileges  as  the  mendicant  orders. 

The  Augustinian  nuns  formed  their  first  com- 
munity at  Hippo,  under  Perpetua,  the  sister  of 
Augustine.  An  outline  of  their  rule  is  given  in 
the  two  hundred  and  eleventh  letter  of  Augus- 
tine. An  Augustinian  nunnery  was  founded  at 
Venice  in  1177  by  Alexander  III.,  which  the 
Princess  Julia,  a  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Fi-ed- 
erick  I.,  entered  as  its  first  abbess.  The  cele- 
brated Nunnery  of  Tournoy  was  founded  in  1424 
by  Pierre  de  Champion. 

By  degrees,  as  the  order  spread  and  grew  rich, 
laxity  and  corruption  crept  in  ;  and,  as  a  re-action, 
independent  congregations  were  formed  at  lUiceto 
and  Carbonaria  towards  the  close  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  at  Peronse  and  in  the  Lombardy 
in  the  beginning  of  tlie  fifteenth  century,  in  .Sax- 
ony in  1492.  etc.  At  attempt  at  a  radical  refoni) 
was  made  in  Portugal  by  Thomas  a  Jesu,  who 
died  in  1582.  The  result  was  the  formation  of 
the  congregation  of  the  Barefooted  Augustiu- 
ians.  Their  rules  were  first  introduced  in  the 
Monastery  of  Talavera.  Their  organization  was 
finally  completed,  and  confirmed  by  Gregory  XV. 
in  1622.  They  spread  much  in  Japan,  the  Philip- 
pines, Peru,  etc.  In  Spain  every  province  had  a 
hermitage,  to  which  those  who  wished  to  live  as 
anchorets  could  retire,  and  find  perfect  solitude 
and  seclusion.  Johann  Staupitz,  well  known  in 
connection  with  Luther,  became  vicar-general  of 
the  order  in  Germany  in  1515;  but  it  was  just 
Luther's  appearance;  which  in  Germany  brought 
the  order  in  speedy  decadence.  In  the  nine- 
teenth century  a  great  number  of  the  monasteries 
of  the  order  have  been  secularized ;  in  1850, 
however,  there  were  still  about  one  hundred  left 
in  Italy  and  in  France. 

Lit.  —  NicoL.  Cuusenius  :  Monasticon  Augus- 
tinianuin,  Monai,  1623 ;  L.  Torelli  :  Secoli 
Aijostiniani  ocrero  Hist,  generate  del  s.  Ord. 
Eremitano  di  San  Agostino,  Bob,  1659,  8  vols.  ; 
St.  Martin  :  Vie  de  St.  Augustine,  Toulouse, 
1641;  A.  DE  San  Nicola.s:  Hist,  de  los  Augus- 
tinos  Descalzos,  Madrid,  1644.  Helyot  :  Histoire 
des  Ordres  monasti(iues,  Paris,  1714-19,  torn.  Ill-, 
revised  ed.,  1838.  W.  chlebus  (ZOCKLEB). 


AUGUSTINUS. 


374 


AUGUSTINUS. 


AUGUSTINUS,  Aurelius,  Bishop  of  Ilippo- 
Regrius.  Sketch  of  his  Life  —  He  was  the  son 
of  Patricius.  a  heathen,  and  Monica,  a  most 
devoted  Christian,  at  Tagaste  (Tajcit),  in  Nu- 
midia,  Xov.  13,  ,353.  and  died  at  Ilippo,  Nortii 
Africa,  Aug.  28,  430.  To  Monica  he  owed  his 
■warm,  loving  nature ;  and  by  lier  praj'ers  he  was 
converted.  Ilis  early  life  was  unsettled.  After 
learning  the  rudiments  in  his  native  place,  his 
ambitious  father,  delighted  with  his  progress,  sent 
him,  in  his  sixteenth  year,  to  Carthage,  where  he 
studied  for  three  years.  The  now  lo.st  Horlensius 
of  Cicero  awoke  his  love  of  truth  ;  and  he  began 
to  study  the  Bible,  but  soon  gave  it  up  because 
its  style  displeased  hira.  From  this  time  luitil 
his  conversion  he  restlessly  strove  to  attain  the 
highest  good,  but  failed,  although  he  found  for 
a  time  satisfaction  in  various  schools  of  thought. 
Manichfeisni  first  allured  him;  and  from  373  to 
383  he  was  one  of  the  auditors,  or  catechumens, 
in  that  sect.  But  the  immorality  of  the  electi, 
who  were  supposed  to  be  saints,  and  the  per- 
ceived shallowness  of  the  system,  drove  him  for 
a  while  into  scepticism,  from  which,  however, 
Neo-Platonism  saved  him.  Jleanwhile  he  taught 
rhetoric  in  Tagaste  and  in  Carthage  —  where  he 
published  his  first  work,  T/ie  Fit  and  the  Fair,  in 
380 — -and  in  Rome.  As  a  teacher  he  was  not 
successful  in  maintaining  order,  nor  in  making 
money  ;  yet  the  ability  he  evinced  induced  Sym- 
machus,  the  Prefect  of  Rome,  to  send  him  to 
Milan  in  answer  to  a  request  for  a  professor  of 
rhetoric.  There  he  heard  Ambrose;  and  there, 
too,  he  was  converted  (September,  380),  at  the 
age  of  thirty-three,  and  was  baptized  at  Milan 
Easter  Eve,  April  2.5,  387.  On  the  journey 
homeward  Monica  died,  at  Ostia;  and  the  sor- 
row thereby  caused  is  renewed  to  each  reader 
of  the  Confessions.  Disposing  of  his  property, 
he  began  in  Tagaste  an  ascetic  life;  but  in  301 
he  was  elected  priest  to  the  church  of  Hippo- 
Regius,  and  in  395  became  the  colleague  of  Bish- 
op Valerius,  and  shortly  after  full  bishop.  If 
the  romance  of  his  life  was  in  the  early  peri- 
od, the  value  of  it  was  in  the  later.  From  his 
diocese  a  relentless  war  was  waged  upon  every 
lieresy.  Manichaians  and  Donaiists,  Pel.\gians 
and  Semi-Pelagians,  fell  under  his  blows;  and 
the  writings  he  produced  amid  the  heat  of  these 
controversies  have  made  liini  iumiortal,  and  have 
tempered  the  theology  of  all  after-tiuii;.  ]5ut  his 
two  most  ceh^brated  and  interesting  works  are 
the  Confessions — in  whicli  he  reviewed  his  life  up 
to  the  time  of  his  conversion  .so  humbly,  so 
honestly,  so  wonderingly,  that  the  book  is  a  re- 
ligious classic  as  well  as  the  most  reliable  auto- 
biography—  and  the  Ciiy  of  Goil,  in  which  he 
showed  that  the  Church  of  Christ  is  the  surviv- 
or of  the  wreck  of  Rome,  and  thus  sent  comfort 
to  those,  wlio,  with  Jerome,  mournfully  exclaimed, 
"  Who  is  safe  when  Rome  falls?"  The  closing 
years  of  Augustine's  life  were  troubled.  He 
saw  the  Vandals  overrunning  Nortli  .\frica,  and 
was  comiielle<i  to  lead  in  the  desperate  defence 
of  Ilippo.  But  God  mercifully  took  him  away 
ere  the  city  fell,  and  spared  him  .so  great  a 
grief.  In  the  beginning  of  the  sixeenth  cen- 
tury his  remains  were  carried  from  Hippo  to  .Sar- 
dinia ;  in  tlie  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century 
Liutprand,  King  of  the  Lombards,  interred  them 


in  the  Church  of  St.  Peter  in  Pavia,  where  they 
remained  until  Oct.  12,  1841,  when  the  Bishop  o"f 
Pavia  formally  gave  them  over  to  the  Bishop  of 
Algiers,  who  carried  them  to  Hippo,  which  was 
near  the  present  Bona,  and  buried  them  there 
within  a  memorial  ch.apel,  Oct  30,  1841. 

Augustine  is  himself  the  source  of  all  our 
knowledge  of  his  sinful  life  before  his  conver- 
sion. He  joined  a  dis.solute  company  of  youths 
when  he  was  sixteen  {_Conf.  II.,  4,  9)  ;"and'before 
he  was  nineteen  he  was  the  father  of  a  son, 
Adeodatus  (God-given),  bj-  his  mistress  (IV.,  2, 
2).  For  twelve  years  they  lived  together,  mutu- 
ally faithful ;  and  he  says  his  heart  was  "racked, 
and  wounded,  and  bleeding,"  when  he  sent  her 
b.ick  to  Africa,  because  she  stood  in  the  way  of 
his  marriage  (Coiif.  VI.,  15,  25,  cf.  14,  23).  But 
his  betrothed  lacked  two  years  of  the  marriage- 
able age;  and  Augustine,  finding  the  delay  un- 
bearable, took  another  mistress,  and  kept  up  this 
new  connection  until,  in  his  thirty-third  year, 
the  hand  of  Christ  finally  lifted  him  above  the 
temptations  of  the  flesh,  and  the  light  of  the 
gospel  illumined  his  heart.  The  Church  may 
in  a  sense  rejoice  that  Augustine  was  the  servant 
of  sin;  for  he  was  able  to  strengthen  his  brethren 
after  his  conversion  as  he  could  not  have  done 
had  he  not  known  from  long  and  bitter  experi- 
ence, that  he  who  sinneth  against  God  wrongeth 
his  own  soul.  But  in  judging  him  we  must  bear 
in  mind  that  he  w.as  at  the  time  a  heathen, 
and  comparatively  innocent,  according  to  heathen 
standards  of  morality.  After  his  conversion,  he 
not  only  renounced  all  illegitimate  intercourse, 
but  devoted  himself  to  a  single  life,  for  the  sake 
of  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  uever  broke  his 
vow. 

Augustine  is  one  of  the  doctors  of  the  Uni- 
versal Church.  He  is,  perhaps,  the  most  pi-omi- 
nent  leader  in  the  development  of  doctrine,  and 
to  many  the  successor  of  the  apostles.  Luther 
and  Calvin,  in  the  doctrines  of  sin  and  grace, 
are  essentially  Augustinian.  The  Protestant 
emulates  the  .Romanist  in  paying  him  honor. 
But,  though  a  fountain  of  sweet  water,  he  gave 
out  bitter  water  too ;  for  many  of  the  errors  of 
Rome,  her  deference  to  human  authority,  her 
doctrines  of  the  church,  tradition,  baptismal  I'e- 
generation,  and  the  right  of  jiersecution,  can  be 
either  traced  directly  to  him,  or  deduced  from  his 
writings.  He  was  pre-eminently  a  preacher;  was 
in  the  habit  of  composing  rapiiUy;  and  so,  if 
many  of  his  works  were  very  ileliberately  writ- 
ten, m.any  more  were  not.  and  the  necessity  of 
making  up  his  mind  (luickly  ni.ay  have  weakened 
his  juclgmeut.  .Mthough  lie  was  not  a  scholar 
like  Jerome,  for  he  knew  little  Grei'k  and  no 
Hebrew,  he  had  a  deeper  si>iritual  insight  into 
tlie  Scriptures  than  any  otlier  of  the  Fathers. 
Genius,  more  than  le.arning,  gave  him  light. 
With  all  his  defects,  he  claims  the  reverence  of 
the  world.  Never  was  a  man  nune  determined 
and  fearless  in  the  defence  of  the  truth  ;  never 
breathed  a  purer,  nobler  spirit.  The  pride  of 
the  mother  in  her  converteil  son  is  tlie  pride  of 
Christendom  in  the  devotion  of  his  splendid 
intellect  anil  marvellous  executiv(^  aliility  to  the 
service  of  Christ.  To  understand  .Augustine  is 
to  understand  all  the  preceding  history  of  phi- 
losopliy  and  theology,  and  at  the  same  time  the 


AUGUSTINUS. 


175 


AUGUSTINUS. 


Bourcps  of  subsequent  progress.  Th\is  he  is  the 
dividing  line  between  the  Church  of  tlie  persecu- 
tion and  tlie  Church  of  tlie  empire.  He  ended 
the  old,  and  began  the  new  period  of  her  develop- 
ment. 

Bibliography.  —  Augustine's  writings  may  be 
divided  into — (ci)  Autobiographical:  Confessions, 
Relraclalioiis,  ami  Letters;  (i)  Polemical:  treatises 
against  the  Manichfeans,  the  Donatists,  and  Pela- 
gians and  Semi-Pelagians;  (c)  Dogmatical :  En- 
chiridion, and  other  doctrinal  treatises  ;  {d)  Exe- 
geticul :  Conunenlaries  upon  large  portions  of  the 
Bible;  (e)  Practical:  sermons  and  ethical  trea- 
tises. 

Editions  of  Augustine's  Works.  —  For  list  see 
Bhuxet:  Manuel  (In  Lihraire,  Paris,  1860-6.5,  5 
vols  (vol.  I.,  col.  .557-567).  The  be.st  edition  for 
all  practical  purposes  is  the  Jiencdictine,  Paris, 
1670-1700,  11  vols,  folio;  rejirinted  by  Ganme 
fratres,  Paris,  1830-39,  11  vols.  Svo.  ;  and  by 
'iMigue,  Paris,  1811,  10  vols.  Svo.  ;  2d  ed.,  1863, 
11  vols.  Ills  most  important  works  and  his  let- 
ters are  translated  in  tlie  Augnstinian  Lilirarg, 
edited  by  the  Rev.  Marcus  Dods,  M.A.,  and  pub- 
lished by  Messrs.  T.  and  T.  Clark,  lidinburgh, 
1872-76,  15  vols.  Svo.  His  Confessions,  revised 
from  a  former  translation,  and  edited  by  Rev. 
Dr.  Pusey,  and  many  of  his  sermons  and  homi- 
lies, are  translated  in  the  Lihrurg  of  the  Fathers, 
Oxford,  1839-55, 12  vols.  Svo.  (The  two  series  sup- 
plement one  another.)  Dr.  Sheddre-issue<l  the  Con- 
fessions, Andover,  1800;  Eng.  trans,  of  On  instructing 
the  unlearned,  etc.,  ed.  De  Roinestin,  Loud.,  1885. 

Biographies.  — The  Confessions  constitute  Augus- 
tine's autobiography  down  to  his  return  to  Africa 
(388),  while  the  Retractations  (127)  review  his 
entire  literary  life.  But  his  pupil,  Possidius, 
about  432,  gave  to  the  world  the  first  Vita 
Sancti  Augusliui,  published  by  the  Benedictines 
(Tom.  X.,  Appendix,  pp.  257-280),  along  with 
their  own  (Tom.  xi.,  pp.  1-492,  in  Migne,  Tom. 
1,  pp.  66-578).  G.  MoHiNGO  :  Vie  de  Sainl-Augus- 
tin,  Paris,  1553;  Rivius  :  Vita  Sancti  Auguslini, 
Antwerp,  1640;  Tillemont:  Meinoires  Ecclesias- 
ti<jues,  Paris,  vol.  xiii.  1702;  P.  B.^yi.e:  art. 
Augustin,  in  the  "  Dictioiuiire  historique  et  cri- 
tique" (Rotterdam,  1090,  2  vols,  folio;  last  ed., 
Paris,  1820-24,  16  vols.  Svo;  English  translation, 
bested.,  London,  1734-37,  5  vols,  folio);  Cavk: 
Lives  of  the  Fathers,  ISlO,  vol.  ii.  ;  Buti.kk  ;  Lices 
of  the  Saints  ;  Kloth  (Roman  Catholic);  Derheil. 
Kirchenl.  Augustinus,  Aachen,  1810;  Bi.ndemann 
(Protestant)  :  Der heil.  Augustinus,  Berlin,  1844,  55, 
09,  3  vols.  (These  two  are  very  elaborate  mono- 
graphs from  opposite  stand-points.)  Pou./oulat : 
Histoire  de  S.  Augustin,  Paris,  3d  ed..  1852,  2 
vols.;  Philip  Sch.\ff:  t^/.  Augustine  (German 
and  English),  Berlin,  London,  and  New  York, 
1854;  Friicdu.  u.  Paul  Bohkingek:  Aurclius 
Augustinus,  2d  ed.  of  revised  ed.,  Stuttgart,  1877- 
78;  W.  R.  Clark;  Augustine,  in  the  "Fathers 
for  English  Readers,"  Society  for  Promotion  of 
Christian  Knowledge,  London,  n.  d.  ;  Brauxe  : 
Monnica  und  Augustinus,  Grimma,  1846.  See 
also  the  general  historical  works  of  ScHUliCKH, 
Jveandeu,  Milman,  and  Sciiafk. 

Theology  of  Augustine.  —  For  a  comprehensive 
review  and  criticism  of  Augustine's  theology 
see  A.  Dorner:  Augustinus,  sein  Iheulogisches 
System  und  seine  religions-phdosophische  Anschau- 


ung,  Berlin,  1873.  For  special  points  ;  Pela- 
gianism  :  Janse.n  ;  Augusti?ius  .  .  .  doi-irina  ad- 
cersus  I'ehigianos  et  Massilienses,  Louvain,  1040, 
fol.;  WliiOKRS:  Versuch  einer  imignial.  iJarstellung 
des  Auguslinismns  ii.  I'elagianismus,  Hamburg, 
1821-33,  2  vols.,  the  first  vol.  translated  by  Pro- 
fessor Emerson,  Andover,  1840.  Uermencutics  : 
H.  N.  Clau.s.skn  ;  Aur.  Aug.  Sacrce  Scri/i.  inter- 
pres.,  Berlin,  1827;  Sciineegans:  Apjircciali<m 
de  Saint  Aug.,  d'a/jres  ses  trnr.  sur  l hermeneu- 
tiijue,  Strassburg,  ISlS;  Archbp.  Tre.ncii  :  Es.-iay 
on  the  Merits  if  A  ugustine  as  an  Interpreter  of 
llolij  Scripture,  prefixed  to  his  Exposition  of  the 
Sermon  on  the  Mount,  drniim  from  the  Writini/s  of 
S.  Augustine,  London,  1850.  On  other  points: 
Mozley  ;  Augustinian  Doctrine  of  Predestination, 
London,  1855;  Tiikod.  CIangauk  :  Des  li.  Aug. 
Lehre  von  Oott  dem  Dreieinigen,  Augsburg.  1865; 
NiTZSCH  ;  Auguslini  Lehre  rom  Wunder,  Berlin, 
1805;  WiLDE.N  :  Die  Lehre  des  h.  Aug.  com  Opfer 
der  Eucharistie;  Ribbeck  :  Doniitus  ii.  Aui/ustinus, 
Elberfeld,  1858,  3  vols.;  W.  S.  CuNNiNonAM: 
Augustin  and  Ii  is  Place  in  the  History  of  Christian 
Thought,  London,  1880;  K.  StiPio;  Des  Aure- 
lins  Augustinus  Metaphysik  iui  Rtthmen  seiner 
Lehre  torn  Ueliel  diirgestellt,  Leipzig,  1886;  Reu- 
tek;  Augnstiniache  Stadien.  Gotha,  1887;  C. 
Mirbt:  Die  Stellnng  Augustins  in  der  Publicistik 
des  gregorianinchen  Kirchcn-itreits,  Leipzig,  1888. 

Phihsophg  of  A)igustine. — Theod.  Gangauf: 
Metaphysische  Psychol ogie des  heil.  Aug.,  Augsburg 
(2  Abt'h.),  18.52;  T.  Tiiery:  Le  genie  philoso- 
phiijue  et  litte'raire  de  saint  Augustin,  Paris,  1861; 
Abbe  Flottes  :  Etudes  sur  saint  Augustin,  Paris, 
1861;  NouRRisox:  Iai  phUosojihie  de  saint  Augustin, 
2d  ed.,  Paris,  1866,  2  vols. ;  Professor  Ernest 
Naville  :  St.  Augustin,  Geneva,  1872;  Georg 
LoEsCHE  :  De  Augustino  Plotinizante  in  doctrina  de 
Deo  disserenda,  Jena,  1880;  J.  Storz  :  Die  Philo- 
so/ihie  des  heiligen .4 ugustinus,  Freiburg  ira  Br.,  1882. 
.See  also  UebervTeg.  For  an  estimate  of  Augus- 
tine from  a  literaiy  stand-point,  see  Villemain  : 
Tableau  de  I'Eloi/uence  chre'tienne  au  IV'  siecle, 
2d  ed.,  Paris,  1849.  SAMUEL  M.  JACK.sON. 

Augustine's  Theology.  Augustine  closed  the 
discussion  upon  the  Trinity  and  Christology,  and 
opened  it  upon  Anthroi)ology,  a  new  path.  This 
was  characteristic,  for  lie  viewed  religion  practi- 
cally rather  than  theoretically. 

(1)  Theology  Proper.  —  He  taught  not  only 
an  economic,  but  ;in  immanent  Trinity,  and 
endeavored  to  show  the  necessity  of  jiersonal 
freedom  to  the  construction  of  the  divine  self- 
con.sciousuess  and  self-love  (complacency).  Self- 
consciousness  could  only  arise  when  the  image  of 
the  memoria  was  stamped  by  the  voluntas  upon  the 
intcllectus.  The  Father  was  the  memoria,  the  Son 
the  intellectus,  the  Holy  Spirit  the  voluntas,  which 
bound  them  together;  but  because  these  three  are 
three  modes  of  existence,  having  the  same  con- 
tents, the  same  essence  in  different  forms,  in  them 
exists  the  essence  of  God,  in  whose  triune  nature 
there  is  no  conflict,  but  complete  consciousness 
and  perfect  equality.  Thus  the  idea  of  the 
Trinity  was  for  the  first  time  clarified.  Subor- 
dinationism  was  ruled  out.  i^ach  person  had  an 
equally  important  part. 

(2)  Christology.  —  Christ  is  the  medi.ator  be- 
tween God  and  man  and  ileus  el  homo,  but  not  a 
proper  deus-homo,  because,  according  to  his  viewe, 


AUGUSTINUS. 


176 


AUGUSTINUS. 


an  entire  union  is  possible  only  at  the  cost  of  one 
nature  or  the  other.  Both  natures,  he  thinks, 
stand  by  themselves,  or  ouly  speak  together  in 
the  Person.  The  human  nature  assumed  as 
much  divinity  as  possible,  but  did  not  give  up 
its  humanity.  A  complete  revelation  of  the 
AVord  is  impossible,  because  the  divine  cannot 
appear  completely  in  the  human.  His  fonnnlw 
were  decisive  for  Leo,  also  for  Chalcedon  (4.51), 
and  of  great  weight  for  all  subsequent  investiga- 
tions. 

(3)  Doctrine  of  the  Eucharht.  —  It  is  the  meal 
through  which  tiie  recipient  is  incorporated  into 
the  body  of  Christ.  —  the  church,  —  and  so  into 
Christ.  "  The  sacrifice  oiiered  up  in  the  Supper 
was  the  self-sacrifice  of  the  corpus,  the  church. 
It  cannot  be  proved  that  he  taught  the  doctrine 
of  the  '•  Real  Presence;  "  since  he  did  not  allow 
omnipresence  to  the  body  of  Christ,  understand- 
ing the  expre.ssion  figuratively  of  the  church. 

(4)  Doctrine  of  Sin.  —  .Seeking  to  exclude 
both  iManicha;an  and  Pelagian  one-sidedness,  he 
accented  man's  inability  through  sin.  and  con- 
tracted as  much  as  possible  man's  liberty.  Evil 
is  privation,  negation,  and  a  weakening  of  all 
spiritual  power,  particularly  of  the  will :  good 
is  positive,  and  the  elfect  of  God's  activity.  He 
only  allows  so  much  liberty  of  choice  as  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  free  God  from  the  charge  of 
the  a'uthorship'of  evil.  At  the  fall,  man  made 
a  bad  choice,  and  the  consequences  are  hereditary. 
Yet  man  has  the  capacity  of  salvation,  since  the 
natunt  is  not  itself  bad,  only  impaired;  the  intel- 
ligence is  sunk  in  ii/uorantia,  and  the  will  in 
in/iniiilas.  In  Adam  the  race  had  a  sort  of  pre- 
existence ;  and  thus,  when  he  fell,  all  fell.  Sin 
is  a  permanent  tendency  in  man,  fundamentally 
wrong,  a  turning-aside  from  God.  This  opposes 
the  Pelagian  idea  of  an  equilibrium,  —  the  ability 
to  turn  in  either  direction.  Sin  in  the  genus  is 
shared  by  every  individual.  Punishment  and 
guilt  are  therefore  hereditary.  The  former  was 
the  necessary  and  natural  consequence  of  sin,  and 
at  the  same  time  tlie  exhibition  of  the  divine 
righteousness  :  its  ground  was  guilt.  Yet  God 
angers  not,  for  he  is  unchangeable.  He  simply 
orders  that  sinful  man  as  the  weaker  shall,  ac- 
cording to  the  laws  of  Nature,  come  under  tlie 
power  of  the  Devil  as  the  stronger.  This  cap- 
tivity is  as  hereditary  as  sin,  and  so  the  race  has 
been  since  the  fall  a  ma.ssa  perditionis. 

(b)  Doctrine  of  (jracn.  —  Grace  exists  only  in 
the  activity  of  God  upon  the  will  and  intelli- 
gence, giving  them  a  new  direction.  Grace  in- 
spires the  subject  directly,  but  only  in  the  line 
of  liis  natural  ability.  Keclenqition  is  deliver- 
ance from  llie  power  and  authority  of  the  Devil, 
death,  and  sin.  Christ  paid  a  ransom  to  the 
Devil,  and  wrought  conqilete  deliverance  from 
punishment,  and  at  the  same  time  from  the 
infirnnty  of  intellect  and  will.  Thus  he  brings 
into  prominence  tlie  activity  of  God  among  men, 
especially  in  the  inipartation  of  love  and  knowl- 
edge, but  this  conception  of  justification  is 
(juite  different  from  the  Reioimers';  viz.,  de- 
liverance from  fjuilt,  by  which  access  is  opened 
unto  God.  He  lays  no  sneh  stress  upon  guilt  in 
its  immediate  relation  to  God,  becau.se  lie  does 
not  make  enough  of  ])ersonality.  He  makes 
salvation  depi-nd  iqion  the  action   of  (jod   upon 


'  the  powers  of  the  soul.  Therefore  the  relation 
of  justification  to  sanctification  is  of  secondar5 
importance,  and  the  main  thing  is  to  determine 
how  far  the  human  and  divine  powers  respect- 
ively operate  in  conversion. 

(d)  Doctrine  of  Faith.  —  lie  teaches  a  double 
sort  of  faith,  one  both  mystic  and  historic,  ex- 
isting at  the  .same  time.  The  former  sort  is  the 
effect  of  the  power  of  God  upon  the  intellect : 
the  latter  is  called  forth  by  contemplating  the 
work  of  Christ. 

(7)  Doctrine  of  Lore.  —  Love  rests  alone  upon 
the  inspiration  of  God.  It  is  the  enlightennu'ut 
of  faith,  and  a  purely  divine  work.  It  is  the 
source  of  every  good  deed.  Union  with  God 
depends  upon  it.  It  cannot  be  entirely  free  from 
fear,  for  salvation  depends  upon  it.  The  feeling 
of  separation  from  God  is  not  entirely  overcome, 
and  justification  itself  is  a  growth.  Hence  we 
must  strive  to  love  in  order  to  be  holj-,  to  be  fully 
united  to  God,  and  share  in  his  love.  The  un- 
certainty of  salvation  is  an  incentive. 

(S)  Doctrine  of  Preile.tlination.  —  God  deter- 
mines who  shall  belong  to  the  elect,  and  who 
shall  not.  The  elect  are  chosen  that  they  may 
receive  his  grace:  for  in  consequence  of  the  fall 
all  have  forfeited  this  favor,  and  no  claim  can 
be  made  by  any  upon  it;  but  God  is  willing  to 
bestow  it  upon  some.  No  one  can  tell  whether 
he  is  of  the  number  or  not.  On  Christ,  as  the 
First-Elect,  all  depends.  This  is  according  to  tlie 
predestined  plan.  In  God's  eyes  the  predestined 
one  is  a  fliiis  iiacis  before  his  actual  conversion. 
The  plan  of  God  embraces  all  events.  The  doc- 
trine of  predestination  includes  the  idea  of  its 
historical  application,  which  is  effected  by  ex- 
ternal causes.  And  because  the  ordinances  of 
religion,  etc.,  are  external  causes,  therefore  we 
should  despair  of  none,  but  labor  on  the  suppo- 
sition of  their  predestination.  The  non-predesti- 
nated are  justly  rejected  because  they  refuse  the 
very  means  employed  for  their  recovery  ;  and, 
when  we  bear  in  mind  the  damning  nature  of 
sin,  their  condemnation  has  no  element  of  in- 
justice in  it. 

(9)  Doctrine  of  the  Cliurch.  — Just  as  there  was 
a  double  sort  of  faith,  so  the  conception  of  the 
Church  is  double.  On  the  practical  side,  it  is 
the  objective  institution  for  salvation  ;  while,  on 
the  mystical  side,  it  is  the  community  of  the  pre- 
destinated. The  visible  Church  has  good  and 
bad  elements.  He  commonly,  however,  views 
the  Church  in  its  eternal  aspects.  Out  of  it 
there  is  no  salvation,  because  in  it  alone  are  the 
Holy  Spirit  and  the  means  of  grace.  Ordination 
infallibly  imparts  the  Sjiirit:  therefore  the  priest 
is  distingnislicd  from  tlie  layman  as  one  who  can 
mediate  the  grace  of  (iod,  ami  offer  the  eucharist. 
The  individual  is  linkcil.  not  only  to  the  whole 
body,  but  also  to  the  priest  as  the  re|ire3eiitative 
of  tiie  body.  In  like  manner  the  validity  of  bap- 
tism is  independent  of  the  baptizer.  Heretics 
and  schismatics  can  baptize,  but  only  as  one  uses 
stolen  goods;  for  baptism  has  its  blessing  only 
in  tlie  Church.  I'n'aiiliiiig  and  the  Lord's  Supper 
are  also  similarly  dependent  for  their  bles.sing 
upon  the  Cliurch.  Membership  in  the  visible 
Church  is  a  condition  of  salvation,  and  unbaii- 
tized  infants  are  damned.  The  Church  through 
her  priests  shares  in  the  divine  Spirit  and  ccun- 


AURELIAN. 


177 


AUSTRALASIA. 


plete  holiness.  Thus  Ausiustino  tfaches  ossen- 
tially  tlie  Roman  Catholic  idea  of  tlie  Church. 

Augustine's  Ethics.  He  lays  little  stress  upon 
nature  and  science,  property,  marriage,  the  fam- 
ily, and  the  state  :  in  short,  lie  reijard.s  all  earthly 
things  .as  comi^aratively  worthless.  On  th(! 
other  hand,  he  regards  the  cloister  life  as  tiie 
very  summit  of  piety.  But  thi.s  is  only  one 
side  of  his  ethics.  God's  worldly  activity  is 
concentr.ated  in  the  visible  Church.  The  ethical 
sphere,  which  belongs  to  the  transient,  and  is 
eaten  into  by  sin,  can  only  be  purified  by  the 
Church.  Marriage,  the  foundation  of  the  fami- 
ly, must  be  a  sacrament,  so  that  it  may  receive 
the  consecration  of  the  Church.  To  give  prop- 
erty to  the  Church  is  a  meritorious  work.  Sci- 
ence must  be  kept  in  the  right  way  by  the 
Church.  The  State  can  be  looked  at  as  a  mor- 
ally worthy  institution  only  when  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Church. 

It  is  erroneous  to  credit  Augustine  with  the 
ideas  causative  of  the  Reformation.  The  em- 
phasis upon  the  moral  personality,  from  whence 
alone  was  possible  the  demand  for  liberty  of 
conscience ;  the  emphasis  upon  guilt  and  the 
consciousness  of  guilt  ;  the  striving  after  imme- 
diate certainty  of  salvation  ;  the  central  position 
of  the  doctrine  of  justification,  and  the  clear 
distinction  between  the  legal  and  the  evangelical 
stand-points,  —  all  these  .are  wanting  in  him. 
{But  his  anti-Pelagian  writings  and  his  doctrines 
of  sin  and  grace  had  a  very  marked  influence 
upon  the  reformers,  who  esteemed  him  above  all 
other  fathers.] 

He  must,  however,  be  credited  with  recognizing, 
as  no  one  before  had  done,  the  world-conquering 
might  of  Christianity.  Discarding  the  old  no- 
tion that  the  world  moved  in  reons,  Augustine 
looked  beyond  the  present,  and  saw  adown  the 
long  gallery  of  time  the  grand  consummation, 
when  the  many  kingdoms  of  the  world  sh.all 
become  the  one  kingdom  of  our  Lord  and  of  his 
Christ;  and  the  Eternal  City,  fully  established,  is 
not  heathen  Rome,  but  the  "City  of  God,"  the 
New  Jerusalem!  AUGUST  CORNER. 

AURELIAN,  Roman  emperor  270-275,  was, 
according  to  an  old  tradition  in  the  church,  the 
author  of  the  ninth  of  those  ten  great  persecu- 
tions generally  spoken  of  by  Christian  writers. 
This  tradition,  however,  seems  to  rest  on  a  mis- 
understanding. In  his  church  history  (^'H.,  30), 
to  which  all  later  accounts  can  be  referred  as 
to  their  source,  Eusebius  says  only,  that,  to- 
wards the  close  of  his  reign,  the  emperor  changed 
his  views  of  the  Christians,  and  was  about  to  act 
upon  this  change  when  he  died.  He  sjieaks 
neither  of  the  actual  issue  of  an  edict,  nor  of  its 
execution,  but  simply  of  a  purpose,  a  plan;  and 
this  corresponds  better  to  the  character  of  the 
man  and  to  the  given  situation.  Aurelian  was 
a  soldier,  and  much  occupied  with  military 
affairs  during  his  reign ;  and  though  he  was 
much  devoted  to  his  parental  faith,  even  to  its 
superstitions,  Christianity  held,  since  the  time  of 
Gallienus,  a  publicly  guaranteed  position  in  the 
state,  which  makes  even  the  plan  of  a  general 
persecution  rather  improbable. 

AURELIUS,  Marcus.    See  M.\rcus  Aukklius. 

AURICULAR  CONFESSION  (Lat.  auricula, 
the  external  ear),  confession  into  the  ear  of  a  priest 
13  —  1 


in  private,  enjoined  by  Leo  the  Great  C'l  10-401)  as 
a  substitute  for  public  confession.  The  twenty- 
first  canon  of  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  (121.';), 
under  Innocent  III.,  makes  it  oliligatory  every 
year  upon  ail  Catholics,  on  ])ain  of  excommuni- 
cation, and  consequently  the  loss  of  Christian 
burial.     See   Conkkssion. 

AURIFABER,  Johann  (  I7;i«nV;i.s-;.s),  b.  in  l.'ilO, 
probably  in  the  county  of  Maiisfeld  ;  d.  at  Erfurt, 
Nov.  18,  1575;  studied  theology  iu  Wittenberg, 
and  became  Luther's  famulus,  and  afterwards 
court-preacher  in  Weimar,  and  minister  in  Er- 
furt. He  partook  with  great  zeal  in  the  theologi- 
cal controversies  of  his  time,  but  became  most 
widely  known  as  an  editor  of  Luther's  works. 
He  was  one  of  the  superintendents  of  the  Jena 
edition  (1555-58),  and  published  two  volumes  of 
Luther's  German  works  (150I-(;5),  two  volumes 
of  Luther's  Latin  letters  in  155fj  and  15(J5,  and 
Tischreden  oder  Colloquia  Dr.  Martin  Luthcrs  in 
1506. 

AUSTIN,  St.,  a  contraction  of  Augustine  fre- 
quently used.     See  Augustink,  St. 

AUSTRALASIA.  This  name  is  etymologically 
equivalent  to  Southern  Asia ;  but  correct  usage 
limits  it  to  the  Continent  of  xVustralia,  the  Island 
of  Tasmania,  the  Islands  of  New  Zealand,  and 
the  small  islands  near  each  of  the  colonies.  The 
mainland  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Torres 
Straits,  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  and  the  Indian 
Ocean  ;  on  the  east  by  the  South  Pacific ;  on  the 
south  by  Bass  Strait,  which  separates  it  from 
Tasmania;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Indian  Ocean. 
It  is  situated  to  the  south-east  of  Asia,  between 
the  parallels  of  10°  and  39°  south  latitude,  and 
ill  east  longitude  between  the  meridians  of  113° 
and  154°.  Its  greatest  length  is  about  twenty- 
four  hundred  miles:  its  greatest  breadth  is  nearly 
two  thousand  miles.  It  has  a  coast  line  of  7,750 
miles  in  length.  The  area  is  three  million  square 
miles,  or  nearly  six  times  as  large  as  India,  or  four- 
fifths  the  size  of  Europe,  or  almost  half  that  of 
South  America. 

Position  of  the  Colonies.  —  The  whole  of  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Australian  Continent  consists 
of  three  colonies,  —  Queensland,  in  the  north,  with 
Brisbane  as  its  capital ;  New  South  Wales,  south 
of  Queensland,  having  Sydney  for  capital ;  Vic- 
toria, south-west  of  New  South  Wales,  IMelbourne 
being  the  metropolis.  To  the  west  lies  South 
Australia,  stretching  from  ocean  to  ocean,  the 
northern  part  of  wdiich  is  now  known  as  the 
Northern  Territory.  The  capital  of  South  Aus- 
tralia is  Adelaide.  The  whole  of  the  western 
part  is  occupied  by  Western  Australia  ;  capital, 
Perth.  Tasmania  is  one  hundred  and  twenty 
miles  south  of  Victoria,  across  Bass  Strait,  and 
is  surrounded  by  the  South  Pacific  Ocean :  Ho- 
bartTown  (called  since  ISSO  Hobart)  is  the  capital. 
The  islands  of  New  Zealand  are  to  the  south- 
east of  the  Australian  Continent,  twelve  hundred 
miles  distant,  Wellington  being  the  capital. 

General  Features.  —  The  exact  date  of  the  dis- 
covery of  Australia  is  doubtful.  In  1006  Dutch 
sailors  explored  the  north  and  west  coasts.  In 
1042  Abel  Tasman  discovered  Tasmania  and 
New  Zealand.  Capt.  Cook's  well-known  ex- 
plorations began  in  1770.  The  first  settlement 
was  that  of  New  South  '\^'ales,  iu  1788,  from 
which  nearly  all  the  neighboring  colonies  wero 


AUSTRALASIA. 


AUSTRALASIx 


planted.  Tasmania,  or  Van  Dieman's  Land,  was 
settled  in  1S03;  Western  Australia,  or  Swan 
River,  in  1829  ;  Queensland,  or  Moreton  Bay,  in 
1825 ;  Victoria,  then  known  as  Port  Philip,  in 
1831;  South  Australia,  1830;  New  Zealand, 
1838.  The  precise  number  of  aboriginal  inhab- 
itants in  early  times  is  not  known.  They  have 
been  fast  disappearing  before  the  advance  of 
civilization  :  indeed,  the  Tasmanians  are  now  ex- 
tinct. The  Maories  of  New  Zealand  ai'e  much 
superior  mentally  and  physically  to  the  native 
races  of  the  neighboring  colonies.  Tlie  general 
characteristics  of  the  continent  and  islands  are 
now  pretty  well  ascertained.  The  districts  near 
the  coast  and  the  settled  parts  inland  are  fertile, 
but  large  tracts  of  the  interior  are  unfit  for  occu- 
pation. Navigable  channels  are  comparatively 
few;  and  the  alternation  of  rainy  and  rainless 
periods,  of  flood  and  drought,  is  destructive.  In 
these  respects  New  Zealand  and  Tasmania  are 
more  favorably  situated.  The  seasons  are  the 
reverse  of  those  in  Europe  and  America,  June 
being  midwinter.  The  hot  winds  and  dust  in 
summer  are  trying  on  the  continent,  but  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  year  the  climate  is  genial 
and  healthy.  The  mean  temperature  ranges  from 
70°  in  Queensland  to  51°  in  Tasmania.  The 
kangaroo  and  the  opossum  are  the  best  known  of 
the  numerous  marsupials  of  Australia.  Snakes 
are  plentiful,  and  sharks  abound  along  the  coast. 
Each  colony  is  a  sort  of  distinct  province,  having 
a  governor  and  Houses  of  Parliament  of  its 
own,  on  tlie  model  of  the  British  Constitution. 
AVool  is  the  grand  staple  product,  mining  and 
agricultural  interests  probably  ranking  next.  In 
1788  the  first  settlement  consisted  of  about  a 
thousand  persons;  in  1859  the  population,  in- 
cluding Tasmania  and  New  Zealand,  was  about 
a  million;  in  1877,  two  million  and  a  lialf.  It  is 
now,  at  the  beginning  of  1881,  probably  about 
three  millions.  In  railway,  telegraph,  and  postal 
arrangements,  Australia  has  rapidly  advanced ; 
and  there  are  three  lines  of  subsidized  mail- 
steamers  between  the  colonies  and  Great  Britain. 
The  social  condition  of  the  people  compares  not 
unfavorably  with  that  of  England  and  America. 
In  regard  to  education  the  colonies  are  thorouglily 
impressed  with  their  responsibilities.  The  public- 
.scliool  system  is  generally  unsectarian,  free,  and 
compulsory;  while  the  fiigher  training  is  ad- 
mirably provi(le<l  for  by  numerous  colleges  and 
well-equipped  universities.  There  is  no  Estab- 
lished Church;  and  State  aid  to  religion  is  now 
almost  wliolly  abolished.  New  South  Wales 
ceased  to  grant  it  in  1863;  Victoria,  1869.  The 
Episcopalians  are  tlie  most  numc'ious  body  :  the 
Roman  Catholics  rank  next.  The  proportion  of 
places  of  worship  of  the  various  sects  to  the 
population  is  remarkable,  consideriug  the  recent 
Bettlement  of  the  colonies. 

Special  Cliaracterhlicx  of  lite  Several  Colonies. — 
In  the  following  descriptive  details  the  statistics 
of  each  colony  are  from  the  latest  available 
official  returns.  In  the  absence  of  a  uniform 
census  for  the  wliole  group,  tlie  figures  represent, 
as  the  reader  will  easily  note,  a  more  recent  date 
ju  some  cases  than  in  others. 

New  South  Wales,  tli(^  indlhcr-colony,  originally 
comprised  all  of  the  continent  east  of  the  135tn 
meridian  ;  but  the  formation  into  separate  colo- 


nies of  South  Australia  in  1836,  of  Victoria  in 
1851,  and  of  Queensland  in  1859,  has  reduced  it 
to  a  more  moderate  size.  Its  area  is  now  given 
at  323.437  square  miles,  being  about  three  times 
that  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  coast 
district,  which  is  a  strip  of  varying  width,  ex- 
tending back  to  the  Dividing  Range,  or  Blue 
Mountains,  is  the  chief  agricultural,  as  the  in- 
terior is  the  chief  pastoral,  land  of  the  colony. 
The  loftiest  mountains  are  Ko.sciusko  (7,308  feet), 
Seaview  (6,000  feet),  Ben  Lomond  (5,000  feet), 
and  Oxiey's  Peak  (4.500  feet).  Among  the  im- 
mense level  tracts  of  the  interior  are  the  Liver- 
pool and  JNIonaro  plains.  The  great  rivers  are 
the  Murr.ay,  the  ^lurrumbidgee,  the  Darling,  and 
the  Laclilan.  On  June  30.  1879,  the  population 
of  New  South  Wales  was  estimated  at  712,019; 
that  of  Sydney  and  suburbs  amounted  to  200,000. 
The  other  important  towns  are  Maitland,  Goul- 
burn,  and  Batliurst.  ' 

Miscellaneous  Jieligious  Intelliqence.  —  Rev. 
Richard  Johnson,  Church  of  England,  the  first 
clergyman  in  Australia,  arrived  1788.  The  Rt. 
Rev.  W.  G.  Broughton  was  installed  first  bishop 
of  Australia  June  2,  1836.  The  present  (1881) 
Metropolitan  of  Australia,  who  is  Bishop  of 
Sydney,  is  Rev.  Dr.  Frederick  Barker.  The 
first  Presbyterian  Church  was  opened  in  1809. 
The  first  Wesleyan  class-meeting  was  held  in 
1812  ;  the  first  minister.  Rev.  Samuel  Leigh,  ar- 
rived 1815.  The  first  Congregational  minister, 
Rev.  ;Mr.  Cover,  arrived  1798.  Tlie  first  Baptist 
chapel,  founded  by  Rev.  J.  Saunders,  was  opened 
in  1835.  The  returns  of  the  principal  religious 
sects  for  1878  are  as  follows :  — 


Religion. 

Ministers. 

Places  of 
Worship. 

Average 
Attend- 
ance. 

Episcopalians    . 
Presbyterians    . 
Wesieyans 
Congregalionalists    . 
[Japtists      . 
Koman  Catholics 

207 
83 

89 

14 

104 

410 
149 

269 
43 
18 

273 

65,388 
20,142 
32,683 
6,909 
2,650 
60,769 

Victoria.- — Till  1851  this  colony  was  part,  of 
New  South  Wales,  from  which  it. is  separated  by 
the  River  Murray.  Its  area  is  about  88,198  square 
miles,  a  little  less  than  th.at  of  Great  Britain. 
A  range  of  mountains  divides  it  into  two  unequal 
parts,  the  highest  peaks  rising  to  six  thousand 
and  seven  thousand  feet.  It  has  no  large  rivers; 
the  Gipps-Land  streams  and  tlie  Yarra-Yarra 
being  the  only  ones  of  importance.  The  climate 
of  Victoria  is  healthy  and  agreeable  :  the  aver- 
age temperature  is  nine  degrees  higher  than 
in  London.  Although  one  of  the  youngest, 
Victoria  is  one  of  the  most  important,  of  the 
colonies:  commercially  it  is  probably  next  to 
India  among  British  dejiendencies.  In  1835  the 
white  ]io|iulation  was  fourteen  ;  in  ,Iune,  1879, 
it  was  887,434,  Melbourne  and  suburbs  numl)er- 
iiig  260,678.  Ballarat  and  Sandhurst  are  the 
other  principal  cities.  Capt.  Cook  was  the  first 
European  who  visited  the  country,  April  19, 
1770.  The  first  settlement  w;is  made  in  1788. 
The  native  population  was  at  that  time  about 
5,000;  but  in  1851  it  had  sunk  to  2,093;  in  1875, 
to  1,553.  It  seems  that  the  natives  were  com- 
pletely incapable  of  a  rapid  civilizatory  devel- 


AUSTRALASIA. 


179 


AUSTRALASIA. 


opment.     The  religious  returns  of  1878  showed 
the  chief  denominations  as  follows  :  — 


Religion. 

MinifitcrB. 

ChurclieB, 

Clmpels, 

Etc. 

Attend- 
ance. 

Episcopalifinfl    . 
ProMbytt'riiiliB    . 
Weslfyaim 
Independents    . 
Baplisle     . 
Koninn  Calholies 

161 
156 
140 

48 
40 
94 

485 
677 
828 
93 
78 
454 

43,154 
66,740 
92,030 
8,395 
9,255 
61,902 

Queensland,  formerly  known  as  Moreton  Bay, 
occupies  the  north-east  part  of  the  continent  of 
Au.=itralia,  comprising  669,520  square  miles,  or 
fully  three  times  the  area  of  France.  Unlike 
most  of  the  other  colonies,  it  is  well-watered; 
some  of  the  rivers  being  broad  and  navigable. 
The  soil  is  favorable  for  the  cultivation  of  tropi- 
cal productions,  such  as  sugar,  coffee,  tobacco, 
olives,  rice,  maize,  spices,  and  arrowroot.  Gold, 
copper,  tin,  and  coal  are  the  chief  minerals. 
The  climate  resembles  that  of  Madeira:  it  is 
very  warm,  except  on  the  large  table-lands,  where 
it  is  more  moderate.  The  winters  are  delightful. 
The  population  of  Queensland  on  Dec.  31,  1878, 
was  estimated  at  210,510;  that  of  Brisbane  being 
35,000.  The  other  chief  towns  are  Ipswich, 
Maryborough,  and  Rockhampton.  The  leading 
sects  were  thus  represented  in  1876  :  Episco- 
palians, 61,962  adherents  ;  Presbyterians,  18,947  ; 
Methodists,  11,005;  Lutherans,  12,174 ;  Roman 
Catholics,  43,147. 

South  Auslralia. — The  area  of  this  colony  is 
now  estimated  at  903,690  square  miles.  It  has 
much  variety,  both  of  soil  and  climate,  and  con- 
siderable mineral  wealth  in  copper,  lead,  and 
iron.  The  population  at  the  end  of  1878  was 
252,000,  Adelaide  containing  60,000.  The  num- 
ber of  churches  and  chapels  that  year  was  708, 
with  accommodation  for  over  137,000  persons. 
The  census  of  1876  gave  the  principal  denomina- 
tions as  follows:  Episcopalians,  56,100;  Presby- 
terians, 14,651;  Wesleyans,  36,040;  Lutherans, 
17.129 ;  Baptists,  10,460 ;  Congregational  ists, 
8,726;  Roman  Catholics,  32,668. 

Western  Australia  is  the  largest  of  these  colo- 
nies, being  estimated  at  978,299  square  miles. 
The  climate  is  one  of  the  finest  and  most  salu- 
brious in  the  world :  its  mortality  has  averaged 
only  about  one  per  cent.  At  the  end  of  1878  the 
population  numbered  28,166.  Perth  and  Fre- 
mantle  are  the  chief  towns,  the  former  contain- 
ing 7,120  inhabitants.  Fully  a  half  of  the 
people  of  the  colony  were  returned  as  Episco- 
palians, more  than  a  fourth  Roman  Catholics, 
and  about  five  per  cent  Wesleyans,  the  other 
sects  being  poorly  represented.  About  the  end 
of  1879  the  first  Presbyterian  minister  of  the 
colony  came  out  from  Scotland. 

Tasmania,  formerly  called  Van  Dieman's  Land, 
is  situ.ated  betwen  40°  33'  and  43°  39'  south  lati- 
tude, and  144°  39'  .and  148°  23'  e.ast  longitude. 
Comprising  26,215  square  miles,  it  is  nearly 
equal  in  size  to  Scotland.  It  is  more  English  in 
its  aspect  than  any  other  colony  of  the  Australi.an 
group.  "  The  interior  especially  is  delightful ; 
and  here  are  united,  so  to  speak,  the  climate  of 
Italy,  the  beauty  of  the  Apennines,  and  the  fer- 
tility    of    England."      The    mineral    treasures, 


especially  gold  and  tin,  are  now  being  mors 
vigorously  developed  than  formerly.  On  Dec. 
31,  1879,  the  population  w.os  estinuited  .at  109,947, 
Ilobart  containing  22, .500.  Launceston,  in  the 
the  north,  with  12,000  inhabitants,  is  a  centre  of 
mineral,  pastoral,  and  agricultural  prosperity. 
According  to  the  last  otficial  return.s,  in  1870, 
the  principal  denomiu.ations  stood  th\is :  Episco- 
palians, 53,047  ;  Presbyterians,  9,064  ;  Wesley- 
ans, 7.187  ;  Independents,  3,931 ;  Rom.an  Catho- 
lics, 22,091.  No  other  Australian  colony  has 
gone  through  so  many  and  so  various  vicissitudes 
as  Tasmania.  It  was  discovered  Nov.  24,  1042, 
by  Abel  Janssen  Tasman,  the  Dutch  explorer, 
and  by  him  called  Van  Diemen's  Laud,  in  honor 
of  the  Dutch  governor  of  the  East  Indies.  But  it 
w,as  not  settled  until  1803,  when  Gov.  Ring 
of  Sydney  sent  Lieut.  Bowen  thither  with  three 
soldiers,  and  ten  male  and  six  female  convicts. 
Tasmania  thus  became  a  settlement  of  convicts, 
<a  colony  of  criminals;  <aud  its  history  shows  the 
marks  of  its  origin.  Robbery,  murder,  and  fights, 
not  only  with  the  natives,  but  with  escaped  con- 
victs, bushrangers,  and  among  the  colonists  them- 
selves, were  for  many  years  the  order  of  the 
day.  In  1825  it  was  separated  from  New  South 
Wales,  and  organized  as  an  independent  colony; 
but  in  1842  it  h.ad  still  20,000  convicts  living, 
besides  59,000  free  settlers.  And  how  far  it 
still  is  from  having  outgrown  the  dis.advant.ages 
of  its  birth  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact,  that 
in  1870  there  were  55,939  jwrsons  in  the  colony 
who  could  read  and  write,  13,945  who  could  only 
read,  and  29,444  who  could  neither  re.ad  nor 
write. 

New  Zealand.  —  The  group  of  North,  Middle, 
and  Stewart's  Islands,  of  which  this  colony  con- 
sists, are  almost  equal  in  size  to  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland.  The  country  is  of  volcanic  origin, 
chains  of  mountains  running  from  north  to  south. 
The  climate  is,  on  the  whole,  free  from  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold,  and  is  remarkably  healthy. 
New  Zealand  is  rich  in  minerals.  The  grains, 
grasses,  fruits,  and  vegetables  of  Gre.at  Britain, 
are  successfully  cultivated.  M.arsupials  and 
snakes,  common  in  the  other  colonies,  are  not 
found  here.  By  the  census  of  March,  1878,  the 
population  was  414,412,  exclusive  of  the  M.aories, 
numbering  about  43,000.  Various  kinds  of  grain 
and  fruit  have  been  introduced,  and  succeed  ex- 
ceedingly well.  Different  species  of  animals  — 
sheep,  cattle,  horses,  deer,  etc.  —  have  also  been 
introduced,  and  not  only  thrive  well,  but  even 
seem  to  improve.  The  islands  were  first  visited 
by  Cook  in  1770,  but  the  connection  with  the 
civilized  world  is  now  frequent  and  rapid.  Aa 
active  mission  is  carried  on  among  the  M.aories, 
but,  as  it  would  seem,  not  with  much  success. 
According  to  the  last  ecclesiastical  returns,  which 
were  made  in  1874,  the  numbers  were  as  fol- 
lows:— 


Religion. 

Churches. 

Seats. 

Attend- 
ance. 

Epiecopaliana    . 
Preebyteriaua    . 
Wesleyans 
KoQian  Catholics 

172 

125 

105 

86 

30,783 
30,183 
18,883 
19,645 

19,916 

•     18,541 

12,723 

10,967 

AUSTRALASIA. 


180 


AUSTRIA. 


Religious  Denomisatioxs  in  Australia  ix  1871. 
{The  Population  icas  then  about  2,000,000.) 


Religion. 

N.  S. 
Wales. 

New 
Zealand. 

Queens- 
land. 

South 
Australia. 

Tas- 
mania. 

Victoria. 

Western 
AustraUa. 

Total. 

EpiscopnlianB 

229,243 

124,373 

61,962 

60,849 

53,047 

257,835 

14,619 

791,928 

Homau  Catholics          .... 

14o,932 

40,412 

43,147 

2S,66S 

22,091 

176,620 

7,113 

4I«,98S 

Pi-esbyteriaiia 

49,122 

72,477 

1S,947 

13,371 

9,064 

112,983 

529 

276,493 

Wesleyans 

36,275 

25,219 

11,065 

27,075 

7,187 

94,220 

1,374 

202,415 

CongretjationalisU       .... 

9,253 

5,441 

2,560 

7,969 

3,931 

18,191 

882 

48,227 

Baptists 

4,151 

6,353 

6,344 

S,73I 

931 

16,311 

54 

41,875 

Primitive  Metliodists  .... 

- 

- 

- 

8,207 

- 

- 

- 

8,207 

Other  Methodists        .        .        .        . 

3,291 

- 

- 

- 

- 

> 

3,291 

Lutherans  and  German  Protestants  . 

. 

3,914 

12,174 

15,412 

- 

10,659 

- 

42,059 

Christians  —  Brethren  and  Disciples, 

- 

- 

- 

1,188 

- 

- 

- 

1,183 

Calvinists,  or  Calvinistic  Methodists, 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

1,432 

- 

1,432 

Friends 

. 

. 

- 

92 

82 

333 

- 

507 

Unitarians 

849 

- 

- 

662 

- 

1,016 

- 

2,627 

Catholic  Apostolic  Church 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

278 

- 

278 

Greek  Church 

* 

- 

- 

- 

- 

332 

- 

332 

Christian  Israelites      .... 

- 

- 

. 

- 

- 

235 

— 

285 

Mormons 

. 

- 

- 

- 

. 

97 

- 

97 

Jews 

2,393 

1,215 

427 

435 

232 

3,571 

62 

8,337 

Moravians 

- 

- 

- 

210 

. 

93 

- 

303 

Pa^ns,  Mohammedans,  Chinese 

V,463 

4,751 

10,047 

- 

4 

18,392 

4 

40,666 

Nevp  Jerusalem  Church 

— 

- 

« 

137 

- 

- 

- 

137 

Bible  Christians 

- 

- 

- 

7,758 

- 

- 

- 

7,768 

Methodists,  New  Connection     . 

. 

« 

- 

363 

- 

- 

- 

363 

Church  of  Christ         .... 

. 

- 

- 

_ 

- 

3,640 

- 

3,540 

No  Sect 

- 

. 

> 

508 

- 

2,150 

147 

2,805 

Unspecified 

5,946 

- 

5,936 

4,763 

- 

5,560 

- 

22,195 

Other  Protestants        .... 

7,208 

- 

- 

- 

- 

1,028 

- 

8,236 

Other  Catholics 

1,695 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

1,695 

Other  Persuasions       .... 

1,166 

- 

1,674 

3.802 

2,759 

- 

- 

9,401 

Objected  to  state  religion  .       • 

~ 

" 

~ 

5,436 

- 

9,965 

~ 

16,401 

Approximate  Estimate  in'  1878. 
(Population  about  2,500,000.) 


-r,  ,.  .  Estimated 

Rehgion.  Number. 

Episcopalians      .......  989,537 

Roman  Catholics 679,985 

Presb^'terians      .......  345,614 

Wesleyans 253,019 

Cont^regationalistb 61,534 

Baptists 51,094 

Primitive  Metbodista 10,258 

Other  Methodists 4,114 

Lutherans  and  German  Protestants.        .        .  62.574 

Christians— Brethren  and  Disciples       .       .  1,486 

Calvinistic  Methodists 1,790 

Friends 634 

Unitarians 3,159 

Catholic  Apostolic  Church        ....  347 

Greek  Church 415 

Christian  Israelites 356 

Mormons     ........  121 

Jews 10,421 

Moravians 416 

Pagans,  Mohammedans,  Cbineso      ...  50,&J3 

New  Jerusalem  Church     .        .        •        •        .  171 

Bible  Christians 9,697 

Methodists,  New  Connection    ....  454 

Church  of  Christ 4,425 

No  Sect 3,606 

Un81>ecified 27,744 

Other  Protestants 10,295 

Other  Catholics 2.119 

Other  Persuasions 11,751 

Objected  to  state  rellKioo 19,251 


WoKK.s  OF  Reference.  —  Australian  Dictinn- 
<irij  of  Dalen  and  Men  of  the  TimK.  By  J.  H. 
Heato.n.  London,  1879. — Australian  Handbook 
and  Almanac.  London,  1880. — Ilondbook  for 
AiLilralia  and  New  Zealand.  3(1  fdition.  London, 
1880.  New  South  Wales.  By  C.  Koiiin.son.  Syd- 
ney, IS73-7S. —Victorian  Year-Boot  for  1878-70. 
By  II.  H.  Hayteu,  Government  .Statist.  Mel- 
bourne, 1879.  —  Mooue's  Au.stralinn  Almanac  for 
1880.  Sydney.  —  South  A  ustralia  :  Its  llistorij.  Pro- 
cess, Resources,  and  Present  Position.     Adelaide, 


1880.  —  Handbook  of  New  Zealand.  By  James 
Hector,  M.D.  Wellington.  1879.  —  Walch's 
Tasmanian  Almanac,  ISSO.  llobart  Town.  T.as- 
mania.  —  Enii</ralion  to  Tasmania.  By  a  Recent 
Settler.   London,  1879.   R.  S.  Duff  of  Tasmania. 

AUSTRIA  contains,  accordins;  to  the  last  cen- 
sus (of  1809)  a  population  of  3."),634,8.58,  of  which 
two-thirds,  or  nearly  24,000,000,  belong  to  the 
Roman-Catholic  Church,  3,941,796  to  the  Greek- 
Catholic,  3,050,830  to  the  Non-United  Greek, 
1,518,262  to  the  Lutheran,  2,255,113  to  the  Calvin- 
ist,  55,079  to  the  Unitarian,  and  10,133  to  the 
Armenian:  1,375,861  are  Jews.  The  Catholic 
Church,  including  the  Greek  and  Armenian  Cath- 
olics, has  sixteen  archbishops,  forty-seven  suffra- 
gan bisho]is,  two  vicar  bisliops,  one  military 
bishop,  and  nine  hundred  and  fifty  convents,  with 
eighty-five  hundred  monks,  and  fifty-seven  hun- 
dred nuns,  —  in  all  about  thirty-four  thousand 
ecclesiastics.  Tlie  Non-Uniteil  Greek  Church  liaa 
a  patriarch  in  Karlowitz,  an  archbishop  in  ller- 
nianstadt,  eleven  bishops,  about  four  tliousanil 
priests,  and  forty  convents,  with  three  hundred 
monks.  The  Protestant  churches  liave  eighteen 
superintenilencies. 

The  introduction  of  Christianity,  and  the  his- 
tory of  tlie  Christian  Church,  in  tlie  various  parts 
of  the  empire,  will  bi;  sjioken  of  in  the  articles 
on  Bohemia,  Hu.vGARY,  Moravia,  and  I'oi.and. 
We  speak  here  only  of  the  church-history  of  the 
ArcluUicliy  of  Austria,  and  of  the  general  ecclesi- 
astical jiolicy  of  the  empire. 

The  Archducliy  of  Austria,  inhabited  by  the 
Taurisci,  a  Celtic  tribe,  belonged  inirtly  to  I'an- 
iionia,  partly  to  Noricum,  both  provinces  of  the 
Konian  Knipire  since;  tlie  time  of  Augustus. 
Hither  ('hrislianity  was  brought  by  the  Roman 
soldiers  and  citizens,  —  from  tlie  Last,  by  ,St.  Vic- 
torinus  (d.  in  the  persecution  of  Diocletian),  and 
from  the  West,  by  St.  Severinus  (d.  482).     Lorch 


AUSTRIA. 


181 


AUSTRIA. 


was  the  oldest  episcopal  see.  Afterwards  the 
country  was  overrun  by  various  barbaric  tribes,  — 
Goths,  lluiis,  Lombards,  etc.  ;  and  in  the  time  of 
Charlem.agne  the  Avari  were  .settled  to  the  east 
of  the  Ens,  and  the  Bajuvarii  to  the  west.  The 
Avari  were  converted  to  Christianity  by  mission- 
aries from  the  Krankish  Church ;  and  the  count- 
ship  which  Charlemagne  founded  here,  .and  which 
forms  the  political  nucleus  of  the  Archducliy  of 
Austria,  was  placed  under  the  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority of  the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg.  Influences, 
however,  of  the  E.astern  Church,  made  themselves 
felt  through  Moravia;  and  during  the  whole 
period  of  the  middle  ages  the  Austrian  Church 
seems  to  have  maintained  a  .somewhat  free  at- 
titude towards  Rome.  At  the  close  of  this 
period,  Turcianus  preached  against  indulgences; 
the  monk  Jacob,  against  relics  ;  Theobaldus, 
ag.ainst  the  life  led  by  the  priests.  Also  was  the 
Reformation  at  first  very  successful  here.  P.aul 
Speratus  preached  openly  I>utlier's  views  in  Vi- 
enna; the  books  of  the  reformers  circulated  freely; 
nearly  three-fourths  of  the  population  accepted 
the  new  doctrines;  tlie  monasteries  stood  empty  ; 
and  in  15G0  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  II.  had  to 
place  the  mendicant  friars  under  the  protection 
of  the  police.  But  the  government  was  strongly 
Roman  Catholic;  and  the  unfortunate  dissensions 
between  the  Protestants  themselves,  which,  be- 
tween the  Phillipists  and  the  Flacians,  degen- 
erated into  unseemly  quarrels  and  fanatical  en- 
mity, gave  the  Jesuits  a  welcome  opportunity. 
The  Emperor  Rudolph  (157U-1G12)  was  their 
pupil  and  their  tool.  Though,  at  his  accession  to 
the  throne,  he  confirmed  the  constitutional  reli- 
gious liberty  of  the  country,  nevertheless,  very 
soon  after,  he  discharged  all  officials  who  held 
the  Protestant  faith,  abolished  the  evangelical 
service  in  all  towns  and  villages  belonging  to  the 
imperial  domains,  forbade  religious  gatherings 
without  special  authorization,  and  charged  Bishop 
Khlesl  with  the  organization  of  a  complete  anti- 
reformation.  The  peasants  revolted  in  1.594,  and 
the  revolt  was  not  put  down  until  1597;  but  then 
a  committee  was  sent  all  through  the  country  to 
expel  the  evangelical  ministers,  and  force  the 
Roman  priests  on  the  congregations.  Under 
Ferdinand  III.  (1619-57)  the  work  was  com- 
pleted. The  estates  refused  to  swear  fealty  to 
him,  unless  he  granted  religious  liberty :  but 
Ferdin,and  let  loose  a  swarm  of  Cossacks  on  the 
country,  and  then  the  estates  took  the  oath. 
But  when  he  next  ordered  that  the  whole  popu- 
lation should  at  once  return  to  the  Roman  faith, 
and  all  Protestant  ministers  and  schoolmasters 
leave  the  country  within  a  week,  the  peasants 
rose  en  masse,  and  formed  in  a  few  days  an  army 
of  thirty-eight  thousand  men.  They  were  de- 
feated, liowever,  and  tlie  order  was  executed 
with  great  harshness.  The  peace  of  Westphalia 
(1618)  altered  nothing  with  respect  to  Austria; 
and  in  1652  ten  Jesuits  were  commissioned  to 
travel  through  the  country,  almost  in  the  quality 
of  an  Inquisition.  Seventy-three  families  among 
the  nobility  still  adhered  to  the  Protestant  faith, 
but  they  hardly  dared  to  speak  to  e.ach  other 
about  religion.  Nevertheless,  the  evangelical 
spirit,  once  awakened,  could  not  die  out  alto- 
gether: it  lived  on  in  secret.  AVhen.in  the  reign 
of  Charles  VI.  (1711-40),  permission  was  granted 


to  all  Protestants  to  emigrate,  twelve  hundred 
persons  at  once  demanded  to  go.  The  govern- 
ment was  surprised,  and  tried  to  prevaricate;  but 
the  people  were  inflexible,  and  in  1735  they  were 
transferred  to  Transylvania.  The  result  of  this 
violent  suppression  of  a  sincere  and  orderly 
movement  towards  freedom  and  truth  has  been, 
that,  in  Austria,  the  Roman-Catholic  Church  i.s 
altogether  without  influence,  while  religious  in- 
difference, superciliousness,  and  frivolity  prevail 
in  all  classes  of  society. 

In  spite  of  the  fanaticism,  however,  with  which 
the  government  tried  to  suppress  the  Reforma- 
tion wherever  it  could,  it  was  very  jealous  of  its 
own  freedom,  and  maintained  quite  an  independ- 
ent attitude  with  respect  both  to  the  pope  and 
the  clergy.  During  the  reign  of  Maria  Theresa 
(1740-80),  especially  after  1765,  when  Joseph  II. 
succeeded  his  father,  Francis  I.,  Maria  Theresa's 
husband,  as  Emperor  of  Germany,  the  influence 
of  the  clergy  was  curtailed  in  every  way.  Their 
power  of  holding  councils  was  abrogated  ;  public 
education  was  made  a  mere  government  affair ; 
the  relation  between  the  religious  orders  and 
their  generals  residing  in  Rome  was  dissolved, 
and  the  orders  placed  under  the  authority  of  the 
bishops  ;  numerous  festivals  were  abolished,  etc. 
When  Joseph  II.  became  sole  regent  (1780-90), 
the  reforms  were  carried  still  further:  the  con- 
nection between  the  pope  and  the  Roman-Catholic 
Church  within  the  Austrian  dominions  was  almost 
severed,  and  the  functions  of  the  church  itself 
were  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Many  mon.asteries 
were  suppressed;  the  Latin  language  was  abol- 
ished in  the  administration  of  the  sacraments ; 
the  tithes  were  turned  into  the  treasury  of  the 
state  ;  the  priests  were  placed  on  an  equal  foot- 
ing with  other  government  officials,  etc.  Oct.  31, 
1781,  the  celebrated  edict  of  toleration  was  issued. 
Protest.ants  obtained  full  citizens'  right  through- 
out the  Austrian  dominions,  were  admissible  to 
the  highest  offices,  and  received  freedom  of  wor- 
ship, even  in  the  Archduchy  of  Austria,  where  a 
superintendency  was  organized  under  the  head 
of  an  evangelical  consistory  in  Vienna,  and  a 
seminary  for  evangelical  theology  founded  in  the 
same  city.  Though  m.any  of  Joseph's  reforms 
were  revoked  by  his  immediate  successors,  and 
though  ultramont.ane  tendencies  became  more 
and  more  visible  during  the  first  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  the  Roman  Church  in  Austria  was 
still  kept  in  a  position  subordinate  to  the  .State, 
up  to  1855.  The  dangerous  jiolitical  concessions 
which  in  1848  made  the  Austrian  monarchy 
tremble  in  its  very  foundation  brought  forward 
the  idea  to  seek  a  support  for  the  throne,  not  only 
in  the  army  and  the  police,  but  also  and  pre- 
eminently in  the  Roman  Church ;  and  Aug.  18, 
1855,  Francis  Joseph  I.  signed  a  concordat  with 
the  pope,  by  which  the  whole  ecclesiastical  legis- 
lation of  Joseph  II.  was  swept  away,  the  Roman 
Church  established  in  the  empire  as  a  state  in  the 
state,  and  its  connection  with  the  pope  thoroughly 
cemented.  Shortly  after,  a  re-organization  of 
the  Protestant  churches  was  promised,  and  in 
Hungary  this  re-org.anization  was  promptly  car- 
ried out.  But  in  the  German  and  Slavic  parts 
of  the  empire  it  w.as  long  delayed;  and  when  at 
last  it  came,  in  the  form  of  a  provisional  consti- 
tution (April  8,  1861),  it  proved  unsatisfactory. 


AUTHORIZED. 


182 


AVITUS. 


The  partiality  shown  to  the  Roman  -  Catholic 
Church  is  too  flagrant.  Only  a  Roman  priest 
can  keep  a  valid  register  of  'births  and  deaths. 
When  a  Roman-Catholic  wishes  to  embrace  Prot- 
estantism he  must  for  six  months  separate  him- 
self from  all  intercourse  with  Protestants,  and 
devote  himself  exclusively  to  the  teaching  of  a 
Roman-Catholic  priest ;  while  a  Protestant  who 
wishes  to  embrace  Romanism  needs  only  to  go  to 
the  nearest  priest,  and  deliver  himself  up.  In 
Austria  Proper  the  Protestants  are  not  allowed  to 
have  churches  with  music  and  bells,  but  only 
chapels  without  entrance  from  the  streets,  etc. 
Many  of  these  petty  annoyances  with  which  the 
priest  still  hopes  to  fight  the  pastor,  the  Protes- 
tants have  now  succeeded  in  freeing  themselves 
from,  but,  characteristically  enough,  only  by  at- 
tacking them  one  by  one,  and  by  going  directly 
to  the  emperor  himself. 

AUTHORIZED  VERSION  OF  THE  BIBLE. 
See  English  Bible  Versions. 

AUTO-DA-F^,  Spanish  for  actus  Jidei,  "act  of 
faith,"  signified  the  public  enunciation  of  the 
judgments  of  the  Inquisition  over  lieretics  and 
non-Christians,  and  was  also  called  senno  puh- 
licus,  or  f/eneralis  de  fide,  because  connected  with 
a  sermon  on  the  Catholic  faith.  The  act  com- 
monly took  place  on  a  Sunday.  At  sunrise,  the 
victims,  with  the  hair  shaved  off,  and  variously 
dressed,  according  to  the  different  degrees  of 
punishment,  were  led  in  a  solemn  procession,  with 
the  banners  of  the  Inquisition  at  the  head,  to 
some  public  place  or  church.  When  the  secular 
authorities  whose  duty  it  was  to  be  present  had 
Bworn  to  stand  by  the  Inquisition,  and  execute  its 
orders,  the  sermon  on  the  faith  was  delivered, 
and  then  the  judgments  against  the  dead  and  the 
living  were  pronounced.  Next  the  relapsers,  and 
those  whe  refused  to  recant,  were  expelled  from 
the  church,  and  given  over  to  the  secular  authori- 
ties for  punishment,  and  then  the  procession 
again  began  to  move.  The  bones  of  the  dead 
who  were  condemned  were  carried  on  sleighs  to 
the  place  of  execution.  Those  who  were  con- 
demned to  death  rode  on  asses,  between  armed 
men,  and  wore  coats  and  caps,  called  in  Spanish 
sanbenito,  painted  over  with  devils  and  flames. 
Not  only  the  mob  and  the  monks,  but  also  the 
magistrates,  and  sometimes  even  the  king  and 
the  court,  were  present  at  the  spectacle.  There 
were,  however,  differences  in  the  solemnization 
of  auto-da- f lis  in  Southern  France,  in  Spain,  in 
Italy,  and  in  the  Portuguese  colonies  in  India. 
From  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
auto-da-f&  disappeared,  and  the  verdicts  of  the 
Inquisition  were  executed  in  private. 

AUTPERTUS,  Ambrosias,  b.  in  Southern 
France  early  in  the  eighth  century ;  lived  at 
the  Carolingian  court  as  oralor,  but  retired  to  the 
Monastery  of  St.  Vincent,  on  the  Voltorno,  in 
Southern  Italy,  and  died  there  in  778  or  779,  as 
abbot.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Psalms, 
the  Song  of  Songs,  and  tlie  Apocalypse,  of  which 
the  last,  given  in  Bib.  Pair.  Max.,  toin.  XIII., 
is  his  principal  work. 

AVE  MARIA,  or  HAIL,  MARr,  the  angelic 
salutation,  the  word.s  with  which  the  angel 
Gabriel  salutid  the  Virgin  (Luke  i.  2K),  as  ren- 
dered by  tin;  Vulgate,  and  afterwards  the  name 
ef  a  peculiar  form  of  prayer  authorized  by  tlie 


Roman  Church  for  the  invocation  of  St.  Mary. 
The  prayer  consists  of  a  scriptural  part, — the 
words  of  the  angel,  "Hail,  Mary,  full  of  grace; 
the  Lord  is  with  thee;"  and  the  words  of  Elisabeth, 
"  Blessed  art  thou  among  women,  and  blessed  is 
the  fruit  of  thy  womb,"  —  and  a  precatory  part : 
"  Holy  Mary,  mother  of  God,  pray  for  us  sin- 
ners now,  and  at  the  hour  of  our  death."  The 
first  p.art  occurs  in  the  Liber  Antiplumiatm.i,  at- 
tributed to  Gregory  the  Great,  but  did  not  become 
a  fixed  formula  until  the  end  of  the  eleventh 
century  ;  and  the  constitution  of  Bishop  Odo  of 
Paris  (119(1)  is  the  first  instance  in  which  this 
formula  is  authorized  to  be  taught  together  with 
tlie  formulas  of  the  Creed  and  the  Lord's  Prayer. 
The  precatory  part  was  added  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  was  authorized  in  the  breviary  of 
Pius  v.,  in  15G8. 

AVIGNON,  the  capital  of  the  department  of 
Vaucluse,  situated  on  the  Rlione,  formed  in  the 
middle  ages,  together  with  the  adjacent  districts, 
a  countship  belonging  to  Provence.  Queen  Jo- 
hanna I.  of  Sicily,  born  a  countess  of  Provence, 
sold  the  countship  of  Avignon  in  1348  to  Pope 
Clement  VI.  for  eighty  thousand  gtilders.  In 
1662  Louis  XIV^.  seized  the  city  in  order  to 
avenge  a  slight  which  Pope  Alexander  VII.  had 
shown  his  ambassador,  but  gave  it  back  again  in 
1663.  In  1791  the  countship  of  .\vignon,  as  well 
as  that  of  Venaissin,  which  King  Philippe  had 
bequeathed  to  the  pope  in  1273,  were  incorpo- 
rated with  France.  From  1305  to  1377  the  papal 
residence  was  changed  from  Rome  to  Avignon. 
Seven  popes  resided  there, — Clement  V.,  John 
XXII.,  Benedict  XII.,  Clement  VI.,  Innocent 
VI.,  Urban  V.,  and  Gregory  XI. ;  and  during  this 
period,  the  so-called  "  Babylonian  Captivity  "  of 
the  popes,  Avignon  was  one  of  the  g.ayest  and 
most  corrupt  cities  in  the  world.  Petrarch,  who 
staid  there  for  some  time,  called  it  the  third 
Babylon. 

AVIS,  The  Order  of,  originated  from  the  nova 
7)iililia,  an  assochation  of  knights,  which  King 
Alfonso  I.  of  Portugal  founded  in  1145,  to  fight 
against  the  Moors  who  still  held  the  southern 
part  of  the  country.  In  1106  Johannes  Civita, 
Abbot  of  Citeaux,  g.ave  this  association  an  eccle- 
siastical organization,  and  in  1204  Innocent  III. 
confirmed  the  rules  of  the  order.  Also  the  name 
changed.  In  1166  the  nora  milllia  conquered 
Kvora.  King  Alfonso  presented  the  city  to  the 
knights,  who  now  assumed  the  name  of  "  Brethren 
of  St.  Maria  of  Evora; "  and  when,  in  1211,  King 
Alfonso  II.  presented  the  city  of  Avis  to  the 
order,  its  name  was  finally  fixed  as  "  Tin;  Order 
of  Avis."  In  the  thirteeiitli  century  the  order 
became  a  dependent  of  Ihi'  Spanish  order  of 
Calatrava,  but  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 
century  it  once  more  became  independent.  In 
1789  it  was  tr.ansforined  into  an  order  of  military 
merit,  and  the  ecclesiastical  vows  were  abolished, 
that  of  chastity  having  been  dropped  already 
earlier. 

AVITUS,  Alcimus  Ecdidius,  descended  from  a 
distinguished  Romano-Gallic  family,  and  died  in 
.525  as  Bishop  of  Vienne,  Burgundy.  At  the 
conference  between  the  Catholic  and  Arian 
theologians  in  499,  he  was  the  principal  repre- 
sentative of  the  former  parly,  and  gained  the 
confidence  of  the  Burgundiau  king,  (iiuidobold, 


AWAKENING. 


183 


AZYMITES. 


which  was  of  so  much  th(>  greater  consnquonoo 
as  the  Burcuiulians  were  Ariaiis.  LatiT  on, 
Sigismund,  the  son  and  snccessor  of  Gundobohl, 
was  converted  to  Catliolicism  by  the  infhience  of 
Avitus;  and  many,  thougli  not  all,  of  his  subjects 
followed  his  example.  Avitus  also  presided  at 
the  synod  of  Epaou  in  517,  which  regulated  the 
ecclesiastical  relations  of  Burgundy.  But,  be- 
sides being  thus  very  active  in  many  practical 
affairs,  he  was  also  a  prolific  writer.  Eighty 
of  his  letters  are  still  extant,  addressed  to  the 
Prankish  and  Burgundian  kings,  to  the  bishops 
of  Gaul,  of  Milan,  Constantinople,  and  Jerusa- 
lem, etc.  Of  hia  poetical  productions  is  extant, 
De  Mundi  Principio,  a  large  didactic  epic  in  five 
books.  See  Ebert  :  Gcfch.  der  christl.  kit.  Litt. 
p.  377  sqq.  Collected  editions  of  the  works  of 
Avitus  have  been  given  by  Sirnmnd,  in  Max. 
BibL,  T.  IX.,  p.  603,  and  by  Gallund:  BIhl.  7 at., 
T.  X.,  p.  701;  Binding:  Gcsch.  dcs  Buryund- 
ischenreiclis,  Leipzig,  1868,  p.  1G8  sqq. 

AWAKENING  is  the  term  descriptive  of  the 
beginning  of  conversion  rts  a  divine  work,  be- 
cause in  Scripture  parlance  the  unrepentant 
sinner  is  ''asleep"  (Kph.  v.  14).  According  to 
the  mental  and  moral  condition  of  the  sinner 
will  be  the  outward  form  of  the  awakening, 
—  either  sudden  or  slow,  vehement  or  quiet. 
It  must,  however,  be  acknowledged  that  a 
genuine  Christian  life  is  quite  conceivable  with- 
out any  "  awakening  "  at  all ;  for  many  grow 
up  in  unbroken  fellowship  with  God,  and  enter 
into  conscious  faith,  and  love  and  joy,  not,  it  is 
true,  without  conviction  of  their  lost  condition, 
and  repentance  of  sins,  but  without  any  percep- 
tible beginning  of  a  Christian  experience.  It  is 
to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  "  awakening  "  in 
any  case  is  only  a  beginning ;  the  awakened  one 
is  not  yet  converted,  regenerated,  only  on  the  way 
to  conversion :  hence  it  is  possible  for  such  per- 
'  sons  to  fall  asleeji  again,  as  has  frequently  been 
the  case.  This  truth  explains  the  wholesale  fall- 
ing-away  which  usually  follows  a  great  revival. 
The  machinery  of  revivals  produces  many  con- 
verts who  are  awakened,  but  who  never  get  any 
farther.  But,  when  God  speaks,  the  soul  hears 
and  obeys.  Those  who  are  the  subjects  of  his 
grace  walk  through  life  the  exponents  of  right- 
eousness. See  Revivals,  Spener.  [See  Robert 
KiJBEL:  Gesammelte  Vortrdge:  ilher  christliche  Niich- 
Urnhek,  Barmen,  1877.]       KLING  (Herzog.ed.  I.) 

AYLMER,  John,  b.   at  Norfolk,  Eng.,   1521; 


d.  in  London,  June  3,  1.504 ;  was  educated  at 
Cand)ridge;  became  the  tutor  of  Lady  Jane 
Grey,  and  was  made  Archdeacon  of  Stow  in 
155i!.  During  the  reign  of  Mary  he  retired  to 
Zurich  ;  by  Elizabeth  he  was  made  Archdeacon 
of  Lincoln  in  1562,  and  Bi.shop  of  Lonilon  in 
1576.  lie  was  a  firm  but  .somewhat  narrow- 
minded  man,  and  opjiosed  the  I'uritaus  with  the 
same  harshness  as  the  Romanists.  Against 
Knox  he  wrote,  An  Harborrowe  fur  faithfidl  and 
trewe  Suh/ects,  etc.,  1559. 

AZAZEL.  This  word  is  a  transliteration  of  the 
Hebrew  term  translated  in  the  authorized  version 
(Lev.  xvi.  8  sq.)  "scapegoat;"  but  the  correct 
interpretation  is  much  debated.  Some  consider 
azazel  as  the  name  of  a  region,  "the  desert,"  or  of 
a  person,  the  opposite  to  Jahveh,  either  a  spirit, 
a  demon,  or  Satan  himself.  The  last  interpreta- 
tion has  met  with  great  favor;  but  against  it  may 
be  urged  that  nowhere  else  in  the  I'entateuch  is 
Satan  mentioned,  and  the  fact  renders  it  all  the 
more  unlikely  that  he  should  be  mentioned  here 
by  a  name  he  never  has  in  the  Bible.  It  is  there- 
fore decidedly  better  to  regard  azazel  as  imper- 
sonal, and  interpret  Lev.  xvi.  8:  "and  Aaron  sliall 
cast  lots  upon  tlie  two  goats  ;  one  lot  for  Jahveh, 
and  the  other  lot  for  Azazel,  i.e.,  for  '  going  very 
faraway.'"  According  to  the  Talmudic  tractate, 
Voma,  the  high  priest,  knew  by  a  sort  of  tele- 
graphic communication  between  Jerusalem  and 
the  wilderness,  —  the  waving  of  cloths  by  set 
watchers,  at  regular  distances,  —  whether  and 
when  the  goat  arrived  in  the  wilderness,  as  was 
necessary,  for  the  other  sacrifices  were  not  to  be 
offered  until  it  arrived  there  (Lev.  xvi.  23,  24). 
See  Atonkmext,  Day  of.      wiliielm  volck. 

AZYMITES  (from  «  negative,  and  tV?;,  leareii), 
the  epithet  given  to  the  adherents  of  the  Latin 
Church  by  those  of  the  Greek  Church,  because 
the  former  use  unleavened  bread  in  the  Lord's 
Supper.  In  reply  the  Latins  called  the  Greeks 
Feriiienlarii.  The  first  one  to  attack  the  Latin 
Church  upon  this  question  was  Michael  Caerula- 
rius.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (1051),  accusing 
her  of  heresy  upon  this  point.  Tlie  Latins  have 
made  it  a  grievous  sin  to  use  leavened  bread  in 
the  Eucharist,  yet  they  have  not  presumed  to 
damn  the  Greeks :  so  far  from  doing  so.  they  de- 
clared in  the  council  of  Florence  (1439),  that 
transubstantiation  took  place  just  the  same, 
whether  the  bread  were  leavened  or  not.  See 
Carularius,  Michael. 


BAADER. 


184 


BAAL. 


B. 


BAADER,  Franz  Xavier,  h.  in  Munich,  1705; 
d.  there  May  23,  1811  ;  studied,  first  medicine, 
and  afterwards  mineralogy  ;  travelled  in  Eng- 
land 1792-96  ;  was  appointed,  first  councillor,  and 
afterwards  director,  of  the  raining  department 
in  Munich  ;  and  became  in  1826  professor  of 
philosophy  and  speculative  theology  in  the  uni- 
versity of  the  same  city,  in  which  position  he 
exercised  considerable  influence.  He  was  a 
theosophist  rather  than  a  theologian;  and  the 
aphoristic  and  paradoxical  form  in  which  he 
presented  his  mystical  speculations  often  makes 
it  difficult  to  understand  him.  But  lie  was  an 
original  thinker,  of  great  suggestiveness;  and, 
though  a  Roman  Catholic,  he  maintained  a  very 
independent  position  with  respect  to  the  papacy, 
which  he  considered  a  very  equivocal  institution, 
not  essential  to  the  church.  His  collected  works, 
edited  by  several  of  his  adherents  (Hoffmann, 
Hamberger,  Kmil  von  Schaden,  Lutterbeck.  etc.), 
appeared  in  16  vols,  at  Leipzig,  18.50-60.  A 
writer  in  the  "  Encycl.  Brit."  (9th  ed.  vol. III. 175) 
calls  him  "  the  greate.st  speculative  theologian  of 
modern  Catholicism." 

BA'AL  and  BEL.  I.  Baal,  frequently  men- 
tioned in  the  Old  Testament  as  the  god  of  the 
idolatrous  Israelites,  as  he  was  of  the  Canaanites 
(Phcenicians,  Philistines,  and  Edomites).  And, 
as  the  Phffinicians  naturally  carried  their  religion 
with  them  wherever  they  went,  the  name  of  Baal 
was  very  widely  spread.     See  Phcenicians. 

1.  Tfie  name  means  "  lord,"  or  "  possessor," 
and,  when  used  in  a  special  sense,  "  head  of  the 
wife."  This  meaning  it  shares  with  the  other 
Shemitio  divinities,  for  they  all  set  forth  the  idea 
of  power,  and  thus  differ  in  conception  from  the 
Aryan  divinities;  and  akso  in  that,  apparently, 
these  Shemitic  gods  were  originally  one  god,  who 
took  different  names  according  to  the  localities 
in  wliich  he  was  worshipped,  and  so,  in  course  of 
time,  arose  separate  divinities. 

2.  1'lie  tine  of  the  name.  —  Baal  w.as  the  com- 
monest name  for  god  among  the  Phoenicians,  and 
everywhere  designated  the  highest  god,  or  the 
highest  worshipped  in  any  particular  place.  So, 
ahso,  it  is  used  as  a  description,  e.g.,  "Melkart, 
the  Baal  of  Tyre."  In  the  Old  Testament  is  fre- 
quently the  plural,  "  Baalim;  "  meaning  either  in 
general  "the  idols,"  or  the  Baals  collectively, 
which  had  their  especial  seats  in  different  locali- 
ties. 

Baal  is,  without  doubt,  a  sun-god,  and  a  male 
divinity  par  excellenre.  He  is  very  frequently 
calleil  IJaal  Chamman;  and  Chamman,  "  hot,"  is 
applied  to  the  sun  in  Hebrew.  .So,  also,  Baalbek 
was  called  by  the  (ireeks  Heliopolis  (city  of  the 
Bun).  It  is  also  noticeabh?  that  the  Greeks  .and 
Komans  identified  Melkart,  the  Baal  of  Tyre, 
with  Herakles  (Hercules),  the  sun-god.  At 
Beth-Shemesh  (the  sun-Utmple)  was  there  an 
altar  to  Baal  :  and  it  does  not  milit.ate  .against 
this  identification  when  Baal  and  the  sun  are 
distinguished    as    separate   divinities    (2   Kings 


xxiii.  .5);   for  Apollo  was  originally  a  sun-god, 
but  afterwards  was  distinguished  from  the  sun. 

In  the  Shemitic  divinities  the  beneficent  .and 
tlie  destructive  powers  were  united :  so  in  Baal 
we  find  such  names  as  Hannibal,  "  gracious  is 
Ba.al,"  Asdrubal,  "Ba.al  helps."  On  the  other 
hand,  Baal  is  set  forth  as  a  destructive  god,  whose 
wrath  must  be  placated;  and  so  there  were  sacri- 
fices of  children  ('Jer.  xis.  5,  xxxii.  35)  to  which 
many  classical  writers  testify,  although  they  call 
Baal  .Saturn,  or  Kronos.  No  distinction  is  to  be 
made  between  Moloch  and  Baal,  as  if  the  one 
were  destructive,  while  the  other  was  beneficent. 
See  Moloch. 

3.  Different  Baah.  —  a.  Baal-Berith  (lonl  of 
the  covenant),  worshipped  by  the  Shecheinites, 
the  protector  of  the  "  covenant "  formed  between 
men  (.Judg.  viii.  33,  ix.  4). 

h.  Baal-Peor  (lord  of  Peor),  a  god  of  the 
Moabites  or  Midianites,  so  called  because  wor- 
shipped upon  Mount  Peor  (Num.  xxiii.  28,  xxv. 
3).  The  common  interpret.ation,  which  insists 
upon  obscene  rites  in  the  worship  of  Baal-Peor, 
is  altogether  aside  from  tlie  plain  text.  Not  tlie 
prostitution  of  female  devotees  who  yielded  up 
their  virtue  in  discharge  of  a  religious  duty,  but 
fornication  and  idolatry,  are  spoken  of. 

c.  Baal-Zebub  (lord  of  the  fi/).  See  Beelze- 
bub. 

d.  Baal-Gad  (lord  of  fortune'),  a  place  near 
Hermon  (.Tosh.  xi.  17,  xii.  7,  xiii.  5.) 

e.  Baal-Meon  (lord  of  the  habitation),  a  town 
where  was  a  temple :  in  full  form,  the  name  is 
the  Temple  of  Baal-JIeon,  Beth -Baal-Meon 
(Josh.  xiii.  17),  contracted  into  Baal-Meon 
(Num.  xxxii.  38;  1  Chron.  v.  8),  .and  thus  the 
name  of  a  Moabite  city  (Ezek.  xxv.  9),  called  also 
Beth-Meon  (Jer.  xlviii.  23),  Beon  (Num.  xxxii. 
3);  now  Ma'in,  nine  miles  south-east  of  Hesh- 
bon.     It  w.as  .assigned  to  Reuben. 

f  Baal-Zephon  (Exod.  xiv.  2  ;  Num.  xxxiii. 
7),  a  camping-ground  for  the  Israelites,  on  the 
Red  Se.a,  where  there  was  a  Baal  imported  thither 
from  the  nortli. 

().  Baal-Tamar  (lord  of  the  palm),  a  place  near 
Gibeah  (Judg.  xx.  33).  The  palm,  tamar,  by 
its  height,  spread,  and  perpetual  greenness, 
would  be  a  good  symbol  of  Baal,  the  fruitful- 
making  sun. 

h.  .and  /.  The  Palmyra  inscriptions  speak  of 
two  further  forms  of  Baal,  the  divinities  Aglibol 
<and  Mal.achbel.  They  are  named  and  pictured 
together,  and  represented  the  sun  .and  the  moon; 
for  on  one  monument  .\glibol  has  a  half-moon 
over  her  shoulder,  while  Malaclibel  is  borne  up 
by  an  eagle,  and  has  a  crown  of  sun-r.ays.  In  the 
name  Aglibol  we  have  a  mingling  of  the  word 
for  a  young  steer  .and  Baal,  reminding  us  of  the 
classic  tales  of  Zeus,  in  the  shape  of  a  steer 
carrying  off  Europa. 

4.  The  liual-Cullwi  in  Israel.  It  is  unques- 
tionable, that,  in  the  earliest  times,  tlie  Hebrews 
called  their  god  Baal.     In  ]iroof,  these  names,  in 


BAAL. 


18.-) 


BAALBEK. 


Saul's  family  fioinpoumlpd  with  Haal.  as  Ksli- 
baal  (Islilioshesh),  and  Mcrili-baal  (McphilxislifsliJ 
(1  Cliron.  viii.  H'-i,  31),  may  I'l'  ()ii()te(l. 

The  worship  of  Kaal  was  known  to  the  He- 
brews while  in  the  desert,  and  iriany  were  in- 
duced to  adopt  it  by  the  Moabitish  women 
(Num.  XXV.);  and  this  worshi)),  in  the  time  of 
the  Judges,  became  their  besetting  sin,  so  that 
vigorous,  though  only  partially  successful,  efforts 
were  made  to  eradicate  it  (.Judg.  ii.  11,  l:i.  iii.  7, 
vi.  2.5sq  ,  X.  G  ;  1  Sam.  vii.  4,  xii.  10).  Then  came 
the  reformation  under  Saul  and  David;  a  relapse 
followed  under  Solomon  ;  and  at  length  Ahab,  King 
of  Israel,  influenced  by  Je/ebel,  introduced  tlie 
worship  of  the  Zidonian  Baal,  and  advanced  this 
idolatrous  worship  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Jehovah 
cultus  (1  Kings  xvi.  81  sq..  xix.  10).  And  it 
had  so  strong  a  hold  upon  the  affections  of  the 
people  that  it  was  not  until  .lelui,  by  stratagem, 
put  a  large  number  of  Baal-worsliippers  to  death, 
that  this  hold  was  loosened  ;  only  tenqiorarily, 
liowever,  for  the  people  returned  to  it  not  long 
after  (2  Kings  x.  18-2S,  xvii.  10).  In  Judah 
there  was  likewise  inveterate  Baal  -  worship, 
although  not  so  much  favored  by  the  reigning 
house.  Ahaz  practised  it  (2  Kings  xvi.  3; 
2  Chron.  xxviii.  2);  Ilezekiah  rejiressed  it  (2 
Kings  xviii,  4)  ;  but  Manasseh  continued  it  (2 
Kings  xxi.  3).  He,  however,  was  the  last  king 
to  do  so. 

Baal  was  worshipped  by  animal  sacrifices  (1 
Kings  xviii.  23;  2  Kings  x.  24),  with  incense 
(■Jer.  vii.  9,  xi.  13,  xxxii.  29),  and  by  kissing  his 
images  (1  Kings  xix.  IS).  His  pillars  or  images 
were  made  of  stone  or  of  wood  (2  Kings  x.  20, 
27),  and  even  of  silver  and  gold  (Hos.  ii.  8, 
margin).  It  was  usual  for  Baal  to  be  found  in 
conjunction  with  Asherah,  or  Astarte  (Phoenician, 
Bauiaih,  cf.  the  Assyrian-Babylonian  pair,  Bel 
and  Beltis,  or  Bil  and  Bilisli),  upon  heights, 
either  natural  or  artificial,  where  were  their 
altars  (Judg.  vi.  25;  2  Cliron.  xxxiv.  4;  Jer. 
xix.  5,  xxxii.  3.5).  See  Astarte.  Near  by 
stood  the  sun-images  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  4).  The 
attempt  to  get  nearer  God  by  climbing  a  hill 
accounts  for  the  practice  of  offering  incense  to 
Baal  upon  the  roofs  of  houses  (.Jer.  xxxii.  29,  cf. 
2  Kings  xxiii.  12).  We  read  of  Baal  temples  in 
Samaria  (1  Kings  xvi.  32  ;  2  Kings  x.  21),  and 
in  Jerusalem  (2  Kings  xi.  18),  of  Baal  priests  and 
prophets,  and  of  bloody  rites  (1  Kings  xviii. 
19,  28). 

II.  Bel  (Assyrian,  Bil ;  Greek  and  Latin, 
Bel)  is  called,  in  the  authorized  text  and  on 
the  Assyrian  inscriptions,  one  of  the  greatest 
gods  of  the  Babylonians  (Isa.  xlvi.  1  ;  Jer.  1. 
2,  Ii.  44),  and  probably  he  was  the  cliief.  He 
was  called  "  The  Exalted  One,  the  Light  of 
the  gods.  Father  of  gods.  Lord  of  lands.  Ruler 
of  all  "  Whether  he  represented  a  natural  force 
has  not  been  as  yet  certainly  determined  ;  but  it 
is  probable  he  was  a  sun-god.  Later  on  he  was 
identified  with  the  god  of  the  jilanet  Jupiter 
(Marduk),  and  so  called  the  star  .Fupiter.  But 
this  comparatively  recent  form  of  Bel  gave  rise 
to  the  distinction  Bel  minor,  or  the  younger  Bel, 
and  Bel  priscus,  or  the  old  Bel  ;  and  when 
transferred  to  Greece  and  Rome,  for  their  names 
for  the  planets  .are  Babylonish  in  origin,  they 
became  Bel  Jupiter  and  Bel  Saturn.     Tliis  plane- 


tary interpretation  wis,  however,  at  Irst  q'.iit.ft 
seconilarv:  vet  a  similar  ilifferi'nce  lietwer^n  cog- 
nate diviniti<.s  has  lu'en  found  in  many  religions, 
for  it  rested  upon  the  concei)lion  of  a  concealed 
and  a  revealed  god.  The  liighest  god  was  so 
transcendent,  that  he  was  quite  invisible;  but 
between  him  and  nu.rtals  there  was  a  revealer 
who  shared  the  divine  nature,  but  was  not  identi- 
cal with  tlie  supreme  god. 

Lit.  —  On  the  general  literature  see  the  list 
under  Astahte.  Further:  Upon  Baal-Beor, 
Kautzsch  :  Die  Acchthi'it  ilc.i  jiioiihil.  Allerhtms 
i}r_iin\fiy  1870.  Upon  Aglibol  and  Malachbel,  Dk 
VogI'k:  Syr\e  cenlrnle,  1809.  Upon  Baal  in  the 
Israelitish  proper  names,  Nestle:  Die.  iaraelit. 
Eifieiniamcn  riarh  Hirer  reli</ions(/esrliirhll.,  /ieileut- 
!()/</,  Haarlem,  1870.  '     WOLF  UAUDISSIN. 

BAALBEK  (l/al'hek),  a  city  of  Cwle-Syria,  cele- 
brated for  its  magnificence  in  the  first  centuries 
of  the  Christian  era,  and  famous  ever  since  for 
its  ruins.  Here  Baal  as  the  sun-god  was  wor- 
shipped, and  in  later  times,  at  all  events,  Venus; 
for  the  immorality  of  the  )>lace  was  notorious. 
Baalbek  is  situated  on  a  plain  near  the  foot  of 
the  Anti-Lebanus  range,  about  forty  miles  north- 
west of  Damascus,  and  thirty-eight  hundred  feet 
above  sea-level.  It  is  known  in  history  under 
the  Greek  name  Heliopolis,  "  city  of  the  sun;" 
but  Baalbek  was  the  earlier  name.  Curiously 
enough  in  Egypt  there  was  a  Heliopolis,  which  was 
also  called  On.  Hence  the  plausible  sujiposition 
that  these  two  places  were  of  common  origin.  In 
proof,  the  saying  of  the  author  of  De  Dm  Si/ria, 
that  in  the  great  temple  of  Heliopolis  an  antique 
idol  was  worshipped  which  h.ad  been  brought 
from  Egypt,  is  quoted,  and  also  the  statement 
of  Macroliius  in  his  Satttrnulio,  that  the  statue  of 
.Jupiter  Heliopolitanus  came  from  Egypt.  It 
w.as  only  after  it  was  made  a  Roman  colony, 
under  the  name  Colonin  Julia  Aiiijusia  Felix 
Heliopolitana,  that  Baalbek  became  a  place  of 
first-class  importance.  Up  to  that  time  it  wa.s 
in  obscurity.  It  cannot  be  identified  satisfac- 
torily with  any  Bible  locality.  It  is  mentioned 
by  .Josephus  (Antiq.  xiv.  3,  2),  Pliny  {Nal.  Hist. 
v.  22),  and  Ptolemy;  and  coins  of  the  city  have 
been  found  of  almost  all  the  emperors  from  Nerva 
to  Gallienus. 

The  magnificent  ruins  which  now  arrest  the 
traveller's  attention,  and  excite  his  wonder,  are 
proof  of  the  lavish  expenditure  of  the  enqierors 
of  the  second  and  third  centuries.  We  are  able, 
by  coins,  to  reconstruct  partly  the  two  temples 
as  they  once  stood.  The  Great  Temjile,  one  of 
the  wonders  of  the  Olil  \\'orld,  designed  apparently 
as  a  pantheon,  and  built,  it  is  probable,  by  Anto- 
ninus Pius  (A.D.  150),  is  now  almost  entirely  de- 
stroyed. Only  six  columns  yet  stand.  It  was 
built  upon  the  site  of  another  temple;  and  in  the 
west  wall  of  its  platform  are  the  three  famous 
blocks  of  stone,  placed  side  by  side,  and  twenty 
feet  from  the  ground,  measuring  respectively 
sixty-four  feet,  sixty-three  feet  eight  inches,  and 
sixty-three  feet,  and  are  thirteen  feet  in  height. 
In  the  quarry  in  the  neighborhood  there  is  a 
stone  cut  out,  but  not  yet  separated  from  the 
rock,  wliich  is  seventy-one  feet  long,  fourteea 
feet  high,  and  thirteen  wide,  and  weighs  probably 
about  fifteen  hundred  tons.  The  presence  of  the 
three  stones  mentioned  gave  the  temple  the  name 


BAANITES. 


186 


BABYLON. 


Trilithon  or  "Three-Stone  Temple."  Slightly 
to  the  north  of  the  Great  Temple  is  the  Temple 
of  the  Sun,  which  is  remarkably  well  preserved. 
The  columns  are  forty-five  feet  high,  inchuling; 
the  Corinthian  capitals,  and  the  circumference  of 
each  nineteen  feet.  The  temple  is  entered 
thronah  an  exquisitely  carved  doorway.  The 
central  stone  of  the  architrave  having  subsided 
since  16o9.  it  lately  became  necessary  to  prop  it, 
to  the  detriment  of  its  appearance.  At  the  west 
end  of  the  cella  was  the  raised  sanctuary,  where 
the  altar  stood  during  the  Christian  period. 
Fartlier  east  there  is  a  very  small  but  very 
beautiful  circular  temple,  consisting  of  a  semi- 
circular cella  surroimded  by  eight  Corinthian 
colunms.  It  was  formerly  a  Greek  chapel,  but 
is  now  falling  to  decay. 

In  the  early  Christian  centuries,  Baalbek  was 
one  of  the  most  flourishing  seats  of  Pagan  wor- 
ship; and  the  Christian  writers  draw  strange 
pictures  of  the  morality  of  the  place.  In  297 
Gelasinus  was  martyred  there.  The  story  is  curi- 
ous, lie  was  a  comic  actor;  and  one  day,  in  the 
course  of  a  pulilic  mockery  of  Christian  rites,  he 
was  jpstingly  baptized.  But,  wlien  he  came  forth 
from  the  bath,  he  said  .solemnly,  "I  am  a  Chris- 
tian, for  I  have  seen  in  the  bath  an  awful  and 
majestic  spectacle;  and  for  Christ's  sake  I  am 
ready  to  die."  The  people,  in  I'age,  stoned  him  ; 
and  the  niagistr.ate,  in  order  to  spare  him  further 
suffering,  had  him  beheaded.  See  Smith  and 
Wace :  Did.  Christ.  Biot/.,  .v.  v.  The  Emperor 
Constantine,  according  to  Sozomen,  issued  a  re- 
script against  the  licentious  rites  of  the  people, 
and  founded  a  w/.s(7(V«  among  them;  but,  on  the 
accession  of  Julian,  the  Pagan  population  broke 
out  into  violent  persecution,  and  the  city  became 
BO  notorious  for  its  hostility  to  Chiistianity,  that 
Christians  were  banished  thither  from  Alexan- 
dria as  a,  special  ]iunishnient.  Theodosius  the 
Great  is  said  to  have  turned  "the  Temple  of 
Balanius,  the  Trilithon,"  into  a  Christian  Churcli 
{Kiici/rl.  Ilril.  .Ml//  locn).  Later  on,  bishops  of 
Jleliopolis  are  mentioned.  The  city  was  captured 
by  .Vbre  Ubeida  on  his  marcli  from  Damascus  to 
Hums.  Since  then  it  has  declined.  It  h.as  often 
changed  inaster.s,  and  war  lias  left  its  indelible 
marks,  'i'lie  present  unsightly  town  is  a  great 
contrast  to  the  city  of  the  past.  Eartliquakes 
have  done  much  to  reduce  to  ruins  tlie  magnifi- 
cent temples  reared  at  such  cost. 

The  ruins  of  Baalbek  have  been  often  de- 
cribed;  but  one  of  the  best,  if  not  the  best,  works 
on  the  subject  is  still  W'oou  and  Dawki.ns  :  Jiuin.-: 
of  liaulliic.  London,  1757.  fcjee  also  Kobi.nso.n  : 
Later  liibiicdl  Kcfiarclicn,  Boston,  1852,  pp.  505- 
527;  Mrs.  BriiroN:  IJiiex/ilareil  Si/ria,  London; 
and  till'  llauilliooks  of  Syria  by  Porter  (5th  ed.) 
and  Bad.-ki'r  (2d  (ier.  ed.'  ISSl). 

BAANITES.     See  Paui.icians. 

BA'ASHA  (rnliir),  son  of  Ahijah,  of  the  tribe 
of  i.ss:iehar,  third  king  of  Israel,  by  the  slaughter 
of  Nadali  and  all  his  family  (1  Kings  xv.  27), 
thus  unintentionally  fulfilling  Ahijah's  prophecy 
(1  Kings  xiv.  ID).  Although  of  common  origin, 
lie  made  a  warlike  and  Ijrave  king,  but  increased 
the  demoralization  of  his  kingdom  by  persisting  in 
the  w;iy  of  Jeroboam.  Jehu  prophesied  against 
him,  liut  without  effect.  ^Vhile  engaged  in  forti- 
fying Uaiiiah,  in  order  to  prevent  any  intercourse 


between  Jud.ih  and  Israel,  Baasha  was  attacked 
by  Benhadad,  King  of  Syria,  who  had  been 
incited  by  .Asa,  King  of  Judah.  and  compelled  to 
stop  building.  See  Asa.  Baasha  reigned  ))n)ba- 
bly  for  a  long  time  after  this;  for  in  all  he 
ruled  twenty-four  years  (B.C.  955-9:52),  and 
was  buried  in  Tirzah.  Upon  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor. Elah.  the  ]irophecy  of  Jehu  was  fulfilled 
(1  Kings  xvi.  12.  13).  UUETSCHI. 

SABA.     See  Mishna. 

BABYLON,  the  metropolis  of  the  Babylonian 
Emjiire,  was  built  on  both  sides  of  the  Euphrates, 
on  the  spot  where  the  present  Millah  stands. 
The  records  of  the  Old  Testament  (Gen.  x.  10) 
ascribe  the  foundation  of  Babel,  Erecli,  .Accad, 
and  Calneh,  to  Nimrod  the  Ilaniite  (Cushite); 
and  this  agrees  with  tlie  inscriptions  found  in 
the  ruins,  according  to  which  Urn  (the  Chaldrean 
Ur,  Gen.  xi.  28),  Arku  (the  present  WarUa.  the 
biblical  Erech),  B;ibilu  (the  Babel  of  the  Bible), 
etc.,  were  cities  of  non-Shemitic  origin.  The 
Old  Testament  (Gen.  xi.  9)  brings  the  name  Ba- 
bel in  connection  with  the  confusion  of  tongues, 
and  the  dispersion  of  the  race  into  nations, 
and  derives  it  from  the  Hebrew  ^22  "contu- 
sions." The  inscriptions,  however,  give  another 
etymology,  explaining  Bab-II  as  the  "gates  of 
El,"  or  simply  "  God's  gates."  The  existence  of 
the  city  as  the  centre  of  the  ChaUkean  and  a  pro- 
Chaldaean,  Accadian  civilization,  can  be  traced 
back  to  about  three  thousand  years  B.C 

The  whole  city,  enlarged  and  coinjileted  by 
Nabopolassar  and  Nebuchadnezzar,  lornied  a 
square  with  a  circumference,  according  to  Cte- 
sias,  of  three  hundred  and  sixty  stadia  (about 
fifty-six  miles),  or,  according  to  Herodotus,  of 
four  liundred  and  eighty  stadia  (about  seventy- 
five  miles),  a  diH'erence  « Inch  perhaps  arose  from 
the  latter  including  the  suburb  Borsi]ipa.  A 
wall  enclosed  this  city,  according  to  Hrrodotu.s, 
two  hundred  cubits  high  and  fitty  cubits  broad,  so 
that  two  chariots,  eacli  harnessed  with  four  liorses 
abreast,  could  easily  pass  each  other  between  the 
battlements.  It  was  built  of  brick  and  asphal- 
tum,  mounted  with  two  hundred  and  fifty  towers, 
and  surrounded  by  a  deep  and  broad  ditch  filled 
with  water  from  the  Euphrates.  One  hundred 
gates,  with  posts,  leaves,  an<i  sills  of  brass,  led 
into  the  city.  All  along  the  Euphrates  high 
embankments  protected  the  city  against  inunda- 
tion ;  and  gates  of  brass,  and  flights  of  steps  of 
ma.sonry,  led  down  to  tlie  river.  The  two  parts 
of  the  city  were  connected  by  a  bridge,  built  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  lestiiig  on  stone  pillars,  and 
))rovided  with  a  pathway  of  cedar-wood  and 
palm-beams,  which  was  removed  during  night. 
The  whole  area  was  laid  out  in  minor  sijiiares  by 
straight  streets  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  broad, 
and  lined  with  houses  of  three  or  four  stories; 
but  the  interior  part  seems  to  have  been  occupied 
by  ganlens  and  orchards.  This  "the  praise  of 
the  whole  earth"  (Jer.  li.  41),  "the  glory  of 
kingdoms,  the  beauty  of  the  Chaldees'  excel- 
lency "  (Isa.  xiii.  19),  was,  by  its  magnitude, 
splendor,  riches,  luxury,  art,  and  science,  the 
centre  of  \\'estern  Asia  ;  but  it  was  also  a  seat  of 
bonnilless  debauchery  and  vice  (Isa.  xiv.  11, 
xlvii.  1  ;  Jer.  li.  39;  Dan.  v.  1  sqq.). 

Till-  ruins  of  the  western  part  of  the  city  are 
by   far  not  so   imposing  as   those  of  the  easteiu 


BABYLON. 


187 


BABYLONIA. 


part,  consistitif;^  of  the  tliree  huge  mounds,  — 
Al-kasr,  Tell  Ainruii,  and  Habil.  Acconliii}^  to 
inscriptions  found  in  the  mound,  Al-kasr  rejire- 
Bents  the  palace  built  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  The 
mound  forms  a  square  seven  hundred  yards  in 
circuuiferenee,  and  consists  of  loose  bricks,  tiles, 
and  fragments  of  stone.  Renuiants  of  solid 
■walls,  with  traces  of  architectural  ornamenta- 
tion, are  met  with  in  tlie  middle  of  the  mound  : 
in  the  northern  part  the  great  lion  was  found,  of 
bl.ack  ba.s.alt,  called  by  the  Aiabs  the  "  idol,"  or 
the  "elephant."  At  a  distance  of  seven  hun- 
dred metres  south  of  Al-kasr,  rises  the  hill  Tell 
Amran,  thus  called  from  a  chapel  or  tomb  erected 
on  its  top  in  honor  of  Amran,  the  son  of  Ali. 
The  mound  forms  an  irregular  trapeze  four  hun- 
dred metres  broad,  and  its  two  parallel  sides 
respectively  five  hundred  and  three  hundred 
metres  long.  Of  solid  wall,  there  are  here  no 
traces.  The  surface  consists  of  sand  and  rub- 
bish, but  it  is  evident  that  the  place  has  been 
used  for  a  long  time  as  a  burial-ground.  The 
mound  is  generally  thought  to  represent  the 
famous  "  hanging-gardens," — a  construction  of 
terraces  four  hundred  feet  long,  four  hundred 
feet  broad,  and  so  high  that  it  overlooked  the 
towers  of  the  palace.  The  most  imposing  part, 
however,  of  the  ruins  is  Babil,  a  mound  one 
Jmndred  and  eighty  metres  long,  seventy  metres 
broad,  and  forty  metres  high.  Walls  and  other 
ti'aces  of  architectural  construction  are  here 
easily  distinguishable;  and  it  can  hardly  be 
doubted  that  this  mound  represents  a  Temple 
of  Helus,  identical  with  that  temple  which  is 
mentioned  in  an  inscription  of  Tiglath-l'ileser 
IV.,  OEie  hundred  years  before  Nebuchadnezzar, 
and  was  dedicated  to  Bel  Merodach,  but  different 
from  that  which,  situated  on  the  western  bank  of 
the  Euphrates,  at  Borsippa,  generally  goes  under 
the  name  of  the  "  Tower  of  Babel,"  and  which 
■was  dedicated  to  Bel-Nebo. 

On  the  western  bank  of  the  river,  are  the  ruins 
of  the  second  royal  palace,  opposite  the  hills  of 
Tell  An;ran,  and  two  miles  farther  to  the  north, 
at  the  old  Borsippa,  the  much  more  interesting 
ruins  of  the  above-mentioned  Temple  of  Bel- 
Nebo.  This  temple  formed,  so  to  speak,  an  arti- 
ficial mountain  of  brick.  The  ground  upon 
■which  it  stood  was  laid  out  as  a  square,  two 
stadia  on  each  side,  and  surrounded  with  a  wall. 
In  the  centre  of  this  ground,  stood  a  square  build- 
ing of  brick  and  aspiialtum,  six  hundred  feet  on 
each  side;  and  from  this  basis  arose  the  tower, 
pyramidally,  six  hundred  feet  high.  Stairs, 
with  landings  and  resting-places,  led,  on  the 
outside  of  the  building,  to  the  uppermost  story, 
■which  contained  a  golden  altar  and  a  magniti- 
cently  pi-epared  base  for  the  god,  but  no  statuary. 
The  lowest  story,  however,  contained  statuary 
representing  the  god  sitting  on  a  golden  throne, 
behind  .a  golden  altar,  on  which  one  thousand 
pounds  ot  incense  were  burnt  every  year,  on  the 
day  of  his  festival.  An  inscription,  which 
exists  in  two  copies,  tells  that  Nebuchadnezzar 
found  this  building  partly  unfinished,  partly  in 
decay,  but  restored  and  completed  it.  It  seems 
to  date  back  from  an  extremely  old  age ;  and 
■when  local  tradition  identifies  the  present  mound 
of  ruins,  the  Birs  Nimrod,  with  the  Tower  of 
Babel    (Gen.    x.    10),   most  Assyrialogists   seem 


willing  to  accept  the  tradition.  Aftfr  the  fall  of 
tli(^  Babylonian  Empire  the  building  gradually 
fell  into  decay.  Xerxes  broke  down  the  ujiper- 
niost  story,  and  carried  away  all  the  ornaments. 
Alexander  the  Great  thought  of  restoring  the 
building;  and  ten  thousand  laborers  were  ein- 
lilciyed  for  two  nu)nths  in  carrying  off  the  accu- 
mulated rubbish.  But  with  his  death  the  work 
stoppe<l.  At  present  the  mound  of  ruins  has 
only  half  the  height  the  building  itself  had. 
The  upper  stories  have  tumbled  down,  and 
covered  the  lower  with  their  dc'/iris.  Several 
indications  show  that  fire  has  played  a  part  in 
the  destruction. 

The  city  was  first  conquered  by  Cyrus  in  538 
B.C.,  and  then  again  in  olS,  after  a  revolt,  by 
Darius  Hystaspis,  who  filled  up  the  ditch,  and 
lowered  the  walls  to  half  their  original  height. 
Xerxes  plimdered,  not  only  the  Temple  of  Belus, 
but  also  the  palaces;  and  the  restoration  which 
Alexander  the  Great  promised  was  bafHed  by 
his  death.  But  the  severest  blow,  the  city  re- 
ceived from  the  building  of  a  new  royal  residence 
in  its  neighborhood,  —  Seleucia.  From  that  mo- 
ment it  began  to  decay.  It  became  a  sort  of 
quarry.  Seleucia,  Ktesiphon,  Kufa,  and  even 
Bagdad,  were  built  of  bricks  taken  from  Baby- 
lon. At  present  the  site  of  the  city  is  a  place  of 
unspeakable  desolation,  just  as  the  prophets  said 
it  should  be  (Isa.  xiii.  IS),  xiv.  4;  Jer.  li.  ;i7). 

Lit.  —  Rich  :  Memoirs  on  l/ic  Ruins  of  Jjiiln/lon, 
1818;  Layauo:  JJnlii/lon  and  Nincn-li,  London, 
18.33;  LoKTUS:  Chaldccn  ami  Siixiana,  London, 
1857  ;  Oppkut:  Exjit'dition  srienli/it/ne  en  Mc'sopo- 
taniie,  1858-04,  with  maps  and  plans.  Rawi.ix- 
so.\  :  Five  Great  Monarcliies,  Loudon,  18(jJ-65.  3 
vols. ;  2d  ed.  1871,  3  vols.  ;  reprinted  N.  Y.,  1881, 
3  vols. 

BABYLONIA  is  the  name  which  the  Greeks 
and  the  Romans  gave  to  the  "  land  of  the  Chal- 
deans "  (Jer.  xxiv.  5,  xxv.  12;  Ezek.  xii.  13), 
generally  called  Shinar  in  the  Old  Testament 
(Gen.  X.  10,  xi.  2,  xiv.  1),  thereby  denoting  the 
region  along  the  lower  course  of  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Tigris,  from  the  point  where  they  ap- 
proach each  other  to  their  mouth  in  the  Persian 
Gulf,  and  from  Elam  on  the  east,  to  Arabia  on 
the  west.  This  region  forms  a  vast  plain,  con- 
sisting of  a  fat,  brown  soil  of  extraordinary 
fertility;  and  in  olden  time  the  natural  produc- 
tiveness of  the  land  was  still  further  increased  by 
excellent  cultivation.  Immense  hydraulic  work.s 
were  erected  in  order  to  regulate  the  inundations 
of  the  two  rivers,  and  utilize  their  waters.  The 
current  of  the  Euphrates  is  calm  and  regular, 
but  that  of  the  Tigris  is  wild  and  violent;  and 
here  huge  embankments,  immense  reservoirs,  and 
long  canals  were  necessary.  Besides  agriculture, 
the  teeming  population  w,as  also  successfully  en- 
gaged in  manufactures  and  commerce.  Carpets, 
woollen  and  linen  fabrics,  articles  of  glass  and 
bronze,  etc.,  were  produced;  and  these  products 
were  rapidly  exchanged  for  those  of  Arabia, 
Ethiopia,  and  India.  The  country  was  rich.  In 
a  later  period  the  Persian  Empire  drew  one-third 
of  its  revenues  from  this  province  alone. 

The  inhabitants  of  this  country,  the  bearers  of 
this  civilization,  were  not  a  pure  race.  The 
population  consisted,  indeed,  of  two  layers:  one, 
the  Accadiaus,  reminding,  in  many  respects,  oJ 


BABYLONIA. 


188 


BABYLONIA. 


tlie  Turco-Tartaric  or  Uralo-Altaic  race ;  and 
another,  the  Clialda^an.  belonjrinff  surely  to  the 
Sheinitic  nace.  About  the  former,  the  Aceadi- 
aus,  the  original  inliabitants  of  Sliiuar,  the  cunei- 
form inscriptions  give  a  consideral>le  amount  of 
information, — about  their  hmguage,  wliich  was 
stronglv  agglutinative;  tlieir  literature,  hynnis. 
i-,nd  epics,  which  the  Chaldjeans  translated  and 
imitated;  their  science  and  art,  astronomy,  an<l 
architecture,  which  the  Chaldjeans  adopted  and  de- 
veloped ;  in  short,  their  whole  liistorical  position. 
They  built  cities  which  became  centres  of  gov- 
ernment and  enterprise.  Of  four  of  these  cities 
ruins  are  still  extant;  namely,  Uru,  the  Ur  of 
the  Chaldseans  of  the  Bible  (Gen.  xi.  28),  situ- 
ated farthest  to  the  south  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Euphrates,  in  latitude  31°  north,  and  repre- 
sented by  the  ruins  of  JIugheir;  Larsani,  a  little 
more  to  the  north,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, represented  by  the  ruins  of  Senkereh  ; 
Arku.  still  farther  to  the  north,  the  present 
Warka,  the  biblical  Erech  (Gen.  x  10),  tlie 
Greek  Ore:!';;  and  finally  Babilu,  Babylon,  the 
Bal>el  of  the  Bible.  Other  cities,  not  yet  identi- 
fn'(l  by  their  ruins,  are  mentioned  in  the  inscrip- 
tions and  in  the  Bible,  such  as  Accad.  Kutha, 
.Sephaivaim,  and  Xepur.  That  these  cities  were 
not  founded  by  the  Shemites  is  proved  by  the 
non-Shemitic  inscriptions  found  in  their  ruins ; 
and  this  agrees  with  the  Bible,  which  ascribes 
the  foundation  of  Babel,  Erech,  Accad,  and 
Calneh  to  Ninirod  the  Hamite  (Cushite)  (Gen.  x. 
10).  in  the  beginning,  and  for  a  long  time,  the.se 
towns  were  rivals  of  each  other;  now  one,  now 
another,  of  them  carrying  the  day.  A  king  from 
this  fiist  period  of  historical  time  is  spoken  of  as 
very  powerful.  He  was  the  ruler  of  Ur,  and  his 
name  is  generally  read  Uruk.  A  whole  series  of 
iji.scriptions  relate  to  him.  Another,  named 
Kudurmabuk,  from  the  .same  pericul,  was  King  of 
l.arsam.  He  is  probably  identical  with,  the  Ku- 
durnanchnuti,  of  whom  the  inscriptions  of  .\sur- 
banipal  says  that  ho  ruled  over  Babylonia  lt).'?."i 
years  before  Sennacherib,  that  is  about  2'JfSO 
years  B.C.  To  an  Elamitic,  that  is  purely 
Turanian  dynasty,  belonged,  prob;d)ly,  also  the 
biblical  Chedorhiomer  ((jen.  xiv.).  'I'he  union 
of  the.se  minor  kingdoms  into  one  great  empire 
took  place  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, and  wa.s  effected  by  llannnurabi  He  was 
probably  a  Cassite  from  Ehim,  and  King  of  Baby- 
lon ;  but  thence  lie  overran  the  whole  region  down 
to  the  Persian  (iulf,  coinjuered  Ur,  Earsani, 
Accad,  and  Karrak,  and  styled  himself  king 
of  Sumir  and  Accad,  and  the  four  nations.  He 
made  Babylon  the  cajiital  of  his  empire,  and  in- 
creased the  magnificence  of  the  worship  of  Bel, 
wiio  now  fx'came  the  ]>rincipal  god  in  the  re- 
ligious system  of  B;ibyloni;i.  He  also  built  and 
restored  other  temjiles,  palaces,  ami  cities,  ami 
dug  one  of  tlie  greatest  canals,  Haminurabi- 
iiuDu.s-ni8i,  whicli  passed  through  the  Baliylonian 
territory. 

'I'he  Shemites  reached  the  country  from 
Arabia,  and  settled  first  in  and  about  Ur,  but 
spread  rapidly  to  the  north,  steadily  fighting 
with  the  Acc.adians,  tuit  fiiudly  gaining  the  as- 
cendency. Nevertheless,  although  the  Chal- 
dicans  gradually  became  the  ruling  race,  the 
civilization   which  they  developed  they  adopted 


from  tfie  Accadians.  From  them  they  borrowed, 
not  only  the  art  of  writing,  the  cuneiform  aljilia- 
bet,  but  the  very  literature.  The  Shemito 
Sargon,  King  of  Agane,  who  in  the  seventeenth 
century  B.C.  conquered  Erech,  took  great  pains 
to  liave  the  sacred  books  of  the  Accadians  trans- 
lated. Thus  there  exists  a  whole  series  of  lyric 
and  epic  poems,  both  in  the  vernacular  Accailiaii 
tongue  and  in  the  Sheinitic  translation.  The 
Chaldajan  account  of  the  deluge  is  a  translation 
from  the  Accadian.  U  forms  part  of  a  great 
epic  cycle:  "The  Adventures  of  Izdhub;ir," 
which  w.-is  to  the  Babylonians  what  Homer  was 
to  the  Greeks,  — •  their  Bible  ;  and  it  was  from 
the  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  that  the  Israelites  carried 
away  with  them  those  religious  traditions  on 
which  modern  life  rests;  just  as  it  is  from  this 
very  same  source,  but  through  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  that  modern  civilization  has  obtained 
its  first  scientific  and  artistic  tradition.  Thero 
also  exist  very  minute  astronomical  nolations 
in  the  Accadian  language,  whicli  show  that  in 
this  field,  too,  the  Chaldseans  were  boriower.i 
before  they  became  producers  ;  and  a  table  of 
laws,  the  oldest  in  the  world,  the  moral  bearing 
of  whose  tenets  points  as  directly  to  an  Uialo- 
.-Mtaic  origin  as  the  agglutinative  character  of 
the  language  in  which  it  is  written;  for  here,  as 
in  all  Uralo-Altaic  laws,  a  greater  importance  is 
ascribed  to  the  mother  than  tt)  the  father  in  the 
relation  of  parentage.  The  double  character  of 
the  Balndonian  ]ieople,  arising  from  the  two  ele- 
ments of  which  it  consisted,  the  Accadian  and 
the  Chahhean,  was  openly  acknowledged  by  tho 
title  which  the  Babylonian  kings  assumed  after 
the  union  of  the  minor  kingdom.s,  —  '•  King  of 
.Sumir  and  Accad  ;  "  Suinir  probably  being  iden- 
tical with  Shinar. 

The  intimate  intercourse  between  As.syria  and 
Babyloniji  begins  during  the  reign  of  Tiglath- 
Pileser  H.  (745-728  B.C.).  He  made  two  cam- 
paigns to  Babylonia  (745  and  7-31),  and  suc- 
ceeded in  subjugating  the  country;  but  twice 
Merodach-Baladan  of  Beth-lakin  rebelled  (721 
anil  710),  and  not  until  fie  was  utterly  defeated 
in  the  latter  year  by  Sargon  could  a  real  iiniou 
between  the  two  countries  be  accomplished. 
.Sargon  (727-707)  assumed  the  title  of  "King  of 
Babylonia,"  and  ruled  the  country  personally.  So 
did  also  Essarhaddon  (081-(i()9)  :  he  even  resided 
in  Babylon,  whither  he  carried  Manasseh,  King 
of  .Jndah,  as  a  captive  (2  Chron.  xxxiii.  11  ;  Ez. 
iv.  2)  Generally,  however,  the  As.syrian  kings 
governed  Babylonia  by  viceroys,  and  this  gave 
occasion  to  frequent  revolts.  Thus  Assurbanipal 
(f)(J8-()2(l)  made  his  brother  Samulsumukin  vice- 
roy of  IJabylonia;  and  Samulsumukin  rebelled, 
was  defeated,  and  killed.  But  under  A.ssur- 
bani pal's  successor,  Assur-ebil-ili,  the  revolt  suc- 
ceeded. The  Baliylonian  viceroy,  Nabopalasar, 
in  connection  with  tlu^  Median  king,  ('yaxcaras, 
attacked  As.syria.  Nineveh  fell  in  005,  and 
15abylon  became  the  centre  of  a  great  empire 
under  Nabopalasar  and  his  son  Nebuchadnezzar 
(U04-5(il).  After  the  death,  how<'ver,  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, the  power  of  Babylonia  immediately 
began  to  decline,  and  in  538  it  was  conqni'ied  by 
Cyrus,  and  nuule  a  province  of  the  I'l'isian  Em- 
pire.     See  NAlK)l'Al..\S.Alt,  NK»t:oiiAi>.Ni;/ZAH. 

The  fall,  liowevur,  of  A.ssyri;i  and  Babylonia, 


BACCALAURBUS. 


189 


BACON. 


the  passiiifj  of  the  empire  from  the  Shemitic  to 
the  Aryan  race  with  Cyrus,  was  a  great  gain  to 
mankiiiJ.  Though  the  earliest  religious,  scien- 
tific, and  artistic  traditions  of  our  present  civili- 
Kation  were  cradled  in  Bal\ylonia,  the  Babylonian 
religion,  when  fully  developed,  was,  nevertheless. 
a  mean  and  base  idolatry,  which  intellectually 
prevented  all  true  insight  into  natural  phenom- 
ena, and  stopped  all  scientific  and  artistic 
progress  at  a  short  goal,  while  morally  it  left 
the  passions  without  rule  and  guidance,  and 
rather  encouraged  sensuality  and  debauchery. 
The  Babylonian  gods  were  originally  local  dei- 
ties. Bel  and  his  consort,  Belit  or  Mylitta,  were 
originally  the  gods  of  Nipur.  Hence  they  were 
transplanted  to  Babel ;  and,  when  Babylon  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  empire,  Bel  became  the 
supreme  or  central  deity  of  tlie  religious  system. 
Sin,  the  moon-god,  was  the  god  of  Ur,  one  of  the 
oldest  centres  of  B.abylonian  civilization,  and  was 
always  held  in  highej-  esteem  by  the  Babylonians 
than  Shamas,  the  sun-god.  Anu,  tlie  god  of  the 
heavens,  and  his  consort.  Nana,  were  worshijiped 
at  Erech  ;  Hea,  god  of  the  sea  and  the  infernal 
regions,  and  his  consort,  Darkina,  at  Eridu,  etc. 
When  all  these  cities  were  gathered  into  one 
empire,  the  gods  were  gathered  into  one  system; 
a  certain  rank  was  ascribed  to  each  of  them,  and 
a  genealogy  was  invented.  Mystical  and  fanciful 
astronomical,  or  ratlier  .astrological,  relations  were 
connected  with  their  names;  and  a  mythology 
■was  elaborated,  half  poetical  romance,  and  half 
scientific  symbolization.  But  when  this  mythol- 
ogy lost  its  hold  on  its  devotees,  no  philosophy 
arose  to  take  its  place,  and  after  a  short  career 
Babylonian  civilization  became  an  abomination 
and  a  curse.  See,  for  further  information,  the 
articles  on  Assyria,  B.\bylon,Cii.\li),v;a,  Cunei- 
form Lnschiptions,  Deluge,  and  Nineveh. 

Lit.  —  George  S.Mirii  :  The  Histori/  of  Bal»j- 
lonia,  edited  by  Professor  A.  H.  Sayce,  London, 
1877  ;  Bahi/lonian  Literalure,  by  Professor  S.wce, 
London,  1877;  and  what  is  given  under  the  arti- 
cles above  referred  to. 

BACCALAUREUS  (Bachelor),  an  academical 
title  first  introduced  in  the  University  of  Paris 
in  the  tliirteenth  century,  by  Pope  Gregory  IX., 
and  given  to  such  students  as  had  successfully 
gone  through  the  first  examination,  but  not  j'et 
acquired  the  rights  and  rank  of  an  independent 
master,  or  doctor.  The  etymolog}'  of  the  word  is 
doubtful  ;  some  deriving  it  from  haccaUntrra,  a 
"  laurel-berry,"  others  from  baccahts  and  taurea, 
a  "  laurel-twig,"  .and  others  again  from  hacca- 
larii  (has  cheralier),  denoting  a  lower  class  of 
knights,  whose  estates  did  not  allow  them  to 
take  military  service  in  an  independent  manner, 
with  a  retinue  of  their  own. 

BACCANARISTS,  an  ecclesiastical  order,  thus 
called  after  its  founder,  Baccanari,  who  .after 
the  temporary  dissolution  of  the  Society  of  the 
Jesuits,  in  1773,  by  this  means  attempted  to 
restore  the  order  under  a,  new  name  and  in 
another  form.  Though  favored  by  Pope  Pius 
VI.,  the  Bacc.anavists  never  prospered.  In  1811 
they  entered  the  re-established  order  of  the 
Jesuits.     See  Jesuits*. 

BACH,  Johann  Seoastian,  b.  at  Eisenach, 
March  21,  1685;  d.  at  Leipzig,  July  2S,  1750; 
belonged    to    a   family   which    through    several 


generiitions  had  distinguislied  itself  by  musical 
talent,  but  lost  his  parents  very  e.arly,  iind  had, 
from  his  fourteenth  year,  to  provide  for  his  own 
education.  Nevertheless,  in  1703  he  was  ap- 
jininti'd  court-musician  in  AVeimar;  and  in  17'J.% 
then  one  of  the  most  celebrated  musicians  of  the 
time,  he  was  made  cantor  and  director  of  church 
music  at  Leipzig.  His  celebrity  lie  owed  mostly 
to  his  skill  as  an  organist  and  pianist.  His  coiii- 
[H)sitions,  which  form  the  foundation  for  what,  in 
the  history  of  music,  is  called  the  German 
school,  were  not  thought  much  of  during  his  life- 
time. 'J'hey  consist  chiefiy  of  church-music,  or.i- 
torios,  masses,  etc.,  for  organ  and  orchestra,  for 
instruments  as  well  as  for  the  human  voice;  and 
after  his  death  the  manuscripts  were  divided 
among  his  sons,  and  remained  unnoticed  till  the 
time  of  Mendelssohn.  Ills  life  has  been  written 
by  his  son,  Philipp  Emanuel  B.ach;  by  J.  N.  Foi- 
kel,  18U2;  and  by  Ph.  Spitta,  1st  vol.  1873. 

BACON,  Roger,  b.  at  Ilche.ster,  in  Somerset- 
.shire,  in  1214  ;  d.  at  Oxford  1294.  His  family 
were  in  good  circumstances,  but  were  much  crip- 
pled during  the  reign  of  Henry  HI.  He  studied  at 
Oxford;  took  orders  (1233),  and  went  to  Paris, 
took  there  the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology,  and, 
because  of  his  brillhant  talents,  was  called  doctor 
mirah'dh.  In  1250  he  was  again  at  Oxford  ;  and 
then,  acting  under  the  advice  of  his  patron,  Rob- 
ert Grosseteste  (C.apito),  he  entered  the  Francis- 
can order,  —  the  great  mistake  of  his  life.  Hin 
fame  spread  rapidly ;  but  the  rumor  of  sorcery 
spread  with  it,  and  in  ]2r)7  Bonaventura,  the 
general  of  his  order,  forbade  his  lectures,  ordered 
him  to  go  to  Paris,  where  he  passed  ten  years  in 
imiirisonment,  until  released  by  Clement  IV.  in 
120S.  He  returned  to  Oxford  and  to  study;  but 
at  the  end  of  another  decade  he  w.as  in  prison 
again,  for  his  opinions'  sake,  and  there  he  r'- 
mained  until  about  1292.  He  was  released  only 
to  die.  He  closed  his  literary  labors  with  a  com- 
pendium of  theology. 

Bacon  was  one  of  the  stars  of  the  first  magni- 
tude. He  had  an  eminently  practical  mind,  and 
was  much  fonder  of  natural  .science  than  of 
metaphysical  subtleties.  His  misfortune  was  to 
have  been  born  some  centuries  too  soon  ;  although 
in  many  respects  he  shared  the  opinions  of  his 
time,  .and  is  therefore  not  .altogether  entitled  to 
the  extravagant  praise  and  glory  nowad.ays  show- 
ered upon  him.  His  popular  reputation  rests 
upon  his  inventions  and  useful  arts.  He  not  only 
improved  the  calendar,  and  in  this  connection 
expressd  opinions  which  Copernicus  later  jus- 
tified, but  studied  per.sjiective,  and,  according  to 
traditions  now  discredited  (see  art.  "  Roger 
B.acon,"  in  Encyct.  Brit.  9th  ed),  niiide  bnm- 
ing-glasses,  a  telescope,  and  gunpowder.  His 
bond.age  to  the  state  of  knowledge  of  the  time  i"< 
proven  by  his  leaning  toward  astrology  and 
alchemy;  .and  this  knowledge  brought  him  in 
great  trouble,  .as  it  was  the  custom  of  the  day  to 
attribute  unusual  skill  in  chemistry  or  mechanics 
to  tlie  devil.  The  true  greatness  of  B.acoii 
ajijiears  in  his  marvellous  breadth  of  le.arning. 
He  troil  tlie  whole  circle.  And  withal  he  was  .a 
devout  though  by  no  means  a  blind  Roman 
Catholic;  foiC  while  humbly  submitting  to  the 
pope,  he  protested,  in  the  name  of  religion, 
against  the  corruptions  of    his  time,  and,  when 


BACON. 


190 


BACON. 


Betting  fc-th  the  Bible  as  the  highest  authority 
in  matters  of  religion,  lamented  that  it  was  so 
little  known.  He  set  the  practical  before  him, 
and  made  experience  the  touchstone  of  truth. 
His  recommendation,  especially  to  missionaries, 
to  study  ethnology  and  geography,  is  a  case  in 
point. 

Koger  Bacon  fell  into  obloquy  while  living, 
and  into  oblivion  when  dead.  Many  centuries 
elapsed  before  he  was  at  all  recognized  at  his 
proper  worth,  and  even  to-day  there  is  no  com- 
plete edition  of  his  works.  This  is  greatly  to  be 
lamented,  inasmuch  as  until  there  is  there  can  be. 
no  satisfactory  study  of  him.  His  principal  works 
are,  0/nis  Xjajus,  Opus  Minus,  Opus  Teiiiuni, 
three  large  treatises  written  in  prison,  amidst 
great  embarrassments,  and  forwarded  by  request, 
secretly,  to  Clement  IV.  The  Opus  Mujus  was 
published  by  Samuel  Jebb,  London,  1733.  The 
Opus  Terlium  was  published  by  J.  S.  Brewer, 
London,  1S60.  Of  less  account  is  Epistuln  de 
secretis  operibus  arlis  et  tiatune  el  iJe  nulliiale 
magicc,  ILimburg,  1618. 

Lit.  —  Victor  Cousin  :  Frayments  Phil,  flu 
Moyen  A</e,  Paris,  1S48;  Pranti,  :  Gesch.  der 
Logi/c,  Leipzig,  185.5  (see  iii.,  120-1"29  for  a 
severe  criticism  of  Bacon's  logical  doctrines)  : 
J.  K.  Ingram:  On  llie  Opus  Mujus  of  Bacon, 
Dublin,  1858  ;  S.\isskt  :  Precurseurs  el  Disciples 
de  Ikcarlex,  Paris,  ISGl.  Hut  the  licsl  work  is  E. 
Charles:  Hixjer  Bacon,  sa  Vie,  ses  Oucraip's,  ses 
Doctrines,  il'apres  dcs  Idles  incdils,  Paris,  ISGl. 
H.  Siebert,  in  his  inaugural  dissertation  at  Jlar- 
burg,  1801,  gave  a  summary  of  Charles  and 
Brewer.  Sciixf;iDER  :  Iloycr  Bacon,  June  Mono- 
graphie,  Augsburg,  1873.  (lie  protests  against 
the  extravagant  judgments  now  jiassed  upon 
Bacon.)  Kk.uter  :  (jeschiclile  der  rcligiosen  Auf- 
kltirung  im  Millelaller,  Berlin,  1877,  2  vols.  Vol. 
2d,  pp".  C7-8G.  See  the  article  by  Profe.ssor  Adam- 
son  in  the  Enci/cl.  Bril.  S)th  ed.,  and  by  Fion- 
iniilli'r  in  Ilrrzog  and  Plitt. 

BACON,  Francis,  b.  in  London,  Jan.  22,  15G1; 
d.  at  Higligatf,  April  9,  1G2G.  He  was  a  son  of 
Sir  Nicliolas  Bacon;  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
and  was  for  a  time  in  the  diplomatic  service. 
In  1580  he  began  his  legal  career,  and  passed 
rapidly  through  its  earlier  stages.  He  sat  for  a 
number  of  years  in  Parliament.  In  1607  he  lie- 
came  solicitor-general,  and  at  length  was  made 
lord-chancellor.  Before  tlie  Parliament  of  KiJl 
he  was  accused  of  taking  bribes.  Judgment  was 
pronounced  against  him.  He  was  dejmsed  and 
degraded.  The  rest  of  his  life  was  passed  in 
retirement.  Pope  unjustly  called  him  "the 
wisest,  brightest,  meanest,  of  mankind." 

The  phiio.sophy  of  Bacon  h  contained  chiefly 
in  the  various  jiarts  of  liis  pvincipal  work,  Jn- 
flaurulio  Magna,  oi  which  the  second  book,  Aoruin 
Orijanum,  is  tlie  most  iniporti-.nt.  His  philosophy 
is  a  method  ratlier  than  a  system  ;  but  the  in- 
fluence of  this  method  in  the  development  of 
Britisli  thought  can  hardly  be  over-estimated. 
As  Lutlier  was  the  reformer  of  religion,  so  Bacon 
was  the  reformer  of  philosophy.  Luther  liail 
claimed  that  the  Scripture  was  to  he  interprete<l 
by  jiiivate  j'idgpjent,  not  by  authority.  Tin? 
problem  of  Baeo-.i  was  to  suggest  a  iiii'lhod  of 
Interpreting  natuvo.  The  old  method  atforded 
no  fruits.     1*<  "ifien  from  the  senses  and  particu- 


lars "  to  the  most  general  laws,  and  then  applies 
deduction.  This  is  the  "anticipation  of  nature." 
To  it  Bacon  opposes  the  "  interpretation  of  na- 
ture." Nature  is  to  be  interpreted,  not  by  the 
use  of  the  deductive  syllogism,  but  by  the  induc- 
tion of  facts,  by  a  gradual  ascent  from  facts, 
through  intermediate  laws  called  "axioms,"  to 
the  forms  of  nature.  Before  beginning  this  in- 
duction, the  inquirer  is  to  free  his  mind  from 
certain  false  notions  or  tendencies  which  distort 
the  truth.  These  are  called  Iilols,  and  are  of 
four  kinds:  Idols  of  the  Tribe,  which  are  common 
to  the  race;  Idols  of  the  Cave  which  are  peculiar 
to  the  individual  ;  Idols  of  the  Market-place, 
coming  from  the  misuse  of  language;  and  Idols 
of  the  Theatre,  wliich  result  from  an  abuse  of 
authority.  The  end  of  induction  is  the  discov- 
ery of  forms,  the  ways  in  which  natural  phenom- 
ena occur,  the  causes  from  which  they  proceed. 
Nature  is  not  to  be  interpreted  by  a  search  after 
(inal  causes.  "Nature  to  be  commanded  must 
be  obeyed."  Philosophy  will  then  be  fruitful. 
I''aith  is  shown  by  works.  Philosophy  is  to  be 
known  by  fruits. 

In  the  application  of  this  method  in  the 
physical  and  moral  world.  Bacon  himself  ac- 
complished but  little.  His  system  of  raoials,  if 
system  it  may  be  called,  is  to  be  gathered  from 
the  seventh  and  eiglitli  books  of  his  De  Aug- 
inenlis,  and  from  his  Essai/s.  Moral  action  means 
action  of  the  human  will.  The  will  is  governed 
by  reason.  Its  spur  is  the  passions.  The  moral 
object  of  the  will  is  the  good.  Bacon,  like  the 
ancient  moralists,  failed  to  distinguish  between 
the  good  and  the  right.  He  finds  fault  with  the 
(Jreek  and  Roman  thinkers  for  disputing  about 
the  chief  good.  It  is  a  question  of  religion,  not 
of  ethics.  His  moral  doctrine  lias  reference  ex- 
clusively to  this  world.  Duty  is  only  that  which 
one  owes  to  the  community.  Duty  to  (Sod  is  an 
affair  of  religion.  The  cultivation  of  the  will 
in  the  direction  of  the  good  is  accomplished  by 
the  formation  of  a  habit.  For  this  Bacon  lays 
down  certain  precepts.  No  general  rules  can  be 
made  for  moral  action  under  all  circumstances. 
The  characters  of  men  differ  as  their  bodies 
differ. 

B<acon  separates  distinctly  religion  and  phi- 
losophy. The  one  is  not  incompatible  with  the 
other;  for  "  a  little  philosophy  inclineth  man's 
mind  to  atheism,  but  depth  in  philo.sopliy  bringeth 
men's  minds  about  to  religion. "  Bacon  has  been 
sometimes  regarded  as  a  defender  of  unbelief, 
because  he  opposed  the  search  after  final  causes 
in  the  interpretation  of  nature.  But  it  is  ons 
thing  to  discourage  the  search  after  final  causes 
in  science,  it  is  another  thing  to  deny  the  exist- 
ence of  final  causes.  "I  had  rather  believe,"  he 
says,  "all  the  fables  in  the  Legeiul  and  the  Tal- 
mud and  the  Alcoran  than  tiiat  this  universal 
frame  is  without  a  mind"  (A'.s,v«//  on  Alheisni). 
The  objc^ct  of  scientific  in(piiry  should  be  the 
"  form,"  not  the  final  cause. 

AVhile  ]ihilosoiihy  is  not  atheistic,  it  does  not 
inform  religion.  Tertullian,  Pascal,  and  ISacon 
agree  in  proclaiming  the  separation  of  the  two 
domains.  Tertullian  and  Pascal  do  it  to  save  re- 
ligion from  rationalism :  Bacon  does  it  to  save  phi- 
losophy from  tlie  "Idols."  ('reilo  (/uia  ahsurdun. 
is  expressed  in  the  following  words:  "But  that 


BADEN. 


191 


BAHRDT. 


faitli  which  was  accounted  to  Ahrahrun  forriijht- 
pousness  was  of  sucli  a  iialui-f  tliat  Saiali  laii^^'hed 
at  it,  who  therein  was  an  iniaa;!'  of  natural  reason. 
The  more  discordant  therefore,  and  incredible,  the 
divine  mystery  is,  the  more  honor  is  shown  to 
God  in  believins;  it,  and  the  nobler  is  the  victory 
of  faith  "  {Ik-  Amj.,  Bk.  IX.).  Keli<?ion  comes, 
therefore,  not  from  the  liafht  of  nature,  but  from 
that  of  revelation.  "First  lie  breathed  liylit 
upon  the  face  of  the  matter,  or  chaos,  then  he 
breathed  light  into  the  face  of  man,  and  still  he 
breatheth  and  inspireth  light  into  the  face  of  his 
chosen  "  (Essai/  on  Trulli).  One  may  employ 
reason  to  separate  revealed  from  natural  truth, 
and  to  draw  inferences  from  the  former;  but  we 
must  not  go  to  excess  by  inquiring  too  curiously 
into  divine  mysteries,  nor  attach  the  same  au- 
thority to  inferences  as  to  principles.  If  Bacon 
was  .an  atheist,  as  .some  claim,  his  writings  are 
certainly  not  atheistic.  He  must,  in  that  case, 
have  been  a  hypocrite  in  order  to  be  a  flatterer, 
and,  if  a  flatterer,  a  most  foolish  one.  Yet  the 
inductive  method  has  given  natural  theology  the 
facts  which  point  most  significantly  to  God. 

See  Loud  Bacox's  Wnrkx.  edited  by  ./.  Speil- 
dlnif,  R.  L.  Ellh,  and  D.  D.  Ilealli,  London,  1S.57- 
59.  2d  ed.,  1870,  7  vols.  Popular  edition  (se- 
lected works),  N.Y.,  1S77,  2  vols.  J.  SrEnDiNO  : 
Life  and  Letters  of  Prnncis  Ii<icon,  London,  7  vols., 
18(12-74  ;  Dixon  :  I'ersDiml  llixiori/  of  Lord  liacon, 
London,  I80L  Story  of  Lonl  liavon'.i  Life,  London, 
18(i2  ;  K.  FiscHKR  :  Franci}i  liacon  urn/  seine  Nac/i- 
fohjer.  Leipzig,  1850,  2d  ed.,  lS7o,  translated  into 
English,  18.")7.  Bacon's  Kssdiis,  \\\ih  Annotations 
by  Richard  Whately,  D.D.,  I^ondon,  ISOG,  5th  ed., 
Boston,  18(J3.  Archibald  alexaxder. 

BACON,  Leonard,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  h.  in  Detroit, 
Mich.,  Feb.  10,  1802;  d.  in  New  Haven,  Conn., 
Deo.  24,  1881.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1820;  studied  theology  at  Andover;  became  pas- 
tor of  the  First  Church  in  New  Haven  in  1825; 
resigned  his  active  work  as  p.astor,  and  became 
pastor  e»;t'r/(«s  in  18(16;  was  instructor  in  Revealed 
Theology  in  the  Yale  Theological  .School  from 
1866  to  1871,  and  lecturer  on  Church  Polity  and 
American  Cliurch  History  from  1871  to  his  death. 
He  was  a  leading  founder,  and  one  of  tlie  fiist 
editors,  of  Tlie  Imle/jendent  and  of  T/ie  Neio-Eni/- 
lander.  He  published  the  Life  and  Seleet  Worls 
of  Iticliard  Ijiixler  (1830),  Tliirleen  lUsloriad  Dis- 
courses on  tlie  Completion  of  Tiro  Hundred  Years 
from  the  Beqinniiiq  of  the  Eirst  C/inrek  in  Neir 
Haren  (1839),  Essays  on  Slavery  (1846),  Genesis 
of  the  NeiD-Enylaiid  Churches  (1874).  and  other 
books.  He  was  a  very  prolific  contributor,  upon 
theological,  ecclesi.astical,  and  political  topics,  to 
the  periodical  press.  lie  took  a  very  prominent 
part  in  the  antislavery  reform.  In  the  Congre- 
gational denomination  he  was  long  honored  as 
an  able  and  influential  leader.  His  extraordinary 
aliility  as  a  public  speaker  on  subjects  of  social 
and  political  reform,  and  before  ecclesiastical 
bodies,  was  universally  recognized.  His  conver- 
sational powers  were  equally  remarkable.  His 
biography  is  in  course  of  preparation  (1882)  by 
his  daiigliters.  GEORGE  P.  FISHElt. 

BADER,  Johannes,  b.  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century;  d.  at  Landau,  August  (10-15), 
1545;  was  tutor  to  Duke  l^udwig  II.  of  Zwei- 
briicken,   and   after   1518   minister   at    Landau. 


After  the  diet  of  AVorms  (1521)  he  became  a 
stanch  ailherent  of  the  Reformation,  which  ha 
successfully  introduced  in  the  city  of  Landau  and 
its  neighborhood.  In  1526  lie  jmblished  his  (ie^ 
spriieh-Iiiirhtetn,  which  is  th(>  first  I'rotestant  cate- 
chism; and  in  1.544  aiijieared  his  Katei-hismns.  in 
which  he  gives  a  fuller  exposition  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  Lonl's  .Supper,  somewhat  nearer  to  the 
views  of  Zwingli  and  Hutzer  than  to  those  of 
Luther.  He  also  wrote  against  the  Anaba])tists. 
A  curious  incident  in  his  life  is  his  defence  (  Von 
der  fians  —  l>e  Anserc,  .Strassbiirg,  1.526),  ap- 
pended to  a  sermon  on  the  Lord's  .Supper,  against 
the  accusation  of  having  given  tin?  Lord's  .Supper 
to  a  goose:  one  of  his  communicants  bore  the 
name  (Inns,  "goose." 

BADGERS'  SKINS  are  mentioned  in  the 
authorized  version  (e.g.  Kxod.  xxvi,  14;  Kzek. 
xvi.  10)  as  one  of  the  coverings  of  the  taber- 
nacle, and  as  the  sandals  of  a  fine  lady;  but  the 
word,  from  its  analogy  to  the  Arabic  for  seal,  is 
now  usually  so  translated.  The  badger  is  very 
rare  in  Arabia,  if,  indeed,  it  be  known. 

BAGNOLENSES.     See  C.\Tti.\tn. 

BAHRDT,  Karl  Friedrich,  b  at  Bischofswerda, 
.Saxony,  Aug.  25,  1741  ;  d.  near  Halle,  .April  23, 
1792;  is  a  disgusting  but  striking  instance  cf 
the  vulgar  rationalism  of  the  eighteenth  century; 
gifted,  but  destitute  of  truth  ;  working  hard,  but 
never  seriously  engaged;  always  hunting  after 
fame,  but  steadily  sinking  deeper  and  deeper  into 
shame.  He  began  his  career  in  1761  as  a  lec- 
turer on  biblical  exegesis  in  the  University  of 
Lei]izig,  and  preacher  to  the  Church  of  St.  IVter, 
and  in  1766  he  was  made  exlraordinarj'  professor 
in  biblical  philology.  He  was  at  this  time 
orthodox,  and  gave  a  transcript  of  Cruuott's 
Der  Christ  in  der  Einsanikeit.  which,  like  his  ser- 
mons, found  much  favor;  but  in  1768  lie  received 
a  secret  consilium  nheundi.  on  account  of  .scandals 
in  his  private  life,  and  thus  ended  the  period  of 
his  ortliodoxy.  From  1768  to  1779  he  wandered 
about  as  professor  of  biblical  archa?ology  in 
Erfurt,  professor  of  theology  in  Gie.ssen,  director 
of  a  philanlkrojjicuni  at  Marschlinz  in  the  Grisons, 
superintendent-general  and  first  preacher  at 
Durkheim,  etc.;  always  dismissed  from  his  posi- 
tion, after  the  lapse  of  a  year  or  two,  on  account 
of  public  or  priv.ate  .scandal,  and  always  ap- 
pointed again  to  another  position  by  some  mis- 
taken Mrecenas;  always  rising  higher  and  higher 
towards  the  great  goal  of  rationalism,  —  the 
moral  perfection  of  the  r.ace,  —  and  alw.ays  sink- 
ing lower  and  lower  personally  in  dissoluteness 
and  filth.  His  chief  work  from  this  period  of 
galloping  rationalism  is  Neueste  UJfcnbarungen 
(jntles  in  Brie/en  und  Erzdhliinyen,  —  a  kind  of 
expurgated  Bible,  but  which  scandalized  all 
people  of  seriousness  and  taste,  even  those  wdio 
were  indifferent  to  Christianity.  In  1779  lie 
arrived  at  Halle,  a  fugitive,  and  found  refuge 
under  the  rule  of  Friedrich  H.  In  Halle  he 
lectured  on  Hebrew  grammar,  metaphysics, 
morals,  Juvenal,  etc.,  and  had  at  times  about 
nine  hundred  hearers;  but  his  success  drove  liim 
into  rank  infidelity.  He  discarded  every  vestigo 
still  left  in  hiin  of  positive  religion,  and  wrote  a 
System  der  moralisclien  lieHijion.  Meanwhile  his 
strength  began  to  give  way ;  and  the  religious 
reaction  which  arose  in  Prussia  after  the  death 


BAILLET. 


192 


BAJUS. 


of  Friedrich  II.  overtook  him.  He  determined 
to  take  the  affair  more  practically,  and  opened  a 
wine-shop  in  the  neighborhood  of  Halle,  wrote 
smutty  novels  for  tli?  ciroulatiiig  libraries,  found- 
ed a  secret  society  which  the  police  had  under 
surveillance,  tried  to  ridicule  the  relig;ious  edict 
of  17SS  by  a  farce  on  the  stage,  etc.  The  Prus- 
sian Government,  however,  did  not  appreciate  his 
practices.  He  spent  a  year  in  the  dungeons  of 
Magdeburg ;  and  shortly  after  his  release  he  fell 
ill,  and  died  from  the  use  of  mercury.  None  of 
his  works  are  worth  reading:  but  the  essay  on 
him  by  (i.  Fka.sk,  in  Jtauiiier's  •'  Ili.tlorische. 
Tasdienhiicher"  1860,  pp.  203-o70,  is  instructive. 
See  also  Lkyser  :  A'.  F.  Bahnlt,  xtin  VerhuUniss 
sum  Pkildiil/inipismux  ii.  zur  neiiereii  PaJ(ii/o</H:, 
2d  ed.,  Neiistadt,  1S70.  P.\UL  TrfCII.vcKEKT. 

BAILLET,  Adrian,  b.  at  Xeuville,  near  Beau- 
vais,  June  13,  1649;  d.  in  Paris,  Jan.  21,  1706; 
wa-S  educated  in  the  Seminary  of  Beauvais;  took 
orders  in  1676,  and  obtained  a  small  vicarage;  but 
was  in  1080  appointed  librarian  to  Lamoignon, 
secretary  to  the  Parliament  of  Paris.  Among 
his  many  works  are  :  Les  Vies  des  iVi/n/.s,  3  vols., 
fol.,  1701,  re|)rinted  in  1704  and  1708;  I'ie  ile 
Descartes,  1692  ;  Juijemenls  des  .Samitls  ;  Hisluire 
de  Ilnllnnde.  a  continuation  of  Grotius,  etc. 

BAILLIE,  Robert,  D.D.,  b.  at  (Glasgow,  in  1599; 
died  there  .July,  l()n2;  studied  theology;  was 
made  professor  of  divinity  at  Gla.sgow  in  1642, 
and  principal  of  the  University  in  1661,  and  took 
an  active  part  in  all  the  church  controversies 
of  liis  time.  His  Letters  and  .loiinxds,  edited 
by  l^aing,  in  3  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1.S41-42,  and 
provided  with  a  notice  of  his  writing.^  and  a 
description  of  liis  life,  are  of  great  historical 
interest.  To  him  we  owe  the  giaphic  descriji- 
tions  of  the  famous  Westminster  Assembly  of 
Divines,  to  which  body  he  was  sent  as  one  of  the 
five  Scotch  clergymen  in  1643,  and  sat  in  it  for 
three  years.  See  Schakf's  Creeds  of  Clirisleu- 
dom,  vol.  I.,  pp.  727,  746  sq. 

BAIRD,  Robert,  D.D.,  b.  in  Fayette  County, 
Pennsylvania.  (Jet.  6. 1798;  d.  in  New  York,  March 
15,  1863;  was  educated  in  the  Theological  Semi- 
Jiary  of  Princeton,  licensed  to  preach  by  the  pres- 
bytery of  Xew  Brunswick  in  1822,  ordained  in 
1828,  and  devoted  his  life  most  zealously  to  the 
cause  of  Protestantism,  education,  and  tem- 
perance, residing  in  Eurojie  from  1835  to  1843, 
and  acting,  after  his  return,  as  corresponding 
secretary  of  the  Foreign  Kvangelical  Society  anil 
the  American  and  Foreign  Christian  Union. 
Besides  other  works,  he  wrote  IJistaire  des  So- 
eii'liis  lie  Temperance  des  ICtats-Unis  irAmcriijtie, 
Paris,  1836,  and  Iteliyion  in  America,  (ilasgow, 
1842,  New  York,  1856,  both  of  which  were  trans- 
late<l  into  most  European  languages.  Dr.  liaird 
was  an  accomplished  linguist,  a  ]ilea.sant  speaker, 
and  full  of  faith  and  charity.  He  was  privileged 
ito  enter  into  king's  jialaces,  but  he  entered  as 
readily  tlie  houses  of  the  ]ioor.  He  exert(Mi  him- 
self ))arlicularly  to  spread  the  gospel  in  Roman- 
Catholic  CDunlrii's.  His  life  wius  written  by  his 
son,  II.  M.  Baird,  D.l).,  New  Y'ork,  1866. 

BAJUS  (DE  BAY),  Michel,  b.  at  Melin  in  Hiii- 
naut,  1513;  d.  at  Uouvain,  .Si-pt.  15,  15.'i9;  was 
educated  in  the.  Univi-rsity  of  Eouvain,  where  he 
took  tile  degree  of  doctor  in  tlu'dlogy  in  15.")0, 
and  rciuained  uoiinecled  with  that  institution  fur 


his  whole  life,  —  first  as  professor  since  1551,  and 
then  as  chancellor  since  1.575.  That  self-contra- 
diction which  had  secretly  developed  within  tli" 
Rom.in-Catholic  Church  during  the  middle  age.s. 
the  Church  vindicating  Augustine  as  the  highest 
theological  authority  theoretically,  while  practi- 
cally it  abandoned  the  fundamental  doctrines  of 
his  system,  ami  approached  Semi-Pelagianism. 
was  by  Bajus  brought  into  bro.id  dayliglit.  He 
clung  with  sincerity  to  Augustine's  doctrines  of 
sin  and  grace,  and  consequently  he  could  not 
avoid  coming  into  sharp  opposition  to  the  ruling 
tendency  of  the  Church.  A  bitter  controversv 
aiose  between  him  and  Ids  colleagues  in  the  uni- 
versity. By  the  Church  the  whole  affair  was 
cautiously  hushed  up  and  smoothed  over,  treated 
as  a  mere  matter  of  the  school,  on  account  of 
the  dangerous  proximity  of  the  Reformation. 
But,  in  spite  of  all  jirecautions,  the  question  soon 
revived  in  the  polemics  between  the  Doiniuicai:s 
and  the  Jesuits  (ile  aiuiliis  r/ratiet),  and  it  finally 
burst  forth  in  full  tiame  in  the  Jansenist  contro- 
versy. When,  in  1551,  four  of  the  Louvaiu  pro- 
fessors went  away  to  the  council  of  Trent,  Bkjus 
was  directed  to  step  in  and  fill  the  vacancy;  and 
when,  shortly  after,  one  of  theiu  died,  he  obtained 
his  chair.  As  soon  as  the  three  others  came 
home,  they  felt  that  a  foreign  influence  had  been 
at  work,  and  iu  15()0  they  effected  a  condemna- 
tion by  the  Sorbonne  of  eighteen  propositions 
extracted  from  the  lectures  of  Bajus.  Bajus 
complained,  and  prepared  for  defence.  But  the 
Archbishop  of  INlechlin,  Cardinal  Granvelle,  at 
once  stojiped  the  centre  versy,  and  commanded 
both  jiarties  to  keep  silent.  In  1503,  however, 
Bajus  published  a  series  of  dogmatical  tracts: 
De  Liheri)  Arhitrio;  l)e  .1  ustitia ;  De  Justijicatione, 
etc.;  in  1.564  aiuither  series  followed:  De  Meritis 
Operuin;  De  Prima  llmniiiis  Jiistilia;  De  Virtutibu) 
Inipiorum,  etc.;  in  1566  all  these  tracts  were  col- 
lected in  Ojtuscula  Omnia;  and  now  his  adversaries, 
the  Louvain  professors  at  the  head,  and  the  Fran- 
ciscan monks  in  the  rear,  could  not  be  kept  quiet 
any  more.  In  December,  1567,  the  papal  l)ull 
{Ex  oiimiljus  afflictionibus)  was  i.ssued,  and  the 
faculty  of  Louvain  was  demanded  to  subscribe 
to  the  condemnation  of  the  seventy-six  propo- 
sitions therein  enumerati^l.  The  bull  was  a 
diplomatical  masterpiece.  Bajus  s  nanuMvas  not. 
mentioned;  and  iu  the  formula  of  condemnation  a 
comma  was  left  out,  —  the  famous  Comma  I'ianum. 
—  which  directly  reverses  the  meaning  when 
placed  before  or  after  a  certain  word.  Bajus, 
liowever,  took  the  bull  in  good  faith,  sent  an 
apology  to  the  pope,  showed  that  soiue  of  the 
]>roi>ositions  were  not  his,  others  not  his  alone, 
but  ahso  Augustine's,  etc.  ;  and  when  a  papal 
brief  of  .M.ay  13,  1569,  still  sustained  the  bull, 
he  submitted  and  subscribed.  It  w.as  feared, 
however,  that,  imder  a  new  pope,  he  would  try  to 
have  the  bull  reversed;  and  under  (iregory  \II1. 
(1.579)  there  w;is  conseiiuently  issued  a  confirma- 
tion of  it,  which  was  to  be  followed  up  by  a  new 
subscription.  Al.so  Bajus's  ndations  to  the  Refor- 
mation through  St.  Aldegonde,  aiul  his  viinvs  of 
the  episcopal  authority,  of  the  jiaial  infalli- 
bility, etc.,  were  very  liberal,  and  spread  widely 
in  the  Netherlands  and  Northern  1' ranee.  His 
collecti'd  works  were  published  at  C'ologne,  •_' 
vols.,  1090,  by  (.^LMcs-NKi.  and   Gi;kui;uo.n.     See 


BAKER. 


103 


BALDE. 


Duciiksnk:  Hisloire  ihi  I'xijiinhmi;  Pouay.  IT^il; 
F.  X.  LiNSKN'M ANN  ;  Micliiii-I  /tdiiis  1111(1  (lie  Oniiid- 
lef/tiiif/  (liv  .liiiixciiix/iiiix,  '['iiliiny;!'!!,  1S67. 

BAKER,  Daniel,  1>.  at.  Aliilway,  (ia.,  Aug:.  1"i 
1791;  cl.  at  Aiisliii,  Dec.  1((.  ISoT;  was  e<lucati'il 
in  tli(>.  'I'lic'dlciijical  Seiiiinary  of  Princeton,  and 
ordained  in  1818;  was  pastor  in  Wasliingtmi, 
D.C.,  iVoiii  182u'  to  1828;  travelled  then  for 
several  years  as  a  revivalist  preacher  throwsh 
the  Sonthern  States,  and  settled  finally  in  Texas, 
where  he  fonnded  Anstin  College,  whose  first 
president  he  was.  He  pnblished  A  Plain  and 
Scriptural  View  of  Piajitium,  two  series  of  licviral 
Sertudo.i,  etc.  His  son  ])uhlished  Memoirs  iif 
Daniel  /Idler,  Philadelphia,  1S.)9. 

BAKING,  BREAD.  While,  as  a  rule,  the  indi.s- 
pensable  Wdrk  of  liaking  fell  to  the  women,  and 
at  least  one  virgin  princess  did  not  consider  it 
beneath  her  (L'  Sam.  xiii.  8),  and  every  house 
had  bakintj  facilities,  yet  there  were  public  bakers 
in  the  cities  (llos.  vii.  i,  (i)  ;  and  in  .Jerusalem 
they  g-ave  the  name  to  a  street  (Jer.  xxxvii.  21). 
There  were  also  court  bakers  (Gen.  xl.  1  ;  1  Sam. 
viii.  13).  The  best  bread  was  made  from  wheat, 
the  poorest  from  barley.  The  dough  was  made 
in  wooden  troughs,  and  leavened  (Matt.  xiii.  33). 
Unleavened  bread  was  also  used,  as  to-day  in 
Palestine,  and  made  in  large  paper-thin  sheets : 
it  is,  however,  jirobable  that  the  loaves  of  the 
leavened  and  much  thicker  bread  were  yet  thin 
enough  to  be  "  broken ; "  for  we  do  not  read  in  the 
Bible  of  "cutting"  bread  (Lam.  iv.  4;  Matt, 
xxvi.  26).  The  term  "  bread  "  is  often  used  for 
food  or  provisions  in  general. 

Baking  is  a  very  rapid  process  in  the  East. 
The  mode  to-day,  and  presumably  the  ancient 
mode  was  the  same,  is  to  press  by  means  of  a 
damp  cloth  a  lump  of  dough,  spread  out  thin, 
against  the  inner  sides  of  a  stone  or  metal  jar 
about  three  feet  high,  which  had  been  heated 
inwardly  « itii  wood,  or  dried  grass  and  flower- 
stalks  :  in  a  minute  the  piece  is  baked.  Heated 
stones  and  ashes  (when  the  bread  is  put  in  pans) 
are  also  used  to  spread  the  cakes  upon.  But 
there  were  and  are  also  regular  ovens.  The 
fuel  was  wood  (Isa.  xliv.  15);  although  in  times 
of  need  camels',  cattle's,  and  even  human  dung, 
were  used  (Ezek.  iv.  12,  15).  The  Hebrews 
sometimes  added  oil  to  the  ordinary  bread  (1 
Kings  xvii.  12).  A  cake  made  of  flour  twice 
kneaded,  and  probably  fried  in  fat,  seems  to  be 
meant  in  2  Sam.  xiii.  (J,  8,  10.  ORELLI. 

BA'LAAM  (deronrcr)  was  a  .Tehovah  prophet 
Vi'ho  lived  in  Pethor,  a  city  of  Northern  Mesopo- 
tamia, not  far  from  the  Euphrates.  Tlie  inter- 
esting episode  in  his  life  is  related  <at  length  in 
Num.  xxii.  5-xxiv.  25:  reference  is  made  to  him 
in  Num.  xxxi.  8,  10;  2  Pet.  ii.  15,  10;  Jude 
11 ,  Itev.  ii.  14.  The  story  is  briefly  t'his:  Balak, 
King  of  the  Moabites,  finding  himself  unable  to 
oppose  Israel  in  battle,  called  upon  Balaam,  who 
had  a  great  reputation  in  the  East  as  a  sorcerer 
and  prophet,  and  who  withal  was  a  worshipper 
of  the  God  of  the  Israelites,  to  curse  them,  think- 
ing that  the  curse  of  a  fellnw-woi-shipper  would 
be  more  efficacious  than  that  of  a  heathen.  On 
receiving  the  invitation,  Balaam  consulted  Je- 
hovah, and  being  ndused  permission  he  declined 
to  go.  A  second  and  more  imposing  deputation 
of  Moab  and  Jlidiau,  with  promises  of  wealth 
]t-I 


and  dignity,  excited  the  cupidity  of  Bah'uim,  who 
again  consulted  .lehov.ah,  and  this  time  w.'is 
granti'<l  ]iermission  to  go,  with  the  distinct  under- 
slaniling  that  he  was  to  say  tlie  words,  and  none 
other,  th.at  .lehovah  wonlil  ])Ut  into  Ids  mouth. 
He  gladly  went,  dn'aining  of  future  glory,  ap- 
p.'irently  not  perceiving  that  the  condition  of  the 
divine  permission  rendered  such  dreanjing  vain. 
On  the  journey  the  angel  of  .Jehovah  ojiposed  his 
piath,  and  it  was  then  the  ;iss  spake ;  showing 
herself  to  be  a  more  willing  servant  of  Jehovah 
than  her  master.  Balaam  an<l  Balak  met,  and 
the  former  told  the  king  very  plainly  that  he  had 
no  power  to  .say  any  thing  except  what  God  put 
into  his  mouth.  Balak  was  both  surprised  and 
increasingly  indignant  to  hear  the  famous  prophet, 
whom  lie  liad  been  at  so  much  ]iains  to  bring  to 
curse  Israel,  bless  them  in  exalted  and  inspired 
words.  Never  did  the  divine  afflatus  act  so 
grandly.  For  the  first  two  times  Balaam  kept 
up  the  form  of  the  heathen  auguries;  but  the  last 
time,  perceiving  how  the  divine  mind  worked, 
he  abandoned  incantations  and  lonely  watcliing.s, 
and  yielded  himself  up  unto  .lehovah,  and,  in  a 
strain  of  eloquence  never  excelled,  he  described 
the  future  of  Israel.  Bal.ak  quite  naturally  dis- 
missed him  in  anger;  and  tlie  dishonored,  ruined 
prophet  went  back  towards  Pethor,  but  on  his 
way  stopped  among  the  Midianites,  and  out  of 
sheer  desperation,  desiring  to  regain  popularity, 
counselled  the  seduction  of  the  Israelites  unto  the 
worship  of  Baal-Peor  by  means  of  the  Moabite 
and  Midianite  women,  shrewdly  judging  that 
idolatry  would  quickest  destroy  them.  See  B.\ai.. 
Thus  Num.  xxiv.  25  and  xxxi.  8  are  reconciled. 
In  the  war  which  ensued,  Balaam  was  killed  ;  and 
thus  the  curtain  drops  upon  a  strange  life,  but 
one  of  great  instructiveue.ss.  Balaam  is  used  in 
the  New  Testament  as  the  type  of  those  who  love 
the  wages  of  uiirigliteousiies.s,  and  tempt  unto  sin. 
Very  aptly  llengstenberg  compares  him  to  Simon 
Magus  (Acts  viii.  9-24). 

That  there  are  difficulties  connected  with  the 
narrative  is  no  reason  for  rejecting  it.  It  is  too 
strange  not  to  be  true,  and  too  fitting  to  the  time 
to  be  the  product  of  any  other  age.  Balaam  was 
a  bad  man,  though  a  true  projihet.  lie  had  no 
sincere  convictions  of  the  superiority  of  .Tehovah, 
He  followed  him  because  it  suited  his  interests. 
Thus  "a  man  may  be  full  of  the  knowledge  of 
God,  and  yet  utterly  destitute  of  the  grace  of 
God  " 

Lit.  —  G.  JIoEnius  :  Ilisloria  pro/diclie  Dileami, 
Lips.,  1070;  Hk.ngstknbkiig  :  Gexckirlife  Jlileaim 
u.  sx'ine  Weisaagunt/en,  Berlin,  1842;  M.  M.  K.\- 
i.iscii  Bible  Sludics,  Part  1,  'i'lie  Prophecies  of 
Balaam,  London,  1877.  VOLCK. 

BALADAN.     See  Mkhodacii-Bai.adan. 

BALDE,  Jacob,  b.  .Tan.  4,  1004,  at  Ensisheim. 
Alsace  ;  d.  Aug.  9,  1008,  at  Neuburg,  in  the  Ba- 
varian palatinate  ;  was  educated  in  the  Univer- 
sityof  lugolstadt;  entered  the  order  of  the  .Jesuits 
in  1024 ;  became  court-preacher  and  Bavarian 
historiographer  in  jMimich,  1040,  confessor  and 
court-preacher  to  the  count-palatine,  Philii'p  Wil- 
helm;  and  acquired  a  great  fame  as  a  ]ioet,  not 
in  his  native  tongue,  — for  singularly  enough  his 
(ierman  poetry  is  piteously  poor,  —  but  in  Latin, 
,as  an  imitator  of  Horace,  Virgil,  etc.  He  wrote 
odes,  satires,  and  epics,  of  -a  romantic,  humoroua, 


BALDWIN. 


194 


BALLERINI. 


and  reliqfioiis  character.  His  Oc/fE  Pnrllienix  to 
the  Virgin  were  separately  published  in  1048. 
His  Urania  Victrii  (1657),  descriliing  the  contest 
l)et\veen  tlie  Christian  soul  and  the  temjitation  of 
the  five  senses,  impressed  Pope  Alexander  VII. 
so  much  that  he  sent  the  author  a  golden  medal. 
A  collected  edition  of  his  works  appeared  at 
Cologne,  1()60,  and  a  more  conijilete  one  at  Mu- 
nich, 1729.  Minor  selections  have  often  been 
made;  for  instance,  by  Orelli,  18U5.  See  Geoko 
Westermayki!  :  .lacohun  Balde,  sein  Leben  n. 
seine  ]\'er/,e,  Miinchen,  1S68. 

BALDWIN,  Thomas,  d.  .at  Acre,  Nov.  19, 1190; 
was  born  at  Exeter,  in  humble  circumstances, 
but  received  a  good  education,  and  was  arch- 
deacon of  Exeter  when  he  entered  the  Cistercian 
monastery  of  Ford,  in  Devonshire,  whose  abbot  he 
afterwards  became  ;  was  made  Bishop  of  Worces- 
ter in  1180,  and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in 
1184:  crowned  Richard  I.  in  1189,  and  accom- 
panied him  in  1190  to  the  Holy  Land.  Some 
treatises  by  him  (ed.  by  Tissier,  1G62)  are  in 
Migne,  Pal.  lat.,  cciv.  401  sq. 

BALE,  John,  b.  at  Cove,  Suffolk,  Nov.  21,  1495; 
d.  at  Canterbury,  November,  15G;i;  was  educated 
in  the  Carmelite  monastery  of  Norwicli,  and  at 
Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  but  embraced  the  Ref- 
ormation, and  had  to  seek  refuge  in  Germany; 
returned  under  Edward  VI.  and  was  made  Bishop 
of  Ossory,  in  Ireland,  1552,  but  fled  to  the  Conti- 
nent after  the  accession  of  Mary,  and  lived  for 
some  years  at  Basle ;  returned  under  Elizabeth, 
and  was  made  prebendary  of  the  Church  of  Can- 
terbury in  loUO.  His  principal  work  is  Illuslnnm 
Majnris  Brilannice  Scri/ilorum  Sunimariuin,  first 
published  in  1548,  then  considerably  enlarged 
in  1557-59;  but  he  also  became  noted  as  a  writer 
of  Miracle-/>lai/s,  in  which  he  violently  attacked 
the  Roman  Church.  His  play  Ki/nf/e  Jolian  has 
been  pul:lislied  by  the  Camden  Society  (1838); 
and  the  Parker  Society  has  published  a  selection 
of  his  works  (1849). 

BALL,  John,  b.  at  Cassington,  near  Woodstock, 
in  Oxfordshire,  October,  1585;  d.  Oct.  20,  KiU). 
He  was  educated  at  Brazen-nose  College  and  St. 
Mary's  Hall,  Oxford,  and  in  KilO  was  ordaimul, 
and  became  minister  at  Wliitmore,  near  N(!w- 
castle,  where  he  remained  until  his  death.  He 
was  a  zealous  and  faithful  Puritan,  one  of  the 
fathers  of  Presbyterianism  in  England,  and,  as 
Baxter  says,  "  deserving  as  high  esteem  and 
honor  as  the  best  bishop  in  England."  He 
issued  a  Small  Catechism  conUdninij  the  J'rinci/iles 
of  Heliyion,  which  reached  an  eighteenth  impres- 
sion in  lii'.V!  \  and  also  a  larger  Catechism,  en- 
titled A  short  Treatise,  containiny  all  the  /irineijial 
Grounds  nf  ('hrislian  Jielifjion,  which  reaehccl  a 
tenth  imjiression  in  1635.  These  were  published 
anonymously,  and  highly  esteemed  and  widely 
used,  and  were  among  those  consulted  by  the 
Westminster  divines.  He  also  published  "  A 
Treatise  of  I'aith,  divided  into  two  parts:  the  first 
showing  the  Nature,  aiul  the  second  the  Life 
of  Faith,"  London,  1631  (3d  edition,  corrected 
and  eidarged  1657,  4to,  pp.  428,  with  an  introduc- 
tion by  Richard  Sibbs),  iin  exci'edingly  valiuible 
and  complete  discu-ssion.  His  chief  work  was 
published  after  his  ileath  by  Ids  friend  Simeon 
Ashe,  with  an  introduction  sigucil  by  five  West^ 
minster  diviin,'s,  entitled  A    Treatise  of  the  C'uoe- 


nant  of  Grace,  London,  1645.  This  is  of  great 
importance  as  exhibiting  that  view  of  the  cove- 
nants which  found  ex]iression  in  the  Westminster 
symbols.  According  to  Thomas  Blake,  "his  pur- 
pose w.as  to  speak  on  this  subject  of  the  covenant, 
all  that  he  had  to  say  in  all  the  whole  body  of 
divinity.  That  which  he  hath  left  behind  gives 
us  a  taste  of  it."  In  this  he  anticipated  Coo- 
ceius  and  the  Dutch  Federal  Theologv,  as  indeed 
his  view  of  the  covenants  is  somewhat  different 
from  theirs.  Simeon  Ashe  also  issued  several 
other  works  of  Ball  of  a  practical  and  contro- 
versial character.  c.  A.  BRlGGS. 

BALLANCHE,  Pierre  Simon,  b.  in  Lj'ons,  Aug. 
4,  1776;  d.  in  Paris,  Aug.  7,  1847;  was  an  inti- 
mate member  of  that  circle  which  formed  around 
Chateaubriand  and  Madame  Recamier.  and  be- 
longed to  the  theocratic  school  of  philo.sophers 
which  ai'ose  in  France  during  the  restoration. 
His  Patinr/encsie  Sociale,  1830,  is  an  attempt  to 
construct  the  ]ihilosophy  of  history  on  the  basis 
of  the  Christian  revidation.  The  same  idea  is 
also  set  forth  in  his  Y'islnn  (Vllelial,  1841.  and  Es- 
sai  snr  les  Institutions,  1818.  See  S.vixrE  Bkuve: 
Pin-trails  Contein/iorains  11.;  J.  J.  Ampeue:  Dat- 
tanche,  1848. 

BALLE,  Nicola!  Edinger,  b.  in  the  Island  of 
Lolland,  Denmark,  Oct.  12,  1744;  d.  in  Copen- 
hagen, Oct.  19,  1816;  was  appointed  profe.s.sor  of 
theology  in  the  L'niversitj'  of  Copenhagen.  1772, 
and  Bishop  of  Sealand,  1782,  and  retired  from, 
public  life  in  1808.  He  wrote  the  primer,  after 
which  all  children  in  Denmark,  from  1794  to 
1856,  were  taught  Christiaiuty ;  but  tlie  book  was 
not  a  good  one.  Compared  with  the  New  Testa- 
ment, which  it  professed  to  summarize  in  system- 
atic form,  it  was  singularly  out  of  time,  and  so 
w.as  the  man  hinisnlf  with  res[iect  to  the  time 
wliose  spiritual  leader  he  was  set  to  be.  A 
pietist  by  heart  and  education,  he  w.as  a  rational- 
ist by  study  and  intellect ;  and  jilaced  between 
two  generations, — of  which  the  one  luvd  been 
commanded  to  go  to  church  twice  every  Sunday, 
under  penalty  of  a  money-tine  or  bodily  punish- 
ment; while  the  other  proposed  to  shut  up  the 
churches,  and  use  them  as  public  wareliouses, — 
he  misunderstood  them  both,  and  oidy  adiled  to 
the  confusion.  In  Copenhagen  he  began  a  course 
of  Bible-re.idiugs  in  his  church  in  order  to  stem 
the  flood  of  rationalism  ;  but  he  had  to  stop 
because  he  could  not  prevent  loafers  from  play- 
ing cards  in  tlie  pews.  Out  in  the  country  ho 
employed  the  force  of  the  police  to  introduce  his 
primer  among  the  pietistieal  ]ieasants,  and  chil- 
dren were  actually  taken  aw.ay  from  their  parents 
in  ordcu-  to  be  educab'd  in  what  the  government 
considered  the  only  true  ('hristianity.  Person- 
ally, however  he  was  a  pious,  kind-iiearted,  and 
well-meaning  man.  cm.kmkns  lM.;rKli.si.:N. 

BALLERINI,  two  brothers  from  Verona, —- Pie- 
tro,  b.  Sept.  7,  1698.  and  Girolamo,  I).  .Ian.  29, 
1702,  — who.  educated  in  the  .school  of  the  .lesuits, 
and  afterwards  ordained  priests,  t)ecaniecelel)rated 
by  tlieir  joint  labors  im  chvu-ch-history  and  canon 
law.  Tliey  edited  tin;  Sermones  S.  ,\euonis,  1739, 
the  Summa  S.  Antoniiii,  1740,  the  Ojiera  liatherii, 
1756,  the  Oiiera  Leonis  Matjni,  1755-57,  etc. 
Pietro  also  took  .active  part  in  the  controversies 
of  his  time,  and  wrote  De  I'otestale  lurlc.siaslica 
J'unlijitum  cl    Coiiciliorutn,   176.5,  and    Uber  Ue  Vi 


BALLOU. 


195 


BALUZB. 


nr  Ratinnc  Primatus  Ponlifirum,  170G.  Pipfro 
died  in  17(59  ;  (Jii-olanio  .scvcriil  yciii'-f  iiflerwiirds. 
A  coinpletH  list  of  their  wiii'lts  is  found  in  Maz- 
ZUCHKI.I.I  :  (Hi  Sc.riltori  li'lldiid  II.,  17.S-1S;J  up 
to  1758,  and  in  Verona  lUustrala  II.,  109  up  to 
1771. 

BALLOU,  Hosea,  1>.  at  Richmond,  N.II.,  April 
30,  1771;  d.  at  Boston,  June  7,  \>i'yl;  was  tho 
son  of  a  poor  Haptist  minister,  and  strnuclpd 
hard  for  an  education  ;  began  to  preach  in  1792, 
but  emliraced  Universalisni  and  Unitarianism ; 
■settled  at  Dana,  Mass.,  in  1794,  but  removed  in 
ISOl'  to  Barnard,  Vt.  ;  in  1807  to  Portsmouth, 
N  II.  ;  in  1815  to  Salem,  Ma.ss.  ;  and  in  1817  to 
Boston,  where  he  took  charcfe  of  the  Second 
Universalist  Society.  He  founded  the  Unirer- 
salist  Maf/nzinr  in  1819,  and  in  1831  the  Unirer- 
sali.tl  Exposilnr.  He  also  wrote  Notes  on  the 
Parah/es,  1804;  Treatise  on  tlic  Atonement,  1805; 
The  Doctrine  of  Future  Ketrilnition,  1840,  and 
several  volumes  of  sermons.  —  Hosea  Ballou,  2d, 
nephew  of  the  precedinar,  b.  at  Halifax,  Vt.,  Oct. 
18,  1796;  d.  at  Somerville,  Mass.,  May '27,  18G1 : 
was  successively  pastor  of  Stafford,  Roxbury,  and 
Medford,  and  from  1853  president  of  Tufts  Col- 
lege at  Medford,  Mass.  He  edited  the  Lhurer- 
salist  Expositor,  and  Universalist  Quarterlij.  and 
wrote  The  Ancient  [listori/  of  Uninersnlisni,  1829. 

BALM  in  the  Old  Testament  is  supposed  to  be 
tlie  resin  of  the  terebinth  or  turjientine  tree, 
which  flows  out  spontaneously  or  through  cut- 
tmifs.  It  is  exceedingly  odoriferous,  and  greatly 
esteemed  in  the  Kast  for  its  healing  pro]ierties. 
(iilead  was  especially  noted  for  it  (Jer.  viii.  2"2, 
xlvi.  11,  cf.  Gen.  xxxvii.  25).  But  this  is  not 
the  genuine  balsam.  The  latter  is  known  as 
balsam,  incense,  myrrh,  bdellium,  according  to 
its  different  forms.  The  chief  variety  (Aint/ris 
Gilead.  L.)  is  mostly  thornless,  has  large  triple 
leaves,  numerous  blossoms,  and  sm.all,  round- 
stone  fruit.  Myrrh,  native  to  the  south  coast  of 
Arabia,  has  short,  tliorny  branches,  and  small 
trijile  leaves. 

Joseph  us  and  Greek  and  Roman  writers  have 
much  to  say  about  balm.  The  former  relates 
that  the  Queen  of  Sheba  (1  Kings  x.  10)  brought 
from  Arabia  the  first  balsam-root  to  Solomon. 
On  the  other  hand,  Greek  and  Arabic  authors 
affirm  that  the  genuine  balsam  does  not  exist 
outside  of  Palestine.  Certain  it  is  that  tlie  gar- 
dens of  Jericho  produced  the  finest  kind;  so  that 
Pompey  brought  it  from  there  to  Rome,  and  the 
Romans  derived  revenue  from  it.  Cleopatra  im- 
ported it  thence  into  Egypt,  and  planted  it  in 
the  famous  gardens  of  Matara,  between  liilbeis 
and  Cairo.  FR.  W.  SCIlULTZ. 

BALMES,  Jaime  Lucio,  an  eminent  Spanish 
politico-religious  writer,  b.  at  Vich,  Catalonia, 
Aug.  28,  1810;  d.  tliere  July  9,  1848.  His 
parents  were  poor;  but  he  was  able  to  get  a  good 
education,  —  first  in  his  native  town,  and  then  in 
the  University  of  Cervera,  whitlier  he  went  in 
1826,  and  where  he  took  the  different  degrees. 
He  was  ordained,  and  in  1832  became  an 
assistant  professor.  In  1835  he  was  made  a 
doctor,  in  1837  professor  of  mathematics.  ]")in-- 
ing  these  years  Spain  was  rent  by  the  strife 
between  Maria  Christina  and  Don  Carlos. 
Balmes  watched  keenly  the  struggle,  and  while 
engaged  in  teaching,  or  literary  work,  still  kept 


his  eye  upon  the  changes  of  the  time.  In  1840 
h(!  published  a  catechism,  which  had  a  large 
circulation.  In  1812  he  became  associate  editor 
of  the  (.irilizacion,  a  literary  journal,  in  which 
he  had  the  coveted  oi>portunity  to  express  hi? 
political  views.  Prom  Pebrnary,  1811,  to  Dec. 
31,  1846,  lie  carried  on  tlie  I'cnsamiento  ile  la 
Nacion,  and  endeavored  to  rejire.ss  the  revolu- 
tionary spirit  of  his  people,  and  advocate  very 
strenuously  the  novel  project  of  a  marriage  be- 
tween the  queen  and  the  son  of  Don  Carlos  as  the 
best  way  of  ending  the  troubles;  and  when  the 
(lueen  was  otherwise  disposed  of.  hi'  discontinued 
his  journal,  although  it  was  lucrative.  He  still 
sought,  however,  the  education  of  his  people  in 
what  he  conceived  to  be  a  sound  phihwophy. 
He  hailed  the  advent  of  Pope  Pius  IX..  and 
wrote  a  brilliant  work  (P/o  IX.,  Madrid  and 
Paris,  1847)  in  his  praise:  it  was  ihi:  last  work 
he  published.  His  i>rincipal  works  are  t«o  :  (1) 
Filosojia  fundamental,  Barcelona,  181(i,  4  vols.; 
translated  into  French,  1852,  3  vols. ;  into  Kiig- 
lish,  by  H.  F.  Brownson,  New  York,  1857,  2  vols.; 
(2)  El  Protestarttismo  comparailo  con  el  ( 'n'olicismo 
en  sus  relaciones  con  la  civilisacion  Europea,  Ma- 
drid, 1848,  3  vols.  8vo. ;  Knglish  translation 
from  the  French  by  IPmford  and  Ki'i'.shaw, 
Protestantism  and  Calholiciti/  compared  in  their 
effects  on  the  Cirilization  of  I'.uropc,  J.on<lon,  1810; 
American  re]irint,  translation  revised,  2  I  ed., 
Baltimore,  1851.  This  latter  famous  book  (.see 
A.  DK  Blanciie-Rafi-iv  :  Jaciiues  Dnlmes.  sa  vie 
et  ses  ourraijes,  Paris,  1850)  is  an  audacious  at- 
tempt to  show,  by  a  review  of  modern  civilization, 
in  opposition  to  Guizot,  tliat  ih-y.  influence  of 
Catliolicity  has  been  vastly  superior  to  that  of 
Protestantism.  The  arguments  are,  of  course,  in 
the  main,  weak;  but  the  book  has  a(!coin[ilislieil 
its  object,  —  it  has  retarded  the  I'rotestant  cause 
in  Spain. 

BALSAIVION,  Theodore,  d.  towards  the  end  of 
the  twelfth  century,  deacon  and  librarian  at  the 
Church  of  St.  Sophia,  Constantinople;  wrote, 
besides  other  works  which  have  not  been  printed, 
a  complete  commentary  on  the  Nomocanon  and 
the  Syntagma  of  Photius  (1166-77).  in  which  he 
tries  to  decide  how  far  the  civil  laws  mentioned 
in  the  Nomocanon  are  authoritative  or  not.  The 
commentary  on  the  Nomocanon  was  first  printed 
in  Paris  in  1015,  edited  by  Christof  Justellus, 
and  again  in  1020  in  Bihliolheca  Juris  Canonici  by 
Voellus  and  Justellus.  The  Conimentary  on  the 
Syntagma  is  found  in  Beveridge  :  Si/nodicnn  I. 
.See  MiiRTiiKUiL :  Ifistoiredu  Droit  liyzantin,  Paris, 
1840,  III. 

BALTUS,  Jean  Francois,  b.  at  Metz,  June  8, 
1067;  d.  at  Rheims,  Jlarch  19,  1743:  entered  the 
Older  of  the  Jesuits  in  1682,  and  distinguished 
himself  liy  a  number  of  literary  and  theological 
works,  of  which  the  most  noticeable  are,  Re- 
ponse  a  t'llisloire  des  Oracles  ile  M  Eontenelle, 
Strasburg,  1707,  in  wdiich  he  maintains  against 
Fontenelle  that  the  ancient  oracles  were  not 
mere  frauds,  but  utterances  under  demoniacal 
influence;  and  Difcnsc  ties  Saints  Peres  accuses 
de  Platonisnie,  Paris,  1711,  in  which  he  vindicates 
the  originalily  of  the  Fathers  and  their  complete 
indepinidence  of  the  ancient  philosophy. 

BALUZE,  Etienne,  b.  at  Tulle,  Limousin,  Dec. 
24,  1030;  d.  ia  Paris,  July  28,  1718;  waa  edu- 


BAMBAS. 


196 


BAPTISM. 


cated  in  the  Jesuit  College  of  Toulouse,  and 
devoted  himself  from  youth  to  tlie  coUectiou  and 
critical  arrangement  of  historical  documents; 
received  the  tonsure,  and  became  in  1056  the 
co-laborer  of  Peter  de  Marca,  Archbisliop  of 
Toulouse,  afterwards  of  Paris,  with  whom  he 
staid  till  his  death  in  1GG2;  enjoyed  the  patroii- 
aje  of  the  Archbisliop  of  Audi,  and  Le  Tellier, 
tiie  chancellor;  was  librarian  to  Colbert  from 
lli67  to  1(570,  and  obtained  then  a  chair  in  canon 
law  at  the  College  Royal  in  Paris,  of  which 
institution  he  afterwards  became  director,  but 
«as  discharged  from  this  office,  and  even  ban- 
ished from  the  city  in  1710,  and  not  recalled 
until  1713.  The  cause  of  this  trouble  —  very 
lieavy  to  a  man  of  eighty  —  was  his  Hi.iloire 
(tuncaluf/i'iue  (le  la  Maison  iV A  iirerr/iie,  which  he 
wrote  at  the  request  of  the  Cardinal  Boiiillou, 
and  which  appeared  in  1708  without  giving 
offence.  But  in  1710  the  cardinal  fell  in  disgrace 
and  fled  the  country;  and  it  was  now  discovered 
that  the  book  of  Baiuze  might  be  used  in  support 
of  claims  which  the  house  of  Bouillon  made  on 
certain  possessions  in  France.  The  first  work  of 
Baliize  wa-s  his  Anil/rizoiiiux,  a  ciiticism  of 
Frizon's  (jdllin  Purjnirala.  Of  the  works  in 
w  hose  execution  he  was  associated  with  De  Marca 
the  Disserlaliunes  dc  ConCDrdia  Sacerdotii  el  Im- 
perii, l()(j3.  is  the  most  important.  Of  his  edi- 
tions of  older  authors,  that  of  Salvian  and 
Vincent  of  Lerins  appeared  in  1003 ;  tiiat  of 
Lupus  of  Ferrieres,  in  1601;  that  of  Agobard, 
Amnio,  Leidrad,  and  Florus  Diaconus,  in  1000, 
etc.  Of  his  great  collections  of  historical  docu- 
ments the  C(i/iilnlaria  liei/uiii  Fratiajrum  a])peared 
in  1677;  the  F.jiixloke  Innocentii  III.,  iu  lOS-2;  the 
Nni-a  Cutlvctin  CnnciUdruin,  108.3.  Of  his  more 
independent  works  the  Vitre  Papaniin  Acciiiuiien- 
siuiii  a]ipeared  in  l(i9-i.  and  liis  Mixri-llducuruin 
Libri  .Seplciu  iu  1077,  1079.  1080,  1083,  1700,  1713. 
and  171.").  His  last  work  was  an  edition  of 
Cyprian,  wliich  he  left  unfinished,  but  which 
was  completed  by  Maran. 

Lit.  —  \  complete  list  of  the  works  of  Baiuze 
is  found  in  Chiniac's  edition  of  the  (.'ii/nlul(iri<i, 
Paris,  1780.  L,  0:2-06.  His  life,  written  by  him- 
self, is  found  in  Martin's  liihliiillicfa  llcdiizidiid, 
Paris,  1719.  See  Vituac  :  Eloye  de  Baiuze, 
Limoges,  1779. 

BAMBAS,  Neophytos,  d.  in  .Vthens,  18.55  ;  was 
born  in  the  Island  of  Chios;  studied  in  I'ari.s,  and 
worke<l  as  jirofes.sor  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric. 
first  iu  the  University  of  Corfu,  then  in  that  of 
Athens.  He  wrote  manuals  of  ethics,  rhetoric, 
and  grammar;  and,  iu  connection  with  Nicholai- 
des  and  Lowndes,  lie  translated  tlie  Bible  into 
modern  (Ireck. 

BAMPTOM  LECTURES,  a  series  of  eight  lec- 
ture.s  or  sermons  to  Ik^  delivered  annually  at  the 
University  of  Oxford,  "  to  confirm  and  e.stablish 
the  Christian  faith,  and  to  confute  all  heretics 
and  schismatics."  They  were  iiistituti'(l  by  , John 
Bamjiton,  Canon  of  Salisbury  (b.  1089;  d.  1751), 
who  left  his  estate  for  tliat  jmrpose.  The  lec- 
turer must  at  least  be  a  master  of  arts  from 
Oxford  or  Cambriilge.  He  is  cliosen  by  tlie 
heads  of  colleges,  ami  no  one  can  be  chosen  a 
second  lime.  'l"he  lectures  began  in  1780,  and 
the  volumes  containing  them  form  a  valuable 
body  of  apologetical  literature.     See  Ij;cn  Hi.s. 


BAN  denoted,  in  the  civil  law  of  the  old  Ger- 
man Empire,  a  declaration  of  outlawry,  and  was 
in  the  twelfth  century  adopted  by  the  church  as 
the  common  name  for  a  declaration  of  excom- 
munication.      See  ExCOMMU.NIC.\TIO.N. 

BANCROFT,  Richard,  b.  at  Farnworth,  Lan- 
casliire,  1544;  d.  in  Lambeth  Palace,  London, 
Nov.  2.  1010;  was  educated  in  the  L'niversity  of 
Cambridge,  and  became  Bishop  of  London  in 
1597,  and  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1004. 
He  was  a  High-Churchman,  asserting  tliat  thn 
epi.scopal  authority  is  b.ised  upon  a  divine  right, 
and  most  violently  opposed  to  the  Puritans,  whom 
he  often  attacked  in  liis  sermons.  As  president 
of  the  Convocation,  he  presented  for  .adoption  the 
Book  of  Canons  now  iu  force,  and  ,as  archbishoji 
he  was  "the  chief  overseer"  of  the  authorized 
version  of  the  Bible,  w-hich  he  had  opposed  at 
the  Hampton  Court  Conference  (1004).  His  lite- 
rary remains  are  unimportant. 

BANGORIAN  CONTROVERSY.  See  IIoaiv 
LEY,  Bishop  of  Bangor. 

BANNEZ,  Dominico,  b.  .at  Valladolid,  15'27; 
d.  at  Jledina  del  Campo,  1004;  entered  the  order 
of  the  Dominicans  in  1544;  lectured  on  theology 
in  V.aladolid,  Alcal.a,  and  Avila;  became  the 
confessor  of  St.  Theresa,  and  contributed,  as  an 
ardent  disciple  of  Thom.as  Aquinas,  very  mucli 
to  the  condemnation  of  the  works  of  Molina. 
-Among  other  works  he  has  also  written  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Siiinina  T/ieulor/icd  of  St.  Thomas. 

BANNS  (plur.  of  ban),  a  public  announcement 
in  church,  during  service,  of  an  intended  m.ar- 
riage,  seem  to  have  originated  very  early  as  a 
custom  iu  the  Christian  community,  since  to  it 
Tertullian  repeatedly  alludes.  In  the  English 
Church  they  became  .a  legal  enactment  in  1200. 
when  the  synod  of  Westminster  decreed  that 
"no  in.arriage  shall  be  contracted  without  banns 
thrice  published  in  the  church."  So  also  in  the 
Lutheran  churches  of  Europe.  The  Council  of 
the  Lateral!,  1215,  established  them  as  law  for 
the  whole  L:Ltin  Church. 

BANQUET.     .See  Mkal.s. 

BAPHOMET  ("Baptism  of  Metis"),  a  pecul- 
iar kiml  of  figures  carved  in  stone  or  wood,  with 
two  faces,  one  male  and  one  female,  and  sur- 
rounded by  serpents.  Of  their  symbolical  mean- 
ing nothing  definite  is  known,  though  they  played 
a  coiis|iicuous  part  in  the  process  of  the  Tem- 
plars, to  whose  insignia  they  belonged.  See 
Von  Nell:  llajdiomelisc/ie  Aclcimluvke,  Vienna. 
1819. 

BAPTISM.  (A  Pedobaptist  View.)  Mednimj 
anil  Useiif  I'cniis.  —  liiiTrnCu  is  a  derivative,  modi- 
fying the  meaning  of  its  root.  Hutttu.  Uukti.' 
means:  (1)  To  do  a  definite  act, /«<///) ,'  (2)  'l"o 
effect  a  ilefinite  change  of  condition,  /"  dye; 
(3)  To  I'ffect  a  tliorough  change  of  coiulition  by 
:issiinilating  quality  or  influence,  without  color, 
Id  Icmpci;  Iu  sleep,  lo  imbue.  Thus  Buaru  tempei-g 
iron  by  wdter  or  oil,  Sophocles,  Ajdx  651,  0.5;1 
(Scliol'ium)  ;  steeps  with  den;  Dan.  iv.  30.^  v. 
21,  .Septuagint:  ste<'ps  with  poixoii,  Strabo,  (ico- 
f/rdplii/,  XVL,  1117;  imbues  with  rpdl,  lientley, 
ICpii/rdms,  p.  156;  imbues  with  ('(rsarixm,  Marcus 
Aurelius  A.  Mcdilalmits,  \l.,  25;  imbues  with 
iiiliip-iifi.  III.,  6;  imbues  by  llidui/hh,  V.,  17:  im- 
bues with  Jitdaisiii,  Epictetus,  l-lncliiniHd)i.  XI..''. 
1  These  chaiigt'sof  condition  in  numbiT  and  div'  r- 


BAPTISM. 


197 


BAPTISM. 


sity,  siiecializi'il  by  the  cliiiractrii.stic  of  the 
agency,  are  noticeable,  especially  because  Man-u, 
biiideiied  by  two  meanings,  does  not  iollow  out 
this  tliiril  meaning,  but  turns  it  over  for  develop- 
ment to  its  derivative,  BaTrnC'J- 

1  C'lasm'i:  /In/iliam.  —  HanriQj  means  tlinrnughly 
to  change  condition  by  charactei-istic  assiiriilating 
quality  or  ii)fluenc(',  controlling  (like  its  root) 
any  act  or  method  to  this  end.  'I'hus  ships  and 
crews  sunk  by  (K'structive  storm  or  beak  of  hos- 
tile sliip  are  destructively  baptized.  An  altar  cere- 
monially cleansed  by  water  poin-ed  or  sprinkled 
on  it  is  ceremonially  baptized.  Convivialists 
drinking  intoxicating  wine  are  drunkenly  bap- 
tized. .\nd  a  man  drinking  a  so[)orific  draught 
is  baptized,  thoroughly  changed  in  condition, 
conformably  witli  this  soporific  characteristic. 
For  proof  in  detail  of  these  positions,  see  the 
author's  Classic  Lld/jtisiu. 

2.  Jiulaic  IJd/ilism.  —  This  is  a  thorough  change 
of  condition  from  ceremonial  defilement  to  cere- 
monial purity.  Heifer-ashes  mixed  with  spring- 
water  had  such  legal  cleansing  power.  As  the 
touch  of  a  grave  defiled  the  wdiole  body,  so  a 
drop  of  this  sprinkled  ashes  purified  the  whole 
body.  .Joseph us,  .A'(«.  Aniii/.,  IV.,  4;  Philo,  De 
Saci'iJicanlUms;  Cyrilof  Alex.,  In  hriinin.  III.,  121); 
lieb.  ix.  13.  When  long  and  familiar  use  drops 
the  defining  agency,  Bu-r-iC",  absorliing  its  idea, 
expresses  ilcjinite  condition,  as  in  Sirach  xxxiv. 
;i();  Judith  xii.  7;  Mark  vii.  4;  Luke  xi.  38; 
lleb.  i.\.  11.  In  such  and  such  like  cases,  Ba^n^u 
means  lo  purifi/  cereiuimiully.  See,  for  evidence, 
the  author's  Jui/aic  Baptism. 

3.  Baptism  (if  Inspiration. — This  is  "one  bap- 
tism,"—  a  thorough  change  of  spiritual  con- 
dition, assimilating  the  soul  to  the  characteristic 
quality  of  the  divine  baptizer.  Its  elements  are 
repentance  and  faith  :  its  results  are  remission 
/ind  regeneration.  It  is  grounded  in  the  )iersonal 
baptism  of  .Jesus,  covenanting  to  "fulfil  all  right- 
eousness" (Matt.  iii.  1.3).  and  to  endure  sacrificial 
death  (Mark  x.  38).  It  is  effected  by  the  Holy 
(ihost  (Matt.  iii.  11).  It  is  received  by  all  who 
enter  into  the  kingilom  of  God  (.John  iii.  3;  1 
Cor.  xii.  13).  Its  final  issue  is  baptism  "  into 
tlie  Name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son.  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,"  —  subjection,  reconciliation,  and 
affiliation  with  the  living  God. 

(1)  The  liaplism  of  John  preached  (Matt.  iii.  2; 
Luke  iii.  3;  Acts  xiii.  24)  was  this  "one  bap- 
tism" in  swelling  bud;  the  Holy  Ghost  and 
Lamb  of  God  within  it,  not  yet  unfolded.  (2) 
The  baptism  of  John  adminislereil  was  this  "one 
baptism "  in  symbol,  "making  manifest  .Jesus, 
the  Lamb  of  God  which  taketh  away  the  sin  of 
the  world"  (.John  i.  29,31;  Matt.  i'ii.  11;  Acts 
xix.  4).  (2)  The  baptism  of  Christianiti/  is  John's 
baptism  unfolded,  revealing  the  Lamb  of  God 
slain  and  tlie  Holy  Ghost  sent  (Acts  ii.  23,  33, 
38,  iii.  19,  xi.  15-18).  (3)  The  symbol-baptism 
of  Christianity  is  the  perpetuation  of  the  symbol- 
ism of  the  baptism  .John  "  preached,"  and  of  the 
"one  baptism"  of  inspiration  (John  i.  29-33, 
iii.  22,  iv.  2  ;  Acts  x.  47). 

BaTmfu  ei(  expresses  the  ideal  (Cremer,  Bib. 
Theo.  Lex.,  s.v.)  passing  into  a  spiritual  element, 
tl^  fj£Tuioiav,  fi'c  dipfatv  (.John),  t/f  Xpiarov,  et^  tuv 
HuvnTov  aiiTov  (Cliristianity),  by  whicli  the  bap- 
tized are  thoroughly  changed  in  condition,  being 


conformed  lo  the  characteristic  of  the  element  by 
the  power  of  the  Holy  (ihost.  In  Mark  i.  9, 
t'l"  is  related  to  r/AOiv  (Matt.  iii.  13  ;  Greg.  Thaum. : 
De  Christ i  Baptisma). 

BnTriCiJ  h  is  never  associated  with  the  ideal 
element  of  baptism.  Acts  x.  48  is  no  exce])tion 
(see  Coilex  Sinaiticus).  The  phrase  expresses 
locality  and  agency  :  it  (vmnot  express  passing 
into:  with  ti'  Trarnfiu  (Mark  i.  0)  it  means  the 
place  where,  within  tlie  banks  of  the  river,  not 
within  the  water  (//)>«/,  XVIII.,  521).  Xo  )ier- 
son  in  the  New  Testament  is  shown,  by  word  or 
fact,  to  be  under  water  in  the  administration  of 
baptism.  Sprinkling  being  used  by  ins]iiration 
to  apply  the  blood  of  the  type  land)  of  tin'  flock, 
and  to  express  the  reception  of  the  antitype 
blood  of  the  Lamb  of  God  (1  ['et.  i.  2),  we  have 
divine  authority  to  apply  the  water,  symbol 
of  this  antitype  blood,  by  siirinkling;  and  no 
other  essentially  diverse  way  is  autliorized.  For 
minute  detail  and  evidence,  see  the  author's  Jo- 
liannic  and  Christian  Baptism. 

4.  Patristic  Baptism  is  claimed  to  be,  and  in  fact 
is,  the  same  in  nature  with  the  "one  baptism  "  of  in- 
spiration. It  has  the  same  elements,  —  repentance, 
faith,  remi-ssion,  regeneration;  the  same  ground 
Kisis,  —  tlie  redemptive  work  of  the  incarnate  Son 
of  God;  the  same  divine  agent,  —  the  Holy  Spirit ; 
the  same  ultimate  end,  —  reconciliation  with  God 
the  Father.  Son.  and  Holy  Ghost.  It  dejiarts,  in 
its  accomplishment,  from  inspiration,  in  that 
"bai>tized"  water  is  made  co-efficient  with  the 
Holy  Spirit  to  this  end  (Cyprian,  see  Tertullian, 
Migne's  edition,  HI.,  1082);  also  in  the  aban- 
donment of  the  symbol-baptism  of  inspiration  ; 
and,  further,  in  the  introduction  of  a  symbol- 
burial  with  .Jesus  in  the  rock  sepulchre,  by  cover- 
ing the  baptized  in  water.  This  "  burial  "  has 
been  mistaken  for  the  tinptism.  The  mistake  is 
as  great  and  absolute  as  the  mistaking  of  t>«n-nj  for 
BnTT-iCw-  These  early  Christian  writers  make 
Ko/iii7:7(j,  Karaiiaivu,  naradvui,  and  such  like  words, 
interchangeable  with  diimu,  but  never  with 
BnT7(fu.  On  the  other  hand,  they  make  KaOapi^u, 
uyiit^ui,  hwu,  and  such  like  words,  equivalent  and 
interchangeable  with  Bawri^u,  but  never  with 
diinru.  This  symbol-burial  is  derived  from 
Kom.  vi.  4,  where  there  is  no  confusion  of  -diimu 
and  Bnirn^'u.  The  originators  of  ?,\mhi>\-hurinl 
(not  symboX-liaptism)  never  confoumled  Paul's 
"burial  in  the  rock"  with  Paul's  '•  baptism  into  the 
death  of  Christ"  on  the  cross.  Such  supreme 
error  was  reserved  for  to-day.  They  repudiate 
it:  1.  Because  they  claim  their  baptism  to  be 
spiritual,  a  baptism  of  the  soul  by  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  "baptized"  water  imbued  with  the 
Holy  Spirit  ;  2.  Because  the}'  omit  this  .symbol- 
burial  "almost  daily"  in  bajitizing  the  sick,  yet 
declare  the  baptism  "perfect;"  3.  Because  they 
abundantly  cite  "images of  baptism"  which  have 
no  "covering;"  4.  Because  they  declare  bap- 
tisms by  blood,  tears,  fire,  sword,  touch,  to  be 
glorious  and  perfect  "  baptisms  "  —  not  burials, 
5.  Because  they  deny  that  "simple"  water  can, 
by  any  covering,  effect  their  baptism  ;  6.  Because 
their  baptizing  water  was  "  baptized  "  (purified, 
sanctified),  "that  it  might  be  able,  by  its  own 
baptism,"  to  baptize  (take  away  sin)  ;  7.  Because 
long  usage  in  relations  with  remi-ssion  and  re- 
generation had  given  to  Ba-rriC"  (not  i>u^ru)  tue 


BAPTISM. 


198 


BAPTISM. 


meaning,  lo  cleanse  from  sin,  lo  ret/encrale.  These 
reasons  are  solidified  liy  tlie  following  definition 
of  Basil  the  Great,  Afonilia  III.,  7;i(j :  "  Wliat  is 
the  purport  and  power  of  the  (Christian)  bap- 
tism V"  "  Thoroughly  to  change  the  baptized  as 
to  mind,  speech,  and  act,  so  as  to  become,  con- 
formably with  the  power  bestowed,  such  as  is 
that  of'  which  he  was  born."  There  is  no 
'•  burial  "  in  this  di-finition.  Thorough  changes 
of  condition,  multitudinous  in  numl>er,  diversi- 
fied in  nature,  executed  liy  every  variety  of  act, 
specialized  by  the  baptizing  agency,  are  present 
everywhere  in  Classic,  Judaic,  Inspired,  and 
Patristic  baptisms.  Minute  details  and  full  evi- 
dence in  the  author's  Piitrislic  Bdjilism. 

Lit.  —  Danikl  Fkatlky:  The  Dippcrx  Dipt, 
or  the  Aiialiaplisls  Duckmt  and  P/uni/cd  orer  Head 
and  Kars,  ul  a  Disputation  in  Soiilliicark'  (1G41). 
London,  1043,  5th  ed..  1048,  4to;  A.  11.  :  Dippin;/ 
isBiiplizin</,and  Ijajitizini/is  Dippin;/,  London,  1044; 
K.  liAUHKit:  Treatise  of  Dippin//,  London,  1044; 
Willi a:m  Wall:  llistori/  of  Infant  Baptism,  Lon- 
don, no."),  2  vols.  8vo,  'id  e<l.,  1707,  4 to;  John 
Gale  (Bajitist);  Reflections  on  Mr.  \V(d!'s  Ilislm-i/ 
of  Jnfanl  JSn/Hism,  London,  1711,  2d  ed.,  1720,  8vo 
(Best  edition  of  both,  U"illiam  Wall:  A  Jlis- 
tory  of  Infant  Ba/itisni,  tot/ether  with  Mr.  Gale's 
Rejlections  and  Mr.  Wall's  Defence.  Neic  eilition, 
by  the  Ben.  Henry  Cotton,  D.C.L.,  Oxford,  18:30, 
4  vols.  8vo);  !Mosi;s  Stuaut  :  Mode  of  Christian 
Ba/ilisni  Prescribed  in  the  Neic  Te.^itanient,  Aiulover, 
1833  (rcjirinted  (1870)  Nashville,  Teiin.,  for  the 
Southern  liaptist  Pub.  So.);  Edwakd  Klkciikr: 
Ba/riisin,  Its  Jni/mrl  and  Modes,  Andover,  18-10, 
New  York,  1849;  Ronicur  Hallky  :  An  hu/uiry 
into  the  Nature  of  the  Syniholic  Institutions  of  the 
Christian  Ilelit/ion,  tuiually  called  the  Sacraments, 
London,  18.J4',  2  vols.  (vol.  1,  Baptism,  1844); 
Alkxandek  Caisson  (Baptist):  Jia/ilism  in  its 
Mode  and  Sulijects,  London,  1844;  llonicuT  W'il- 
80.N :  In/ant  Ba/>tism:  a  Scriplund  Serrice,  and 
Dip/liny  Unnecessary  to  its  Iliyht  Administration,  ,1 
lie/di/ to  Dr.  Carson,  Loudon,  1818;  Alkxaxdkh 
Cami'Iif.i.l  (Baptist):  Christian  Ba/itism,  with  its 
Antecedents  and  Consei/uents,  Bethany,  1848,  Cin- 
cinnati (1870);  Thomas  .1.  Conant  (Bajitist)  : 
Meaniny  anil  C.se  of"Ba/ili:ein,"  Philotoyiccdiy  and 
Historically  Inre.itiyated,  New  York,  1800;  .Ia.mls 
W.  Dalk  :  Ini/xiiry  into  the  Meaniny  of  Bn^r/Cu 
Classic  Ba/)tism  (18(i7),  .ludaic  liaptism  (1871), 
Johannic  liaptism  (1872),  Christie  and  Patristic  Ba/i- 
tism  (1871),  Bliila.,4  vols.         jamks  w.  DALli. 

BAPTISM.  (The  Baptist  View.)  — The  rite 
ordiuncd  liy  .Icsus  C'hri.st  (Matt,  xxviii.  10)  for 
public  cdiifes.sion  of  God,  Fatlu'r,  Son,  and  Holy 
Spirit,  and  for  initiation  into  the  fellowship  of 
his  di.sciples.     Dorner,  Theotoyy,  1880,  §  28. 

The  Act.  —  The  exainph-s  of  baptism  in  the 
New  Testament  occur  in  rivers  (Matt.  iii.  0; 
Mark  i.  .'3),  or  jiools  (Acts  viii.  30;  .Jolin  iii.  23). 
Jesus  himself  Wiis  baptized  in  the  Jordan 
(Matt.  iii.  10;  Mark  i.  0).  Baptism  is  referred 
to  as  a  "burial"  (lioin.  vi.  4;  Col.  ii.  12),  and 
by  Peter  is  called  the  antitype  of  tlie  flood 
(1  Pet.  iii.  21). 

The  authorities  on  pliilology,  on  the  archae- 
ology and  history  of  (.'liristian  churches,  an; 
unanimous  in  as.serting  tliat  the  baptism  of  the 
New  Testament  and  of  the  early  ages  of  Chris- 
tianity   was   a   dipping,    a    subincrsiuu    of    the 


candidate  in  w.ater.  All  philologists  and  lexicog- 
rapliers  of  the  Greek  language  give  "  immer- 
sion," "submersion,"  or  cognate  terms,  as  the 
constant  signification  of  the  noun  or  verb.  The 
arcliaeologists  Augusti,  DeRossi,  Garucci,  Mar- 
tigiiy,  Ue Vogue,  etc  ,  tell  us  that  the  inonnmental 
remains  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe,  prove  that 
immersion  was  the  act  of  baptism.  Historians, 
and  those  who  treat  of  the  early  liturgies,  unite  in 
the  same  testimony.  See  Wall,  Hist  Infant  Bapt. 
(vol.  1,  p.  570),  Oxford.  1802;  lIoHing.  Sacr.  d. 
Taufe  (vol.  1,  p.  40).  There  is  not  a  dissenting 
voice  in  all  the  literature  of  the  Christian  churcli 
for  twelve  hundred  years.  Only  in  case  of  great 
sickness  was  any  other  act  allowed,  and  then  only 
as  a  qu:isi-baiitism. 

The  many  ancient  baptisteries  now  remaining 
in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe,  were  built  and  used 
for  the  )iurpose  of  immersion.  The  Oriental 
churclies,  Greek,  Russian,  Armenian,  Nestorian, 
Coptic,  and  others,  have  always  practised  immer- 
sion, and  allow  nothing  else  for  baptism,  Gass, 
Symlmlil:  der  yriechischen  Kirche,  1872,  pp.  242, 
243.  Tiie  western  churches  also  preserved  the 
baptism  of  the  New  Testament  for  thirteen  hun- 
dred years  and  then  gradually  introduced  pour- 
ing or  sprinkling,  Mabillon,  Museum  Ital.  (1724), 
vol.  1,  p.  lOO;  Daniel,  Codex  Lituryicus  (1847-53), 
vol.  1,  p.  179  ff.  ;  Wetzer  and  Welte,  Kirehen-Lex. 
Art.  "  Tanfe."  Luther  .sought,  against  the  ten- 
dency of  the  times,  to  restore  immersion  (O/jc/u 
Lat.  3:  304;  Werke  21:  17,  130,  22:  103,  20:!, 
etc.,  Erlangen  edit.).  The  rubric,  in  Luther's 
Taufhuchlein  of  1523  and  1527,  to  immerse 
{"tauche  es,"  [Daniel,  vol.  2,  p.  IHO,  note  with 
quotations  from  Luther's  works])  the  candidate, 
was  retained  in  many  of  the  Ayenda  of  the  Lu- 
theran churches  during  the  sixteentli  century, 
Ilofling,  Sacr.  d.  Taiifc  (vol.  1,  p.  53.  vol.  2,  p. 
50,  04),  just  as  the  rubric  "to  dip"  is  still  re- 
taini'd  in  the  baptismal  service  of  the  English  and 
.American  Episeojial  churches.  Calvin  was  the 
first  to  assert  that  immersion  was  of  no  impor- 
tance; "whether  the  person  who  is  baptized  be 
wholly  immersed,  and  whether  tlirice  or  once,  or 
whether  water  be  only  poured  or  sprinkled  upon 
him,  is  of  no  importance:  churclies  ought  to  be 
left  at  liberty  in  this  respect  to  act  according  to 
tlie  difference  of  countries.  Tlie  very  word  ha/)ti:e, 
however,  signifies  to  iininerse;  and  it  is  certain 
that  immersion  was  the  pnictice  of  the  ancient 
church  "  (Instit.,  Bk.  IV.,  ch.  15,  sect.  19). 

All  western  churches,  except  the  Baptist,  have 
accepted  siirinkling. 

The  Jlici/nenls.  —  Among  the  last  teachings 
and  preceiits  of  the  Saviour  to  liis  apostles  wi're 
tlie.se:  "That  repent:ince  and  remission  of  sins 
should  be  jireached  in  his  name  among  all  na- 
tions, beginning  at  Jerusalem.  And  yc!  are  wit- 
nesses of  these  things"  (Luke  xxiv.  47,48).  "(lO 
ye  and  jireach  the  gosjiel  to  every  creature.  lie 
that  believeth  and  is  b.aptized  shall  be  saved  " 
(.Mark  xvi.  15,  10).  "Go  ye  therefore  and  teach 
all  nations,  baptizing  them  in  the  name  of  the 
Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  (diost; 
teaching  them  to  observe  all  things  whatsoever  I 
liave  commanded  yon"  (Matt,  xxviii.  10,  20). 

According  to  these  words,  the  a|ioslles  were  to 
"pre:ich  repentance  uiid  renii.«sion  of  sins  in  hi.n 
name,"  to  •tcacli  :ill  nations,"  to  "baptize  them," 


BAPTISM. 


199 


BAPTISM. 


and  to  "  tpach  tlieiii  to  observe  all  things  whatso- 
ever "  .Ti'sus  had  cnniiviamled  them. 

The  examples  ^iveii  in  the  New  Testament  of 
ba]>ti.sin.s  by  the  apostles  show  us  how  they 
understooil  and  obeyed  these  precepts.  'J'hey 
baptized  those  who  "repented"  and  "received 
their  word"  (Acts  ii.  3S,  41);  those  who  '•be- 
lieved "  (Acts  viii.  12,  38,  ix.  IS,  x.  47,  48,  xvi. 
15.  3:!.  xviii.  8.  xix.  o). 

The  mental  slates  the  apostles  jiredioate  of  tlie 
baptized  are  thost^  of  believers  only.  Tliey  have 
died  to  sin,  and  been  made  aliv(!  to  fi"o<l  to  walk 
in  newness  of  life  (Rom.  vi.  4);  they  drink  of 
one  spirit  (1  Cor.  xii.  13);  they  "are  all  the 
childien  of  God  by  faith  in  Christ  Jesus.  For 
as  many  of  yon  as  have  been  baptized  into 
Christ  Jesus  have  put  on  Christ"  ((ial.  iii.  27); 
they  were  "raised  to  life  with  Christ  thronjjh 
tlie  faith  of  the  operation  of  Cod  "  (Col.  ii.  12). 
Aiul  by  Peter  baptism  is  said  to  be,  "not  the 
puttins-away  of  the  filth  of  the  flesh,  but  the 
answer"  (earnest  seeking,  requirement)  "of  a 
good  con.science  toward  God  "  (1  I'et.  iii.  21). 

The  designations  of  the  churches  by  Paul  lead 
to  the  same  conclusion.  The  churches  are  ad- 
dressed as  those  who  are  "sanctiHed,"  "called," 
"holy,"  who  "call  upon  the  n;une  of  Christ" 
(1  Cor.  i.  2;  2  Cor.  i.  1);  ".saints,  believers" 
(Eph.  i.  1,  22.  20);  "once  alienated,  and  enemies 
in  their  minds,"  but  "now  reconciled"  (Col.  i. 
21);  they  brought  forth  a  "work  of  faith,  and 
labor  of  love,  and  patience  of  hope"  (1  Thess.  i. 
1 ;  2  Thess.  i.  1,  3). 

But  in  the  second  and  third  century  after  the 
apostolic  age,  the  niy.stic  power  of  regeneration 
was  by  many  ascribed  to  baptism.  It  was  ima- 
gined that  none  could  be  saved  without  baptism, 
and  gradually  the  baptism  of  infants  was  intro- 
duced. The  growth  of  this  new  custom  was  very 
slow.  Many  of  the  most  eminent  Christians  of 
the  fourth  century  did  not  baptize  their  infants. 
Gregory  of  Nazianznra  in  Cajiiiadocia  (b.  A.D. 
330),  the  son  of  a  bishop,  and  his  mother  the 
saintly  Nonua,  was  not  bajitized  till  he  was  con- 
verted at  thirty  years  of  age.  IJasil  the  Great, 
also  of  Cappadocia  (b.  A.l).  329).  whose  mother 
was  the  pious  Emnielia,  was  not  baptized  till  he 
was  converted,  when  abont  thirty  years  old. 
Chrysostom  of  Antioch  in  Syria  (b.  A.D.  347), 
whose  mother  Anthusa  was  one  of  tlie  noblest 
Christian  women,  was  not  baptized  till  he  was 
converted.  And  the  sou  of  the  holy  Monica, 
Augustine  of  Nuniidia,  was  not  baptized  till  he 
was  converted  at  the  age  of  thirty-two.  Here 
were  four  of  the  most  eminent  Christians  of  the 
fourth  century,  who  prayed  for  their  infants  both 
before  and  after  their  birth,  who  did  not  have 
them  baptized.  No  plausible  theory  has  yet  been 
found  to  harmonize  these  facts  with  the  assumed 
institntiou  of  infant-baptism  by  Christ.  To  the 
present  time  it  has  been  fonnd  "difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  to  give  a  definition  of  the  sacraments 
in  their  great  leading  fundamental  aspects,  which 
would  at  the  same  time  a[iply  to  and  include  the 
S|)ecial  case  of  the  bajitism  of  infants  "  (\V.  Cun- 
ninuduim,  Kefonners  ami  T/iealo;//;  of  IleJ'uniKtl'um, 
p.  2511).  This  "difficulty,  if  not  impossibility," 
arises  from  the  contradiction  between  infant- 
baptism  and  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  the 
gospel,  —  election,  regeneration,  justification  by 


faith,  —  as  well  as  from  the  ab.sence  of  precept 
or  example  for  infant-baptism  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament. 

Si/mlid/ixm.  —  The  passages  referring  to  the 
.syml)olism  of  baptism  are,  "Know  y(!  not,  that 
so  many  of  ns  as  were  bajitized  into  Jesus  Christ 
were  baptized  into  his  death?  Therefore  we  ai'e 
buried  with  him  by  baptism  into  <ieath ;  that 
like  as  Christ  n.as  raised  up  from  tlu'  dead  by 
the  glory  of  the  Father,  even  so  we  also  should 
walk  in  newness  of  life"  (Rom.  vi.  3,  4,  eomp. 
vers.  2,  5-11);  "buried  witli  him  in  baptism, 
wherein  also  ye  are  risen  with  him  throu'jh  the 
faith  of  the  openitiou  of  (jod,  who  raised  him 
from  the  dead"  (Col.  ii.  12);  "for  as  numy  of 
you  as  have  been  baptized  into  Christ  Jesns  have 
put  on  Christ"  (Gal.  iii.  27). 

Besides  the  public  confession  of  God.  three  in 
one.  Father.  Son,  and  Holy  S]iirit  (Matt,  xxviii. 
l!i).  baptism  is  a  symbol  of  "|intting  on  Christ  " 
((Jal.  iii.  27,  comp.  Rom.  xiii.  14);  of  union, 
through  faitli,  with  Christ  in  his  death  and 
resurrection  (Uom.  vi.  3,  4 ;  1  Cor.  xii.  13;  Col. 
ii.  12);  that  is,  those  who  were  "dead  in  sins," 
having  received  forgiveness,  have  died  with 
Christ  to  sin,  and  have  been  made  "alive  by  God 
through  Christ"  to  "  walk  in  newness  of  life  " 
(Rom.  vi.  3-11;  Col.  ii.  12,  13). 

Lit. — ViCKCo.MKs:  Ohacrriiliiincs  Eccl.  .Medio- 
laui,  lUl.).  4  vols.  (vol.  1,  "l.)e  Rit.  liapt.");  Rou- 
i.Nsox  :  Ilia!,  o/' Ua/ilisiu,  London,  17i)U;  -Vi'tiusxi  : 
Dc'idiriiii/K/kcilcn  (tiis  (k'r  chriatlicliLii  Arr/iii</l(>(/i<', 
Leipzig,  1817-31,  12  vols.  (vol.  7,  p.  210  tt'.);  'Dii 
Rossi:  Uhiiiu  Sdllcrriinca,  Ronni,  1804-57,2  vols.; 
Garuucci  :  Sinrin  tIcUa  Arte  Cristkina,  I'rato, 
1872-8U,  0  vols  ;  CltKMEit:  Winicrluirk  (ler  N.  T. 
Griiciiat,  (iotha,  1872;  3d  ed.,  1881  sq.;  Kng. 
Trans.,  Bihllco-OrccL-  Lexicon,  Edinburgh,  2d  ed., 
1880;  ISlAltTlGXY:  DirL  dc-s  AnliijUi/e'.t  C/in'liciines, 
Paris,  1877  (Art.  "  Bapteme."  "  Baptistere")  ; 
Li c (1  r K.N li K i!ii K 1! :  Eiii:i/clo/JL'ilie  ilcs  Scitncc-s  llelii/., 
Paris,  1877  (Ait.  "Bapteme,"  "Baptistere"); 
Dk  V'ociUE:  Arcliilccltite  t'icile  ct  Helii/.  ilu  l"  au 
VII'  :iicck;  Paris,  1877,  2  vols,  (vol.'  1,  iip  132, 
153).  II.  oscooD. 

BAPTISM.  I.  Considered  Biblically.  T/ie 
NeiD-'I'csldincnl  Iiteu.  —  We  do  not  find  in  the 
New  Testament  any  concise,  dogmatic  statement 
in  regard  to  baptism  :  we  have  only  allusions 
to  the  rite,  and  reu)arks  in  connection  with  de- 
scri]itions  of  its  perfornuance;  and  the  difficulty 
in  interpreting  the  former  (e.g.  John  iii.  5; 
Eph.  V.  20;  Tit.  iii.  5)  is  increased,  because  in 
them  baptism  manifestly  stands  as  a  symbol  for 
the  cleansing  and  quickening  power  of  the  word 
and  doctrine. 

Inasnmch  as  .Tewish  proselyte-baptism  is  much 
later  than  Christianity,  we  must  search  for  the 
prototypeof  C'hristian  baptism  in  the  lustrations  of 
the  Old-Testament  economy  (Lev.  xiv.  7;  Num. 
xxxi.  19  .sqq.),  in  the  purifying  Jordan-washing 
(2  Kings  V.  10),  and  in  tlie  pirophetic  expres- 
sions, e.g.,  Isa.  i.  10;  Zech.  xiii.  1  ;  particularly 
Ezek.  xxxvi.  25-30  [and,  according  to  some, 
in  E.ssenic  washings].  Resting  upon  these  pas- 
sages, .John  [.see  Joii.v  Till-:  B.\1'T1st]  and  the 
discijiles  of  .Jesus  baptized  in  the  .Jordan.  The 
two  baptisms  were  manifestly  the  same  while 
our  Lord  was  upon  the  earth;  but  that  after  his 
resurrection  our  Lord  coupled  water-ba))Cisiu  with 


BAPTISM. 


ZOO 


BAPTISM. 


tlie  baptism  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  of  wliicli  John 
liad  propliesied  (.Matt,  xxviii.  18-L'O;  Mark  xvi. 
IG).  and  that  the  two  went  togetlier  in  tlie  early 
church,  is  proved  from  .Act.s  ii.  38.  x.  44  sqq.,xix. 
1  S(]q.  The  outpouring  of  the  .Spirit  consecpient 
upon  the  layincr-on  of  the  apostles'  hands  ex- 
pressed the  "thought  that  the  blessing  of  bap- 
tism conies  from  the  Lord  of  the  Ciiurch:  for 
such  an  action  was  an  accompaniment  to  prayer. 
The  Spirit  had  ahvady  been  active  in  the  recipi- 
ent's heart:  for  it  was  expres-iy  declared  impos- 
sible to  believe  without  the  Spirit's  aid  (1  for. 
xii.  K5).  Baptism  is  rather  the  initiatory  rite 
into  the  Christian  Church,  the  Body  of  Christ 
(.Acts  ii.  41,  V.  14).  It  gives  the  seal  to  all 
previous  spiritual  experiences,  and  is  the  promise 
of  growth  with  the  Body  of  Christ,  of  which  the 
baptized  is  an  integral  part;  for,  in  the  language 
of  Paul,  he  that  had  '■  put  on  Christ "  was  not 
oidy  in  a  personal,  but  in  an  integral  relation  to 
him  as  a  member  of  his  Body,  so  that  the  Church 
is  one  ifinii  in  Christ  Jesus  (Gal.  iii.  27,  'J8).  But 
we  are  not  in  the  least  justified  in  drawing  the 
conclusion  that  baptism  is  necessary  to  salvation. 

Baptism  is  a  highly  symbolical  act.  The  w.ash- 
ing  of  the  body  symbolizes  the  cteansinfi  fnnn  sin, 
spoken  of  as  forgiveness  (Acts  ii.  38,  cf.  xxii.  16, 
and  1  Cor.  vi.  11),  as  a  cleansing  by  the  word 
(Eph.  v.  20),  as  the  restoration  of  a  good  con- 
science (lleb.  X.  22,  23).  The  power,  however, 
to  effect  these  changes,  lies  not  in  the  water,  but 
in  God.  It  also  symbolizes  the  Inirial  with  Christ 
(Rom.  vi.  3,  4;  Col.  ii.  12),  by  reason  of  which 
the  recipient  is  bound  to  die  unto  sin.  The  same 
idea  is  brought  out  in  the  analogy  between  bap- 
tism and  the  circumcision  of  Christ:  the  "put- 
ting-off  of  the  body  of  the  flesh"  (Col.  ii.  11). 
It  has  also  been  considered  by  some  a,  symbol 
of  rer/cneraliiin  (John  iii.  .5;  Tit.  iii.  5).  There 
is  no  trace  of  infant-baptism  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. See  Baptism  OF  I.N'i' ANTS.  All  attempts 
to  deduce  it  from  the  words  of  institution, 
or  from  such  passages  as  1  Cor.  i.  10,  must  be 
given  up  as  arbitrary.  Indeed,  1  Cor.  vii.  14 
("  For  the  unbelieving  husband  is  sanctified  in 
the  wife,  and  the  unbelieving  wife  is  sanctified 
in  the  brother :  else  were  your  children  unclean; 
but  now  they  are  holy,")  rules  out  decisively 
all  such  deductions;  for,  if  pedobajitisni  were 
taught  by  Paul,  he  would  have  linkiMi  the  sal- 
vation of  the  children  with  their  bajitism.  and  not 
with  the  faith  of  their  parents.  At  tin-  same  time 
the  passage  brings  out  the  justifying  ground  for 
pedobaptism ;  viz.,  the  parental  faith.  —  Bap- 
tism was  administered  in  running  water. 

II.  Considered  In  its  Relation  to  Johannic 
Baptism.  —  Tlie  speculative  cpiestion  involved, 
lias  greatly  interested  the  theologians.  The 
opinion  of  anthpiity  on  this  point  is  well  sum- 
inarizi'd  by  Bellarrnine  in  his  l)e  Snrriiinenlo  liup- 
lismi,  Lib.  I.,  Cap.  XIX,-X.\II.  (ed.  Uomae,  1838. 
torn.  III.,  i>p.  200-200),  and  amounts  to  this:  (1) 
The  baiitisni  of  John  was  not.  likc^  the  Christian, 
a  sacrament;  for,  although  thiTe  was  water,  there 
was  no  invocation  of  tlu!  Trinity.  (2)  It  had 
neither  the  ]iower  nor  the  efficiency  of  Christian 
baptism,  because  it  was  without  the  co-operation 
of  the  Holy  .Spirit.  (3)  In  order  to  be  saved,  it 
was  necessary  for  tliose  who  were  baptized  by 
John  to  receive  Christian  baptism. 


On  the  other  hand,  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed 

Confessions  asserted  the  perfect  identity  of  the 
two  forms  of  baptism.  )irincipnlly  on  the  ground 
that  John  had  preached  the  fundamental  truths 
of  the  gospel.  ,So  Luther  (Krlangen  .\usgabe, 
vol.  19,  p.  109);  Chemnitz  (E-mm.  Cwic.  Tii- 
ilent.  lie  Bnpt.  can.  1):  Gerhard  (Aw/  TheitUn/., 
vol.  IX..  ed.  Cotta,  pp.  101-103).  Zwingli  (to'm. 
III.  234)  characteristically  says,  "They  were 
both  alike,  the  one  as  little  efficacious  [i  e..  as  a 
mere  water-washing]  as  the  other."  .\nd  Calvin 
(Instil.  IV.,  cap  1.5.  §  7,  8)  saw  in  the  office  of 
the  Baptist  nothing  different  from  that  of  the 
apostles,  and  so  he  attributed  to  John  the  same 
baptism.  The  Socinians  and  the  .\rniinians  took 
the  Roman-Catholic  position,  which  is  doubtless 
correct  on  scriptui-al  grounds  alone,  and  agrees 
with  the  confe.ssion  of  the  Baptist  (Matt.  iii.  11), 
the  statement  of  Christ  himself  as  to  the  relation 
of  the  same  to  the  kingdom  (Matt.  xi.  11),  an<l 
with  the  apostolic  ideas  that  Christ  gave  a  new 
spirit  to  mankind,  that  it  dwells  in  his  Church, 
and  that  the  object  of  baptism  is  the  reception 
into  the  communion  of  this  spirit. 

III.  Considered  Practically.  (1)  The  Eif/ht  to 
Bti//ti:e.  anil  Lai/  Dnplisin.  —  There  is  no  evidence 
that  in  apostolic  times  the  light  to  administer 
baptism  was  confined  to  any  particular  office. 
The  deacon  Philip  (.Acts  viii.  38)  and  the  apos- 
tle Paul  (1  Cor.  i.  14-10)  baptized;  but  the  lat- 
ter does  not  seem  to  have  considered  it  p;irt  of 
his  duty.  Probably  the  disciples  baptized  the 
first  converts  in  a  place,  and  then  let  them  ba)i- 
tize  the  others.  Still  it  may  well  have  been,  that, 
even  in  these  times,  baiitisin  was  usually  ailmin- 
istered  by  the  chief  officer  of  the  congregation. 
Tertullian,  while  granting  in  the  abstract  the 
right  to  the  laity  on  the  ground  that  what  all 
received  in  common  might  be  dispensed  by  all  in 
common,  nevertheless  demands,  in  the  interests 
of  ecclesiastical  order  and  unity,  that  the  exercise 
of  this  right,  except  in  cases  of  necessity,  be 
restricted  to  the  ecclesiastics,  ordinarily  to  the 
bishop  (De  liiipt.  17).  To  the  same  effect  speaks 
•Jerome  (contra  Lucifcrianos,  4)  Cyprian  is  the 
first  of  the  fathers  to  claim  baptism  as  the  .abso- 
lute prerogative  of  the  bishop  as  the  succe.s.sor  of 
the  apostles  and  of  tlu;  bearer  of  the  keys  (ICpist. 
73,7);  {he.  A/tiistiiliciil  Cinistiltitinns  al.so(lIl.  10) 
claim  baptism  for  the  priestly  office  exclusively. 
The  early  church  custom  gave  to  bishops,  and 
then  to  presbyters  and  deacons  commi.ssioned  by 
them,  the  riglit  to  baptize,  but  alloweil  it  to  the 
laity  only  in  extreme  cases.  The  scdioohnen, 
I>;irticularly  Thomas  .Vipiinas,  modified  this 
teaching  by  extending  tho.  right  to  priests.  The 
Roman  Church  in  the  CiUi-cliism  of  the  (,'oiincil  of 
Trent  (or  Roman  Catechism),  P.  II.,  c.  II.,  i/n. 
23,  teaches  that  priests  and  bishops  have  equal 
right  in  the  matter:  deacons  also  can  baptize  on 
commission  of  the  bishop,  and  in  case  of  need 
anybody,  —  man  or  wom:ui.  Christians  or  .Jews, 
orthodox  or  heretics.  Thus  the  jircsent  church 
is  more  liber:d  than  some  of  her  founders;  for 
Tertullian  denies  the  right  to  women,  as  the 
A/iostiilir  Conslitutinns  (dll.  9)  do;  and  it  appears 
from  Kpiphanius  (llirr.  42,4),  that  it  was  looked 
upon  as  an  heretical  jn-actice.  .\ugustine  be- 
lieved that  baptism  by  a  .Ji^w  or  .a  lieathen  would 
not,  even  if  valid,  be  of  equal  ellicacy  to  baptism 


BAPTISM. 


201 


BAPTISM. 


by  a  Catholic  or  heretic  (De  liapl.  VII.  .'5:5,  §§  101, 
102).  Self-baptism  was  not  valid.  l>ut  baptism 
given  ill  sport,  if  the  projier  words  be  u.sed,  is 
regarded  as  valid  by  Rome. 

The  two  Protestant  Confe.ssions  differ  upon  fehe 
question  of  lay-baptism.  Luther  a.sscrted  that 
baptism  was  necessary  to  salvation  ;  so  he  granted 
to  laity  the  right  to  baptize  in  case  of  need,  but 
inconsistently,  that  unb.aptized  infants  were  not 
lost,  if  their  failure  to  be  baptized  did  not  arise 
from  either  guilt,  or  contempt  of  the  divine  com- 
mand. The  Reformed  rejected  his  doctrine,  and 
restricted  the  riglit  to  the  clergy. 

(2)  Tlie  Subjects  of  Baptism.  —  Church  Councils 
have  decided  these  are  :  First,  only  the  living. 
The  practice  of  baptizing  the  dead  had  .sprung 
up  among  the  later  IMontanists.  Second,  only 
those  who  were  born.  Tlie  question  is  discussed 
by  Augustine,  whether  infants  in  the  womb  were 
fit  subjects  of  baptism,  and  answered  negatively 
{Ep.  187,  cap.  10,  §  32  sqq.).  The  scholastic 
theology  allows  the  baptisni  of  partially  born 
children,  even  where  there  is  an  abnormal  pres- 
entation;  although,  in  tlie  latter  case,  Thomas 
Aquinas  taught,  th.at,  if  the  child  survived,  it 
should  receive  the  hypothetical  baptism  spoken 
of  below  (Smnina  Tlieologica,  Pars  Tertia,  Q. 
LXVIII.,  art.  11).  Abortive  and  abnormal 
birtlis  are  not  to  be  baptized.  Grown  persons 
who  are  insane  are  to  be  baptized,  if  they  shall 
ever  desire  it. 

As  the  general  condition  of  baptism,  there  must 
be  tlie  unforced  decision  and  the  personal  desire 
of  the  candidate  :  in  the  case  of  infants  of  Chris- 
tian parents,  the  agreement  of  parents  or  guard- 
ians is  accepted  instead.  It  is  true  that  force 
has  been  used  by  Roman  missionaries,  and  has 
been  defended  by  councils  but  its  use  is  excep- 
tional, and  contrary  to  the  principles  of  the 
church.  (Roman  Catechism,  P.  II.,  c.  II.,  qu. 
.37.)  All  tliose  grown  person  wlio  followed  a  "  dis- 
reputable or  godless  calling,"  as,  for  instance. 
Pagan  actors,  artists  who  maintained  Paganism, 
astrologers,  etc.,  so  long  as  they  continued  in 
these  occupations,  could  not  be  catechumens, 
much  less  baptized. 

(3)  The  Baptismal  Formula.  —  Tliis  is  given  in 
its  complete  form  in  Matt,  xxviii.  19;  but  since, 
in  the  Acts  and  in  the  Pauline  Epistles,  the 
phrase  baptizing  "in  the  name  of  Christ"  oc- 
curs, the  question  naturally  arose  whether  it 
was  allowable  to  use  any  shorter  formula,  — 
whether  to  do  so  was  a  later  apostolic  custom. 
Various  opinions  have  been'  expressed ;  but  the 
Roman  Catechism  expresses  the  general  opinion 
when  it  denies  sufficiency  to  any  other  than  the 
trine  formula.  The  Roman  Church  formula  is, 
"  Ego  te  baptizo  in  nomine  Patris  et  Filii  et 
Spiritus  Sancti."  The  Roman  ■  Catechism  (P. 
II.,  c.  II.,  ipi.  13)  thus  explains:  The  minister 
("/  baptize")  of  the  Sacrament,  the  person  to 
be  baptized  ("thee  "),  and  the  principal  efficient 
cause  of  baptism,  are  contained  in  the  formula ; 
for  baptism  is  the  work,  not  of  the  Son  alone, 
but  of  the  three  Persons  of  the  blessed  Trinity. 
By  saying  "in  the  name,"  not  "names,"  we  dis- 
tinctly declare  that  in  the  Trinity  there  is  but 
one  nature  and  Godhead.  Similar  is  the  use  and 
the  explanation  of  Evangelical  Protestantism. 
In  the  Greek  Church  the  formula  is,  (iaKTi^erai  6 


doMu(  Toil  Of  oil  6  deiva  [i(  rd  uvo/ia  Toii  Ilnrpijf  —  'K/iijv 
—  Kal  Toi)  ylttv  —  * A/iT/p  —  Kal  rov  uyiov  Xlvev/iaror  — 
'A/ir/v  —  vvv  Knl  dd  f/f  tqv^  aluvaf^  tCw  aiuvuv.  'A/if/v. 
(Let  this  servant  of  God  N.  be  baptized  in  the 
name  of  the  Father  —  Amen  —  and  of  the  Son  — 
Amen  —  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost — Amen  —  now 
and  ever,  world  witiiout  end.  Amen.)  In  the 
Syrian  liturgy  of  the  Antiochian  and  Jerusalem 
churches  the  same  appears  witli  many  interpola- 
tions. In  the  Roman  Church  the  priest  is  in- 
structed to  say  over  a  pierson  of  wliose  previous 
baptism  doubt  exists,  "I  do  not  re-baptize  thee; 
but,  if  thou  hast  not  been  as  yet  baptized,  I  bap- 
tize thee,"  etc.     (Hypothetical  Baptism.) 

(4)  Baptism  by  Immersion,  Aj/'usion  (^Pouring), 
and  Aspersion  (Sprinkiinc/).  —  In  the  primitive 
churcli,  baptism  was  by  immersion  except  in  the 
case  of  the  sick  (clinic  baptism),  who  were  bap- 
tized by  pouring  or  sprinkling.  These  latter  were 
often  regarded  as  not  properly  baptized,  eitlier 
because  they  had  not  completed  their  catechume- 
nate,  or  the  symbolism  of  the  rite  was  not  fully 
observed,  or  because  of  the  small  amount  of  water 
necessarily  used.  [The  12th  Canon  of  the  Council 
of  Neo-Csesarea  (311-325)  is:  "  Whoever  has  re- 
ceived clinic  baptism  (through  his  own  fault) 
cannot  become  a  priest,  because  he  professed  his 
faith  under  pressure  (fear  of  death),  and  not  from 
deliberate  choice,  unless  he  greatly  excel  after- 
wards in  zeal  and  faith,  or  there  is  a  deficiency  of 
other  eligible  men."  Ilefele,  Conciliengeschichte 
Vol.  I.  §  17,  1st  ed.]  In  816  the  Council  of  Cal- 
cuith  {Chelsea  in  England)  forbade  the  priests  to 
pour  water  upon  the  infants'  heads,  but  ordered 
to  immerse  them  [Hefele,  Vol.  IV.  §  416J;  the 
Council  of  Nemours  (1284)  limited  sprinkling  to 
cases  of  necessity;  and  Thomas  Aquinas  {Summa 
TIteologica  P.  III.  (ju.  LXVI.;  Be  Baptismo.  art. 
vii.)  says,  although  it  may  be  safer  to  baptize 
by  immersion,  yet  sprinkling  and  pouring  are 
also  allowable.  The  Council  of  Ravenna  (1311) 
was  the  first  to  allow  a  choice  between  sprin- 
kling and  immersion  (11th  Can.  Hefele,  Vol  VI 
§  690)  ;  but  at  an  earlier  date,  1287,  the  canons 
of  the  Council  of  the  Liege  bishop  John  prescribe 
the  way  in  which  the  sprinkling  of  children 
should  be  jierformed.  The  practice  first  came 
into  common  use  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  was  favored  by  the  growing  rarity 
of  adult  baptism.  It  is  the  present  practice  of 
the  Roman  Church;  but  in  the  Greek  Church 
immersion  is  insisted  on  as  essential.  Luther 
sided  with  the  immersionists,  described  the  bap- 
tismal act  as  an  immersion,  and  derived  Taufe 
(Cierman  for  "baptism")  from  tief  ("deep"), 
because  what  one  baptized,  he  sank  tief  in  the 
water.  Calvin  declared  the  whole  question  of 
the  mode'  of  baptism  a  matter  of  indifference 
{Inst.  IV.  c.  15,  §  19).  Baptism  in  the  early  church 
was  a  triple  immersion.  Various  explanations 
were  given  :  some  referred  it  to  apostolic  custom. 
Thomas  Aquinas  calls  it  a  sin  to  immerse  only 
once  (I.e.  <]u.  LXVI.  art.  viii.).  The  Roman 
ritual  enjoins  the  trine  affnsion  (pouring)  on  the 
head,  as  do  the  Lutheran  Kirchenorilnungen.  Some 
prescribe  the  simjile  dip  or  jiouring ;  others,  ex- 
pressly the  trine  pouring  or  sprinkling.  Calvin 
(I.e.)  regards  the  number  of  times  as  of  no  con- 
sequence. 

(5)  The    Time  of  Baptism.  —  Tertulliau  main 


BAPTISM. 


202 


BAPTISM. 


tained  all  times  were  alike;  but  still  very  earlj' 
the  church  determined  upon  the  period  between 
Easter  and  AVhitsunday.  wlien  tlie  so-called  "  Sol- 
emn Baptism  "  was  administered.  These  times 
were  chosen  with  especial  reference  to  the  cate- 
chumens :  but,  as  infant  baptism  gained  in  favor, 
indifference  as  to  the  time  increased.  Complaints 
were  heard,  and  remedies  suggested,  in  the  chuich 
councils;  e.g.,  the  second  Council  of  Macon,  Oct. 
2-3, 1585.  in  its  third  canon  decreed,  on  the  strength 
of  the  statement  that  only  two  or  three  weie  pre- 
sented for  baptism  at  Easter,  that,  except  in 
necessary  cases,  baptisms  must  take  place  on 
Easter  (Hefele,  Vol.  IV.  §  2SG).  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas lays  down  the  following  principles  (1.  c.  iju. 
LXVUI.  art.  3).  which  are  adopted  in  the  Roman 
Catechism  (/y».  .31.  34-36)  :  infants  are  to  be  bap- 
tized soon  after  birth,  because  they  are  liable  to 
die,  and  also  are  at  that  age  incapable  of  instruc- 
tion ;  but  adults  should  not  be  baptized  before 
they  are  thoroughly  indoctrinated,  and  can  wait 
for  "  solemn  baptism."  If,  when  they  are  fully 
prepared,  there  is  danger  in  delay,  tliere  is  no 
reason  to  wait  until  the  Easter  season.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  one  finds  in  Rome  and  in  cathe- 
drals on  Easter  eve,  no  baptisms  except  occa- 
sionally a  Jew's.  In  the  Greek  Church  there 
is  no  longer  any  set  time. 

(G)  Sponsors  were  probably  unknown  before 
the  existence  of  infant  baptism  :  with  them  also 
came  in  a  special  liturgy.  Originally  the  parents 
themselves  took  the  usual  vows  ;  but  the  council 
of  ]\Iainz  (Mayence),  813,  can.  55.  forbade  them; 
and  the  Roman  Catechism  (i]u.  28)  defends  the 
present  practice  on  the  singular  ground  that  the 
difference  between  the  sjiiritual  and  the  bodily 
education  of  the  child  may  l)e  all  tlie  sharper 
emphasized.  The  Roman  Church  lias  detailed 
with  great  minuteness  the  duties  of  sponsors,  and 
described  in  varied  phrases  their  position.  So 
close  is  supposed  to  be  the  relationship  between 
the  sponsors  and  those  whom  they  have  brought 
to  baptism,  that  they  are  not  permitted  to  marry. 
If  they  should  raany,the  church  declares  tlie  bond 
dissolved.  Nor  can  the  baptizer  and  bajitized 
marry.  Sponsors  are  mentioned  in  the  fourth 
century  in  connection  w  ith  adults  at  baptism  ; 
and  they  were  necessary,  because  of  the  inability 
of  the  clergy  to  keep  watch  of  all  who  applied 
for  baptism,  and  see  that  their  walk  corresponded 
with  their  profession.  .Viid  even  catechumens 
would  need  sponsors,  if,  by  sudden  sickness,  they 
were  deprived  of  speech  or  consciousness. 

Deacons,  deaconesses,  widows,  consecrated  vir- 
gins, were  favorite  classes  from  which  to  choose 
sponsors.  Priests,  monks,  and  nuns  were  forbid- 
den to  serve.  In  the  beginning  each  baptized 
one  had  a  spon.sor  of  the  same  sex ;  but  soon 
several  were  common,  notwithstanding  conciliar 
action.  The  Roman  Catechism  (i/u.  20)  allows 
no  more  than  two  of  opposite  sexes.  At  Avign- 
on (1337)  it  wiis  declared  that  the  expensive 
presents  expected  of  sponsors  was  the  rejison  wliy 
many  infants  were  unbaptized ;  therefore  the 
council  forbade  to  give  more  than  a  wliite  dress 
and  a  wax  candle. 

The  choice  of  sponsors  in  those  Protestant 
churches  where  they  exist  is  guide<l  by  similar 
principles,  and  they  discharge  similar  duties  to 
tliose  in  the   Roman  Churcli.     There  are,  how- 


ever, some  curiosities  in  the  way  of  legislation. 
Thus,  in  Poinerania,  Calvinists  were  classed 
with  heretics  as  ineligible  to  sponsorship.  In 
Saxony  there  was  a  fine  of  a  hundred  gulden  for 
having  more  than  three  sponsors.  In  Coburg  an 
ordinance  was  passed  in  1626,  that,  where  it  was 
customary  to  have  three  sponsors,  a  bastard 
should  have  only  one ;  but  where,  on  the  other 
hand,  one  was  customary,  the  bastard  should  have 
three. 

(7)  The  Titlual  of  Baptism. — In  the  earl}- church, 
preparation  preceded  baptism.  This  consisted 
of  prayer,  instruction,  and,  above  all.  in  the  hu- 
miliation of  the  soul  before  God, of  which  fasting 
was  the  characteristic  expression ;  and  in  this 
fasting  and  praying  the  congregation  shared:  so 
Justin,  A/M>L  1.,  61.  TertuUian,  De  Bajil..  c.  xx.,. 
says,  '•  They  who  are  about  to  enter  baptism 
ought  to  pray  with  repeated  prayers,  fasts,  and 
bendings  of  the  knee,  and  vigils  all  the  night 
through,  and  with  confession  of  all  bygone  sins." 
The  catechumenate  was  later  divided  into  classes. 
1.  The  Rwles;  i.e.,  those  who  had  been  designat- 
ed as  Christians  by  the  sign  of  the  cross;  2. 
The  Catechumens  proper,  both  the  Audienles 
(hearers)  and  Gemifiectenles  (kneelers)  ;  3.  The 
Compelenles  (those  prepared  tor  baptism).  Persons 
were  received  into  the  catecliumenate  by  prayer 
and  the  solemn  laying-on  of  hands.  The  cate- 
chumens of  the  first  class  were  allowed  only  to 
liear  the  sermons  and  the  Scripture-reading.  See 
C.\TECHETics.  The  ceremony  of  baptism  in- 
cluded: 1.  The  giving-in  of  the  names  of  the 
catechumen  (occasionally  one  dropped  the  Pagan 
name,  and  took  one  distinctively  Christian)  ;  2. 
The  renunciation  of  the  devil,  his  pomp,  and  all 
his  angels  (the  person  stood  facing  the  west, — 
the  place  of  darkness)  ;  3.  Exorcism,  accompa- 
nied by  breathing  upon  the  baptismal  waters 
(insufflation) ;  4.  The  opening  of  the  ears  and 
the  nose  by  the  priest's  touching  them  with  his 
spittal  (cf.  Mark  viii.  23);  5.  The  anointing  with 
consecrated  oil ;  6.  The  devout  repetition  of  the 
Apostles'  Creed  and  the  Lord's  Prayer  by  the 
officiating  priest,  followed  by  a  brief  explanation 
of  the  same,  a  recitation  of  the  beginnings  of  the 
four  Gospels,  and  also  of  a  comparison  between 
the  four  evangelists  and  tlie  cherubim  of  Ezek. 
i.  10;  7.  The  resjionsive  recitation  by  the  cate- 
chumen of  the  Creed  and  the  Lord's  Prayer. 

The  baptism  itself  consisted  in  (1)  [The  erilire 
disrobing  of  the  catechumen,  see  Smith  and 
Cheetham,  Did.  Chr.  Andq.,  p.  160];  (2)  The 
threefold  immer.sion  ;  (3)  The  tasting  of  a  mix- 
ture of  milk  and  honey  (because  the  baptized  are 
like  new-born  children  of  God),  see  TertuUian, 
Ik  corona  3;  (4)  Tlie  anointing  with  oil  (rlirisni); 

(5)  The   laying-on    of    the   hands   (imposition); 

(6)  Dressing  in  white  clothing,  which  was  worn 
a  week,  and  binding  of  a  piece  of  wliite  linen 
around  the  head  (the  chrismale),  intended  to  re- 
tiiin  the  "chrism"  upon  the  head  during  the  week. 
In  tlie  Orient  the  loins  of  tlie  neophytes  were 
girded  (cf.  Luke  xii.  35),  and  the  head  crowned, 
as  a  symbol  of  the  royal  priesthood.  In  the  Occi- 
dent they  were  given  a  lighted  candle.' 


n  Dean  SUinley  n\wv»  tlie  fullowIiiK  exci-cdinKly  ^mphic  de- 
scription of  n  bnptiHiii  in  the  i>atrlHtic  ukc  ;  " 'I'Tiere  wuh,  hh  n 
Kenenil  rule,  but  one  baptixtery  In  eiicb  city,  und  t^uch  bap. 
tittlerieH  were  iipnrl  from  the  churcheH.     There  was  but  one 


BAPTISM. 


203 


BAPTISM. 


Tlie  pntiro  baptismal  servict?,  witli  its  exorcism, 
remmciatioiis,  and  symbolical  acts,  had  an  un- 
mistakable reference  to  the  heatlien  cultiLS,  which 
the  Christians  regarded  as  the  work  of  demons, 
and  implied  that  tin;  neophyte  had  finally  broken 
with  Paganism.  Two  very  imiiortant  and  most 
closely  connected  features  in  the  development  of 
the  baptismal  liturgy  deserve  mention  ;  first,  a 
union  of  the  originally  sharply  distinguished 
catechumenate  and  baptismal  rites  became  un- 
avoidable in  the  case  of  the  sick,  who,  dying, 
desired  baptism ;  and  second,  that  children,  by 
reason  of  original  sin,  were  looked  upon  as 
"heathens."  To  them  the  united  catechumenate 
and  baptismal  rites  were  applied,  exactly  as  if 
they  had  been  heathens,  only,  of  course,  since  the 
infant  children  could  not  answer  the  questions, 
nor  promise  to  perform  the  duties  of  the  new 
relation,  the  god-parents  answered  for  them.  In 
this  way  the  baptismal  service  for  infants  and 
adults  was  almost  exactly  the  same.  The  bap- 
tism of  infants  in  the  Roman  Ciiurcli  is  in  this 
mode:  (1)  The  water  to  be  used,  having  been 
consecrated  with  the  oil  of  mystic  unction  at  the 
festivals  of  Easter  and  Pentecost,  is  put  in  the 
font ;  the  sponsor  presents  the  infant  to  the  priest, 
and  answers  the  set  questions;  (2)  The  exorcism, 
wiiich  consists  of  words  and  prayers ;  (3)  Salt 
is  put  into  the  child's  mouth  to  indicate  that  he 
shall  be  protected  against  the  corruption  of  sin, 
shall  experience  a  relish  for  good  works,  and  shall 
be  nurtured  with  the  food  of  divine  wisdom  ;  (4) 
He  is  signed  witli  the  cross  upon  the  forehead, 
eyes,  breast,  shoulders,  and  ears,  to  indicate  that 
his  senses  are  opened  by  baptism  to  comprehend 
the  things  of  God  ;  (5)  His  nose  and  ears  are 
touched  with  spittal  (cf  John  ix.  6  sqq.)  because 
baptism  enlightens  the  understanding  to  the  truth ; 
(6)  The  Uevil  and  his  works  are  renounced  by 
the  infant  through  his  sponsor;  (7)  He  is  next 
anointed  on  the  breast  with  the  oil  of  the  cate- 
chumens, that  he  may  receive  the  true  faith,  and 
between  the  shoulders,  that  he  may  engage  active- 
ly in  good  works ;  (S)  The  Christian  faith  is 
professed    by   the   sponsors  ;     (9)    He   is   asked 


lirae  in  the  year  when  the  rite  Wiia  administered;  namely, 
between  Easter  and  Peiiteco.st.  There  was  but  one  pereoiiai^e 
who  could  administer  it,  —  the  presiding  officer  of  the  com 
munity,  the  bishop,  as  the  chief  presbyter  was  called  al'tei-  the 
first  century.  There  was  hut  one  hour  for  the  ceremony,  it 
was  midnight.  The  tol'ches  Ilared  through  the  dark  hall  as 
the  troops  of  converts  llocked  in.  The  baptislei'y  eonsiste^l  of 
an  inner  and  an  outer  chainbei-.  In  the  outer  chamber  stood 
the  candidates  for  baptism,  stripped  to  their  shirts;  and  turning 
to  the  west,  as  the  region  of  sunset,  they  stretched  forth  their 
hands  through  the  tlimly-ht  chamber,  as  in  a  defiant  attitude, 
towards  the  Evil  S[)irit  of  Darkness,  and,  speaking  to  him  by 
name,  sai<l.  '  I  renounce  thee,  Satan,  and  all  thy  works,  aiul 
all  thy  pomp,  and  all  thy  service.'  Then  they  turned,  like  a 
regiraenl,  facing  light  around  to  the  east,  and  repeated,  in  a 
form  rooi'e  or  less  long,  the  belief  in  the  Father,  the  .Son,  and 
the  Spirit,  which  has  grown  up  into  the  so-called  Apo^tles' 
Creed  in  the  West,  and  the  so-called  Xicene  Creed  in  the  East. 
They  then  advanced  into  the  iuTier  cliambei'.  Before  them 
yawned  the  deep  pool  or  reservoir,  and,  standing  by,  the  deacon 
or  deaconess,  as  Ihe  case  might  be.  to  arrange  that  all  should 
be  done  wilh  decency.  The  whole  troop  undressed  completely, 
as  if  for  a  balli,  and  stood  up  luiked  before  the  bishop,  who 
put  to  each  the  questions,  to  which  the  answer  was  returned 
in  a  loud  and  distinct  voice,  as  of  those  who  knew  what  they 
had  undertaken.  They  then  plunged  into  the  water.  Both 
before  and  after  tlu-  immersion,  their  bare  limbs  were  rubbed 
with  oil  from  head  lo  foot:  they  were  then  clothed  in  white 
gowns,  and  received,  as  token  of  the  kindly  feeling  of  their 
new  brotherhood,  the  kiss  of  peace,  and  a  taste  of  honey  and 
milk;  and  they  expressed  tlieir  new  faith  by  using  for  the  first 
time  the  Lord's  I'rayer." —  Christian  Institutions  (N.Y.,  ISyi), 
.^p.4,  5.] 


whether  he  wishes  to  be  baptized,  aiul  tlien  im- 
mediately follows  baptism  ;  (10)  His  head  is 
anointed  with  chrism  in  order  to  mark  him  as  a 
member  of  tlii^  Body  of  Christ;  (11)  The  child 
receives  a  white  cloth  (sudariolum),  an  adult  a 
wliite  robe ;  (12)  yV  lighted  candle  is  juit  into 
his  Intnd,  for  a  Christian  must  be  a  light;  and 
finally  (bi)  he  receives  the  name  of  some  saint. 
See  K(im:in  Catechism,  '/«.  (i2-72.  Zwingli  and 
Luther  characteristically  treated  the  lioinan  rit- 
ual .  the  former  rejected  it,  while  the  latter 
adopted  it.  The  present  Lutheran  Church  retains 
it  in  a  much  niodifietl  form. 

IV.  Considered  Theologically.  (1)  The  Pa 
Inslic  D(;clriii('  of  liiipUsiii.  («)  Tin:  General 
TiHu-hnuj. — Great  emphasis  was  early  laid  upon 
baptism  It  was  the  condition  of  salvation;  it 
gave  pardon  of  sin,  and  imparted  righteousness: 
so  even  in  the  Epistle  of  IJarnabas  (cap  11)  and 
the  Shepherd  of  Hernias  (I.  vis.  III.  cap.  3). 
The  Fatliers  generally  speak  of  it  with  rhetori- 
cal and  allegorical  exuberance;  and  many  are  the 
plirases  used  to  set  its  virtues  forth,  although  at 
the  same  time  they  contributed  to  its  tJieological 
development.  It  was  common  to  call  Christ  the 
Fhk  ((.v"i'f).  because  the  letters  of  the  Greek 
word  for  fish  were  the  initial  letters  of  the  phrase 
"Jesus  Christ  the  Son  of  (iod,  the  Saviour." 
('[;/aui\-  Xpforof  Qinv  Tide  2<j7//p.)  See  Allf;goi;y. 
Hence  we  find  TertuUiaii  saying,  "But  we  little 
fishes,  after  the  example  of  our  (ytfi'c,  Jesus  Christ, 
are  born  in  water;  nor  have  we  .safety  in  any  other 
way  than  by  permanently  abiding  in  the  water" 
(De  BiipL,  cnyi  I.)  Justin  Martyr  sets  opposite 
to  the  natural  birth  by  ordinary  generation  the 
regeneration  by  water  in  baptism  {Apol.  I.,  cap. 
61).     Three   effects  are   attributed   to   baptism : 

1.  The  forgiveness  of  all  existing  sins;  2.  The 
impartation  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  all  his  gifts 
and  graces,  3.  Immortal  life.  The  more  sensi- 
tive the  mind  of  the  church  was  to  the  symbolical 
representation  of  baptism,  and  the  more  indis- 
tinct the  line  between  shadow  and  substance,  the 
more,  of  course,  did  the  symbolism  of  the  rite, 
and  its  reference  to  the  tleath  and  resurrection 
of  Christ,  favor  the  rhetorical  rejnv.sentations  so 
commonly  given  of  it.  But  one  finds  more  than 
rhetoric  in  the  Fathers  on  this  subject.  1.  Many 
strive  to  distinguish  shar[>er  between  the  sign 
and  the  operating  power,  and  to  place  them  in 
a  freer  relationship.  So  Gregory  Nazianzen  (Or. 
40,  cf.    Ullniann,    Grerjor  con  Nazianz,   p.  401). 

2.  The  ethical  idea  of  baptism  shows  itself  in 
the  emphasis  laitl  upon  faith  as  the  indispen- 
sable condition  of  the  blessing  on  the  rite.  So 
Tertullian  {De  Pccnil..  cap.  0),  Gregory  of  Nyssa 
(Dc  iicop.  Clinsti,  p.  209),  Gregory  of  Nazianzum 
(Or.  40,  Ullmann,  p.  401),  and  Jerome,  who  very 
plainly  says  (Enarr.  in  Ps.  77),  "  He  who  has  not 
received  baptism  with  a  full  faith  has  received 
water,  not  the  Spirit."  3.  The  Greek  Fathers 
regard  baptism  as  the  commencement,  and  not 
as  tlie  completion,  of  regeneration.  So  Origen 
(Hum.  in  Luc.  XXI.).  —  However  correct  may 
have  been  the  views  of  the  leaders  of  the  church, 
it  is  certain  that  the  church-members  enter- 
tained very  erroneous  notions.  They  ascribed  to 
baptism  a  magical  efficacy,  and  particularly  the 
cleansing  from  sin,  entirely  irrespective  of  the 
religious   state   of   the   recipient:   indeed,    from 


BAPTISM. 


204 


BAPTISM. 


the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  the  sad  cus- 
tom too  ■nidely  prevailed  of  postponing  baptism 
as  long  as  possible,  even  to  the  death-hour,  so 
that  the  recipient  might  continue  his  lax  life, 
and  by  this  one  act  get  rid  of  all  the  past  sins, 
and  enter  heaven  perfectly  pure.  The  Fathers 
condemn  the  custom.  Thus  Gregory  of  Xazian- 
zum,  in  Or.  40;  and  Gregory  of  Nyzza  has  a  spe- 
cial sermon  against  it.  But  other  motives  for 
delaying  baptism  were  in  operation, — dread  of 
the  trials  of  a  professed  Christian  life,  the  stern 
discipline  of  the  church  toward  the  lapsed,  the 
wish  to  be  baptized  at  some  particular  time,  etc., 
and,  of  a  higher  character,  the  fear  of  losing  the 
grace  of  baptism,  and  the  desire  to  be  better  pre- 
pared. —  Baptism  was  considered  indispensable 
to  salvation  ;  but  there  were  two  classes  of  per- 
■jons  whose  will  was  taken  for  the  deed,  —  martjTS 
who  died  for  the  faith  (later  teachers  distin- 
guished the  Catholics  from  the  heretics),  and 
those  catechumens  who  died  suddenly. 

Infant  baptism  came  in  quite  naturally  as  the 
consequent  of  the  belief  in  the  necessity  of  bap- 
tism. Justin  Martyr's  phrase  (/.  Apol.,  c.  15), 
'•  Many  who  have  been  disciples  of  Christ  from 
childhood,"  is  not  indeed  to  be  interpreted  as 
proving  the  practice  in  his  day,  but  rather  the 
existence  of  the  catechumenate.  On  the  other 
h.and,  the  saying  of  IreuKus,  "  lie  came  to  save 
all  who  through  him  are  born  again  to  God,  in- 
fants, children,  boys,  youths,  and  old  men  "  (Adr. 
Har.,  II.  22,  4),  when  compared  with  III.  17, 
1,  where  he  calls  baptism  "regeneration,"  does 
plainly  imply  it;  because,  if  it  were  not  by  their 
baptism,  how  could  they  be  regenerated  ?  Ter- 
tuUian's  unfavorable  judgment  of  infant  bap- 
tism proves  its  existence  and  wide  sjiread  {De 
Bapt.,  18).  Further  proof  is  afforded  by  Cy- 
prian's Epistle  to  Fidus  {Ep.,  64).  The  argu- 
mentative force  of  Origen's  appeal  to  apostolic 
tradition  on  behalf  of  infant  baptism  {Ep.  ad 
Rom.,  lib.  V.  Opera  IV.  505)  is  greatly  weak- 
ened by  the  fact  that  the  church  of  that  time 
undoubtedly  derived  not  only  the  doctrine,  but 
the  very  ritual,  of  baptism  from  apostolic  times. 
'I'he  grounds  for  infant  baptism  were  diverse. 
Origen  regarded  baptism  as  cleansing  the  de- 
filement of  birth  (m  Liic.  Ei-iuuj.  Ham.,  .VI'.), 
and  as  pardoning  the  sins  of  the  children  in  the 
]'re-existeut  state  {in  Leril.  Horn.,  VIII.).  Otlier 
(Jriental  fathers  refer  the  principal  effects  of 
liaptism  to  the  after-life;  while  some  maintain 
that  bajitism  cleansed  from  original  sin.  .See 
(iregory  Nazianzen,  who  divides  the  unbaptized 
dead  into  three  classes,  — those  who  refused  bap- 
tism, the  severely  punished  ;  those  wlio  delayed 
baptism,  the  lightly  punished;  unbaptized  in- 
fants, the  unpunished,  yet  who  are  excluded 
from  Paradise  (O/-.  40,  I'llmann,  p.  47(i),  Lsidor 
of  Pelusium  (Lib.  III.,  Ep.  105),  and  Tlieodoret 
(Ilcercl.  FaljuL,  c.  V.  18).  In  the  Latin  Church 
the  effect  of  baptism  was  held  to  be  rather  retro- 
active: it  forgave  previous  sin,  —  in  infants, 
original  sin. 

(//)  A  ui/ii.itiiif:'.i  I'k-irs.  ^The  opinions  of  Augus- 
tine, so  important  in  the  history  of  doctrine,  are 
found  jirincijially  in  his  writings  .against  the 
Donatists,  particularly  in  his  sevc'U  books  on  baji- 
tism  (compare  Baptism  uy  IIkuktics),  in  wliich 
he  affirms  the  validity  of  heretical  bai>tism ;  and 


in  his  writings  against  the  Pelagians,  in  which 
he  discusses  the  relation  of  baptism  to  original 
sin.  His  position  is  not  the  same  in  the  two  con- 
troversies ;  and  we  can  mark  the  time  of  his 
change  by  the  important  letter  to  Boniface  (Ep. 
98),  if  it  was,  as  the  Benedictines  affirm,  really 
written  in  408. 

His  stand-point  is  the  symbolical ;  for  he  dis- 
tinguishes sharply  between  the  sacrament  and 
its  contents  (rt\s-  sacraiiieiili).  and  allows  that  they 
do  not  necessarily  go  together:  at  the  same  time 
he  was  far  from  denying  that  the  sacramental 
grace  to  the  believer  was  not  real,  and  at  a  later 
time  advanced  to  the  assertion,  that,  without  bap- 
tism and  the  Lord's  Supper,  no  one  could  be 
saved  (De  Peccal.  Merit,  el  llemi.i.'i.,  1.  24,  §  34). 
Between  these  two  sides  of  .Augustine's  teaching, 
there  is  no  substantial  contradiction.  His  funda- 
mental idea  of  baptism  was  derived  from  his 
idea  of  the  Catholic  Church,  which  was  the  body 
of  Christ,  in  which  alone  could  there  be  any  com- 
munion of  saints,  and  therefore  out  of  which 
there  was  no  salvation.  The  enti'ance  into  the 
church  and  incorporation  with  the  body  of  Christ 
was  effected  externally  by  baptism,  internally 
through  the  Spirit's  working  by  faith.  On  both 
factors  rests  regeneration  (De  Peccal.  Merit,  et 
Heniiss.,  III.  4,  §§7,  8).  The  water  of  baptism, 
in  its  cleansing  effect  on  the  body,  is  the  sacra- 
ment only  :  the  reality,  corresponding  to  the  em- 
blem, is  the  spiritual  sanctification;  and  its  effect, 
regeneration.  Baptism  is  therefore,  in  totality, 
the  sacrament  of  regeneration.  Regeneration 
can  only  be  effected  by  the  Holy  Spirit.  Its 
negative  side  is  the  renovation  from  the  "corrup- 
tion of  the  old  man,"  which  consists  substantially 
in  the  forgiveness  of  sins  (De  liapt.,  I.  11,  §  16), 
which  the  Holy  Sjiirit  must  first  of  all  give,  be- 
cause he  can  dwell  only  in  a  clean  heart.  Bap- 
tism is  therefore  the  "sacrament  of  the  remission 
of  sins"(V,  21,  §20),  provided  it  be  admin- 
istered in  the  Catholic  Church.  ,\ugustine  first 
taught  that  only  actual  sins  were  forgiven,  but 
later,  al.so original  sin;  and  this  has  been  claimed 
to  be  tlie  great  effect  of  baptism.  But  forgiving 
original  sin  altered  the  complexion  of  all  other 
sins.  Thus  concupiscence  in  the  unbaptized  is  a 
sin,  in  the  baptized  a  sickness;  and  the  approach 
to  cure  is  daily  closer,  until  in  heaven  the  cure  is 
complete  (De  Kiijit.  et  Coiicup.,  1-.  25,  §  28; 
cap.  26,  §  29).  In  his  earlier  period  he  taught 
there  could  be  baptism  without  conversion,  and 
rice  ccrsa,  and  salvation  in  either  case,  if  the  first 
case  was  that  of  a  b;ibe,  and  the  second  that  of  a 
believing  catechumen.  In  his  later  period  he 
receded  from  this  position,  and  made  baptism 
absolutely  necess;iry  to  salvation  (Ep.  185,  cap, 
11,  §  .50),  except  in  the  case  of  martyrs  (De  Cioit. 
Dei,  lib.  XIII.  cap.  7.)  —  Baptism,  however,  does 
not  help  the  unconverted,  nor  one  who  has  re- 
ceived heretical  or  schisinatical  baptism  when  he 
might  have  had  tlie  Catholic,  See  Baptism  uy 
Hkkktics. 

From  his  earlier  stand-point,  when  baptism 
was  not  considered  as  ]iardoning  original  sin,  nor 
was  the  absence  of  ba|itisni  dannuitory,  .Vugus- 
tine  defended  infant  baptism,  on  the  ground  that 
the  inlants  received  first  the  sacramiMit  of  regen- 
eration, and  then  conversion,  if  their  Christian 
educatiou   was   faithful ;     and    maintained    that 


BAPTISM. 


205 


BAPTISM. 


parents  or  sponsors  assumed  the  res]inMsibility  of 
the  infant's  C'ln'istian  education,  and  also  in  such 
a  sense  answered  the  ba[itisnial  (juestions  in  the 
place  of  the  child,  that,  if  it  should  die,  their  an- 
swers would  be  received  as  the  child's  confession 
before  God.  From  his  later  stan<l-p()int  he  main- 
tained that  there  was  at  the  same  time  a  substi- 
tutive faith  of  the  Church,  by  which  the  band  of 
original  sin  is  broken,  the  Holy  .Spirit  imjilanted 
in  the  unconscious  babe,  aiu.l  regeneration  wrouglit 
before  conversion  (£;;.  98).  The  idea  of  the 
jiassive  receptivity  of  the  child  was  Augustine's 
most  pregnant  contribution  to  the  Church.  It  is 
not  only  the  root  of  the  opiin  ojicrdliint  doctrine  of 
Rome,  but  rules  the  present  theory  of  infant- 
baptism  in  the  Lutheran  Church.  In  regard  to 
unbaptized  infants,  he  says  expressly,  "It  may 
therefore  be  correctly  affirmed,  that  such  infant 
as  quit  the  body  without  being  baptized  will  be 
involved  in  condemnation,  but  of  the  mildest 
character"  (De  Peccatorum  Merilix  el  Remissione 
et  de  Baptismo  Parvulorum,  I.  l(j,  §  21). 

(2)  The  Later  Itoman  Catholic  Doctrine.  —  Au- 
gustine having  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Roman 
conception  of  baptism,  it  only  remained  for  the 
schoolmen  to  build  upon  it.  and  for  the  Council 
of  Trent  and  the  Roman  Catechism  to  adopt  the 
theory  thus  developed  without  further  question. 
The  schoolmen  distinguish  between  the  material 
and  the  /b/v/i  of  baptism.  Thomas  Aquinas  says 
it  is  not  the  water,  but  the  application  of  the 
water,  which  constitutes  baptism  (Suiiuiia,  P.  III. 
qu.  66,  art.  1,  Resp.),  and  similarly  the  Roman 
Catechism  (P.  II.  c.  ii.  qu.  6)  and  Bellarmine 
(De  Bapt.,  c.  1).  The  material  of  baptism  is  the 
water;  because  water  symbolizes  the  cleansing 
from  sin,  and  by  its  clearness  the  receptivity  of 
faith  to  divine  light.  Again:  through  the  plun- 
ging into  water  is  symbolized  the  resurrection  of 
Christ:  at  the  same  time  the  universal  prevalence 
of  water  renders  possible  the  universal  perform- 
ance of  this  necessary  rite.  It  is  allowable  to 
mix  the  water  with  foreign  substances,  but '  not 
in  such  quantity  as  to  substantially  alter  its 
character.  The  form  of  baptism  lies  in  the 
formula.  The  material  and  form  and  their  ap- 
plication are  the  necessaries  of  baptism :  all 
the  rest  is  intended  merely  to  deepen  the  impres- 
sion. Baptism  was  instituted  by  Christ  ;  but  to 
the  question  when,  different  answers  were  given. 
All  were  agreed,  however,  that  from  Christ  bap- 
tism received  its  power  to  impart  grace. 

In  regard  to  the  effect  of  baptism,  Augustine's 
views  were  embraced  and  emphasized.  Thus 
they  taught  that  it  impresses  an  indelible  charac- 
ter upon  the  soul,  and  justifies,  or  rather,  in 
Protestant  speech,  regenerates :  all  sin,  original 
and  actual,  and  all  the  guilt  of  sin,  is  washed 
away :  concupiscence  (sensuality)  is  either  en- 
tirely removed  or  greatly  lessened  (so,  in  the 
latter  sense,  the  Tridentine  Council,  Sess.  V. 
(hereto  de  peccato  orir/.,  cap,  5).  On  the  positive 
side,  baptism  incorporated  the  recipient  with 
Christ,  and  gave  all  the  gifts  and  graces  for  the 
new  life.  See  S.^craments.  The  last  effect 
was  to  open  heaven.  The  subjective  condition 
for  baptism  is,  according  to  Thomas  Aquinas, 
the  desire  to  receive  the  rite ;  and  the  blessing  is 
in  propoition  to  the  desire. 

But  the  most  important  part  of  Thomas's  teach- 


ing relates  to  the  character  which  bai)tism  im- 
))resses.  He  borrowed  the  idea  from  Augustine, 
but  carried  it  out  much  fartluT,  and  made  it 
much  more  a  feature  of  his  system.  The  exter- 
nal w.ashing  is  only  the  emblem  of  the  internal 
cleansing,  which  imparts  the  spiritual  character 
to  ba]itism,  an<l  which,  in  its  stead,  is  the  emiilem 
of  the  last  effect  of  baptism,  viz.,  the  renewing 
grace.  The  character  as  sucli  is  no  new  disposi- 
tion :  it  is  simply  a  sign  stamped  upon  the  soul, 
by  which  the  soul  is  indicated  as  a  member  of 
Christ's  body.  But  since  the  ssacranuMits  are 
not  merely  emblems  of  internal  gracious  effects, 
but  are  effectual  signs,  causes  of  the  same  (see 
Sackamknts),  so  is  the  character  they  make 
itself  the  active  cause,  the  energetic  principle,  of 
the  grace ;  so  that  it  draws  the  latter  after  it  as 
its  necessary  effect.  Baptism  puts  the  baptized 
in  such  a  relation  to  Christ  that  they  receive 
directly  the  stream  of  his  grace.  Hut  Thomas's 
subtle  discussion  of  the  character  imparted  by 
baptism  was  without  influence  upon  later  Catholi- 
cism. The  Roman  Catechism  touches  upon  this 
doctrine  of  baptismal  character  merely  as  showing 
that  it  renders  baptism  unrepeatable ;  and  yet 
it  was  to  the  founder  of  mediaeval  theology  the 
pivot  on  which  the  whole  theological  develop- 
ment of  baptism  turned.  The  schoolmen  taught 
the  necessity  of  baptism  to  salvation,  but  they 
held  that  the  desire  might  be  accepted  in  place 
of  the  actual  use  of  water.  Thomas  distinguishes 
three  kinds  of  baptism,  —  of  water,  of  blood,  and 
of  fire;  i.e.,  of  the  Holy  Spirit  or  penitence  (Qu. 
66,  art.  11,  12). 

This  whole  theory  needed  considerable  altera 
tion  before  it  would  fit  in  with  infant  baptism. 
Infants  could  not  exercise  any  faith,  nor  show 
any  desire  after  the  rite,  nor  experience  any  essen- 
tial change  of  feeling.  Thomas,  however,  re- 
called the  Augustinian  idea,  —  the  babes  believe 
not  through  their  own  act,  but  through  the  faith 
of  tlie  Church  in  which  they  are  baptized,  namely, 
by  the  power  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  who  gives  to  the 
Church  her  unity,  and  in  her  makes  an  equal 
distribution  of  spiritual  goods,  so  that  infants 
share  in  the  faith  of  the  Cliurch;  but  only  in 
potentiality,  there  was  as  yet  no  exertion  of 
spiritual  power.  The  teachings  of  the  later 
church  is  thus  summarized  by  Bellarmine.  (1) 
Infants  have  no  actual  faith;  (2)  Nor  spiritual 
nuinifestations;  (3)  The//  are  justified  ahsolutehj 
without  faith ,  (4)  The  lidliitus^  of  faith,  love,  and 
hope,  is  imparted  to  them;  (5)  They  practically 
believe,  partly  because  baptism  is  itself  an  actual 
confession  of  faith,  and  partly  because  of  the 
vicarious  faith  of  others  (De  Bapt.,  c.  11). 

Qi)  The  Protestant  Doctrine  of  Baptism.  (a) 
The  Teaching  of  the  Reformers.  1.  The  Luther- 
ans. —  Three  stages  in  Luther's  baptismal  teach- 
ing can  be  traced.  In  the  first  stage  Luther 
followed  the  Augusthiian  teaching,  and  distin- 
guished between  the  sign  and  what  the  sign 
signified,  and  in  the  middle  put  faith,  which 
realizes  in  men  the  meaning  of  the  sign.  The 
sign  is  the  immersion;  the  meaning,  the  new 
birth.     Faith  makes  real  this  spiritual  baptism, 


[^  Habitus  is  the  condition  which  includes  in  itself  at  the 
same  time  a  power  to  act.  It  may  be  infuntd,  and  then  it  is 
the  condition  of  all  corresponding  activity;  or  ac^utrei/,  and 
then  it  is  the  result  of  actions  already  performed.] 


BAPTISM. 


206 


BAPTISM. 


whose  effects  continue  all  one's  life  tlirough.  In 
the  seco»fJ  stage  (e.g..  Die  hubylonische  Gefangen- 
scliaft,  1520)  Luther  considered  baptism  a  sign 
and  seal  which  God  added  to  his  word  and  prom- 
ise in  order  to  strengthen  and  comfort.  The  chief 
thing  in  baptism  is  the  divine  promise.  He  who 
believes  it,  and  is  baptized,  will  be  saved  ;  all  sal- 
vation depends  upon  it,  only  we  must  exercise 
our  faith  after  we  are  baptized.  So  long  as  the 
baptized  maintain  their  faith,  they  cannot  be  lost, 
though  tliey  grievously  sin.  In  the  third  stage  he 
taught  that  to  tlie  sign  and  word  were  added  the 
command  and  ordinance  of  God,  according  to 
whicli  the  former  were  given  together  in  such  a 
manner,  that  the  water  of  baptism  is  converted 
into  a  divine  element  (Erlangen  Ausg.abe,  vol.  16, 
p.  63  sqq.).  As  he  says  in  his  Catechism  of  1529, 
"  It  is  the  water  comprehended  in  God's  com- 
mand, and  connected  with  God's  command." 
Jlelanchthon  considered  baptism  a  perpetual 
witness  that  the  forgiveness  of  sins  and  the  re- 
newing of  the  Holy  Ghost  belong  especially  to 
the  baptized.  The  operating  cause  of  this  condi- 
tion is  faith  (Loci  Comm.,  "  i)e  Bapt.,"  Corp.  Ref., 
XXI.  S.53).  Rutzer  distinguishes  sharply  be- 
tween the  water  and  the  spirit  baptism  {Comment, 
on  Matt.  c.  31).  Luther's  latest  opinion  does  not 
appear  in  the  Confessions,  except  in  the  German 
original  of  the  Schmalkald  Articles.  The  Augs- 
burg Confession  represents  Melanchthon's  stand- 
point (art.  9).  Tlie  Reformers  contended  that 
the  ••  concupiscence  "  remaining  after  the  original 
sin  had  been  pardoned  in  baptism  was  really  sin. 

The  Protestant  teaching  had  for  its  starting- 
point  its  objection  to  the  Roman  opus  operatum 
theory  of  baptism,  and  therefore  the  emphasis  it 
laid  upon  faith.  An  objection  to  this  position 
would  seem  to  lie  in  infant-baptism.  Luther 
saw  this,  and  had  recourse  at  first  to  tlie  theory 
that  the  child  believed  through  the  faith  of 
otht-rs  (con  der  babylonischen  Gefanf/enschn/l) ;  but 
later  Lutherans  find  in  his  third  stage  of  devel- 
opment, when  the  baptismal  water  was  to  him 
not  simply  water,  but  connected  with  Christ's 
blood,  the  reply  to  the  objection. 

2.  The  Reformed,  because  of  their  principles, 
had  from  the  beginning  a  far  easier  cour.se  of 
theological  development  into  light  and  truth. 
Starting  with  the  idea  that  God  has  not  condi- 
tioned salvation  upon  any  e.\ternal  work  or  cere- 
mony whatsoever,  Zwingli  attributed  no  sancti- 
fying power  to  baptism  ;«/;•  .«e,  only  to  faith,  and 
thai  God  alone  can  give.  Baptism,  therefore,  is 
not  necessary  to  salvation.  It  can  neither  give 
the  Holy  Spirit,  nor  cleanse  the  soul,  nor  forgive 
original  sin,  nor  regenerate,  nor  finally  can  it 
strengthen  faith.  What,  then,  is  baptism';'  It 
is  an  initiatory  sign  by  which  one  is  marked  out 
as  a  follower  of  Christ,  and  obligated  to  live  for 
God.  But  baptism  cannot  help  one  a  particle  to 
this  end:  faith  alone  can  (.S^huler  and  Schul- 
thess'  ed.,  H.,  mm  'J'tiiif). 

Calvin  held  Zwingli's  principles,  but  brought 
them  nearer  the  Lutheran  conception.  Accord- 
ing to  him,  baptism  is  the  initiatory  sign  by 
wliich  we  are  received  into  the  coninumion  of 
tlie  visible  clmrch  in  oidi-r  that  we,  iin]ilanted  in 
Christ,  may  belong  to  the  children  of  God.  As 
the  Ix)rd'8  Supper,  .so  baptism  is  a  confession 
of  our  desire  to  be  counted  among  the  people  of 


God ;  Vmt  the  condition  of  tlie  gracious  effect 
of  baptism  is  faith.  Like  Zwingli,  he  justified 
infant  baptism  by  the  analogy  of  circumcision, 
in  place  of  which  it  comes.  Each  only  sealed 
the  covenant  of  grace  in  which  the  children 
already  stood  by  reason  of  their  parents'  position 
and  whose  privileges  they  inherited.  As  further 
arguments  he  appealed  to  Christ's  declaration 
concerning  the  children,  "  of  such  is  the  king- 
dom of  heaven  "  (Matt.  xix.  II),  and  also  to  the 
reasonably  supposed  presence  of  children  in  the 
families  whom  the  apostles  baptized.  To  the  ob- 
jection that  children  could  not  be  regenerated,  be- 
cause they  could  not  know  Christ,  Calvin  replied 
that  only  elect  infants  could  be;  but  in  regard  to 
them  it  was  at  least  supposable  that  they  had  a 
spark  of  divine  light,  and  upon  no  other  than 
the  condition  of  regeneration  could  an;/  one  enter 
the  kingdom.  None  of  the  elect  die  before  they 
are  regenerated,  nor  are  unbaptized  elect  infants 
excluded  from  heaven.  Baptism  is  therefore 
very  far  from  being  necessarj-  to  salvation. 

[(i)  The  Representation  of  Baptixm  in  tlie  Church 
Creeds.  Lutheran.  —  The  Augsburg  Confession 
(1530),  Art.  IX.:  — 

"  Baptism  is  necessary  to  salvation,  by  [it]  the 
grace  of  God  is  offered;  and  children  are  to  lie  bai> 
tized,  who  by  baptism,  being  offered  to  God,  are 
received  into  God's  favor." 

Reforyned.  —  The  Fir.st  Helvetic  Confession 
(1536),  Art.  XXII.:  — 

"  Baptism  is,  according  to  the  institution  of  Christ, 
a  laver  of  regeneration,  which  the  Lord  offers  and 
exhil)its  to  his  elect  in  a  visible  sign,  througli  the 
ministry  of  the  church.  We  baptize  our  cliildren 
because  it  would  not  be  right  to  deprive  of  the  com- 
munion of  Golf's  people  those  who  are  born  through 
us  into  the  people  of  God,  wliereto  they  are  through 
the  divine  word  called,  and  are,  so  far  as  man  can 
judge,  members  of  God's  elect. 

The  Second  Helvetic  Confession  (15G6),  Cap. 
XX.  (summary)  :  — 

Baptism  is  instituted  by  Christ.  Thei-e  is  only 
one  baptism  in  the  church:  it  lasts  for  life,  and  is  a 
perpetual  seal  of  our  adoption.  To  be  bajitized  in 
the  name  of  Christ  is  to  be  enrolled,  initiated,  and 
received  into  the  covenant,  into  the  family  and  the 
inheritance  of  the  .sous  of  God,  that,  eleansod  from 
our  sins  by  tlie  blood  of  Christ,  we  may  lead  a  new 
and  iuiiocent  life.  We  are  internally  regenerated  by 
the  Holy  Ghost;  but  we  receive  imblicly  the  seal  of 
these  ble.ssiujjs  by  liaptism,  in  which  the  grace  of 
God  inwardly  and  invisibly  cleanses  the  soul,  and 
we  confess  imr  faith,  and  pledge  obedience  to  Goil. 
Children  of  believers  should  be  baptized;  for  to  chil- 
tlreii  belongs  the  kingdom  of  (Jod,  and  they  are  in 
covenant  with  God:  why,  then,  should  not  the  .sign 
of  the  covenant  be  given  to  them'? 

The  French  Confession  of  Faitli  (1559),  Art. 
XXXV.  :  — 

"  Baptism  is  given  ns  as  a  pledge  of  our  adoption; 
for  by  it  we  ar<!  K''afteil  into  the  body  of  Christ,  so  as 
to  be  washeil  and  cleansed  by  his  blond,  and  then 
renewed  in  purity  of  lif(>  by  his  holy  s]iivit.  The  gain 
it  symbolizes  reaches  over  our  whole  lives  and  ttt  our 
<leath,  so  that  wi;  have  a  lasting  witness  that  .Jesus 
t'hrist  will  always  be  our  instilieation  .and  sanetilica- 
tion.  Nevertheless,  .'ilthough  it  is  a  sacrament  of 
faith  and  penitence,  yet  as  (lod  receives  little  chil- 
dren into  the  church  with  their  fathers,  we  say  upon 
the  authority  of  .Testis  Christ,  that  tlio  children  of 
believing  parents  should  be  baiitized." 

The    Belgic    Confession    (1.561)    revised    and 


BAPTISM. 


207 


BAPTISM. 


approved  by   the    Synod    of    Dort    (1010),    Art. 
XXXIV.  (summary)  :  — 

Baptism  is  tlie  suljstitute  for  cirL'Uincision:  by  it 
■we  are  received  into  tlie  cluirch  of  (lod.  As  water 
wasliotli  away  the  filtli  of  the  body  when  jiouretl 
upon  it,  as  is  seen  on  tlie  body  of  the  baplizi'il  when 
sprinliled  upon  him,  so  dotli  the  blood  of  t'lirist.  by 
tlio  power  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  internally  sprinkle  the 
r.oul,  cleanse  it  from  its  sins,  and  regenerate  us 
from  ehildren  of  wrath  unto  children  of  (Jod.  Not 
that  this  is  effected  by  the  external  water,  but  by  the 
sprinkling  of  the  precious  blood  of  the  Son  of  God. 
Baptism  avads  us  through  the  whole  course  of  our 
life.  Infants  of  believers  ought  to  be  baptized,  and 
sealed  with  the  sign  of  the  covenant.  Christ  shed 
his  blood  no  less  for  the  washing  of  the  ehildren  of 
the  faithful  than  for  adult  persons;  and  therefore 
they  ought  to  receive  the  sign  and  sacrament  of  that 
which  Christ  liatli  done  for  them.  Moreover,  what 
circumcision  was  to  the  Jews,  that  baptism  is  to  our 
children.  And  for  this  reason  Paul  calls  baptism  the 
circitincisio7i  of  Christ. 

The  Thirtv-nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of 
England  (1571),  Art.  XXVII.:  — 

"  Baptism  is  not  only  a  sign  of  profession,  and 
mark  of  difference,  whereby  Christian  men  are  dis- 
cerned from  others  that  be  not  christened,  but  it  is 
also  a  sign  of  regeneraticm,  or  new  birth,  whereby, 
as  by  an  instrument,  they  that  receive  baptism 
rightly  are  grafted  into  the  idiurch;  the  promises  of 
the  forgiveness  of  sin,  and  of  our  adoption  to  be  the 
sons  of  God  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  are  visibly  signed 
and  sealed;  faith  is  conrfrmed,  and  grace  increased, 
by  virtue  of  prayer  unto  God.  The  baptism  of  young 
children  is  in  any  wise  to  be  retained  in  the  church, 
as  most  agreeable  with  the  institution  of  Christ." 

The  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  (1647), 
Cap.  XXVIII.  :  — 

"  Bapti.sm  is  a  sacrament  of  the  Kew  Testament, 
ordained  by  Jesus  Christ,  not  only  for  the  solemn 
admission  of  the  party  baptized  into  the  visible 
cliurch,  but  also  to  be  unto  him  a  sign  and  seal  of 
the  covenant  of  grace,  of  his  ingrafting  into  Christ, 
of  regeneration,  of  remission  of  sins,  and  of  his 
giving  up  unto  God,  through  Jesus  Christ,  to  walk 
in  newness  of  life.  By  the  right  use  of  this  ordi- 
nance, the  grace  promised  is  not  only  offered,  but 
really  exhibited  and  conferred  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  to 
such  (whether  of  age,  or  infants)  as  that  grace  belong- 
eth  unto,  according  to  the  counsel  of  God's  own  will, 
in  his  appointed  time."] 

(c)  Later  Protectant  Teaching.  —  During  the 
fifty  years  before  .Schleierniacher,  the  rationalists 
and  the  supernaturalists  in  Germany  alike  re- 
garded baptism  as  only  a  significant  way  of 
admitting  one  into  the  church.  His  vigorous 
treatment  of  the  subject  caused  a  change  in 
sacramental  views  generally.  (See  Sacra- 
MKNTS.)  He  put  it  down  {Der  ckriatUche  Glaiihe, 
§  137)  as  his  first  proposition  that  baptism  admin- 
istered in  accordance  with  the  original  institu- 
tion confers  salvation  in  reference  to  the  divine 
grace  in  regeneration  at  the  same  time  with  the 
rights  of  citizenship  in  the  Christian  Church ; 
which  amounted  to  saying  that  salvation  was 
wrought  by  baptism  not  immediately,  but  medi- 
ately, inasmuch  as  by  it  the  reception  into  the 
church  is  completed.  He  held  to  infant  baptism, 
because  he  believed  that  faith  might  follow  bap- 
tism; but  in  this  case  the  baptism  was  an  incom- 
plete rite,  and  required  the  public  profession  of 
confirmation  as  the  consequent  of  instruction  in 
the  Christian  faith.  Infant  baptism  is  therefore 
proper,  but  not  necessary  (L.e.  §  138). 

[The  question,  What  is  faith  ?  is  vital  in  this 


discussion;  for  all  Protestant  theologian.^  agree 
tliat  tlie  connection  between  the  sign  and  the 
thing  signified  is  an  inti:riial.  one,  and  made  by 
faith,  in  opposition  to  .Vugustine's  view,  that  they 
were  connected  in  an  ejiernal  way.  By  liaptism 
one  entered  into  tlie  visible  church.  But  what  is 
this  faith?  Is  it  one  "which  begins  and  ends  in 
the  individual  act  of  faitli  at  work  in  the  person 
who  is  baptized?  or  is  it  a  much  wider  tiling, 
with  a  more  universal  significance V "  Neither 
Luther  nor  Calvin  fairly  met  the  problem  ;  but  it 
may  be  safely  ]iri'sunied  tliat  thi'y  would  give  an 
affirmative  answer  to  the  first  or  second  question 
respectively.  The  Lutheran  and  the  Reformed 
theologians  have  followed  the  path  marked  out 
by  their  great  teachers.  Thus  Kahnis  of  Leip- 
zig says.  Baptism  is  the  sacrament  of  regen- 
eration;  but  what  it  imparts  is  rather  the  power 
of  regeneration,  which  is  only  of  efficacy  when 
the  faith  supposed  by  baptism  is  really  present. 
Baptism  with  regeneration,  when  saving  faith  is 
present,  works  the  forgiveness  of  sins,  sonship  to 
God,  membership  in  the  kingdom  of  God  upon 
earth,  and  participation  in  eternal  life.  Who 
these  genuine  members  of  the  kingdom  are,  God 
alone  knows  :  as  far  as  man  can  see,  all  the  bap- 
tized are  included.  As  no  man  can  be  born  more 
than  once,  so  no  one  can  be  re-born  twice.  Bap- 
tism, therefore,  is  not  to  be  repeated.  If  one  by 
sin  loses  the  grace  of  baptism,  there  remains 
repentance,  by  which  the  lapsed  is  recovered. 
Since  no  one  can  enter  the  kingdom  of  God  who 
is  not  re-born  of  water  and  spirit,  it  follows  that 
baptism  is  necessary  to  salvation;  yet  not  that 
only  the  baptized  are  saved,  for  the  '\\'ord  has 
saving  efficacy,  and  those  wlio,  without  fault  of 
tlieir  own,  fail  of  baptism,  do  not  for  that  reason 
fail  of  salvation.  Infant  baptism,  accordingly, 
finds  its  justification  besides,  on  the  scriptui'al 
groimds,  in  the  substitution  of  the  faith  of  the 
sponsors  for  tlie  infant's  faith,  the  will  of  the 
parents,  and  the  preparation  of  the  Christian 
family  surroundings  (Die  Lutkerisehe  Doijmiitik, 
Leipzig,  1868,  voLiii.,pp.  479-481).  Heinrich 
Schmid  of  Erlaugen  says,  "  We  have  in  bap- 
tism, not  merely  water,  and  not  common  water, 
but  also  the  word  of  God.  But  there  is  super- 
added to  this  a  higher  efficacy  than  exists  in 
mere  natural  water ;  and  it  is  this,  which,  by 
means  of  the  water,  effects  saving  grace."  His 
statements  in  other  respects  agree  with  Kahnis. 
(The  Doctrinal  Tlieolofiij  of  the  Evangelical  Luther- 
an Church,  p.  5.54.  English  Translation  by  Hay 
and  Jacobs.     Philadelpliia.  1876.) 

The  Reformed  theologians  follow  Calvin.  They 
regard  baptism  as  "  a  sign  and  seal  "  of  church- 
membership,  as  circumcision  was  in  the  case  of 
Abraham  (comp.  Rom  iv.  11).  Baptism  does 
not  produce  conversion  or  regeneration,  but  pre- 
supposes and  recognizes  it.  Cliildreu  of  Chri.s- 
tian  parents  are  baptized  because  of  their  descent 
from  believing  parents :  adults  are  baptized  if 
they  profess  repentance,  and  faith  in  Christ;  in 
other  words,  because  they  are  converted.  Infant 
baptism  is  so  far  incomplete  as  it  lacks  Christian 
instruction  and  personal  conversion :  it  must 
therefore  be  supplemented  by  in.struction,  and 
completed  by  a  personal  profession  of  faith, 
and  union  with  tlie  church.  Among  modern 
teachers,  Heinrich  Heppe,  who  presents  the  typi- 


BAPTISM. 


208 


BAPTISM. 


cal  German  Reformed  theology,  defines  baptism 
thus :  "  Baptism  is  the  ordinance  instituted  by 
Christ,  whereby  God  seals  to  the  elect  their  con- 
nection with  the  covenant  of  grace,  and  obliges 
them  as  participants  in  the  covenant  to  lead  a 
holy  life."  "  The  candidates  of  baptism  are  all 
those  who  belong  to  the  covenant  of  grace ;  i.e., 
all  who  confess  Christ,  and  are  considered  by  the 
Church  as  belonging  thereto.  But  since  the 
promises  extend  to  the  children  of  believers, 
these  should  be  baptized,  precisely  as  the  Israel- 
itish  children  were  circumcised ;  on  the  other 
hand,  the  children  of  those  who  do  not  belong  to 
the  Church  may  not  be  baptized  ere  they  are  in- 
structed in  the  faith,  and  have  been  converted'' 
(-Die  Dogmatik  der  evangeliich-reformirten  Kirche. 
Loc.  XXV..  De  bapiismo,  pp.  443,  .5,  Elberfeld, 
1861).  Ebrard  says,  "  Through  baptism  we  are 
buried  in  Christ's  reconciling  death  in  order  to 
rise  with  him  in  his  resurrection.  Baptism  is  a 
visible  act  to  which  the  Lord  has  connected  an 
invisible  act  (regeneration),  and  the  completed, 
final  justification,  with  the  beginning  of  sanctifi- 
cation,  if  the  recipient  is  prepared  by  repent- 
ance." Ebrard  calls  infant  baptism  a  "modi- 
fied baptism,"  a  virtual  contradiction  to  the 
original  design  of  baptism,  because  the  infant 
is  not  yet  i-egenerated,  only  ingrafted  in  the  visi- 
ble Church,  and  in  the  midst  of  mediate  and 
immediate  blessing  and  protecting  influences,  yet 
an  actual  baptism  (Ckrittllichn  Dor/niatiL',  Konigs- 
berg.  18.52,  vol.  ii.,pp.  587,  588,(3-21).  VanOoster- 
zee  thus  defines  baptism  :  "  Baptism,  the  means  of 
incorporation  into  his  Church,  ordained  by  Christ 
himself,  is  at  the  same  time  the  sign  and  seal  of 
the  forgiveness  of,  and  jiurification  from,  sins 
promised  by  the  gospel  to  every  believer,  and,  as 
such,  an  ordinance  of  inestimable  value."  "It 
is  a  holy  symbolical  act,  in  the  name  and  by  the 
eomm.ind  of  the  glorified  Lord  of  the  Church, 
by  which  every  one  who  receives  it  iu  faith  is 
set  apart  from  the  unbelievin.g  world,  is  re- 
ceived into  the  Christian  communion,  is  assured 
of  the  saving  promises  of  the  gospel  respecting 
forgiveness  of  and  purifying  from  sin,  and  is 
pledged  to  a  new  life  in  holine.ss  and  brotherly 
love"  (^Christian  Dotjmulics,  English  Translation, 
§  138,  vol.  2,  pp.  747,  7o2).  The  general  Re- 
formed doctrine  is  thus  sunnnarized  by  Hodge: 
"(1)  Baptism  is  a  divine  ordinance;  (2)  It  is  a 
means  of  grace  to  believers  ;  (3)  It  is  a  sign  and 
seal  of  the  covenant  of  grace  ;  (4)  It  was  in- 
tended to  be  of  perpetual  obligation,  in  the  sen-se 
that  all  not  bai)tized  in  infancy  are  required  to 
submit  to  baptism  as  the  divinely  appointed  way 
of  publicly  professing  their  faith  in  Christ,  and 
their  allegiance  to  him  as  their  God  and  Saviour; 
and  that  all  such  professors  of  the  true  religion 
are  bound  to  present  their  children  for  baptism 
as  the  divinelj'  appointed  way  of  consecrating 
them  to  God  ;  (o)  I'hat  (iloil,  on  l)is  part,  promises 
to  grant  the  benefits  signified  in  baptism  to  all 
adult,s  who  receive  that  sacrament  in  the  exorcise 
of  faith,  and  to  all  infants,  who,  when  they  arrive 
at  maturity,  remain  faithful  to  the  vows  made 
in  their  name  when  they  were  baptized  "  (SijHtem- 
alic  'J'heoloi/i/,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  581,  .582).  'Ihe  Kf- 
formed  theory  of  baptism  rests  upon  the  theory 
that  tlie  church  is  an  ethical  unit,  and  existed 
before  the  individual  believer.     Therefore  infant 


baptism  is  allowable;  for  the  relation  the  parents 
or  sponsors  bear  to  the  church  determines  the 
position  of  the  infant,  who  by  birth  comes  with- 
in the  covenant.  Those  who  reject  infant  bap- 
tism reject  also  this  theory  of  the  church :  to 
tliem  it  is  an  organized  body  of  individuals,  each 
of  whom  has  professed  to  put  forth  a  personal 
Christian  faith.     (See  Baptists.) 

The  society  of  Friends  (Quakers)  reject  water 
baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  as  a  participation 
of  bread  and  wine,  and  regard  such  rites  as  a 
relapse  into  the  religion  of  forms  and  shadows. 
They  believe,  however,  in  the  inward  substance 
or  invisible  grace  of  the  sacraments;  viz.,  the 
baptism  of  the  Spirit  and  fire,  and  the  vital  com- 
munion with  Christ  by  faith. 

Baptism  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and  Fire  is  a  figu- 
rative expression  used  (I\Iatt.  iii.  11;  Luke  iii. 
16)  for  the  outpouring  of  the  Holy  Spirit  upon 
believers,  as  upon  the  Day  of  Pentecost,  and  at 
other  times  in  the  history  of  the  church. 

Baptism  for  the  Dead.  The  only  allusion  to 
this  evidently  common  ceremony  occurs  in  1  Cor. 
XV.  29.  The  simplest  explanation  is  Meyer's:  a 
living  Christian  was  baptized  for  an  unbaptized 
dead  Christian,  who,  it  was  believed,  was  thereby 
accounted  baptized,  and  was  received  into  bliss. 
Although  discountenanced  in  the  early  church, 
it  was  kept  up  by  heretics,  such  as  the  Cerin- 
thians  and  !Marcionites,  and  is  practised  at  the 
present  day  by  the  Mormons.  PaiU's  allusion  to 
it  is  not  to  be  construed  as  an  .ijiproval  of  it.] 

Baptism  by  Heretics,  and  the  Ensuing  Contro- 
versies. The  question  of  the  validity  of  heretical 
b.aptism,  which  came  up  very  earlj',  was  answered 
outside  of  Rome  in  the  negative.  A  controversy 
on  the  subject  arose  in  255  between  Cyprian, 
Bishop  of  Carthage  (210-258),  and  Stephen,  Bish- 
op of  Rome  (d.  257).  Stephen  took  the  Roman 
view,  that  the  heretics  were  only  fallen  Christians, 
and  received  them  into  the  church  by  the  mere 
laying-on  of  hands.  Cypirian  took  the  contrary 
view,  in  which  Firmilian  of  Ca?sai-ea  (d.  269)  coin- 
cided. Stephen  excluded  from  church-fellow.ship 
those  who  denied  his  [losition.  So  that  when  the 
news  of  the  Carthaginian  synod  (255),  over  which 
Cyprian  had  presided,  readied  Rome,  .Stejihen 
was  very  angry,  and  called  Cyprian  a  pseudo- 
Christian,  a  pseudo  -  apostle,  and  a  trickster. 
Cyprian  wrote  Stephen  a  conciliatory  letter,  but 
in  vain.  Another  synod  was  held  in  Carthage 
(Sept.  1,556):  the  genuineness  of  heretical  bap- 
tism was  denied  with  vehemence;  the  arrogance 
of  Stephen,  who  .set  himself  up  for  the  "bishop 
of  bishops,"  was  becomingly  rebuked.  The  cor- 
respondence with  Firmilian  revealed  the  un.a- 
niniity  of  oiiinion  in  -Vsia  and  .\frica  upon  this 
subject  in  opposition  to  Rome.  The  breach  be- 
tween Cyprian  and  Stephen  was  never  healed. 
The  latter  died  a  martyr  in  the  Valerian  persecu- 
tion, 257  :  his  successor,  Sixtus,  was  on  friendly 
terms  with  Cyprian,  and  lioth  were  martyred  in 
258.  The  letters  of  .Stephen  in  this  controversy 
are  unhappily  hist:  thos(!  of  Cyprian  are  num- 
bered 69-75.  See  particularly  72,  7!3,  and  74.  .Vs 
far  as  can  be  made  out,  Stephen  detcndi'd  his 
position  on  the  ground  of  the  Roman  tradition, 
the  independent  objectivity  of  baptism,  whose 
efficacy  was  conditioned  by  the  faith  and  disposi- 
tion   of   the   recipient  {J'^p-   73,  4),   and   finally 


BAPTISM. 


209 


BAPTISM. 


because  the  heretics  baptized  in  the  naiiui  of 
Jesus  or  of  the  Trinity  {Ep.  75,  9).  All  that 
was  required  was.  that  the  former  heretics  should 
become  penitents,  because  heretical  baptism  con- 
ferred forgiveness  of  sins  and  regeneration  (75, 
8).  As  it  was  evident  that  the  Roman  view  liad 
the  practical  effect  of  greatly  facilitating  the 
return  of  heretics  (74,  1),  Cyprian  is  at  pains  to 
show  that  the  rigorous  African  practice  did  not 
deter  them  (73,  24).  The  representatives  of  tlie 
anti-Konian  view  made  the  connection  between 
the  church  and  baptism  most  close.  As  there  w.as 
only  one  church,  there  could  be  only  one  bap- 
tism :  consequently  heretical  baptism  was  no 
baptism.  Again :  the  efficacy  of  baptism  rests 
upon  the  priestly  character  of  the  legitimate 
priesthood  ;  but  lieretics  are  without  such  priests. 
The  treatment  of  returning  heretics  corresponded 
to  these  ideas.  If  they  had  already  received 
Catholic  baptism,  they  were  received  by  the  lay- 
ing-on  of  hands;  if  baptized  out  of  the  church, 
they  were  rebaptized ;  if  they  had  been  Catholic 
or  heretical  priests,  tliey  were  put  among  the 
laity.  The  councils  of  Nicaja  325  (can.  8  and 
19),  Laodica;a,  3(j3  (can.  7,  8),  Con.stantinople, 
381  (can.  7),  and  of  Trullo,  (J92  (can.  95),  distin- 
guished between  heretical  baptism  as  to  their 
validity;  while  Athaiiasius,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 
and  Basil  the  Great,  rejected  such  baptism  alto- 
gether. The  controversy  broke  out  again  when 
the  Donatists  (see  title)  rejected  Catholic  bap- 
tism, and  rebaptized  their  Catholic  converts. 

It  was  left  to  Augustine  to  say  the  last  decisive 
word  in  this  long  debate.  In  his  writings  against 
the  Donatists,  especially  in  De  Baptismo,  he  lays 
down  the  foundation  principle,  th.at  the  objec- 
tivity of  the  sacrament  renders  it  efficacious  quite 
independent  of  the  administrator,  so  long  as  the 
disposition  of  the  recipient  is  right.  From  this 
position  he  proved:  1.  Baptism  conferred  an  in- 
delible cnaracter;  leaving  the  church  did  not 
destroy  it;  2.  Although  out  of  the  church  there 
was  no  salvation,  it  did  not  follow  that  heretical 
baptism  was  null,  but  that  such  baptism  can  be 
of  no  profit  so  long  as  the  man  remained  outside 
of  the  church;  3.  The  heretic's  baptism  is  there- 
fore on  the  same  footing  as  that  of  a  mere  formal- 
ist; and  if  the  latter,  on  his  conversion,  is  not 
baptized  again,  but  received  by  the  laying-on  of 
hands,  so  it  should  be  with  the  former.  Augus- 
tine settled  the  question.  Heretical  baptism  w.as 
recognized,  and  since  then  the  Catholic  Cliurch 
has  practically  left  the  matter  untouched. 

The  question  came  up  again  when  Protestant- 
ism began  to  form  its  theology.  Both  Lutherans 
and  Reformed,  however,  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  every  baptism  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity 
was  valid,  and  efficacious  to  the  believing  soul. 
To  the  further  question,  whether  baptism  may 
not,  in  extremity,  be  administered  by  a  minis- 
ter not  of  one's  own  confession,  the  I^utherans  re- 
plied affirmatively,  because  they  made  baptisui 
a  necessary  ordinance;  while  the  Reformed,  wlio 
took  different  ground,  wavered.  The  practice 
to-day  is  to  have  a  Protestant  minister  in  all 
cases,  and  usually  the  pastor  of  one's  own  con- 
gregation.    See  B.\i'Ti.SM,  IV.  (3). 

[Lit.  —  Besides  the  works  mentioned  under  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Dale's  article,  see  G.  J.  Vossius :  De 
Baptismo   Dinputaliones    'S.'K..,  Amsterdam,  1048; 

15 -J 


Matthies:  Baplismalis  Exposilio  BiUicn  Ilis- 
ti>rirn-l)of/mntlc<t,  Berlin,  1831;  Wai.i,  (Episcopa- 
lian) :  llislori/  iif  InfdiU  Bapliam,  London,  1705, 
2  vols.;  best  ed.,  with  Gale's  Reflections  ancl 
Wall's  Defense,  Oxford,  1802,  2  vols.;  J.  G. 
Wai.cii:  Ilisloria  Pwilnhajilixmi,  IV.;  priorum 
stiviikirum,  Jeua,  1739;  F.  Buicnxf.r  (R.  C.)  :  Gr- 
scldclilliche  Darstellunfj  tier  Verrichtutu/  der  Tanfe 
von  Chrislus  his  auf  unsere  Zeiten,  Bamb.,  1818; 
W.  lIoKK.MANN :  Tiiufn  und  Wicdertaufe,  1846; 
J.  W.  F.  IIoFLiNG  (Lutheran):  Das  Sacrament 
der  Taufe,  Erlangen,  1840-48,  2  vols.;  Lk- 
NOiR  :  Essai  bibtique,  historique,  et  doymatique  sur  le 
Bapteme  des  enfants,  1850 ;  G.  D.  Armstko.vg 
(Presbyt.)  :  The  Doctrine  of  Biijitisins,  N.  York, 
1857 ;  the  same :  T/ic  Sacraments  of  the  Neio 
Testament,  N.  York,  1880;  C.  P.  Caspaui  :  Un- 
gedruckte,  unbeacldete,  u.  weniij  heaclUcte  Qaellen 
zur  Geschichte  des  Taiifsi/ndjols  iinil  der  Glaubcns- 
regel,  Christiania,  1800,  1809,  1875,  3  vols. ;  the 
same :  Alte  u.  neue  Quetlen  zur  Geschichte  d.  Tauf- 
symhols  u.  d.  Glauhensreijel,  Christiania,  1879 ;  R. 
Ingham  :  .4  Hamll/ook  of  Christian  Baptism,  Lon- 
don, 1805;  the  same :  Christian  Baptism:  its  Sub- 
jects, London,  1871 ;  \.  Caspers  :  Der  Taufbe- 
f/riff  des  Neuen  Testaments,  Brecklum,  1877;  D. 
B.  FoRi-) :  Studies  on  the  Baptismal  Question,  New 
York,  1879 ;  De.\n  St-^nley  :  Christian  Institu- 
tions, London  and  N.  York,  1881.  Very  impor- 
tant is  the  article  on  Baptism  in  Smith  and 
CiiEETHAM  :  Diet,  of  Christ.  Antiq.,  vol.  i.,  pp. 
155-173.]         GKOKG  E.  STEITZ  (S.  M.  J.VCKSON). 

BAPTISM  OF  INFANTS.  A  very  large  sec- 
tion of  Protestant  Christendom,  especially  in  the 
United  States,  either  publicly  or  privately  dis- 
sents from  the  practice  of  infant  baptism.  The 
Baptists,  and  their  sympathizers  in  Pedobaptist 
denominations,  ground  their  dissent  (1)  upon  the 
absence  of  a  command  of  Christ,  or  of  any  ac- 
count of  apostolic  procedure  which  expressly 
favors  the  practice  ;  (2)  They  hold  infant  baptism 
to  be  a  violation  of  the  very  idea  of  baptism; 
since  it  presupposes  conversion,  and  a  credible 
profession  of  faith,  which  cannot  be  expected 
from  infants. 

To  these  arguments  it  is  replied,  (1)  The  gen- 
eral command  to  baptize  all  nations  may  natu- 
rally be  interpreted  to  include  the  baptism  of 
infants;  and  the  mention  of  the  baptism  of  the 
three  thousand  on  the  Day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii. 
41),  and  of  five  households  (.Acts  x.  48,  xvi.  15, 
33 ;  1  Cor.  i.  10,  xvi.  15,  wliere  the  presence  of 
children  in  some  is  far  more  probable  than  their 
absence  in,  all),  joined  to  the  reiterated  assertion 
that  the  prondse  of  the  remission  of  sins  and  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  was  to  the  believers  and  their 
children  (.\cts  ii.  38,  cf.  iii.  25),  make  out  a  strong 
probability,  to  say  the  least,  that  infants  were 
baptized  by  the  apostles.  (2)  Christ's  tre.atment 
of  children  whom  he  blessed,  and  pronounced  to 
l.)e  members  of  the  kingdom  of  he:i,ven.  ^Vhy, 
then,  should  they  not  also  be  fit  to  bear  the  sign 
and  seal  of  such  membership?  ,\11  baptism  is  in 
idea  an  infant  baptism,  and  requires  us  to  begin 
life  anew  in  a  truly  childlike  spirit,  without  w  hicli 
no  one  can  enter  the  kingdom  of  God.  (3)  The 
analogy  of  circumcision  which  began  with  adult 
Abi-aham,  and  then  extended  to  all  his  male  chil- 
dren. Baptism  is  the  initiatorj'  rite  of  introduc- 
tion into  the  Christian  Church,  and  the  sign  and 


BAPTISM. 


210 


BAPTISTS. 


seal  of  the  new  covenant,  as  circumcision  was  the 
sign  and  seal  of  the  old  covenant  (Rom.  iv.  11). 
The  blessing  of  the  old  covenant  was  to  the  seed 
as  well  as  to  the  parents ;  and  the  blessing  of  the 
new  covenant  cannot  be  less  comprehensive.  In- 
fant baptism  rests  upon  the  organic  relation  of 
Christian  parents  and  children  (1  Cor.  vii.  1-1). 
It  is  a  constant  testimony  to  the  living  faith  of 
the  church,  which  descends,  not  as  an  heirloom, 
but  as  a  vital  force,  from  parent  to  child. 

No  time  can  be  assigned  to  the  beginning  of 
the  practice  of  infant  baptism.  If  it  had  been 
an  innovation,  it  would  have  created  a  revolution, 
or  at  all  events  provoked  a  violent  protest.  But 
it  gained  ground  gradually  from  the  very  begin-  { 
ning,  as  Christianity  took  hold  of  family  life  and 
training.  Origen  speaks  of  it  as  apostolic,  .and 
■was  himself  baptized  in  infancy  (about  ISO);  but  i 
much  earlier  though  less  unequivocal  testimony 
is  borne  by  Irena?us  (born,  probably,  between  120 
and  130),  who  was  a  disciple  of  Polycarp,  one  of 
John's  disciples,  and  who  therefore  was  surely  an 
excellent  witness  of  apostolic  usage.  He  saj's, 
"  lie  (Christ)  came  to  save,  through  means  of 
himself,  all  who  through  him  are  born  again  (re- 
generated) to  God,  in/anig,  and  children,  and 
boys,  and  youths,  and  old  men."  Adv.  Hcer.  ii. 
22,  4  (Stieren's  edition).  The  phrase  "born  again 
to  God "  refers  plainly  to  baptism :  in  Irensus' 
usage  (cf.  i.  21,  1)  baptism  is  ••  being  born  again 
to  God,"  and  (iii.  17,  1)  baptism  is  "the  power 
of  regeneration  unto  God."  Clemens  Alex- 
andrinus  (in  the  second  century),  in  his  book 
PtE(lagof/iis  (Tutor),  lib.  iii.  c.  11,  speaking  of 
proper  designs  for  seals,  mentions  the  representa- 
tion of  fishing  as  recalling  "  the  apostle  ami  the 
children  ciraicn  out  of  t/ie  water:"  the  latter  phrase 
refers  to  baptism.  The  opponents  of  the  practice 
make  much  use  of  Tertullian  (close  of  the  second 
century).  In  his  De  Baj/lismo,  c.  18,  he  counsels 
delay  of  baptism,  particularly  in  the  case  of  in- 
fants. But,  when  the  passage  is  investigated,  it 
is  found  that  liis  motive  is  not  the  impropriety, 
but  tlie  inexpediency,  of  infant  baptism,  on  the 
ground  that  it  involved  the  great  risk  of  forfeit- 
ing forever  the  remission  of  sins  in  the  case  of  a 
relapse.  The  very  argument  proves  not  only  the 
existence,  but  the  prevailing  practice,  of  infant 
baptism,  lie  does  not  even  hint  at  its  being  a 
post-apo.stolic  innovation.  Hence  his  opposition 
is  due  to  his  peculiar  theory  of  the  m.agical  effect 
of  baptism  in  washing  away  the  guilt  of  past  sins, 
but  is  by  no  means  anti-Pedobaptist.  (For  Eng. 
trans,  of  the  i)as3age  see  "Ante-Nicene  Library," 
T'ertullian,  vol.  i.  p.  253  ;  orig.  text,  De  Ildplisnui, 
c.  18,  Oehler's  edition,  vol.  i.  p.  638.) 

It  must  be  admitted  that  adult  baptism  was 
the  rule,  infant  baptism  the  exception,  in  the 
apostolic  age,  and  continued  to  be  till  the  church 
was  fairly  established  in  tiie  lionian  Kinpire. 
Augustine,  (iregory  Nazian/.en,  and  Chrysostom 
had  Christian  motliers,  but  were  not  baptized 
till  they  were  converted  in  early  manliood ;  and 
Constantine  the  (in^at  ])ut  off  his  bai>lism  till 
his  death-bed.  Adult  lia)>tisin  alw.ays  conies  first 
in  every  mission.ary  church,  which  liegins  witli 
preaching  the  gospel  to  res])onsible  adults,  and 
then  lays  hold  of  the  chilcb'en.  Infant  bap- 
tism has  no  meaning  without  Christian  family 
life  aud   the    guaranty  of  Christian  eilucation. 


Hence  the  church  has  always  insisted  on  cate- 
chetical instruction,  and  most  churches  practise 
confirmation  as  a  subjective  supplement  to  infant 
baptism.  Compulsort/  infant  baptism  was  un- 
known in  the  ante-Nicene  age.  it  is  a  profanation 
of  the  sacrament,  and  one  of  the  evils  of  the 
union  of  Church  and  State,  against  which  Baptists 
have  a  right  to  protest.  PHILIP  SCHAFF. 

BAPTJSTERIES,  buildings  erected  exclusively 
for  the  administration  of  baptism,  were  not 
known  until  the  fourth  century.  In  the  primi- 
tive church,  the  river  or  the  brook,  the  lake  or 
the  pond,  served  the  purpose.  During  the  per- 
secutions, wells  and  springs  found  in  the  cata- 
combs were  used,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the 
ornaments  employed  around  and  above  them; 
but  when  Christianity  became  the  religion  of  the 
state,  under  Constantine  the  Great,  separate  build- 
ings were  found  necessary,  and  were  erected  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  church,  and  often  con- 
nected with  it  by  a  covered  gallery.  These  build- 
ings were  often  very  large,  so  large,  indeed,  that 
synods  and  councils  could  be  held  within  their 
walls.  The  reason  was,  that  they  also  served  .as 
schoolrooms  for  the  catechumens ;  and  as  the  sac- 
rament of  baptism  was  administered  only  twice 
or  thrice  a  year,  at  Easter  and  Pentecost  and 
Epiphany,  and  only  at  the  episcopal  church,  the 
cathedral,  the  ecclesia  baptismalis,  the  numbers  of 
catechumens  could  often  be  very  great.  The 
centre  of  the  whole  structure  formed  the  baptis- 
mal basin  {piscina},  circular,  octagonal,  or  some- 
times, in  allusion  to  Rom.  vi.  1,  in  the  form  of  a 
grave,  of  stone  (1  Cor.  x.  1),  and  descended  into 
by  three  steps.  Around  this  b.asin  arose  the 
building,  circular  or  octagonal,  aud  covered  with 
a  cupola,  whicli  rested  either  on  the  walls  or  on 
pillars  aud  colunnis  within  the  walls.  Connected 
with  this  main  building  were  generally,  to  the 
one  side  a  fore-hall,  the  schoolroom,  and  to  the 
other  side  an  apsis,  with  an  altar  dedicated  to 
John  the  Baptist,  at  which  the  c.ateohiimens 
received  the  eucharist  immediately  after  baptism. 
Gradually,  however,  as  infant  baptism  became  the 
rule  in  the  church,  and  the  sacrament  was  ad- 
ministered by  aspersion  instead  of  by  immersion, 
and  the  right  of  administering  it  was  extended 
to  all  cliurches  and  over  the  whole  year,  there 
was  less  and  less  use  for  any  separate  buildings. 
.\fter  the  ninth  century,  no  more  baptisteries 
were  built.  The  baptismal  basin  was  trans- 
formed into  the  baptisnuil  font;  and  the  font  was 
moved  into  the  cliurch  itself,  and  placed  in  a 
separate  chapel,  or  part  of  the  building,  gener- 
ally ne.ar  the  entrance,  to  tlie  left. 

BAPTISTS.  (The  Regular  or  Calvlnistic  Bap- 
tists.)—A  body  of  Christians  comprising  about 
one-fourth  of  the  Protestants  of  the  United 
States,  and  numbering  in  Great  Britain,  in  1880, 
a  membership  of  282,(158 ;  on  the  continent  of 
Europe,  '14,2!)2  ;  in  Asia,  42,072  ;  in  Africa,  3,003  ; 
in  Australasia,  7,018. 

Bki.hcf.  —  The  first  Confession  of  the  Baptists 
in  England,  A.D.  1044,  .antedated  the  Westmin- 
ster Confession.  When  the  Westminster  Confes- 
sion w.as  published,  it  w;is  found  to  agree,  for 
substance  of  docti'ine,  in  most  jjoints,  with  the 
earlier  Baptist  Confession;  and  in  11)8!)  the  Gi'u- 
eral  .V.sscmbly  of  Baptists,  following  the  exam- 
ple of  the  Independents  (Savoy,  1(558),  adopted 


f 


BAPTISTS. 


211 


BAPTISTS. 


that  Confession,  with  some  omissions  and  changes. 
This  Confession  was  also  adopted  by  the  I'liila- 
delphia  Association  in  the  eighteentli  centiiiv, 
and  is  still  the  statement  of  doctrine  most  liishly 
regarded  by  the  Baptists  in  the  United  .States. 

The  essential  distinction  between  the  belief  of 
Baptists  and  that  of  other  bodies  of  Christians  is 
found  in  their  view  of  the  constitution  of  the 
visible  church.  Holding  the  supreme  authority 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  the  doctrines  of  (Jod's 
choice  of  his  people,  of  regeneration  as  tlie 
sovereign  work  of  the  Holy  .Spirit,  and  of  justi- 
fication by  faith  alone,  they  believe  that  the 
churches  nientioned  in  the  New  Testament  were 
formsd  in  closest  accord  with  those  doctrines; 
they  believe  the  New  Testament  gives  us  exam- 
ples of,  and  commands  us  to  receive  as  candi- 
dates for  membership  in  the  churches,  only  those 
who  give  credible  evidence  of  their  faith  in  Jesus 
as  their  Saviour.  Hence  tlie  Baptists  accept  as 
candidates  for  baptism  only  those  who  are  pro- 
fessed believers  in  Jesus. 

They  believe  immersion  in  water  is  the  baptism 
enjoined  in  the  New  Testament.  In  this  view 
they  are  in  acconl  with  the  Greek  and  all  Orien- 
tal churches,  with  the  practice  of  the  Occidental 
churches  till  A.D.  1300,  and  with  the  present 
liturgies  of  the  English  and  American  Episcopal 
churches.  Baptists  in  ."Vmerica  believe,  but  m.any 
Baptists  in  England  do  not  liold,  that  liaptism  is 
a  prerequisite  to  the  Lord's  .Sujiper. 

Church  GovEHNjrENx.  —  Their  churches  — 
"  bodies  of  baptized  believers,  with  pastors  and 
deacons,  covenanted  together  for  religious  wor- 
ship and  religious  work"  —  are  independent  of 
all  other  human  control,  and  supreme  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  their  own  affairs.  For  the  increase 
of  love,  for  consultation,  and  the  furtherance  of 
missions  at  honre  and  abroad,  these  churches, 
by  their  delegates,  unite  in  councils  and  associa- 
tions ;  but  these  councils  have  no  power  beyond 
advice,  or  withdrawing  the  hand  of  fellowship 
from  an  offender. 

Without  an  authoritative  creed,  and  with  no 
ecclesiastical  government  beyond  that  of  each 
church  over  its  own  members,  the  Baptists  in  the 
United  .States  m.aintain  a  very  close  agreement 
in  doctrine,  which  is  best  represented  by  the 
(modified)  Westminster  Confession. 

HiSTOKY.  Ba/jlisis  in  Europe.  —  The  early 
Baptists  of  the  continent  of  Europe  held  the 
same  evangelical  truths,  and  the  same  view  of 
the  church,  as  the  later  Baptists  of  England  and 
America;  but  they  differed  from  these  latter  in 
many  other  points.  The  Baptists  appeared  first 
in  Switzerland,  about  A.D.  1523,  where  they 
were  persecuted  by  Zwingli  and  tlie  Roman- 
ists. They  are  found  in  the  following  years, 
1525-30,  with  large  churches  fully  organized, 
in  Southern  Germany,  Tyrol,  and  in  Middle  Ger- 
many. In  all  these  places  persecution  made 
their  lives  bitter.  Moravia  promised  a  home  of 
greater  freedom ;  and  thither  many  Baptists  mi- 
grated, only  to  find  their  hopes  deceived. 

After  1531  they  were  numerous  in  Northern 
Germany,  Holland,  Belgium,  and  the  Walloon 
provinces.  They  increased,  even  during  Alva's 
rule  in  the  Low  Countries,  and  developed  a  won- 
derful missionary  zeal.  But  from  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century  their  numbers  have  de- 


creased with  their  zeal,  until,  at  the  present,  they 
comprise  a  very  small  portion  of  the  population 
in  Holland. 

lUtjilixlx  ill  Enr/lrind.  —  During  the  reigns  of 
Elizabeth  and  .lames,  a  large  number  of  Baptists 
fled  from  Holland  and  (iermany  to  England. 
What  influence  they  exerted  in  .spreading  tiieir 
views  in  England,  is  not  known.  We  otdy  learn 
of  their  presence  by  the  persecutions  they  en- 
dured. The  first  B.aptist  churches  in  England 
from  which  we  have  a  statement  of  their  views 
are  those  of  .\.D.  1G44.  Their  principles  were 
adopted  by  many,  ,and  churches  nipidly  multi- 
plied. Under  Cromwell,  Baptists  were  found  in 
the  army,  in  Parliament,  and  in  the  Council  of 
State.  With  the  return  of  Charles  II.,  the  Bap- 
tists, with  all  other  dissenters,  suffered  from  tlie 
strong  hand  of  violence.  During  the  eighteenth 
century  many  of  their  churches  shrivelled  under 
the  influence  of  hyper-Calvinism  ;  but  a  new  era 
of  more  faithful  gospel-preaching,  and  of  zealous 
missionary  work,  began  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
century  under  the  le,ad  of  men  like  Carey  and 
.•\ndrew  Fuller,  and  this  has  continued  to  the 
present  time. 

Baplisis  in  America. —  In  .Vmerica  the  earliest 
Baptists  were  found  in  the  Massachusetts  Colony, 
liut  were  driven  out.  Some  went  to  Rhode  Island, 
and  others  to  New  York  and  Virginia.  In  1770, 
so  far  as  is  known,  the  B.aptists  numbered  77 
churclies  with  about  .5,000  members  in  the  colo- 
nies. In  lsy5  they  report  2.^,953  churches,  16,- 
191  ministers,  2,572,238  total  membership. 

Missions.  —  The  American  Baptist  Mission- 
ary Union  (Boston,  Mass.)  is  the  society  through 
which  the  Baptists  of  the  Northern  States  carry 
on  their  foreign  missionary  work.  The  Union 
has  in  Asia  five  missions,  as  follows  :  Burmah, 
with  14  stations,  103  missionaries,  522  native 
preachers,  485  churches,  1,924  baptisms  in  1884, 
25,007  members,  399  schools,  10,404  pupils ;  As- 
sam. 7  stations,  19  missionaries,  29  native  preach- 
ers, 30  churches,  4(j  baptisms  in  1884,  1.731  mem- 
bers, 62  schools,  1,247  pupils;  Telugus  (India), 
12  stations,  40  missionaries,  154  native  preachers, 
42  churches,  1,.556  baptisms  in  1884,  26,396  mem- 
bers, 300  schools,  4,898  pupils ;  China,  6  stations, 
27  missionaries,  58  native  preachers,  17  churches, 
103  baptisms  in  1884,  1,411  members,  12  schools, 
217  pupils ;  Japan,  4  stations.  17  missionaries,  25 
native  preachers,  7  churches,  109  baptisms  in  1884, 
367  members,  6   schools,   279   pupils ;   Africa,   8 


stations. 


missionaries.      Total,  231    mission- 


aries, 791  native  preachers,  588  churches,  3,738 
baptisms  in  1884,  55,941  members,  785  schools, 
17,045  pupils.  In  Europe,  929  ministers,  .572 
churches,  6,776  baptisms,  61. .5.50  members.  The 
.appropriations  of  the  American  Baptist  iSIission- 
ary  Union  for  the  year  ending  March  31,  1885, 
were  .|383,288.41. 

General  summary  of  all  the  foreign  missions 
of  the  Baptists :  231  missionaries,  1,720  native 
pastors  and  helpers,  1,160  churches,  10,514  bap- 
tisms in  1884,  117,491  members. 

The  Foreign  Mission  Board  of  the  Southern 
Baptist  Convention  maintains  missions  in  China, 
Africa,  Italy,  .South  .\merica,  and  Jlexico,  with 
95  missionaries,  and  native  assistants.  Income 
(1885),  $86,625.97. 

The   Home   Mission   Board   of    the    Southera 


BARABBAS. 


21: 


BARBEYRAC. 


Baptist  Convention  sustains  144  missionaries  in 
tlie  States  and  Territories.  Income  (18S5),  $66,- 
414.47. 

The  American  Baptist  Home  Missionary  So- 
ciety (Xew  Yorli)  sustained  in  1SS4-85.  7(I'J  mis- 
sionaries in  tlie  States  and  Ten-itorie.s,  17  acaile- 
niies  for  freedmen,  witli  3,182  pupils.  Income 
(1885),  §417,283.40. 

Tlie  American  Baptist  Publication  Society, 
Philadelphia,  issued  during  1883-84.  087,09.5,902 
18mo  pages.  Its  publications  number  1,288.  In- 
come (1885),  .§582.957.58. 

The  educational  institutions  of  the  Baptists 
comprise  7  theological  seminaries  with  467  stu- 
dents, 29  colleges  with  4,358  students,  and  75 
academies  with  9,252  students.  The  building.^ 
and  endowments  of  all  these  institutions  are  val- 
ued at  §16,060,974. 

The  periodicals,  weekly,  monthly,  quarterly, 
sustained  by  the  Baptists  in  Anjerica  number  82. 

We  have  not  enumerated  among  the  "  regular  " 
Baptists  the  Di.-^ciple.'',  or  Cainpbellites,  with  850,- 
000  members;  the  Frce-WiU  Baptists,  with  76,700 
members;  the  Seventh-Dai/  Baptists,wilh  8.055  mem- 
bers; the  Tunkers,  or  DuiiLers,  with  luO.DOO  mem- 
bers; Winehrennariatu,  with  4.5,000  members; 
Anti-Mission  {Primitive,  or  Ohl-Hchool)  Baptists, 
with  40,000  members.  See  those  articles  in  this 
Encyclop.edi.\  on  pp.  044  sq..  83!.  2165-2167, 
2401-2404,  2538  sq.,  2583,  respectively. 

Lit.  —  European  Baptists. — T.J.  van  Braght: 
Het  Bloedifi  Tuoneel  of  Martekvrs  Spierjet  der  Doops- 
gesinde,  fob,  .Amsterdam,  1685:  Egli:  Zilricher 
Wiedertaii/er,  Ziirich,  1878;  Wolxy:  Die  Wie- 
derlaufer  in  Mdliren,  Wien,  1850 ;  ScHYX  :  Histo- 
ria  Mennonitarum,  3  vols.,  .Amsterdam,  1743-45; 
Ten  C.\rK:  G'eschiedenis  der  Doopsf/esinden,  Am- 
sterdam, 1839-47. 

English  Baplhts.  —  Th.  Crosby  :  Hist.  English 
Baptists,  Lond.,  1738-40,4  vols.;  Jos.  Ivimey: 
Hist.  English  Baptists,  Lond.,  1811-23,3  vols.; 
EvAXs:  Earl;/  English  Baptists,  Lond.,  1802,  2 
vols. ;  Publications  of  "  Hanserd  Knullys  Soc'y," 
Lond.,  1849-54,  10  vols. 

American  Baptists. — Backus:  Hi.il.  Baptists  of 
yew  England,  Newton,  ilass.,  1871,  2  vols.; 
Morgan  Edw.vuds:  Hist.  Baptists  in  Penn.  and 
N.  Jersey,  1772,  1792,  2  vols.;  Benkdict:  Gen- 
eral Hi.1t.  Ilapl.  in  America,  N.  Y. ,  1850;  Cramp: 
Bapt.  Hi.1t.,  Phila.,  n.  d. ;  S.  S.  Cutting:  Hi.i- 
lorical  Vindications,  Boston,  1859;  Fk.  ^V.VYI.A^•D: 
Principles  and  Practices  of  the  Baptists,  X.  Y., 
1857;  D.\GG :  Church  Order,  Cliarleston,  1858; 
AVm.  U.  Williams:  Lectures  on  Baptist  Histori/, 
Philadelphia,  1877;  Baptists  and  the  National  Cen- 
lenanj,  I'hila.,  1876';  "Baptist  Year  Books," 
Philadelphia. 

For  a  list  of  works  by  American  Baptists  to 
1804,  SCO  Baptist  Semi-Centcnnial  Volume,  Bos- 
ton, b'^01.  11.  O.SOOdD. 

BARABBAS  {son  of  Aliha),  the  name  of  a  male- 
factor whom  the  Jewish  mob.  at  the  instigation  of 
the  priests,  demanded  that  I'oiitius  I'ilate  slioidd 
release  instead  of  Jesus  of  Xiizareth  (.Matt,  .\xvii. 
16  sq.,  cf.  Acts  iii.  14).  According  to  an  old  tra- 
dition, Baral)l)a8'  proper  name  was  Jesus.  Some 
manuscripts  ami  many  :iiicii'Mt  versions  liave  the 
name  Jesus  before  that  of  Itanihbas.  Thus  the 
Armenian  version  read.s:  "whom  will  ye  that  I 
relea.se    unto  youV — Jesus    Bar:il>l):is,   or   Jesus 


which  is  called  Christ?"  (Matt,  xxvii.  17.) 
.According  to  Jerome,  the  Gospel  of  the  Hebrews 
had  the  same  reading.  But  the  majority  of  Xew 
Testament  textual  scholars  are  agreed  in  reject- 
ing it.  Lange  and  othei-s  favor  the  old  view 
that  Barabbas  was  a  pseudo-messiali.  Barabbas 
is  a  common  name  in  the  Talmud. 

BARAGA,  Friedrich,  D.  D.,  a  Roman-Catholic 
missionary,  b.  in  Carniola,  a  crown  land  of  the 
Austrian  "Empire,  1797:  d.  Jan.  19,  1868.  He 
came  to  America  in  1831,  devoted  his  life  to  the 
Indians  of  the  Lake  Superior  region,  and  was 
made  Bishop  of  Sault  .St.  Mary  and  Marquette. 
He  ]iublished  a  Grammar  of  the  Olchipwe  Language 
in  1851,  and  a  Dictionarg  of  the  same  in  1853. 

BA'RAK  {lightning),  son  of  .\binoam,  was  the 
fourth  judge  of  Israel.  He  marched  with  Debo- 
rah against  Sisera,  chief  of  the  army  of  Jabin, 
King  of  Canaan,  and,  meeting  him  by  the  torrent 
stream  of  Kishon,  achieved  a  complete  victory, 
and  broke  his  people's  yoke  of  bondage,  which 
had  galled  them  twenty  years.  A  forty-years' 
peace  followed. 

BARBARA,  St.,  suffered  martyrdom,  according 
to  Baronius,  in  .Xicomedia,  under  Jlaximinus 
(235-238);  according  to  Assemanni,  at  Heliopolis 
in  Egypt,  under  Galerius  (306).  Having  been 
converted,  she  endeavored  to  convert  her  father: 
but  he  denounced  her;  and,  as  no  torture  could 
move  her  to  deny  Christ,  she  was  sentenced  to 
death,  and  decapitated  by  her  own  father.  Her 
feast  falls  on  Dec.  4,  and  in  Roman-Catholic  coun- 
tries she  is  considered  a  special  guaranty  against 
fire,  storms,  etc. 

BARBARIAN  in  the  New  Testament  (Acts 
xxviii.  2,  4:  Rom.  i.  14)  means  one  not  a  Greek, 
without  referring  to  civilization  :  this  is  in  ac- 
cordance with  classic  usage.  In  1  Cor.  xiv.  11 
it  means  one  speaking  in  a  foreign,  unintelligi- 
ble tongue.  This  is  its  primitive  meaning.  It 
by  IK)  means  implies  siivagi'ri/, 

BARBAULD,  Anna  Letltia,  b.  at  Kibworth, 
Leicestershire,  June  20,  1743:  married  the  Rev. 
Rochemont  Barbaubl,  May,  1774;  d.  March  9, 
1825.  She  was  the  daughter  of  the  Rev.  John 
.\ikin,  D.D.,  a  teacher,  and  w.as  highly  educated. 
Her  husband  was  a  Unitarian,  who  taught  a 
school  and  preached  in  .Suffolk.  .Assisted  by  her 
brother  in  1773.  she  published  her  first  volume  of 
"Poems;"  and  four  editions  were  sold  in  one 
year.  In  the  same  year  appeared  "Miscellaneous 
Pieces  in  Prose,"  by  J.  and  .A.  L.  Aikin ;  in  1775 
her  "Hymns  in  Prose."  and  "Early  Lessons" 
(written  for  her  pupils),  and  "  Devotional  Pieces 
compiled  from  the  l\salins  of  David."  Her  later 
writings  :ire  of  a  general  and  critical  character, 
including  political  p:imphlets,  editions  of  Akeii- 
side,  ('ollins,  and  of  essayists  and  novelists.  Per- 
haps her  best-known  hymn  begins,  "  How  blest 
the  righteous  when  he  dies!  "  See  The  Works  of 
.1.  L.  Barbauld,  with  a  Memoir,"  by  Lucy  Aikin 
(her  niece),  London,  1820,  2  vols. ;  and  the  recent 
.Memoirs  by  A.  L.  Le  Breton  and  G.  A.  Ellis, 
IsTl. 

BARBEf  RAC,  Jean,  b.  at  Beziers,  Languedoc, 
March  15,  1674 ;  d.  at  Groeningen,  March  3, 
1744;  fled  with  his  parents  into  .Switzerland, 
after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Xantes, 
1()85;  was  echicated  at  Lausanne  and  Geneva; 
studied    at   the   University  of    Frankfort-on-the- 


BARBIER. 


213 


BAR-COCHEBA. 


Oder;  became  a  teacher  in  the  College  of  the 
Reformed  Congregation  at  Berlin,  1097;  and  was 
ill  1710  appointed  professor  of  law  and  histoiy 
in  the  Academy  of  Lausanne,  and  in  1710  in  the 
University  of  Gra?ningen  lie  translated  several 
works  of  Puffendorf  an<l  (irot.iiis  from  Latin  into 
Frencli,  and  accompanied  them  with  notes  and 
additions,  which  attracted  much  attention.  Be- 
sides a  number  of  other  essays,  ho  also  wrote  a 
Traite  du  Jeti,  1709,  and  a  Traite  ile  la  Morale  ile.i 
I-'eres  rle  I'Ef/lisc.  1728.  lie  was  a  moderate  Cal- 
vinist.  and  refused  to  sign  the  Helvetic  Formula 
Consensus,  which  disapproved  of  the  doctrines  of 
Amyraut  and  the  other  Saumur  theologians. 

BARBIER,  Josu6,  a  Protestant  pastor  of  Li- 
vron,  wlioMi  the  liishop  of  Valence  allured  back 
into  the  bosom  of  the  Roman  Church  by  a  pen- 
sion of  six  hundred  livres,  and  who  became  noted 
by  his  coarse  libels  against  his  former  co-religion- 
ists ;  La  Ministrographie  Hugiieitote,  1618;  and 
Les  Miraculenx  Effects  de  la  Sacre'e  Main  des  Roys 
de  France,  16"21. 

BARCKHAUSEN-VOLKMANN  CONTROVER- 
SY. In  1712  Paul  Volkmanii,  rector  of  tlie  ,Toa- 
chimsthal  Gymnasium  in  P.erliu,  and  custos  at  the 
Royal  Library,  published  his  Theses  Theoloe/icce,  a 
complete  representation  of  the  Reformed  dogmat- 
ics, in  which  he  maintained  the  doctrines  of  uni- 
versal grace  and  conditional  election.  Thereby 
he  stirred  up  within  the  German  Reformed 
Church  that  question  of  predestination  and  grace 
■which  has  arisen  and  been  debated  in  every  na- 
tional branch  of  the  Reformed  Church.  In  1714 
Heinricli  Barckhausen.  a  teacher  in  the  same 
gymnasium,  answered  by  an  Amira  Collatin  Jjor- 
trince  de  Gratia,  which  he  pul)lished  under  the 
pseudonyme  of  Pacificus  Verinus,  and  in  which  he 
vindicated  these  doctrines  of  particular  grace  and 
u.iconditional  election.  With  Volkmann  sided 
Holzf  uss,  Jablonsky,  Jereniias  Sterky,  etc. ;  with 
Barckhausen,  Philip  Naude,  etc.  Barckhausen 
wrote  two  more  pamphlets  in  the  controversy, 
both  anonymous,  JMaurilii  Neodorpii  Calvintis  Or- 
tJiodoxus  and  Abr/enSlhigte  Ehr-  iind  Lehr-  liettung 
der  reformirten  Kirchen ;  and  the  controversy  be- 
gan to  grow  hot,  when,  in  1719,  the  Prussian 
king,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  I.,  stepped  in,  and  by  a 
royal  edict  commanded  both  parties  to  keep 
silent. 

BARCLAY,  Alexander,  b.  about  147(1,  probably 
of  Scotch  descent;  d.  at  Croydon  in  1552;  was  edu- 
cated at  one  of  the  English  universities;  travelled 
much  on  the  Continent,  and  w.as  made  chaplain 
in  the  collegiate  church  at  Ottery  St.  Mary  in 
Devonshire.  Afterwards  he  became  a  monk  in 
the  Benedictine  Monastery  of  Ely ;  and,  after  the 
suppression  of  the  monasteries,  lie  was  vicar  of 
Much-Badew  in  Essex,  of  Wokey  in  Somerset- 
shire, and  rector  of  All-Saints  in  Lomb.ard  Street. 
He  is  the  author  of  the  Slap  of  Fonles,  first  printed 
in  1509,  partly  a  translation,  piartly  an  imitation, 
of  Sebastian  Brandt's  Das  Narren  Scliiff.  A  list 
of  his  other  writings  is  found  in  the  introduction 
to  Jamieson's  edition  of  the  S/iij/  of  Foules,  Edin- 
burgh, 1874. 

BARCLAY,  Robert,  b.  at  Gordonstown,  Scot- 
land, Dec.  23.  1048:  d.  Oct.  3,  1690,  at  Ury;  de- 
scended from  an  old  Scottish  family,  and  received 
a  very  careful  education  from  his  father.  Col. 
David  Barclay  of  war  celebrity  in  Germany  and 


Sweden.  For  his  further  development  he  went 
to  Paris;  but  wdiile  there  he  was  won  over  to  the 
Roman  Cliurch  by  one  of  his  maternal  uncles; 
and  it  cost  his  father,  who  in  the  mean  time  had 
joined  tlie  Quakers,  much  trouble  to  disentangle 
all  thi^se  religious  and  iiu)ral  complications.  He 
succeeded,  however;  and  Robert  Barclay  became 
the  most  pronuniMit,  indeed  the  only  remarkable, 
theologian  the  (Quakers  liavo  produced.  Ilia 
chief  work,  Tlieolor/iir  Vera  <  'hristianw  A/toloi/ia, 
gives  a  systematic  representation  of  that  mystical 
spiritualism  on  wdiicli  Quakerism  is  based.  It 
was  first  juiblished  in  1676,  translated  into  Eng- 
lish in  1678,  into  (jerman  in  1684,  and  into 
French  in  1702,  and  called  forth  a  great  number 
of  controversial  writings  by  Anton  Reiser,  Bar- 
thold  Ilolzfu.ss,  Ben.  Figken,  William  Baier,  etc. 
Barclay's  collected  works  were  published  two 
years  after  his  death,  by  William  Penn.  See 
[Joseph  Besse:  Collection  of  l/ie  Sufferings  of  the 
People  called  Quakers,  for  the  Testimony  of  a  Good 
Conscience,  London,  17.53,  2  vols,  fob;  S.  M. 
.T.W'XEy:  History  of  the  Friends.  Philadelphia, 
1867,  4  vols  ]  Weingarten  :  Die  Revolutions- 
kirclnii  Englauds,  1868,  p.  364-396.        HERZOG. 

BAR-C6CHEBA  {son  of  the  star),  the  name 
assumed  by  a  certain  Simeon,  who  pretended  to 
be  the  Messiah,  and  headed  an  insurrection  ia 
Palestine  in  A.D.  131  or  132,  against  the  Em- 
peror Hadrian.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  origin, 
or  even  of  his  real  name.  He  purposely  w  ipped 
himself  in  mystery  the  better  to  play  his  rule. 
But  he  never  would  have  been  able  to  succeed  at 
all,  had  it  not  been  for  the  confidence  reposed  in 
him  by  Rabbi  Akiba  (which  see),  the  most  influ- 
ential and  remarkable  Jew  of  his  day.  He 
claimed  to  have  been  born  on  the  day  of  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  (because  a  wide-spread 
rumor  set  that  time  for  the  birth  of  the  Messiah)  ; 
claimed  also  the  fulfilment  of  Balaam's  projih- 
ecy  (Num.  xxiv.  17),  hence  his  name;  and  by  his 
boasts  and  temerity,  his  promises  and  tact,  he 
gathered  a  large  number  about  him,  overcame  the 
Roman  general  in  Judaea,  J.  Annius  Rufus,  and 
took  Jerusalem.  He  had  coins  struck  to  celebrate 
his  successes.  But  his  triumph  was  short-lived. 
Julius  Severus,  at  Hadrian's  order,  attacked  him, 
and  by  prudent  stratagems  succeeded  in  penning 
up  the  insurgents  in  Jerusalem,  and  then  took 
the  city,  although  at  heavy  loss,  and  razed  it;  and 
on  it  eventually  Aelia  Capitolina  was  built.  Bar- 
cocheba  and  his  followers  fled  to  Bethar,  a  strong- 
hold near  Jerusalem,  and  for  three  years  main- 
tained themselves.  But  in  the  year  135  Bethar 
yielded  to  the  Romans.  Bar-cocheba  fell  in  the 
battle,  and  his  head  was  carried  into  the  Roman 
camp.  Rabbi  Akiba  and  other  rabbis,  who  were 
accused  of  inciting  the  rebellion,  were,  it  is  said, 
flayed  alive.  The  Talmud,  recognizing  the  de- 
ception practised,  changed  the  name  of  the 
leader  into  Bar-Coziba  {son  of  tlie  lie),  and  called 
his  coins  "rebel  money." 

It  is  said  Bar-cocheba  put  to  death  all  Chris- 
tians who  would  not  join  his  standard.  Indeed, 
in  every  resjiect,  in  speech  and  action,  he  was  one 
of  the  false  Christs  our  Lord  prophesied  should 
arise  (Mark  xiii.  21,  22),  and  by  his  very  defects 
set  forth  more  prominently  the  virtues  of  the 
Perfect  One,  the  Hope  of  Israel,  the  Lord's 
Anointed. 


BARDESANES. 


■2\4 


BARNABAS. 


[MuNTER  :  Derjiidische  Krieg  unter  den  Kaisem 
Trajan  u.  Hadrian:  P>wald:  Geschickte  d.  Volks 
Israel,  VII..  373-432;  E.  Schurek:  Neittesla- 
mentliche  Zeilgeschichte,  Leipzig.    1874.   pp.  350 

Sqn.l  W.  PRESSEL. 

B.ARDESANES,  a  Gnostic  lieiesiarch.  who  lived 
at  Edes.sa  in  Mesopotamia  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  second  century,  about  170.  He  was  a  disci- 
ple of  Valentiuius,  and  as  none  of  bis  writings 
have  come  dow'n  to  us  —  with  the  exception  of  a 
fragment  of  his  book  on  fate,  which  has  been 
preserved  by  Eusebius,  and  may  be  found  trans- 
lated in  Cureton's  Spic'Ueyium  Si/riacuni,  London. 
1855  —  his  system  can  be  understood  only  as  a 
variation  of  that  of  his  master  and  of  Gnosticism 
in  general.  But  he  seems  to  have  been  a  greal 
poet;  and  his  hundred  and  fifty  Syriac  hynnis 
became  so  popular,  that  Ephraim  Syrus,  when  he 
afterwards  wrote  his  orthodox  hynnis  to  take 
their  place,  was  compelled  to  use  Bardesanes' 
tunes.     See  Gnosticism. 

BAREFOOTED    MONKS    AND    NUNS.       .See 

DlSCALCKATI. 

BARLAAM,  b.  at  Seniinara  in  Calabria,  towards 
the  close  of  the  thirteenth  centurj'.  He  was  of 
Greek  descent,  but  educated  in  the  Roman 
Church,  and  entered  the  order  of  St.  Basil.  For 
his  further  studies,  however,  he  went  to  Thessa- 
lonica,  at  that  period  a  great  seat  of  learning, 
and  having  made  himself  proficient  not  only  in 
theology,  but  also  in  philosophy  and  mathemat- 
ics, he  went  to  Con.stantinople  (1327),  where  he 
joined  the  Greek  Church,  was  made  .Vbbot  of  St. 
Salvador,  and  engaged  in  a  virulent  polemic 
against  Rome:  Contra  Primatum  Pajia,  etc.  In 
1339  the  Emperor  Andronicus  III.  .sent  him  on  a 
diplomatical  errand  to  Pope  Benedict  XII..  at 
Avignon,  to  vi'hom  he  presented  himself,  well 
recommended  both  by  Philippe  of  France  and 
Robert  of  Sicily.  The  real  purpose  of  his  mis- 
sion was  to  procure  the  support  of  ^^'estern 
Europe  against  the  Turks ;  but  the  ostensible 
object  he  labored  for  was  the  union  between  the 
Greek  and  Latin  churches.  Cunningly  conceal- 
ing the  thoughts  he  worked  for  under  the 
thoughts  he  spoke  about,  he  delivered  two  elabo- 
rate speeches  before  the  Pope,  which  belong  to 
the  most  characteristic  documents  of  the  whole 
series  of  union-negotiations:  but  he  failed,  never- 
theless, to  produce  the  right  impression;  his  mis- 
sion remained  without  result.  After  returning 
to  Greece,  he  began  his  attacks  on  thi-  Ilesychast 
or  Quietist  party  among  the  monks  of  Mount 
Athos,  which  he  wound  up  with  a  formal  accusa- 
tion of  heresy.  A  .synod,  ]iresided  over  by  the 
emperor  and  the  patriarch,  was  convened  in  the 
Church  of  St.  So)ihia,  in  Constantinople,  1311; 
and  the  llesychasts  were  so  ably  defended  by 
their  leader,  Palanias.  that  Barlaam  hurriedly 
left  the  city,  and  l)etook  himself  to  Italy.  Here 
he  returned  to  tln'  Roman  Church,  was  made 
Bishop  of  Gieraci  in  tin'  Neapolitan,  and  wrote  as 
virulently  against  thn  Greek  Church  as  formerly 
against  the  Latin.      lie  dii'<l  1318. 

Lit.  —  Most  of  his  works  have  remained  un- 
printed;  but  some  of  them,  for  instance  the 
above-mentioned  speeches,  are  found  in  Rey- 
nalds's  continuation  of  Baronius's  Amiale.i,  and 
others  in  II.  Canisius  :  J.erliimes  Aniiij.,  IV.  A 
complete  list  is  given  by  Leo  Allatius  in  his  Dn 


Ecclesim  Occid.  et  Or.  Consensione,  11.,  17.  Parts 
of  his  life  are  fully  described  by  the  Greek  his- 
torians Catakuzen  and  Necephorns  (5regoras. 

BARLETTA,  a  Dominican  monk  from  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  fifteenth  century;  b.  at  Barletta  in 
the  Neapolitan:  enjoyed  an  almost  unparalleled 
popularity  as  a  preacher,  especially  in  the  cities 
of  Northern  Italy.  His  sermons,  which  were  first 
published  at  Brescia,  1497,  and  afterwards  often, 
gave  rise  to  the  adage,  Nescil  prm/irare  qui  nesctt 
harlettare.  They  are  characterized  by  a  blending 
of  humor  and  pathos,  which,  though  sometimes 
approaching  buffoonery  and  affectation,  explains 
the  great  power  of  the  man. 

BAR'NABAS  (.<«»  of  Prophecy,  or  Exhortation^, 
a  Levite  named  Joses,  of  the  Island  of  Cyprus, 
living  in  Jerusalem  when  the  church  was  founded, 
and  one  of  the  first  converts.  By  the  Christians 
he  was  called  Barnabas,  because  of  his  ability  to 
administer  counsel  and  cheer.  He  proved  the 
sincerity  and  depth  of  his  Christian  zeal  by  vol- 
untarily selling  his  Cyprian  property,  and  laying 
the  money  at  the  apostles'  feet  (.\cls  iv.  36.  37). 
He  (inickly  took  a  leading  position  in  the  early 
church.  Incited,  probably,  by  a  friendship  pi-e- 
viously  formed  when  both  were  Jews,  he  used 
his  influence  to  commend  the  converted  and 
yet  suspected  Saul  to  the  Jerusalem  Church,  and 
thus  publicly  indorsed  the  strange  story  the 
apostle  told  (ix.  27).  The  fitness  of  Barnabas 
to  deal  wisely  w'ith  young  converts  is  strikingly 
illustrated  by  his  commission  to  inspect  the 
'•  revival  "  at  .\ntioch :  and  the  confidence  he 
reposed  in  Saul  is  manifested  by  his  journey  to 
Tarsus  in  search  of  him.  The  two  men  lalx)red 
together  successfully  for  many  months  in  .Anti- 
och  (xi.  22-26,  xiv.  28).  B;irnabas  and  Saul 
were  then  sent  down  to  Jerusalem  with  contribu- 
tions for  the  poor  saints  there  (ver.  30,  B.C.  44). 
This  is  the  first  joining  of  the  two  names.  They 
returned  from  Jerusalem  with  John  (Mark  xii. 
25) ;  and,  ordered  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  these  three 
went  on  a  missionary  journey.  .\t  Perga,  John 
left  them,  and  returned  to  Jerusalem;  but  Paul 
and  Barnabas  kept  on  their  way  (xiii.  2-5.  13). 
The  dignified  bearing  of  Barnabas,  and  the  , 
readier  speech  of  Paul,  led  to  the  supposition  I 
of  the  Lystrans,  that  the  former  was  /^eus  (Jupi- 
ter), and  the  latter  Hermes  (Mercury).  On  com-  I 
ing  back  to  Antioch,  they  were  involved  in  a  con- 
troversy with  the  Judilizers,  and  went  to  the 
.\postolic  Council  at  Jerusalem  (which  see),  where 
the  matter  was  settled.  An  unliap]iy  dissension 
.soon  after  p;irted  the  pair  (A. I).  .50),  and  Barna- 
bas is  not  further  mentioned  in  the  .\cts  (xv.; ; 
but  from  Gal.  ii.  13  we  leani  ;i  little  more  about 
him,  and  see  iiis  weakness  under  the  taunts  of 
the  Judaizers;  and  from  1  Cor.  ix.  6  we  gather 
that  he  was  still  at  his  missionary  labors  in  the 
spring  of  A.I).  .57.  Legends  begin  when  authentic 
history  ends.  Barnai)as  is  brought  to  Rome  and 
Alexandria.  The  Clementine  Itecognition.t  (I.,  7) 
make  him  preach  in  Rome  during  Christ's  life- 
time. Indeed,  according  to  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria (Strom.  II.,  20),  he  was  one  of  the  seventh 
disciples.  Not  older  than  the  third  century  is 
the  tradition  of  tin-  later  activity  and  martyrdom 
of  Barnabas  in  Cyjirus.  There  is  a  wortiiless 
work  by  a  Cvprian  of  the  tifth  century,  "Acta  et 
Passio  Barnalia'  in  Cypi'o  "  (see  .VfotUYi'iiA  to  the 


y 


BARNABITBS. 


215 


BARNES. 


New  Testament),  and  a  eulog^y  by  a  Cyprian  monk, 
Alexander,  not  earlier  than  the  firth  century, 
which  relate  his  acts.  Under  the  Enii>er(ir  Zeno 
(474-491),  according  to  the  last-quoted  work,  the 
body  of  Barnalias  was  found  at  Cyjirus.  But 
the  Cyprian  Church  had  already  claimed  liim  as 
its  founder  in  order  to  rid  itself  of  the  supremacy 
of  the  Antiochiaii  bishop;  and  so  did  the  Milan 
Church,  tliereby  to  cut  itself  off  from  Rome. 
These  traditions  therefore  go  for  little. 

In  this  connection,  the  question  whether  Bar- 
nabas was  an  apostle  is  important,  and  may  be 
answered  by  saying  he  was  not,  in  the  strict  sense, 
and  yet  is  so  styled  (Acts  xiv.  14);  and  in  the 
broader  sense  of  messenger  he  was  amply  enti- 
tled to  the  epitlipt.     See  Apostle. 

Wrllhif/s  allrihuted  to  Barnabas.  —  Tertullian 
and  other  African  writers  ascribe  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  to  him.  'J'his  may  well  have  been 
the  Roman  tradition  (Tertullian  usually  follows 
it),  since  in  Rome,  the  epistle,  probably,  had  its 
first  readers.  But  of  more  interest  is  the  tradi- 
tion which  sets  down  to  him  an  Epistle  in  twenty- 
one  chapters,  which  is  contained  complete  in  the 
Codex  Sinaiticus,  and  of  which  Bryeimios  in  1875 
discovered  a  complete  Greek  manuscript  in  the 
Library  of  the  Most  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Constan- 
einople  ;  but  he  has  not  yet  published  it  The 
epistle  was  accepted  as  genuine  by  the  old  Greek 
Church,  although  not  as  canonical.  Clemens 
Alexandrinus  (160-202)  cites  it,  as  do  Origen 
and  the  Apostolical  Constitutions.  Eusebius  threw 
doubt  upon  its  canonicity,  but  regarded  it  as 
authentic ;  yet  it  gradually  faded  out  of  view. 
The  opinion  to-day  is,  that  Barnabas  was  not  the 
author.  The  epistle  was  probably  written  in 
Alexandria,  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  cen- 
tury, and  by  a  Gentile  Christian.  In  no  other 
writing  of  that  early  time  is  the  separation  of 
the  Gentile  Christians  from  the  patriotic  Jews  so 
clearly  brought  out.  The  Jewish  interpretation 
of  the  Bible  is  declared  to  be  false,  and  the  Old 
Testament  regulations  are  allegorized.  "  Two 
points  are  especially  insisted  upon:  1st,  Judaism 
in  its  outward  and  fleshly  form  had  never  been 
commended  by  the  Almighty  to  man ;  2d,  God's 
covenant  never  belonged  to  the  Jews  at  all." 
That  the  author  had  read  Paul  is  manifest ; 
whether  he  knew  our  present  Gospels  is  not  so 
sure:  2  Esd.  and  Enoch  are  quoted.  The  doc- 
trines of  Paul  are  fully  and  truly  reproduced. 
The  epistle  has  been  often  published.  See  Geb- 
HARDT,  Harxack,  u.  Zahn  :  Palrum  Apostolico- 
rum  Opera,  Leipzig,  187G. 

Lit.  —  Hefele  :  Das  Sendscreiben  des  Ap.  iiar- 
naAo.s-,  Tiibingen,  1840;  Xorton  :  Genuineness  of 
the  Gospels,  2d  ed.,  Cambridge,  18411;  Donald- 
son :  Hist,  of  Christian  Literature  and  Doctrine, 
London,  1804,  vol.  i.,  201-211;  Cunningham: 
A  Dissertation  on  the  Ep.  Bar.,  London,  1877; 
Samuel  Sharpe:  Epistle  of  Barnabas,  from  the 
Hinaitic  Ms.,  London,  1880. 

BARNABITES,  a  religious  order  founded  at 
Milan  in  1530  by  three  prie.sts.  Zaccharia,  Ferrari. 
and  Morigia,  acting  under  the  influence  of  the 
religious  movement  at  that  time  passing  through 
Italy.  In  1538  the  order  was  confirmed  by  Clem- 
ent VII.  ;  and  in  1535  it  was  exempted  from  the 
episcopal  authority,  and  placed  immediately 
uuder  the  papal  chair.     Its  first  name  was  the 


Regular  Clerks  of  St.  Paul,  after  the  oratory  in 
which  its  re-unions  were  held  ;  liut,  after  obtaining 
tlie  Church  of  .St  liarn^bas,  its  members  are  gen- 
tu-ally  called  the  Barnabites.  To  the  three  mo- 
nastic vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience, 
the  order  adds  a  fourtli,  —  never  to  seek  any  kind 
of  ecclesiastical  preferment.  Preaching  and 
teaching  are  its  two  great  aims. 

BARNARD,  John,  b.  at  Bo.ston,  Nov.  6,  1681: 
d.  at  Marblehe;id,  Jan.  24,  1770;  was  educated  at 
Harvard  College;  accompanied  the  expedition 
to  Port  Royal  as  chaplain,  in  1707;  and  was  ap- 
pointed minister  in  1716,  at  Marblehead,  where 
he  developed  a  great  activity,  both  for  the 
moral  and  material  welfare  of  his  flock.  He 
published  a  version  of  the  Psalms,  and  some 
sermons,  which  show  an  incipient  deviation  from 
Calvinism. 

BARNES,  Albert,  b,  at  Rome,  N.Y.,  Dec.  1, 
1798,  d.  in  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  Dec.  24,  1870; 
has  a  prominent  place  in  the  religious  history  of 
America,  as  an  active  cause  of  the  separation  in 
the  Presbyterian  Church,  as  the  leader  of  the 
New  School  party,  and  as  the  author  of  a  series 
of  commentaries  or  Notes  upon  the  entire  New 
Testament  and  upon  a  few  books  of  the  Old, 
which  has  had  an  enormous  and  merited  circula- 
tion in  America  and  Great  Britain.  It  is  said 
that  more  than  a  million  copies  of  his  Notes  on 
the  New  Testament  have  been  sold.  Few  men 
equalled  Mr.  Barnes  in  presenting  in  brief  com- 
]iass  the  results  of  patient  study.  Loyalty  to 
truth,  fearlessness  in  its  defence,  earnestness,  de- 
cision, and  a  childlike  piety,  gave  him  a  command- 
ing position.  He  was  graduated  at  Hamilton 
College,  New  York,  in  1820;  then  took  a  four-years' 
course  at  the  Theological  .Seminary,  Princeton. 
N.J. ;  and  was  ordained  and  installed  pastor  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Morristown,  N.J., 
Feb.  8,  1825;  thence  he  was  called  to  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Philadelphia,  and  was  in- 
stalled June  25,  1830.  In  1867  he  resigned,  and 
was  elected  pastor  emeritus.  ISIr.  Barnes  was 
the  servant,  and  at  the  same  time  the  leader,  of 
his  age.  He  has  left  a  lasting  impress  upon  four 
movements,  which,  although  he  did  not  originate, 
he  directed.  He  preached  total  abstinence  into 
wide  favor;  the  abolition  of  slaver//,  until  freedom 
rendered  such  preaching  an  anachronism;  the 
Sunday-school  cause,  and  in  its  behalf  complied 
his  Notes:  and,  finally,  the  doctrine  of  uidimited 
atonement,  and  the  <listinctive  te;ichings  of  the 
New-School  Branch  of  the  Presbyterian  Church. 
See  Presbyteuia.v  Church.  Although  circum- 
stances put  him  forward  as  the  advocate  of  the 
New-School  liranch,  he  did  not  desire  the  promi- 
nence, nor  love  tlie  strife  ;  yet  he  defended  what 
he  deemed  the  truth  whenever  assailed.  He  was 
no  enthusiast  or  fanatic,  but  simply  and  evi- 
dently a  truth-loving,  earnest,  conscientious  man 
of  God.  And  it  may  be  claimed  with  justice, 
that,  as  he  was  unhappily  a  cause  of  the  divis- 
ion of  his  denomination,  so  he  happily  was  a 
means  of  uniting  it  again.  The  first  volume  of 
his  Notes  J-^xplanatory  and  Practical,  which  was 
on  the  Gospels,  is  dated  Phil.adelphia,  Aug  25, 
1832;  and  his  last  volume,  which  was  on  the 
Psalms,  February,  1868.  Besides  these,  he  pub- 
lished The  Atonement,  Phila.,  1859;  Wai/  of  Sal- 
vation, Phila.,  1863;  Evidences  of  Chrislianiti/  Vt 


BARNBVELD. 


216 


BARRUBL. 


the  Nineteenth  Century,  N.Y. ,1868;  and  Life  at 
Threescore  and  Ten,  N.Y.,  1871. 

BARNEVELD.     See  Armixiaxism. 

BAROor  BARON,  Pierre,  b.  at  Etampes,  1534; 
d.  in  London,  April  17,  1599;  studied  law  at 
Bourges,  and  began  in  1557  to  plead  in  the 
court  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  but  retired  in 
1560  to  Geneva,  where  he  studied  theology,  and 
was  ordained  by  Calvin  himself.  In  1572  he  left 
France,  and  settled  in  Cambridge,  where  he  was 
made  professor  in  divinity :  but  he  soon  fell  out 
with  the  rigid  Calvinists  ;  and  a  sermon  he 
preached  on  the  Lambeth  Articles  gave  so  much 
offence,  that  he  was  compelled  to  renounce  his 
chair  in  the  university,  and  retire  to  London. 
Among  his  works  are.  In  lonam  Prophetam  Pro- 
lectiones,  London.  1579 ;  Summa  Trium  de  Prce- 
destinatione  Sententiarum,  1573,  translated  in 
Nichols's  "Life  of  Arminius,"  I.  9. 

BARONIUS,  Csesar,  b.  at  Sora  in  Naples,  Oct. 
31,  1538;  d.  in  Rome,  June  30, 1607.  This  most 
learned  and  laborious  historian  of  the  Roman 
Church  was  educated  at  Veroli ;  began  to  study 
theology  and  jurisprudence  at  Naples;  moved  in 
1557  to  Rome ;  entered  the  Congregation  of  the 
Oratory  newly  founded  by  Filippo  de  Neri,  was 
thereby  led  to  the  study  of  church-history  in  its 
very  sources;  began  in  1577  preparations  for  his 
great  work.  Annates  Ecclesiastic!,  which  first  ap- 
peared in  Rome,  in  12  vols,  folio,  158.8-1607;  was 
made  librarian  to  the  Vatican,  and  cardinal  in 
1596,  and  came  twice  —  after  the  death  of  Clem- 
ent VIII.,  aud  again  after  that  of  Leo  XI.  — very 
near  being  elected  pope.  The  Annates  Ecciesias- 
tici  were  written  in  opposition  to  the  '•  Madgeburg 
Centuries  "  of  Flacius  and  other  Lutheran  liisto- 
rians.  They  contain  no  open  polemics,  however. 
The  great  attention  which  the  "  Magdeburg  Cen- 
turies "  attracted  made  it  necessary  to  furnish  a 
positive  refutation.  Baronins  undertook  the 
task,  with  the  help  of  the  Vatican  Library,  and 
performed  it  in  a  way  that  makes  his  Annals 
still  a  storehouse  of  learning.  He  died  at  last 
from  sheer  exhaustion.  The  Annals  were  pub- 
lished at  Antwerp,  1010,  in  XII.  Tom.  folio,  and 
by  Mansi,  Lucca,  38  vols.,  1738-59,  in  which 
Pagi's  critical  remarks  are  printed  in  notes  below 
tlie  text.  The  latest  and  best  edition  was  begun 
by  A.  Theiner  at  Har-le-Duc,  in  IHGl,  and  fin- 
ished in  1883,  in  37  volumes.  The  form  of  the 
work  is  that  of  a  chronicle ;  the  facts  being  gath- 
ered together  under  each  year,  without  any  regard 
to  tlieir  internal  connection.  Several  writers  have 
tried  to  continue  B.aronius's  work  after  hi.s  death; 
hut  only  the  labors  of  Raynaldus,  Rome,  9  vols., 
1646-03,  Laderchi,  Rome,  3  vols  ,  1728-37,  and 
Theiner,  Rome,  3  vols.,  1856,  bringing  the  chron- 
icle down  to  the  year  of  1580,  have  succeeded  in 
gaining  permanency. 

Lit.  —  Lives  of  Jjaronius  were  written  by  Bau- 
NAiiKL's,  Rome,  1611,  and  ALUEiticu.-i,  Rome, 
1759,  the  latter  giving  also  his  letters  (3  vols.). 
See  Dv  Pi.n  :  NouveUe  liiUiothhque  iles  Autcurs 
EccWsiasliques,  XVIL,  1;  Bauk:  Ej/nc/ien  der 
kirclitichen  GeschichtsschrcHmmj,  p.  72,  Tubingen, 
1852  H.   KKUTER. 

BARROW,  Isaac,  \<.  in  London,  October,  1630; 
d.  there  May  1,  1077;  studied  at  the  University 
of  Cambridge ;  travelleil  for  several  years  in 
France,   Italy,  and  the   East;    was  ordained  and 


made  professor  of  Greek  in  the  University  of 
Cambridge  immediately  after  his  return  in  1600  ; 
became  professor  of  mathematics  in  1003,  but 
resigned  in  1669  in  favor  of  his  famous  pupil, 
Newton,  and  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  the- 
ology; and  in  1072  he  was  appointed  master  of 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1075  was 
chosen  vice-chancellor  of  the  university.  A 
collected  editioti  of  his  theological  works  —  ser- 
mons, a  Treatise  on  the  Pope's  Supremacy,  an 
Exposition  of  the  Creed,  etc.  —  appeared  in  Lon- 
don, 1828,  3  vols.,  and  was  reprinted  in  New 
York,  1846.  A  still  better  edition  was  published 
at  Cambridge,  1859,  8  vols.  His  sermons  are 
very  elaborate  aud  exhaustive,  but  ponderous  in 
style. 

BARROWE,  Henry,  a  Congregational  martyr, 
hanged  April  0,  1593;  came  of  good  family;  was 
called  to  the  bar  1570,  and  for  a  time  led  a  wild 
life,  but  was  converted,  and  in  some  way  was 
attracted  to  John  Greenwood  (see  title),  by  whom 
he  was  interested  in  church  reform.  Both  these 
men  were  influenced  by  Robert  Browne  (see  title) 
in  the  direction  of  Independency.  When  Green- 
wood was  arrested,  Barrowe  went  to  see  him,  and 
was  illegally  arrested  Nov.  19,  1586.  He  was 
repeatedly  examined  bj'  the  ecclesiastical  authori- 
ties, and  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  the 
Fleet  Prison.  Together  with  Greenwood,  he  com- 
posed several  books  and  tracts,  and  alone  wrote 
an  important  work  entitled  A  Brief  Discovery  of 
the  False  Church,  London,  1590.  The  final  trial 
of  Greenwood  and  Barrowe  was  at  the  Old  Bailey, 
March  23,  1593.  His  alleged  offences  were,  (1) 
that  he  had  written  and  published  the  Queen's 
Majesty  to  be  unbaptized;  (2)  That  the  state 
was  wholly  corrupted,  so  that  none  that  feared 
God  could  live  at  peace  therein  ;  and  (3)  that  all 
the  people  in  the  land  were  infidels.  To  these 
charges  he  answered,  that  (1)  he  had  defended 
the  Queen's  baptism,  though  popish  ;  (2)  He 
meant  by  "  corruption  "  the  falsity  of  the  estate 
of  the  KstablishL-d  Church,  and  contained  "no 
evil  mind  toward  the  state,  laws,  or  judges;" 
and  (3)  bj'  the  term  "infidels"  he  meant  men 
destitute  of  the  true  taith  ;  aud,  so  far  from  con- 
demning the  whole  nation,  he  had  "  reverend 
estimation  of  sundry,  and  good  hope  of  many 
hundred  thousands  in  the  land,"  though  he  utter- 
ly dislikcnl  the  system  of  church  government  then 
in  force.  They  were  condemned  ;  and,  after  two 
reprieves,  they  were  hanged  on  April  0.  Dr.  Dex- 
ter, in  his  ( 'on<;regatiiinalisnt  as  seen  in  its  Literature, 
New  York,  1880  (pji.  211-245),  gives  a  minute 
account  of  the  various  examinations  Barrowe 
underwent,  and  also  of  the  difference  between 
Barrowism  and  Brownism. 

BARRUEL,  Augustin,  b.  1741 ;  d.  Oct.  5, 1820; 
was  profe.s.sor  in  the  Jesuit  College  of  Toulouse 
when  the  oriler  w-as  sujipressed;  went  to  Au.stria 
and  Italy;  returned  to  France  in  1774;  wrote 
with  more  bitterness  than  weight  against  the  infi- 
delity of  the  age  in  L'Aune'c  Litteraire  and  Jour- 
nal Ecctesiasliijuc ;  published  the  Ilelve.tiennes,  a 
more  systematic  confut.ation,  in  1785;  fled  in 
1792  to  England,  where  he  published  llistoire  rtu 
(.'leryr'  de  France  pendant  la  Jie'voliilion  (1791), 
Memoirc  sur  Jacoliinisntc  (1797),  L'Ecantiile  et  le 
Clerijii  (181)0);  returned  in  the  latter  year  to 
France,  and   published    in  1803   Du  Pajie  et  ses 


BARSUMA.S. 


217 


BARTHOLOMEW'S. 


Droiln,  which  gave  the  Ultramontanes  occasion  to 
say  thiit  Up  had  sold  himself  to  Napoleon. 

BARSUMAS,  archimandrite,  or  abbot,  of  a 
Syrian  monastery;  d.  4.'58;  was  a  friend  of 
Eutyches,  and  defended  him  at  the  Robbers' 
Synod  at  Epliesns  (4  If)),  at  the  head  of  a  thoii- 
sand  rou^li  and  tnrluiliMit  Syrian  monks.  He 
took  per.sonally  part  in  the  riot  which  caused  the 
death  of  the  aged  Flavian,  I'atriarcli  of  Constan- 
tinople; hut,  when  he  i)resented  him.self  at  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon  (151),  he  was  refused  admit- 
tance, lie  continued,  however,  to  work  for 
Eutychianisni. 

BARSUMAS,  Bishop  of  Nisibis  4.35-489,  was, 
together  with  his  adherents,  banished  from  Edessa 
on  account  of  Nestorianism ;  re-organized  the 
fugitive  church  under  Persian  protection,  and 
founded  at  Nisibis  a  theological  school,  which 
became  celebrated,  both  for  its  exegetical  labors 
in  the  spirit  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  and  for 
its  missionaries,  who  spread  Nestorianism  over 
many  points  of  Eastern  Asia.  In  Persia,  Nesto- 
rianism was  for  a  long  time  the  only  form  of 
Christianity  tolerated. 

BARTH,  Christian  Gottlob,  b.  in  Stuttgart, 
July  31,  1799;  d.  at  Calw,  Nov.  12,  1862;  studied 
theology  at  Tiibingen,  1817-21  ;  became  pastor 
at  Mbttlingen  in  1824,  but  retired  in  1838  to 
Calw,  and  devoted  himself  entirely  to  the  mis- 
sionary cause.  He  founded  the  missionary  soci- 
ety of  Wurtemberg,  and  brought  it  in  active 
co-operation  with  Basel  and  all  the  great  mission- 
ary societies  of  the  Christian  world.  He  wrote 
some  of  the  best  German  missionary  hymns. 
He  edited  the  Calmer  Missioiisblall,  and  a  great 
number  of  works  of  practical  Christianity, 
mostly  designed  for  children  and  youths  :  Bih- 
lische  Geschichten ;  Kircltengeschichte ;  Jur/endbtat- 
ter,  a  monthly ;  Hamlbuch  der  Bibelerkldruny ; 
Kindermissionshldtter ;  some  of  which  met  with  an 
almost  unparalleled  success.  K.  Werner:  G. 
Earth,  Calw,  186.5-69,  3  vols.  See  the  article  of 
H.  GuNDERT  in  Herzog. 

BARTHOLEM/EUS  DE  MARTYRIBUS,  b.  in 
Lisbon,  1.514;  d.  at  Viana,  1590  ;  received  his  sur- 
name from  the  Church  De  Marltjribus,  in  which 
he  was  baptized ;  entered  the  order  of  the  Do- 
minicans in  1528;  was  for  nearly  twenty  years  a 
teacher  of  theology  and  jihilosophy;  and  became 
in  15.58  Archbishop  of  Braga,  but  was  in  1582 
allowed  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  to  resign  his  office, 
and  retire  to  the  convent  of  Viana.  He  was  an 
enthusiastic  and  energetic  reformer.  Aa  arch- 
bishop, he  carried  through  the  severest  reforms, 
not  only  in  his  p>alace,  but  also  '\n  his  diocese; 
and  in  the  Council  of  Trent  he  spoke  of  the 
necessary  reforms  of  the  cardinals.  He  founded 
ihe  first  theological  seminary  in  Portugal,  and 
hospitals  for  the  sick  and  the  poor.  He  wrote 
Compendium  Vike  Spirilualis ;  Sti/indus  Paslorum, 
etc.  His  collected  works  appeared  in  Rome  in 
2  vols,  fol.,  1727,  edited  by  Malachias  d'lnguim- 
bert.  His  life  was  written  by  De  S.\cy,  Paris, 
1603. 

BARTHOLMESS,  Christian  Jean  Guillaume, 
b.  at  Geisselbronn,  in  Alsace,  Feb.  26, 1815;  d.  at 
Strassburg,  Aug.  31,  1856;  studied  at  Pfortzliein 
and  Strassburg;  lived  for  several  years  as  a  tutor 
in  a  private  family  in  Paris,  and  was  in  1853 
appointed   professor  iu  the  Protestant  seminary 


in    Strassburg.     He  wrote,  among  other  works, 

Il'mlnire  Crillque  des  Doclrines  RelUjieuses  de  la 
Philiisiiphie  Mfiderne,  2  vols.,  1855. 

BARTHOLOMEW  (sot,  of  Tahmii).  one  of  the 
twelve  ajidstles  (Matt.  X.  3;  Mark  lii.  18;  Luke 
vi.  14;  Acts  i.  13),  but  no  account  in  New  Tes- 
tament is  given  of  his  work.  Eu.sebius  and  Jer- 
ome relate  that  Panta>nu.s,  a  Christian  missionary 
of  the  second  century,  found  in  India  the  (io.spel 
of  Matthew  written  in  Hebrew,  which  had  been 
left  there  by  Bartholomew.  The  apostle  is  .said 
to  hav(^  preached  in  other  parts  of  Asia,  and  at 
last  to  have  been  flayed  alive,  and  then  crucified, 
head  dnwnwards,  at  Albanopolis  in  Armenia. 
His  corpse  was  miraculously  convej'ed  to  the 
island  of  Lipari,  near  the  northern  coast  of  Sicily, 
from  there  to  Benevento  in  Southern  Italy,  and 
in  A.I).  983  to  Rome.  St.  Bartholomew's  Day 
is  celebrated  Aug.  24  (25  in  Rome).  Bartholo- 
mew is  almost  certainly  identical  with  Nathanael. 
The  proof  of  this:  (1)  Pliilip  and  Nathanael  are 
associated  together  by  John,  even  as  Philip  and 
Bartholomew  are  in  the  parallel  passages  of  the 
Synoptics ;  (2)  Bartholomew  is  not  mentioned  in 
John's  list  of  the  twelve  (xxi.  2),  but  Nathanael 
is;  while  the  Synoptics  do  not  mention  Nathanael 
in  their  lists,  but  do  Bartholomew.  It  is  there- 
fore likely  that  he  had  two  names,  as  so  many 
others  did.  In  John's  Gospel  our  Lord  extols 
Nathanael  as  "an  Israelite  indeed,  in  whom  is 
no  guile"  (i.  47).  K.  SCHMIDT. 

BARTHOLOMEW'S  DAY,  The  Massacre  of  St., 
Aug.  24,  1.572.  On  .\iig.  18  the  wedding  took 
place  in  Paris  of  Henri  of  Beam,  King  of  Navarre, 
the  head  of  the  Huguenot  party,  and  Margaret 
of  Valois,  a  sister  to  Charles  IX.,  and  daughter 
of  Catherine  de  Medici.  On  this  occasion  a  great 
number  of  Huguenot  noblemen  had  assembled  in 
Paris,  and  the  impression  which  they  made  on  the 
court  and  the  populace  seems  to  have  been  one 
of  mingled  hatred  and  fear.  An  incident  added 
to  the  general  threatening  state  of  the  situation. 
By  a  freak  of  his  fickle  mind,  Charles  IX.  seemed 
to  have  thrown  himself  into  the  arms  of  Admiral 
Coligny,  and  prepared  to  make  front  against  the 
dowager-queen,  his  mother,  the  Duke  of  Anjou, 
his  brother,  and  the  party  of  the  Guises.  In  view 
of  this  danger,  the  idea  of  Catherine,  which  she 
had  often  hinted  at  to  her  two  sons,  and  repeat- 
edly intimated  to  tlie  papal  legate  and  the  am- 
bassador of  Philip  II.,  —  namely,  to  kill  all  the 
Huguenots,  —  suddenly  ripened.  At  three  o'clock 
in  the  morning  of  Aug.  24  Admiral  Coligny  was 
murdered  in  his  house,  and  his  body  was  thrown 
out  of  the  window.  He  had  been  wounded  on 
Friday,  Aug.  22,  and  was  sick  in  bed.  Then  the 
tocsin  of  Saint-Germain-l'Auxerrois  was  sounded, 
and  the  general  massacre  began.  The  retinue  of 
the  bridegroom,  lodged  in  the  Louvre,  was  slain 
in  the  courtyard.  All  over  the  city,  the  houses 
of  the  Huguenots  were  ransacked  and  pillaged 
and  fired,  and  the  inmates  were  drawn  down  into 
the  street  to  be  slaughtered.  Those  who  at- 
tempted to  flee  were  pursued,  and  hunted  like 
game.  The  king  stood  himself,  and  fired  from  a 
window  in  the  palace.  Between  five  and  six 
thousand  persons  w^ere  thus  killed  in  Paris;  and 
by  royal  order  the  same  scenes  were  enacted  in 
all  the  great  cities  of  France,  —  Orleans,  Bourges, 
Troyes,   Lyons,   Rouen,   and  Toulouse.      In  all> 


BARTHOLOMITES. 


218 


BASEL. 


about  thirty  thousand  persons  were  murdered. 
As  soon  a.=  the  news  was  received  in  Rome,  the 
cannons  of  St.  Augelo  were  fired,  a  solemn  Te 
Deum  was  sung,  and  the  Pope  struck  a  medal 
bearing  on  the  one  side  his  own  portrait,  and  on 
the  other  a  picture  rudely  representing  the  massa- 
cre. Roman-Catholic  writers  defend  the  Pope 
on  the  ground  of  ignorance  ;  but  it  took,  at  all 
events,  some  time  to  make  the  medals.  See 
CoLiGXY,  Huguenots. 

Lit.  —  Recent  works  :  IIe.vky  White  :  Tlic 
Massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew,  N.  Y.,  1868;  Hexry 
M.  B.\ird:  Rise  of  the  Huguenots  of  France,  N.Y., 
187S) ;  II.  AVi'ttke  :  Zur  Voryeschichte  der  Bar- 
iholomausnacht,  Leip.,  1879  ;  Herm.\xn  Baumg.\r- 
TEx;  \'or  (ler  Barlholomdusnacht,  Strassb.,  1882. 

BARTHOLOMITES.  — I.  In  1307  some  Basi- 
lian  monks  from  Arinenia  fled  from  their  native 
country  on  account  of  persecutions,  and  settled  in 
Genoa,  where  they  bought  a  liouse,  and  the  next 
year  erected  a  church  dedicated  to  St.  Bartholo- 
mew. They  were  joined  by  other  members  of 
their  order;  and  Clement  V.  authorized  them  to 
celebrate  divine  service  according  to  their  rites. 
Gradually,  however,  they  left  their  rules,  and  be- 
came incorporated  with  other  orders.  In  1650 
Innocent  X.  suppressed  the  order  altogether.  — 
II.  A  congregation  of  secular  priests,  founded  by 
Bartholomeus  Ilolzhauser  in  Salzburg  (1613-58) 
for  the  purpose  of  preaching  and  teaching.  In- 
nocent XI.  confirmed  their  constitution  in  1680; 
and  they  spread  rapidly  iu  Germany,  Switzer- 
land, Hungary,  and  Poland.  The  Emperor  Leo- 
pold, ordered  that  they  should  always  be  preferred 
to  vacant  benefices  in  his  hereditary  possessions. 
A  peculiarity  of  their  constitution  was  that  they 
never  worked  alone,  but  always  two  and  two  to- 
gether. In  spite  of  the  zeal  with  which  the  order 
started  into  life,  it  became  extinct  in  the  eigh- 
teenth ceutury. 

BARTOLI,  Daniel,  b.  at  Ferrara,  1608;  d.  in 
Rome.  1685;  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1623; 
was  a  distinguished  preacher  and  teacher  of  rhet- 
oric, and  wrote,  besides  other  works,  the  liistory 
of  liis  order,  htoria  delta  Conijtaf/nia  di.  Gesu,  in  6 
vols,  fob,  Rome,  1653-73,  of  which  especially 
the  parts  containing  the  hi.story  of  the  society  in 
Asia  are  rejilete  with  curious  infornuition.  Ilis 
collected  works  were  published  in  12  vols,  by 
Marietti,  Turin, 1825. 

BARTON,  Elizabeth,  a  servant-girl  .at  an  iini 
at  Aldiugtf)!!,  Kent,  accjuirod  a  reputation  iu  tlio 
neighborhood  as  a  proplietess ;  and  just  as  the 
excitement  produced  throughmit  all  Kngland  by 
the  attempts  of  Henry  VIII  to  obtain  a  divorce 
from  Catherine  was  at  its  liighest,  the  "Holy 
Maid  of  Kent,''  as  Klizabeth  was  generally  called, 
had  some  visions  which  plainly  revealed  the  di- 
vine displeasure  at  the  royal  plans  The  party 
of  the  queen,  especially  th<!  clergy,  was  not  slow- 
in  utilizing  this  inciilent.  The  chapel  of  .Vlding- 
ton  witnessed  very  strange  scenes,  and  the  Holy 
Maid  became  an  iinjiortant  argument.  Hut  in 
1533  the  king  brought  Elizabeth  and  her  chief 
supporters,  among  whom  were  five  luiesls,  before 
Parliament.  They  were  examined,  and  sentenced 
to  diath;  and  Elizabeth  was  belieaded  at  Tyburn, 
Ajiril  .Jl,  l.-)31. 

BA'RUCH  (Messed),  the  son  of  Neriah,  friend 
and  faithful  companion  of  tlie  propliet  Jeremiah, 


whose  secretary  (amanuensis)  he  was  (Jer.  xxxii. 
12,  xxxvi.  4,  17  sq.,  27,  32,  xiv.  1  sq.),  and  whose 
sufferings  he  shared.  See  Jeremiah.  Baruch 
was  accused  by  the  princes,  after  Nebuchadnez- 
zar's capture  of  Jerusalem,  of  influencing  Jere- 
miah in  favor  of  the  Chalda;ans  (Jer.  xliii.  3) ; 
accordingly  he  was  thrown  into  prison,  whence  he 
was  released  at  Jeremiah's  request  (Joseph.  Antlij. 
X.  9,  1).  He  accompanied  Jeremiah  into  Egypt 
(Jer.  xliii.  6).  Xothing  further  is  known  about 
his  fate. 

BA'RUCH,    Apocalypsis    of.      See    Psetjdepi- 

GRAPHS  OF  the  OlD  Te.STAMEXT. 

BA'RUCH,  Book  of.  See  Apocrypha  of  the 
Old  Testa.mext. 

BARZIL'LAI  (of  iron,  i.e.,  sfrone/)  of  Rogelim, 
in  the  land  of  Gilead,  gave  timely  material  aid 
to  King  David  when  lie  was  flying  from  Absa- 
lom ;  and  on  David's  victorious  return  he  re 
fused  the  offer  of  official  position  the  thankfui 
king  made  him,  and  recommended  his  son  Chim- 
ham  in  his  stead  (2  Sam.  xvii.  27-29,  xix.  33, 
37,  40).  David  remembered  the  family  of  Bar- 
zillai  upon  his  death-bed  (1  Kings  ii.  7),  and 
charged  Solomon  to  provide  for  them. 

BASCOM,  Henry  Bidleman,  b.  at  Hancock, 
N.  v.,  May  27,  1700 .  d.  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  Sept.  8, 
18.50;  began  to  preach  iu  1813;  was  appointed 
chaplain  to  Congress  in  1823,  president  of  Madi- 
son College,  Pennsylvania,  1827,  jirofessor  of 
morals  in  Augusta  College,  1832,  president  of 
Transylvania  University,  1842,  and  bishop  of  the 
Methodist-Episcopal  Church  .South  in  1850.  He 
edited  the  Qnarlerli/  lierietr  of  the  Methodist- 
Episcopal  Church  from  1846  to  1850;  published 
two  volumes  of  sermons,  1849-50,  and  lectures 
on  "  Infidelity,"  "Moral  Science,"  etc.  His  col- 
lected works  appeared  at  Nashville,  1856,  in  four 
volumes.  His  life  was  written  by  Dr.  Henkle, 
Nashville,  1854 

BASEDOW,  Johannes  Bernhard,  b.  in  Ham- 
burg, .Sept.  11,  1723;  d.  at  Magdeburg  .Inly  25, 
1790;  studied  theology  at  Leipzig;  was  tutor  to 
a  noble  family  in  Holstein,  1749-53;  professor  at 
the  Academy  of  .Soro  in  Denmark,  1753-61,  and 
professor  at  the  gymnasium  in  .Mtona,  1761-68. 
While  in  Altona,  he  published  a  number  of  theo- 
logical works,  —  l'liil(dethiii,  Theorelisrhes  S;/stem 
der  (/esunden  Vernunft,  \'ersiirh  einer  fniniiilhif/en 
Doymatik,  etc.,  — which  belong  among  thi^  flattest 
and  coarsest,  but  also  among  the  most  amusing, 
specimens  of  German  rationalism.  By  Rous- 
seau's Eniite  he  was  drawn  away  from  theology, 
and  in  1768  he  set  out  to  beconu>  the  Columbus 
of  pedagogy;  .and  tiiough  in  this  field,  too,  he 
gave  ample  evidence  that  lie  was  personally  a 
mere  charl.atan,  he  had  some  good  ideas,  and  gave 
the  first  impulse  to  a  most  necessary  educational 
reform.  The  character,  however,  of  Hat  and  ooarse 
rationalism,  never  left  him,  and  marred  his  peda- 
gogical sj^sti'in  in  all  its  details. 

BASEL,  Confession  of.  The  Confession  of 
Ba.sel  was  first  fornnilated  by  (Eoolampadius  .as 
[lartof  a  speech  with  which  he  opened  the  synod 
of  Basel  in  September,  1531.  After  his  death  it 
was  further  elaborated  by  iMyconius,  and  jiromul- 
gated  Jan.  21,  1531,  when  all  citizens  wen'  sum- 
moned to  meet  in  the  guildhonsi's,  and  hear  it, 
and  declare  whether  tliey  were  prepared  to  accept 
it.  and  stake  honor,  property,  and  body  on  iU 


BASEL. 


219 


BASEL. 


deEcMice.  It  is  simple  and  moderate,  occupying 
ail  intermediate  position  between  Lutlier  and 
Zwiiigli.  Tlie  first  Helvetic  Confession  is  often 
called  the  Second  Confession  of  Basel,  because  it 
was  written  in,  not  for,  Basel.  See  Sciiaff  : 
Cri'iils  iif  Cliristtiudom,  vol.  I.  385  S(l(]. 

BASEL,  Council  of,  Au?.  27,  1431-May  7, 
1449.  'I'lie  Pope,  Martin  V.,  bad  succeeded  in 
dissolving  the  Council  of  Siena  (July  2,  1423- 
Marcb  7,  1424)  Viefore  it  had  got  fairly  to  work. 
Ill  s]iite  of  this  disappoiiitinent.  the  dctnaiid  for 
a  new  council  convened  outside  of  Italy  became 
louder  and  louder,  especially  at  the  courts  and  in 
the  universities;  and  political  troubles  finally 
deteriniiied  Martin  V.  to  Lssue  a  bull  convoking 
an  ecumenical  council  at  Basel.  He  died  shortly 
after:  but  his  successor,  Eugene  IV'.,  was  com- 
pelled to  confirm  the  bull;  .and  Aug.  27,  1431, 
the  council  was  opened  by  Johannes  Paloniar  and 
Johannes  of  Ragnsa.  So  little  confidence,  how- 
ever, had  people  in  the  sincerity  of  the  papal 
government,  that  only  a  very  small  number  of 
prelates  accepted  the  invitation ;  and  it  was  not 
until  Cardinal  Cesarini  had  arrived,  accompanied 
by  Nicolaus  Cusanus,  and  the  Roman  king,  Sigis- 
niund,  sent  a  protector  in  the  name  of  the  realm, 
that  the  interest  became  serious  and  general. 
The  order  of  business  on  which  the  assembly 
■agreed  Sept.  26,  1431,  was  good.  The  old  group- 
ing of  the  members  according  to  nationality  was 
di.scarded  ;  and  four  committees  were  formed,  on 
matters  of  faith,  political  affairs,  ecclesiastical 
reforms,  and  general  business.  These  committees 
<liscussed  separately;  and  the  agreement  of  three 
of  them  was  necessary  to  bring  a  question  before 
a  general  session,  over  which  Cardinal  Cesarini 
presided,  and  make  it  a  decree  of  the  council. 
As  soon,  however,  as  the  assembly  was  fairly 
constituted,  and  began  to  work,  the  papal  govern- 
ment felt  that  it  was  a  power,  and  a  hostile  power. 
'J'he  Pope  was  afraid,  and  Dec.  IS,  1431,  he  sent 
-a  bull  to  Cardinal  Cesarini  dissolving  the  assem- 
bly. The  Council  protested,  declaring  that  the 
Pope  had  no  power  to  do  such  a  thing.  April  29, 
1432,  the  Pope  and  his  cardinals  were  invited  to 
come  to  the  council.  Sept.  6,  when  they  had  not 
come,  a  process  was  instituted  against  them  for 
contumacy  ;  and  the  deposition  of  Eugene  IV. 
would  probably  have  followed  very  quickly,  but 
for  the  mediation  of  the  Emperor  Sigismund,  who 
had  arrived  at  Basel  on  Oct.  11. 

'  The  three  great  questions  which  the  Council 
had  to  solve  were  the  Bohemian  here.sy,  the 
ecclesiastical  reform,  and  the  reconciliation  be- 
tween the  Greek  and  tke  Rotnan  churches.  Jan. 
4,  1433,  Procopius,  Rokyczana,  etc.,  rode  into 
Basel ;  and  their  proud  and  fierce  mien  overawed 
not  only  the  council,  but  the  city  itself.  By  the 
unexpected  affability  and  blandness  of  the  cardi- 
nals, a  kind  of  reconciliation  was  brought  about. 
The  use  of  the  cup  in  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  was  granted.  With  respect  to  the  ques- 
tion of  ecclesiastical  reform,  the  cardinals  were 
not  so  ready  to  make  concessions.  But  it  mu.st 
not  be  overlooked,  that  the  measures  which  the 
Council  proposed  June,  143.5,  were  dictated  by 
hatred  to  the  curia,  rather  than  by  enthusiasm  for 
the  church.  The  concubinate  of  the  priests,  the 
abuses  which  prevailed  in  the  monasteries,  the 
abolition  of  the  frivolous  dramatic  representations 


in  the  churches,  and  other  questions  of  a  purely 
moral  bearing,  were  evidently  not  treated  with 
the  same  zeal  as  those  rfdating  to  the  financial 
and  political  position  of  the  Pope  and  the  curia, 
—  the  annates,  the  pallium-iiioney,  the  tax  on  the 
papal  (■(Jiifirmation  (jf  ecclesiastical  promotion, 
tiu'  judicial  authority  (if  th<'  Pope,  etc.  The  Pope, 
the  cardinals,  and  the  whole  army  of  officials 
which  liveil  in  Rome  on  revenues  derived  in  this 
way,  felt  tlieir  very  existence  threatened,  and 
ottered  the  most  determined  resistance.  Finally 
the  question  of  the  union  of  the  (In^ek  and  Roman 
Church  brought  about  a  complete  breach.  John 
Palaaologus  had  addressed  himself  to  both  the 
Pope  and  to  the  Council,  aiul  both  wished  to  treat 
the  case  separately  and  independently.  Political 
interests  of  considerable  importance  were  mixed 
up  with  the  question;  and  the  passions  at  last 
grew  so  hot,  that  in  the  session  of  March  7,  1437, 
the  fathers  of  the  council  were  prevented  from 
coming  to  blows  only  by  the  interference  of  the 
burghers  of  the  city.  Cardinal  Cesarini  and  the 
whole  papal  party  now  left  the  assembly,  which 
from  this  moment  fell  under  the  sway  of  Cardinal 
Louis  d'AUemand,  Archbishop  of  Aries,  —  one  of 
Rome's  bitterest  enemies,  —  and  became  more 
and  more  democratic  and  tumultuous. 

In  July,  1437,  the  process  against  Eugene  IV. 
was  re-opened.  Jan.  24,  1438,  he  was  suspended, 
and  June  25,  1439,  he  was  deposed.  Nov.  5, 
same  year,  his  successor  was  elected,  Felix  V., 
who  took  up  his  residence  at  Lausanne.  The  dif- 
ficulty, however,  was  to  enforce  these  acts.  Eu- 
gene IV.,  who  designated  the  Fathers  assembled 
at  Basel  as  a  band  belonging  to  Satan,  convened 
a  counter-council  at  Ferrara,  at  which  the  Em- 
peror and  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  were 
present.  In  France,  the  synod  of  Bourges  (1438) 
incorporated  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Basel 
with  the  laws  of  the  kingdom,  the  .so-called  prag- 
matical sanction ;  but  the  King  himself,  Charles 
VII.,  still  acknowledged  Eugene  IV.  as  the  true 
successor  of  Peter.  Germany  followed  in  the 
same  track,  though  without  binding  itself  by 
any  formal  acknowledgment  of  either  the  Council 
of  Basel  or  Eugene  IV.  Felix  V.  was  not  recog- 
nized by  any  but  the  Swiss,  and  the  Duke  of  Ba- 
varia. His  overtures  to  Friedrich  III.  entirely 
failed  In  course  of  time  it  became  apparent 
that  the  contest  between  the  Council  and  the  Pope 
would  be  decided  by  Germany;  and  Eugene  IV. 
proved  to  be  a  better  diplomate  than  the  Fathers 
at  Basel.  He  bribed  the  chancellor  of  the  empire, 
Schlick,  and  the  secretary,  .Sneas  Sylvius,  and 
on  Feb.  7,  1447,  Germany  declared  for  Eugene. 
Rome  was  victorious.  Felix  V.  resigned;  and, 
when  Eugene  IV.  shortly  after  died,  the  Council 
recognized  his  successor  Nicolas  V. ,  and  decreed 
its  own  dissolution,  April  25,  1449,  thereby  mak- 
ing it  almost  evident  that  a  reform  of  the  church 
in  the  way  of  peaceable  development  was  an  im- 
possibility. 

Lit.  — ..Eneas  Sylvius:  Comm.de  Gest.  Concil. 
Basil,  written  in  1440,  and  first  published  in  1.521, 
afterward  often  ;  Mansi  :  Concil.  Culleclio,  Tom. 
XXIX. -XXXI. ;  Wessexbekg  :  Diegrossen  Kirch- 
enversammlungen  des  15  u/ul  16  Jahrhundert,  vol. 
II.;  Hefele  :  Concilien-geschiclilc,  vol.  VII. 
AscHBACU  :  Kaiser  Sigmund,  Hamburg,  1845; 
G.  VoiGT  :  -"'iw  //.,  Berlin,  ISotJ.      a-  VOICjt 


BASHAN. 


220 


BASIL. 


BA'SHAN  (the  fruilful),  the  country  of  the 
Rephaim,  giants  (Gen.  xiv.  5),  and  of  Og  the 
Amorite.  who  opposed  Israel,  but  was  defeated 
and  slain  (Num.  xxi.  33,  xxxii.  33). 

Hixlori/.  —  It  was  the  northern  part  of  the  East 
Jordan  country:  and  it  extended  from  "the  bor- 
der of  Gilead"  (i.e.,  the  Jabbok)  on  the  south, 
to  Jlount  Hernion  on  the  north,  and  from  the 
Arabah,  or  Jordan  Valley,  on  the  west,  to  .Salchah 
ainl  the  borders  of  the  Geshurites  and  the 
Mllicathites  on  the  east.  It  was  assigned  to  the 
half-tribe  of  JIanasseh  together  with  half  of 
Gilead.  The  cities  are  described  by  Moses  as 
'•fenced  with  high  walls,  gates,  and  bars" 
(Dent.  iii.  5).  The  land  seems  to  have  been 
thickly  populated  and  highly  cultivated.  In 
Jehu's  time  Ilazael  robbed  Israel  of  their  East 
Jordan  possessions  (2  Kings  x.  33) ;  but  in  Jero- 
boam II. 's  time  they  were  regained  (2  Kings  xiv. 
2.5).  Pul  and  Tiglath-pileser  successively  over- 
ran the  country,  and  the  latter  carried  its  inhab- 
itants, with  those  of  West  Joi'danic  Israel,  into 
captivity  (2  Kings  xv.  19,  29).  From  this  time, 
Syrian  and  Arabian  tribes  have  populated 
Bashan.  In  the  confusion  consequent  upon  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  (Jreat,  IJashan,  or,  as  it 
is  almost  always  called  in  Helirew,  the  Bashan, 
suffered  severelj';  for  its  possession  was  an  object 
of  continual  contest.  "  Idumajan  princes,  Na- 
bathean  kings,  .-Vrab  chiefs,  ruled  in  their  turn." 
It  was  divided  into  four  provinces,  —  Gaulanitis 
(^Jaulan).  Auranitis  (Hainan),  Trachonitis  (Lr- 
jah).  and  Batana?a  {Bnshan).  -Augustus  gave 
the  three  last  provinces  to  Herod  the  Great  about 
B.C.  20  (Joseph.,  Aniiq.  xv.  10,  1).  and  they 
passed  to  his  son  Philip;  later  Herod  Agrippa 
II.  received  from  Claudius  this  territory,  and 
Abilene  beside  (.Vntiq.  xx.  7,  1).  A  new  era 
opened  for  the  country,  when,  about  the  second 
Christian  century,  the  region  of  Yemen  (South 
Arabia)  being  overpeopled,  several  tribes  sent 
out  colonies  to  the  Bashan.  Tliese  were  wel- 
comed by  the  Romans,  because  they  were  orderly 
and  sedentary  ;  and  they  formed  a  barrier  against 
robber  tribes.  It  is  said  that  these  colonists  wei'e 
Christians.  But  after  the  first  colonists  (Seli- 
hides)  came  others,  al.so  Christians  (Jefnides  or 
Ghassanides) ;  and  the  latter  dispossessed  the 
former,  and  for  nearly  five  centuries  were  tlie 
ruling  race;  but  at  length,  not  being  properly 
supported  by  the  Greeks,  they  succumbed  to  the 
horde  of  Mohammedan  Arans  in  the  year  037. 
The  former  prosjierity  has  never  returned. 

The  Land.  —  Its  productiveness  was  remarka- 
ble, and  is  mentioned  frequently  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament (Ps.  xxii.  12,  ii.  13;  ,Jer.  1.  19).  The 
western  part  to-day  retains  its  fertility.  On  the 
east  rise  the  beautiful  Hauran  Mountains  to  a 
height  of  six  thousand  feet.  The  soil  of  the 
western  part  is  chalky ;  and  the  evergreen  oaks, 
figs,  and  [listacio-trees,  and  the  luxuriant  grass, 
continue  to  attest  its  richness.  In  the  Hauran 
the  soil  is  basalt  and  lava,  but  equally  rich.  The 
climate  of  the  talile-land  of  the  Hauran,  lying 
upwards  of  two  tliousand  feet  above  sea-level,  is 
very  healthy;  and  in  the  afternoon  the  heat  is 
temjiereil  by  a  refresliing  west  wind.  The  semi- 
transparent  wheat  is  here  said  to  yield  eighty- 
fold,  and  barley  a  hundred;  but  drouglit  or  locusts 
occasionally  destroy  the  crop.     Rye,  barley,  and 


oats  frequently  are  found  growing  wild;  but  they 
are  quite  diffi-rcnl  from  the  cultivated  varieties. 
No  trees  grow  on  the  table-land.  There  are  no- 
meadows.  The  cattle  are  fed  on  barley.  —  [The 
Hauran  in  the  wider  sense  is  now  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Wady-el-Ajrm,  belonging  to 
Damascus,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Belka  and 
the  steppe  of  Hamad.  Toward  the  north-east, 
and  beyond  the  "  Meadow  Lakes,"'  extends  a 
remarkable  district,  consisting  of  a  series  of 
extinct  craters,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  the 
Safa,  a  long  and  broad  lava  I'ange,  with  the  ruins 
of  the  "White  Castle."  To  the  south  and  east 
of  this  lies  the  Harras.  an  undulating  plain  en- 
tirely covered  with  fragments  of  lav.a,  —  a  dreary 
wilderness.]  Ancient  Bashan  had  two  capital 
cities,  Astaroth  or  Ashteroth.  Karnaim,  and  Edrei 
(Gen.  xiv.  .5;  Num.  xxi.  33;  Deut.  i.  4,  etc.). 
Edrei  has  been  identified  with  Der'at,  which  is 
even  now  well  filled  and  walled  (during  the 
Christian  period  it  was  the  .seat  of  a  bishop)  ; 
and  Ashtai'oth  with  Busroh,  the  Bostra  of  the 
Latins. 

The  A  nliijuities  and  Modern  Inhahilants.  —  It  is 
when  we  contemplate  Bashan  as  a  land  of  ruins, 
and  study  these  remains,  that  the  unique  charac- 
ter of  this  land  comes  out.  There  are  houses, 
not  improbably  many  centuries  old,  uninhabited, 
and  yet  as  perfect  as  when  made.  There  every 
thing  is  of  stone:  doors,  gates,  windows,  stairs, 
galleries,  cupiboai'ds,  benches,  even  candlesticks, 
—  all  are  stone.  The  reason  for  this  curious 
state  of  things  is  the  entire  absence  of  wood. 
Nor  are  these  buildings  all  defective  in  taste. 
On  the  contrary,  many  of  the  linildings  are  really 
fine;  e.g.,  at  Kanawat  there  are  many  sculp- 
tures and  beautiful  houses,  and  above  all  a  little 
(ruined)  temple,  standing  on  an  eminence  in  the 
middle  of  a  small  valley,  .and  surrounded  by 
vegetation.  But  besides  it  there  is  a  theatre,  a 
tower,  and  other  public  and  private  buildings. 
Ruins  lie  scattered  in  every  direction,  attesting 
the  present  distress  and  the  former  grandeur. 
Many  travellers  would  visit  this  interesting  re- 
gion, if  it  were  not  for  the  perpetual  feuds  of  the- 
different  tribes,  which  renders  travelling  unsafe. 
For  several  centuries,  the  Druses  have  colonized 
the  Hauran  Mountains,  so  that  the  district  is 
sometimes  called  the  Druse  Mountains. 

Lit.  —  PouTHK  :  Fire  IVdr.v  in  Damascus,  Lon- 
don, 1855,  and  (Jianl  Cities  of'  Jlashan,  and  Si/ria's 
JIo/i/  Places,  London,  1800;  Wkt/.stkin  :  /leise- 
hcriclit  iiher  den  Hauran  u.  die  Trachonen.  Berlin, 
1800;  BruroN  .\Ni)  Drakk  :  Unexplored  Si/ria,. 
London,  1H72.  Fll.  \V.  8CHULTZ. 

BASIL,  a  physician,  was  jilaced  in  the  episco- 
pal cliair  of  Ancyra  by  the  Eusebian  jiarty,  336, 
and  vindicated  himself  in  the  see,  though  his- 
ordination  was  annulled  by  tlie  Council  of  Sar- 
dica,  347.  He  was  thi'  he;id  of  the  Semi-arian 
party,  and  defended  the  views  of  the  party  against 
both  the  Eudoxians  an<i  the  Acacians,  but  was 
finally  deposed  by  the  Arians  in  300.  His  book 
against  Marcellus,  as  well  as  another  work  by 
him,  De  ]'iriiinilale,  have  been  lost. 

BASIL,  liishopof  .Seleucia  in  Isauria,  voted  in 
the  Eutychian  controversy  against  Eutyches  at 
the  .synoil  of  ('onstantino|i|e  (448),  but  for  him, 
at  the  Robbers'  synod  of  Ephesus  (449),  and  was, 
on  account  of  this  inconsistency,  deposed  by  the- 


BASIL. 


221 


BASILIANS. 


syiKxl  of  Clialcfdon  (451),  but  was  re-instated 
when  he  ilcchiriil  that  he  had  votml  iiinler  com- 
jnilsiou  at  Kjihesns.  Forty  homilies  liy  him,  and 
a  worlc  on  St.  Thecla  (prolialily  simrious),  are 
extant,  and  have  been  printed  at  lleidelljerg, 
l.jOli  and  ICO."),  an.l  in  I'ari.s,  l(iL'2. 

BASIL  THE  GREAT,  li.  at  (\-csarea  in  Cappa- 
docia,  about  330,  d.  tliere  Jan.  1,  370,  stands 
l)etvveen  his  older  friend,  Grejjory  Nazianzen,  and 
his  yoimger  brother,  (iregory  of  Nyssa,  as  tlie 
central  leaflet  of  that  Cappadocian  triple-clover 
which  marks  the  final  completion  and  consolida- 
tion of  tlie  theology  of  the  (ireek  C'hurcli.  Me 
grew  up  at  Annesi,  an  estate  belonging  to  tlie 
family,  situated  on  the  River  Iris  in  Pontus. 
Afterwards  he  stndied  philosophy  and  rhetoric 
luider  Lilianius  in  Constantinople,  and  under 
Hinierius  in  Atliens,  in  coin])an3'  with  Gregory 
Nazianzen  and  Emperor  Julian.  Tlie  alterna- 
tive wdiich  at  that  period  presented  itself  to 
every  strong  and  sincere  mind  in  the  higher  walks 
of  life,  the  clioice  between  Greek  philosophy, 
with  its  a;sthetic  splendor,  with  its  opportuni- 
ties for  a  brilliant  career,  with  its  utter  insuffi- 
ciency for  a  hungering  soul,  and  Christian  asceti- 
cism, with  its  daily  combats,  and  a  victory  which 
nobody  saw,  with  its  perpetual  misery,  and  a 
peace  and  power  which  found  only  a  little  private 
praise,  but  no  public  recognition,  —  tliis  dilemma, 
on  which  the  pjiiiperor  Julian  wrecked  his  life, 
seems  to  have  solved  itself  very  quickly  for  Basil. 
He  admired  Libanius,  and  he  admired  Antonius ; 
but  lie  never  seems  to  have  hesitated  in  choosing 
the  latter.  In  357  he  left  Athens,  and  staid  for 
some  time  at  Annesi,  where  his  widowed  mother 
and  his  elder  sister,  Macrina,  lived  a  life  of 
severe  asceticism.  At  this  period  he  probably 
received  the  Christian  baptism.  He  then  set  out 
■on  a  visit  to  the  most  famous  hermits  of  Syria, 
Palestine,  and  Egypt;  and  on  his  return  home  he 
divided  his  property  among  the  poor,  retired  to  a 
wild  mountain  tract  on  the  Iris,  opposite  Annesi, 
formed  a  little  community  of  hermits,  and  gave 
this  community  its  rules  of  life.  The  organiza- 
tion of  monasticism  had  already  begun  in  these 
regions,  under  the  leadership  of  Eustathius  of 
Sebaste,  a  friend  of  Basil ;  but  here,  as  in  so 
many  other  points,  the  latter  sliowed  himself  a 
man  who  held  all  the  instincts  of  his  age  living 
in  his  own  bosom.  His  rules  were  so  exactly  that 
which  was  wanted,  that  eventually  they  alone 
reigned  througliout  the  Greek  Church.  As  yet 
his  interest  for  dogmatic  questions  .seems  to  have 
been  slumbering.  He  was  present  in  Constanti- 
nople in  360,  and  heard  the  debates  between 
Eustathius  and  Eunomius;  but  he  listened  only. 
Gradually,  however,  he  emerged  from  that  great 
middle  party,  to  wliich  he  originally  belonged, 
the  Homoiousians,  standing  midways  between 
Arianism  and  Orthodoxy ;  and  it  afterwards 
became  his  great  task  to  draw  this  great  but 
somewhat  inert  mass  over  to  the  Orthodox  side. 
In  364  he  was  called  to  active  participation  in 
the  work  of  tlie  Church,  and  ordained  presbyter 
of  Caesarea  by  Bishop  Eusebius;  and  .so  great 
was  his  practical  talent,  tliat  in  a  very  sliort 
time  he  became  the  real  leader  of  the  whole  con- 
gregation. After  the  death  of  Eusebius  (370),  lie 
was  elected  bishop,  though  not  without  opposi- 
tion.    The  first  great  task  which  devolved  upon 


liim  was  the  sui>pression  of  Arianism.  On  his 
procession  through  Asia  Minor,  the  Emperor 
Valens  enforced  Arianism  wlierever  he  came. 
\V'lien  he  arrived  in  Capjiadocia,  however,  Basil 
made  such  an  impression  upon  him,  that  not  only 
was  no  violence  attempted,  but  the  bi.shop  was 
allowed  to  remain  unmolested  in  his  office.  The 
seconil  great  problem  of  his  life  was  the  recon- 
ciliation between  the  Greek  and  Roman  cliurches. 
Many  agencies  had  been  at  work  in  producing 
the  breach;  and  fresh  elements  of  discord  were 
added  every  day.  Just  now  it  was  the  question 
of  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  concerning 
wliicli  IJasil  wrote  one  of  his  princijial  works, 
De  Spiritu  Siiiifia  Am/ihilochnim.  Nor  did  lie  live 
to  see  the  question  .settled.  At  the  same  time  he 
had  his  hands  full  with  controversies  nearer  at 
home,  especially  with  Eunomius,  against  whom 
he  wrote  his  celebrated  Libri  wlri'rsu.f  Eummiium 
V.  His  position  was  so  difficult,  tliat  when,  in 
one  of  the  last  years  of  his  life,  he  went  to  visit 
his  brother  Petrus,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Neo-cse- 
sarea  in  Poiitus,  tlie  residence  of  Atarbius.  tlie 
whole  city  was  in  commotion  on  account  of  his 
presence. 

Lit.  ^  The  works  of  Basil,  dogmatical,  exe- 
getical,  liturgical,  ascetic,  and  a  number  of  very 
interesting  letters,  were  first  printed  in  Basel, 
1532.  The  best  edition  is  that  by  ,1.  Garnier, 
Paris,  1721-30,  3  vols,  folio,  reprinted  liy  Migue. 
With  respect  to  his  life,  see  the  eulogies  by 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  and 
Ephraim  Syrus ;  A.  Jahn:  Btisilius  Plotinizans, 
Bern,  1838;  DiiRGENS  :  Basilius  und  die  classischeii 
Studien,  Leipzig,  1857;  Euo.  Fialon:  Elude 
hist,  et  tin.  sur  St.  Basile,  Paris,  1866;  R.  F. 
Smith  :  Basil  ("  The  Fathers  for  English  Read- 
ers," S.  P.  C.  K.  Soc),  London,  1881.  See  also 
Schaff:   Church  Iliston/,  III.  894. 

BASILIANS.  What  Benedict  of  Nursia  after- 
wards became  for  the  Western  Church,  Basil  was 
for  the  Eastern  Church,  —  the  organizer  of  the 
monastic"  life.  Monasticism  was  well  known  in 
Asia  Alinor  at  the  time  of  Basil ;  in  Poutus  and 
Cappadocia  it  had  been  introduced  by  Eustathius 
of  Sebaste ;  but  in  the  form  of  cenobitism  it  was 
entirely  unknown.  This  progress  in  its  develop- 
ment it  owed  entirely  to  Basil.  He  understood 
that  most  of  the  graces  of  Christianity  are  im- 
possible ill  a  solitary  life;  for  "  whose  feet  wilt 
thou  wash,  whom  wilt  thou  serve,  how  canst  thou 
be  the  last  of  all,  when  thou  art  alone?  "  Going 
out  from  this  principle,  he  founded  in  the  middle 
of  tlie  fourth  century  the  first  monastic  commu- 
nity on  the  Iris  in  Pontus,  opposite  his  home, 
Amiesi.  The  rules  which  he  gave  this  community 
connected  active  industry  and  devotional  exer- 
cises ill  regular  successions,  day  and  night,  — 
one  meal  a  day,  consisting  of  bread  and  water; 
very  little  sleep  during  the  hours  before  mid- 
night; prayers  and  singing,  morning,  noon,  and 
evening;  work  in  the  field  during  forenoon  and 
afternoon,  etc.  These  rules  were  further  devel- 
oped and  completed  by  his  ascetical  writings. 
The  institution  prospered;  and  similar  institutions 
sprang  up,  in  extremely  short  time,  in  other  places 
of  Pontus  and  Cappadocia,  whence  tliey  spread  far 
into  Westeru  Europe.  After  the  separation  be- 
tween the  Eastern  and  'Western  churches,  Basil's 
rules  became  almost  the  exclusive  regulation  of 


BASILICA. 


BATH. 


monastic  life  in  the  Eastern  Church  :  so  that  a 
"  Basilian  "  simply  nieans  a  monk  of  the  Greek 
Church.  In  the  Western  Church  the  rules  of 
Basil  were  afterwards  completely  superseded  by 
those  of  Benedict  of  Xursia.  Nevertheless,  Ba- 
silian  monasteries,  acknowledging  the  supremacy 
of  the  Pope,  are  still  lingering  in  Sicily  and  in 
the  .Slavonian  countries. 

BASILICA.     See  Architf-cture,  Christian'. 

BASILIDES,  a  famous  Gnostic  who  lived  in 
Egypt  in  tlie  first  half  of  the  second  century  (d. 
between  12.5  and  130),  and  to  whom  we  are  in- 
debted for  the  oldest  testimony  to  the  Gospel  of 
John.  He  quoted  the  passages,  "  The  true  light, 
■which  enlighteneth  every  m.an.  was  coming  into 
the  world,"  and  ''My  hour  is  not  yet  come." 
See  .\bbot,  Authorship  nf  the  Fourth  Gospel,  pp. 
83-87.  Of  his  works,  and  those  of  his  son  and 
pupil  Isidorus,  only  a  few  extracts  have  come 
down  to  us  in  the  Phuosophoumena  of  nip)polytns. 
VII.,  1-i  sq.,  and  in  the  disputations  between 
Archelaus  of  Kaskar  and  Maui,  written  in  Egypt 
in  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  (Z.\cag- 
NUS  :  Colled.  Monument.  Veter.).  Of  his  system 
there  are  two  contradictory  accounts, — one  by 
Irenseus,  Adv.  Heer.,  I.  24,  and  Epiphanius,  If(er. 
21  ;  and  another  by  Hippolytus  and  Clemens 
Alexandrinus  in  his  Stromata.  .The  former  bases 
the  system  on  a  dualistic  principle,  —  even  on  a 
very  strongly  pronounced  Persian-looking  dual- 
ism :  the  latter  describes  it  as  monistic,  with  a 
preponderance  of  Greek,  more  especially  Stoic 
elements,  and  with  a  tint  of  pantheism.  The 
latter  agrees  best  with  tke  fragments,  and  is  the 
generally  accepted  one  ;  though  the  former  corre- 
sponds well  with  the  sect  such  as  it  lived  on  in 
Egypt  until  the  fifth  century,  with  its  frivolous 
morals,  its  inclination  to  magic,  its  Abraxas- 
symbols,  etc.  See  the  article  Gnosticism,  and 
Baur  :  Die  chri.^tliche  Gnosis,  Tiibingen,  1831 ; 
Jakobi  :  Ba.<:ilides,  Berlin,  1832;  Uhlhorn:  Sys- 
tem d.  BcLtilides,  1855;  P.  IIofstede  de  Groot  : 
Basilides,  Leipzig,  1868.     See  Gnosticism. 

BASNAGE,  Benjamin,  b.  at  Carentan,  1580;  d. 
1652;  pastor  at  Carentan,  Normandy;  played  a 
conspicuous  part  in  the  synods  of  Charenton 
(1631),  -Men^on  (1637),  etc.,  and  exercised  a  con- 
siderable influence  on  the  Protestant  Church  of 
France.  Among  other  polenncal  tracts  he  wrote, 
De  I' Etal  risihlc  et  invisiUc  de  I' Erjli.'ie,  La  Kochelle, 
1612,  against  the  doctrine  of  a  purgatory.  — 
Jacques  Basnage,  b.  at  llouen,  1653;  d.  at  the 
Hague,  Dec.  22,  1723 ;  studied  theology  at  .Sau- 
mur,  Geneva,  and  .Sedan ;  was  pastor  at  Rouen ; 
retired  in  1085  to  Holland,  and  was  pastor  first  at 
Rotterdam,  and  then,  since  1700,  at  the  Hague. 
He  was  a  powerful  i>re.icher,  and  published,  wlien 
in  1720  a  Protestant  rising  was  feared  in  France, 
a  most  impressive  admonition  to  his  co-religion- 
ists, In.ttruction  Pastorale,  to  keep  quiet,  and  avoid 
all  disturbances.  Still  greater  fame  he  acquircMl 
as  adipioinate.  He  sat  in  the  conference  of  (ier- 
truydenberg;  and  when,  in  1716,  the  Regent  of 
France,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  sent  Abbe  Dubois 
to  Holland  to  negotiate  the  triple  alliance,  he 
instructed  him  to  seek  and  follow  the  advice  of 
Basnage.  To  the  after-world,  however,  he  is  jirin- 
cipally  known  as  a  scholar  and  an  author.  His 
writings  are  partly  historical,  partly  jjolemical. 
He  was  historiographer  of  Holland,  and  wrote, 


Annales  des  Prorinces-Uniis,  2  vols,  fol.,  the 
Hague,  1719-26.  an  excellent  work.  But  his 
principal  works  in  this  line  are :  Hisloire  de  la 
Religion  des  Er/lises  lic'f'ormc'es,  Rotterdam,  1690  ; 
Histoire  de  I'Eglise  depuis  J.  C.  jiusiju'cl  present, 
Rotterdam,  1699 ;  Hiistoire  des  Juifs  depuis  J.  C. 
jusqu'a  present,  Rotterdam,  1706.  Noticeable 
among  his  piolemical  writings  are,  Examen  des 
Me'thodes  .  .  .  du^Clerge'  de  Prance,  Cologne,  H)S2; 
Reponse  a  M.  I'Eceque  de  Meau.r,  Cologne,  1686; 
directed  against  Bossuet.  —  Samuel  Basnage,  b. 
at  Bayeux,  1638;  d.  as  pastor  at  Ziitphen,  1721; 
was  first  j^astor  at  Baj'eux,  but  fled  in  1685  to 
Holland.  His  E.cercitationes  Historico-Crlticie  de 
Reims  Sacris  el  Ecclesiasticit,  Utrecht  (1692),  is  a 
spirited  criticism  of  the  .\nnals  of  Baronius  from 
35,  at  which  year  Casaubon  stopped,  to  H.  He 
also  wrote  other  historical  and  moral  works.  He 
was  the  grand.son  of  Benjamin  Basnage. 

BASTHOLM,  Christian,  b.  in  Copenh.agen,  Nov. 
2,  17-10;  d.  there  Jan.  2.5,  1819;  was  court-preach- 
er, confessor  to  the  king,  the  most  admired  orator 
of  his  time,  and  the  most  striking  instance  of 
rationalism  in  the  history  of  the  Danish  Church ; 
gifted,  versatile,  superficial,  the  rage  of  the  day, 
and  a  scarecrow  for  afterdays.  He  rose  and  fell 
with  the  times.  In  1775  he  published  a  Sacred 
Rhetoric,  which  was  transhxted  into  German,  and 
by  Joseph  H.  introduced  as  a  text-book  in  all 
Austrian  seminaries,  and  in  which  he  gave  very 
minute  advice  with  respect  to  the  raising  of  the 
eyes,  the  folding  of  the  hands,  etc.,  and  especially 
warned  preachers  against  chewing  tobacco,  be- 
cause it  might  cause  them  "  to  spit  in  their  hear- 
ers' faces."  In  1785  he  published  a  Liturgical 
ImproremenI,  which  occasioned  an  endless  and 
bitter  controversy  in  Denmark,  and  in  which  he 
proposed  to  make  the  service  elegant,  diversified, 
and  interesting,  "like  concerts  and  balls."  In 
1795  he  published  a  Short  .Iddre.is  to  Clergj/men, 
in  which  he  exhorted  them  to  study  natural  his- 
tory and  political  economy,  and  to  preach  about 
poultry-farming,  .stall-feeding,  fruit-raising,  etc. 
In  1805  he  i-etired  into  private  life,  studied  natu- 
al  science  and  stoical  philosophy,  and  died  wholly 
forgotten.  CLEMENS  PETERSEN. 

BATES,  William,  b.  in  1625;  d.  in  1699;  stud- 
ied at  the  University  of  Cambridge,  ami  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  Charles  II.,  though  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Conference  of  Savoy  for 
reviewing  the  liturgy,  and  was  engaged  in  the 
drawing-up  of  the  exceptions  to  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer.  He  afterwards  became  minis- 
ter of  St.  Dunstan's  in  the  West,  but  lost  the 
benefice  for  nonconformity.  He  wrote.  Select 
Lices  of  Illustrious  and  Pious  Persons ;  Harmony 
of  the  Dioine  Atlrihules,  etc.  His  collected  works, 
with  a  memoir  by  Farmer,  appeared  in  -1  vols,  in 
London,  1815. 

BATH.  1.  Among  Hebrews.  —  Bathing  in  the 
Orient  is  a  necessity,  because  of  the  heat  and 
the  dust,  and  tlu;  likelihood  of  skin-dise.ases,  and 
was  almost  daily  practised  by  the  Jews.  It  was 
enjoined  by  the  Mosaic  law  in  certain  cases  of 
Levitieal  uiicleanncss  (Lev.  xiv.  S,  xv.  5,  xvii.  (!, 
xxii.  (i;  Xum.  xix.  19;  Dent,  xxiii.  11),  and  thus 
incorporated  with  religion  as  among  the  ancient 
Kgyjitians  and  modi^rn  Mohammedans.  Bathing 
was  requireil  of  the  priests;  and  the  high  jiricst 
at   his   installation,    and    particularly   upon    tho 


BATH. 


223 


BAUMGARTEN. 


Day  of  Atonement  (which  see),  was  obliged  to 
batlie  before  each  act  of  exiiiation  (Lev.  xvi. 
i).      The  rabbins  increased  the  nuinlier  to  fi'n. 

Bathing  a,ftfr  niourning.  indicative  of  remov- 
ing a  defilement,  is  referred  to  in  the  case  of 
Ruth  (iii.  ;!)  and  David  (2  Sam.  xii.  20);  a.s 
part  of  tli(>  toilet  (Ezek.  xxiii.  40)  ;  as  usual 
after  birth  (Kzek.  xvi.  4).  'J"he  Hebrews  bathed 
not  only  in  running  water  (Lev.  xv.  Vi ;  2  Kings 
V.  10),  but  also  in  open  basins  in  the  conrtyanis 
of  private  houses  (2  Sam.  xi.  2),  and,  in  a  later 
day,  in  public  baths  introduced  under  foreign 
influence  (.fosephus,  Anfi)/.  xix.  7,  5).  There 
were  bath-rooms  in 'the  later  temple  for  the 
priests'  use.  Besides,  there  were  hot  baths  near 
Tilierias  (Josephus,  Aniiq.  xviii.  2,  3),  near 
Gadera,  and  at  Callirhoe,  east  of  the  Dead  Sea 
(Josephus,  Bell.  Jud.  i.  33.  5).  In  New-Testa- 
ment times  there  is  mention  of  the  Jerusalem 
baths,  Bethesda  and  Siloam  (John  v.  2,  ix.  7). 
According  to  the  Mishna  (Pc.sach.  ii.  7),  Hebrew 
women  sometimes  used  bran  in  the  bath,  or  to 
rub  themselves  dry  with  it.  Even  so  the  modern 
Arab,  when  he  cannot  get  water,  uses  sand.  [In 
John  xiii.  10  there  is  reference  to  the  practice  of 
bathing.]  V.  ORELLI. 

In  every  considerable  town  there  was  a  public 
bath.  The  Talmud  gives  us  particulars  of  tlieir 
construction  and  use.  There  were  large  bathing- 
rooms,  usually  darkened  a  little,  with  tube.s  for 
conveying  the  warm  water,  basins,  broad  stones 
to  stand  upon  while  cooling  off,  etc.  The  watei-- 
basins  were  heated  underneath;  and  inasmuch  as 
there  was  danger  from  the  water  Viecoming  too 
hot,  or  from  the  floor  being  burned  through,  it 
was  customary  to  offer  a  prayer  before  stepping 
in.  The  bathers,  at  times  women,  had  bathing- 
dresses,  different  kinds  of  soaps,  combs,  etc. 
They  inhaled  the  steam,  swallowed  a  little  of 
the  warm  water,  then  had  cold  water  poured 
over  them,  or  plunged  into  cold  water,  drank  a 
mixture  of  wine,  oil,  and  water,  and  finally  were 
anointed  with  oil  and  perfumes.  The  bathing- 
hour  was  not  earlier  than  ten  a.m.  A  chaste 
behavior  was  enjoined.  The  bath  is  enthusias- 
tically praised  in  the  Talmud.  It  is  declared 
that  the  reason  why  tliere  were  no  lepers  in 
Babylon  was  because  the  inliabitants  bathed  in 
the  Euphrates.  The  greatest  ralibins,  rather 
than  not  bathe,  frequented  tlie  heathen  baths; 
and  when  once  Rabbi  Gamaliel  was  asked  why 
he  went  to  the  bath  of  Aphrodite,  he  replied, 
"  The  goddess  is  for  the  ornament  of  the  bath, 
but  not  the  bath  for  the  glory  of  the  goddess." 
Hamburger  :  Real- Enci/clondi lie  des  Jndenlhtims, 
Ab.  1  (1874). 

2.  Among  Cfirislians.  —  The  public  b.aths,  which 
all  classes  frequented,  and  to  which  the  early 
Christians  before  their  conversion  went  as  a  mat- 
ter of  course,  were  so  commonly  places  of  such 
shamelessness,  —  both  sexes  bathed  together 
oftentimes,  —  that  it  is  no  wonder  that  the  faith- 
ful church-fathers  raised  their  voices  against 
their  abuses.  Justice  requires  it  to  be  said  that 
many  of  the  heathen  protested  against  this 
shameful  corruption,  some  of  the  emperors  took 
precautions  against  it,  and  in  the  great  public 
baths  of  Rome  the  two  sexes  did  not  mingle. 
Still  it  is  noteworthy,  that  though  there  was 
public  censure,  eg.,  of   women,  particularly  of 


virgins,  who  were  immoilest  in  the  bath,  there 
was  no  formal,  ecclesiastical  prohiliition  of  the 
public  baths.  On  the  contrary,  the  Apostle  .John, 
according  to  Irenteus  (Adr.  l/wr.,  III.  3,  4).  fre- 
quented them;  so  did  Tertnllian  (Ap»l.,  c.  42), 
the  rigorous  ascetic;  and  so  did  Augustine;  and 
he  says  he  went  there  to  calm  himself  after  his 
excessive  grief  over  his  mother's  death,  becau.se 
he  had  heard  that  the  bath  drives  sorrow  out  of 
the  heart:  an<l  lience  the  Greeks  called  it  l/alane- 
ion,  as  if  from  l/allcin  aiiiiiii,  to  cast  out  sorrow,  a 
fabse  though  po[>uhir  etymology  (Co»/r-.s-.v.,  ix.  12). 
But,  although  not  forbidden,  the  use  of  them  was 
remitted  during  public  calamities,  penance,  Lent, 
and  for  the  first  week  after  b.aptism. 

From  the  time  of  Coustantine  it  was  usual  to 
build  baths  near  the  basilicas,  partly  for  the  use 
of  the  clergy,  and  partly  for  other  ecclesiastical 
purposes.  In  tlie  fiscal  accounts  of  the  popes,  an 
entry  concerning  the  repair  or  the  erection  of 
such  baths  often  appears.  Kraus:  liciil-Encij- 
cliipdilic  dcr  clirhlticlicii  Allirtliiiiiifr,  art.  Jiader. 

BATH'-KOL  (daiif/hter  of  the  roice,  i.e.,  echo). 
A  Talmudic  term  for  a  supposed  divine  revc'. »- 
tion.  The  true  idea  of  it  is,  that  it  was  the  echo 
of  a  heavenbj  voice.  Instances  of  it  are  given  in 
the  Talmud.  Not  only  was  it  the  utterance  of  a 
single  word,  but  sometimes  of  a  sentence,  as  when 
"Once  in  a  gathering,  a  Bath-Kol  said,  'There  is 
a  man  among  you  who  is  worthy  to  have  the 
Divine  Majesty  rest  upon  him;  but  the  times  are 
Tiot  worthy.'  All  eyes  were  turned  upon  the  aged 
Ilillel,  the  holy  and  modest  scholar  of  Ezra." 

The  rabbins  felt  keenly  the  great  difference 
between  their  times  and  those  of  the  prophets. 
In  one  place  we  read,  "  Our  rabbins  h.ave  rebated, 
that,  since  the  death  of  Ilaggai,  Zechariah,  and 
Mal.achi,  the  Holy  Ghost  has  been  taken  from 
Israel.  Nevertheless,  the  Bath-Kol  remains." 
But  it  was  not  asserted  that  no  Bath-Kol  came 
before  the  second  temple.  One  rabbi  attributes 
it  to  Daniel;  another,  to  Ilagar,  and  Manoah  and 
his  wife.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  gener.ally  that 
the  mysterious  voices  heard  at  different  times  by 
the  Bible  characters  were,  unless  they  were  proph- 
ets, Bath-Kol.  The  same  term  may  designate  the 
voices  mentioned  in  the  Gospels  (Matt.  iii.  17- 
xvii.  .5;  John  xii.  28);  but  the  Peshito  errs  when 
it  refers  Acts  xii.  22  and  Heb.  iii.  1.5  to  this 
source. 

The  Bath-Kol  was  (1)  The  first  result  of  reflec- 
tion upon  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament, 
grown  up  upon  the  soil  of  the  Old  Testament, 
causing  a  sense  of  desertion  by  the  Lord,  and  a 
deep  longing  for  the  return  of  the  Sliechin.ah; 
(2)  It  was  designed  to  prepare  the  people  for  the 
remarkable  voices  during  the  last  times  of  the 
second  temple,  which,  equally  with  the  miracles 
of  Jesus  and  liis  apostles,  pointed  out  the  Messiah 
and  his  kingdom,  until  the  obdurate  and  devoted 
city,  immediately  before  its  capture  ami  destruc- 
tion, was  dumfounded  by  the  cry  which  issued 
from  the  temple  ;  "  Let  us  go  from  hence  "  (Jose- 
phus, War.  VI.  5,  3). 

Lit.  —  Meusciikn  :  Noo.  Text,  ex  Tabnude 
illustr.,  Leip.,  1730,  and  the  older  treatises  of 
Danz  (,Iena,  171(i)  and  Metzler  (Jen.,  1673) 
upon  De  )•(«•/.<  p'lia.  W.  PKESSEL. 

BAUMGARTEN,  Siegmund  Jacob,  b.  ,at  Woll- 
mirstUdt,  Saxony,   March   14,1706;   d.  at  Halle, 


BAUMGARTEN. 


224 


BAUSGET. 


July  4,  1757;  studied  theology  in  the  University 
of  Halle,  and  became  professor  of  theolojjy  there 
1730.  He  was  an  excellent  teacher,  and  read 
generally  to  three  hundred  or  four  hundred  hear- 
ers. He  was  also  an  industrious  writer,  and 
pulilished  voluminous  works  on  exegesis,  her- 
meneutics,  morals,  dogmatics,  and  history.  By 
adopting  the  formal  scheme  of  the  philosophy  of 
Wolff,  and  applying  it  to  the  theological  ideas  in 
which  he  was  educated,  he  came  to  form  a  transi- 
tion from  the  pietism  of  Spener  and  Francke  to 
the  modern  rationalism.  His  life  was  written 
by  his  enthusiastic  disciple,  Semler  (2  vols.  Halle, 
1781,  ]7s-.>). 

BAUMCARTEN-CRUSIUS.  Ludwig  Friedrich 
Otto,  b.  at  Merseburg,  Jul}'  31,  17SS;  d.  at  Jena, 
May  31.  1813:  studied  theology  and  philology  at 
Leipzig,  and  became  professor  of  theology  at  Jena 
in  1812.  His  principal  works  are  Einleituiuj  in 
das  Stwliiim  d.  Dogmatik,  Leipzig,  1820;  Lehrhitcli 
d.  chriM.  Dogmengeschichle,  Jena,  1832 ;  Compen- 
dium d.  Dogmengeschichle,  Leipzig,  1840,  finished 
by  Ilane.  Jena,  1846  ;  Theologif:che  A  tislegung  dcr 
Johanneischen  Schrifleii,  Jena,  1843-4.5,  2  vols. 

BAUR,  Ferdinand  Christian,  b.  at  Schmiden, 
near  Cannstatt,  .June  21,  1792;  d.  at  Tiibingen, 
Dec.  2,  18fil).  He  was  educated  at  the  Seminary 
of  Blaubeuren  and  at  the  University  of  Tiibin- 
gen; became  professor  of  Latin  and  (ireek  (1817) 
in  the  former,  and  in  1820  professor  of  church 
history  at  Tubingen.  He  soon  gathered  a  large 
audience  around  his  chair,  and  filled  them  with 
admiration  by  his  genius,  learning,  and  enthu- 
siasm as  a  teacher.  A  Hegelian  himself,  he  ap- 
plied Hegel's  method  of  dialectical  development, 
by  mediation  between  two  opposites,  to  church 
history  and  the  growth  of  the  New  Testament, 
and  thus  founded  the  famous  "  Tiibingen  School  " 
of  theology,  which  revolutionized  the  church  his- 
tory of  the  apostolic  and  post-apostolic  times. 
He  must  be  r;tnked  alongside  of  Neander  and 
Gieseler  as  a  church  historian  of  the  first  rank, 
independent,  original,  profound,  and  scholarly, 
He  had  a  rare  talent  for  critical  combination, 
and  the  grasp  of  a  giant  in  handling  historical 
problems.  He  was,  however,  deficient  in  well- 
balanced  judgment;  and  so,  while  tireless  in  his 
investigations  and  bold  in  his  theories,  he  over- 
valued tendencies,  and  under-valued  persons  and 
facts.  He  ruthlessly  attacked  the  optimi.stic  opin- 
ion of  the.  apostolic  church,  and  attempted  to 
show,  that  so  far  from  being  peaceful,  quiet,  lov- 
ing, and  united,  it  was  torn  by  opposing  factions, 
—  the  friends  of  Peter  and  tliose  of  I'aul.  He 
thus  resolved  its  rich  spiritual  life  of  faith  and 
love  into  a  purely  specubitiv(!  process  of  conflict- 
ing tendencies,  a  keen  rivalry  between  the  I'e- 
trine  and  I'auline  i>arties,  and  supposed  that  the 
war  stopped  liy  the  compromise  the  ancient  Catho- 
lic Church.  According  to  his  theory,  he  regard- 
ed the  Acts  as  a  document  of  this  (^oni]ironiise, 
in  which  the  points  of  ojipo.sition  are  oliscured  ; 
and,  further,  he  unhesitatingly  rejecte<l  all  those 
Epistles  of  the  New  Testament  in  which  lie 
could  not  find  traces  of  such  a  (supposed)  con- 
flict. It  must  be  acknowledged,  that  by  his 
keen,  critical  analysis  he  fully  brought  to  light 
the  profound  intellectual  fermentation  of  tlie 
jirimitive  clmrcii,  but  failed  to  describe  the  exact 
State  of  the  case,  because  ho  eliminated  the  super- 


natural and  miraculous  elements.  Yet,  as  an 
earnest  and  honest  skeptic,  he  had  to  confess  at 
last  a  psychological  miracle  in  the  conversion  of 
Paul,  and  to  bow  before  the  greater  miracle  of 
the  resurrection  of  Christ,  without  which  the 
former  is  an  inexplicable  enigma.  His  critical 
researches  and  speculations  gave  a  powerfid 
stimulus  to  New-Testament  historical  studies, 
and  resulted  in  vastly  increased  knowledge.  Tlie 
studies  of  those  times  by  a  critical  and  impar- 
tial method  dates  from  Baur.  But  while  he 
acknowledged  only  four  Epistles  of  Paul  (Ro- 
mans, the  two  Corinthians,  (lalatians),  and  the 
Revelation,  to  be  genuine  products  of  the  apos- 
tolic age,  his  followers  have  been  compelled,  oy 
the  use  against  them  of  their  own  weapons,  to 
yield  point  after  jioint;  so  that  now  they  grant  the 
authority  and  genuineness  of  ten  of  Paul's  Epis- 
tles, and  take  their  stand  only  at  the  so-called 
Pastoral  Epistles.  Baur  owed  his  success  partly 
to  his  clear,  logical,  pointed  style.  His  literary 
activity  was  very  great.  His  works  fall  into 
three  groups ;  showing  a  movement  from  the  his- 
tory of  doctrines  to  biblical  criticism,  and  again 
from  biblical  criticism  to  general  church  history. 
To  the  Jirst  group  belong,  (jeschichic  t/es  Mani- 
chaismiis,  1831 ;  Oeschichle  der  christlichen  Gnosis, 
1835 ;  Die  christliche  Lehre  von  der  Versohnung, 
1838;  Die  Lehre  von  der  Dreieinigkeit  u.  Mensch- 
icerdiing  Golles,  1841-43;  3  vols.  ;  Lehrhuch  der 
chrisdichen  Dogmengeschichle,  1847,  2d  ed.,  1858; 
Vorlesungen  iiberDngmengeschiclile,  [mbWshed  by  his 
son,  1865-67,  3  vols. ;  also  the  three  essaj's  upon 
Apollonius  von  Ti/ana,  1832,  Soirates  ti.  Chrisltis, 
1837,  and  Seneht  u.  Pnulus,  1858,  collected  and 
edited  by  E.  Zeller,  1875. 

To  the  secon  I  group  belong.  Die  sogenannlen 
Pasloralbriefe  des  Aposlels  Pauliis,  1835;  Paidns 
der  Aposlel  Jcsii  ChrUli,  1845;  translated,  Piitd, 
Ilis  Life  and  Works,  London,  1873-75 ;  Kritische 
Unlersuciiungen  iiher  die  kanonischen  Kvangelien, 
1847;  and  a  great  number  of  minor  essays  in 
the  TUliiiif/en  Zcilschrifl  fiir  Theologie,  among 
which  are  the  famous  ones  on  the  "  Christ-party 
in  Corinth,"  1831,  and  on  the  "  Gospel  of  Mar- 
cion,"  1846. 

To  the  lliird  group  belong.  Das  Christenthum  u. 
die  christliche  Kirche  in  den  S  erslen  .lalirhunderlen, 
1853;  translated,  Chrislianili/  and  the  Church  in  the 
Firsl  Three  CenUiries,  London,  1878-79,  2  vols.; 
Die  christliche  Kirche  vom  4  '"•'''  ^  Jahrhunderl, 
1859  ;  Die  christliche  Kirche  des  Miltelalters,  1861; 
Kirchenge.schichle  der  neueren  Zeil,  1863;  new 
edition  of  his  Geschichle  der  christlichen  Kirche, 
Tubingen  u.  Leipzig,  1873-77,  5  vols.  Noticea- 
ble among  his  polemical  writings  are  his  mas- 
terly vindication  of  Protestantism  (Gegensatz  <les 
Xalholicisnins  u.  I'rolestaiilismns,  1831,  2d,  1836) 
against  Mbhler's  Si/mbolik ;  his  Semlschrcihen  an 
Dr.  K.  Iliise,  1855;  and  /.*/('  'J'iilnngen  Schide  u. 
ihre  Slelhing  ziir  Gegenirnrt,  18.59.  Eor  the  char- 
acter and  bearing  of  this  activity,  see  the  article 
Ti'iii.NdK.N,  Sciiooi.  OK.  For  biograjiliy  and 
criticism,  see  Worle  der  ICrinnerung  an  I'erilinanil 
Christian  von  liaur,  Tiibingen,  18(il,  which  con- 
tains Landerer's  Rede  before  the  University  of 
Tiiliingen. 

BAUSSET,  Louis  Fran(jois  de,  b.  at  Pondi- 
chery.  Dtc.  I  1.  171S;  d.  in  Paris,  Jmie  21,  1824; 
studied    in    tlie    Seminary  of    St.    Sulpicc ;    w;is 


BAUTAIN. 


225 


BAXTER. 


appoiiitpcl  Bishop  of  Alais,  17SI;  emisnited  in 
1701,  but  returned  in  \T,)2  to  raris,  and  sup- 
ported liiniself,  after  a  short  iniprisonnicnt,  by 
literary  labor.  In  LSOfi  he  was  made  canon  of 
St.  Denys,  and  in  1815,  after  tlio  second  return 
of  Louis  XVIII.,  director  of  tlie  council  of  the 
University  of  Paris,  peer  of  France,  and  cardinal, 
1S17.  lie  wrote  a  llistoire  de  I'cnelun,  1S08,  3 
vols.,  new  ed.,  18.jO,  4  vols.,  and  a  Ilisloire  dc 
Bossuel,  1815,  4  vols,  2d  ed.,  1819,  of  which  espe- 
cially the  former  met  with  much  success. 

BAUTAIN,  Louis  Eugene  Marie,  b.  at  Pari.s 
Feb.  17,  171MJ  ;  d.  there  Oct.  18,  18(17.  lie  was 
professor  of  ]ihilo.sophy  at  the  University  of 
Strassburg,  but  was  suspended  in  1825  because 
of  his  too  liberal  views,  and  in  1828  entered  the 
priesthood,  and  rose  rapidly,  notwithstanding  liis 
independent  ways  and  words.  In  1838  he  be- 
came professor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Strassburg,  afterwards  vicar-general  at  Paris  and 
Bordeaux,  professor  of  theology  at  the  Sorbonne, 
and  superior  of  the  house  (congregation)  of  Jnil- 
ly.  lie  is  widely  known  by  his  Art  of  Extemitore 
tipeaking,  which  was  the  piroduct  of  his  experi- 
ence. His  preaching  was  sober,  earnest,  and 
edifying.  He  was  good  rather  than  brilliant,  and 
deserved  respect  for  his  piety  and  virtue.  He 
was  the  author  of  many  works,  mainly  of  a 
philosophical  nature. 

BAVARIA  was  not  fully  Christianized  until 
the  middle  of  the  eighth  century,  though  Chris- 
tianity was  very  early  brought  from  Italy  to  the 
Roman  colonies  along  the  Danube.  In  304  St. 
Afra  suffered  martyrdom  at  Augsburg,  belonging 
to  the  Roman  province  of  Rhoetia.  There  nuist 
■consequently  have  been  a  Christian  congregation 
in  that  place  at  that  time ;  and  at  the  same  time 
there  was  a  flourishing  missionary  station  at 
Lorch,  belonging  to  the  Roman  province  of 
Noricum.  Nevertheless,  more  than  one  hundred 
years  later  on,  St.  Valentine  was  driven  out  of 
Passau  by  the  Pagans,  and  St.  Severin  found 
heathens  making  .heir  sacrifices  at  Kuhl,  r^ear 
Salzburg.  Alani,  Aleniauni,  Ileruli,  etc.,  moved 
to  and  fro  in  the  country,  and  some  of  them  were 
Pagans,  wliile  others  were  Arians.  Gradually, 
however.  Catholic  Christianity  gained  the  ascend- 
ency, and  at  the  death  of  Boniface  the  Catholic 
Church  was  firmly  established  in  the  country, 
having  seven  Episcopal  sees,  —  Passau,  Freising, 
Wurzburg,  Regensburg,  Augsburg,  Eichstiidt, 
and  Neuburg,  belonging  to  the  archiepiscopal 
see  of  Salzburg. 

In  the  beginning,  the  Reformation  made  con- 
siderable progress  throughout  the  country;  but 
after  the  Diet  of  Worms,  1521,  the  Duke  William, 
under  the  influence  of  Dr.  Eck,  adopted  a  most 
hostile  line  of  policy.  March  5,  1522,  an  ordi- 
nance was  issued  forbidding  anybody  to  abandon 
the  faith  of  his  ancestors  under  the  severest  pen- 
alties; and  as  convereions  continued  to  take 
place,  and  the  bishops  seemed  to  be  rather  luke- 
warm, Dr.  Eck  i-epaired  to  Rome  to  procure  for 
the  ducal  government  a  greater  judicial  authority 
with  respect  to  heretics  The  bishops  protested, 
but  the  power  was  granted ;  and  from  that 
moment  the  Dukes  of  15avaria  became  the  main- 
stays of  the  Roman  Church  in  Germany.  Every 
one  who  went  to  hear  an  evangelical  preacher 
was  arrested  and  fined.  The  more  stubborn  were 
16  —  1 


severely  punished.  In  Landsberg  nine  persons 
were  burnt,  and  in  .Munich  twenty-nine  were 
drowned,  for  here.sy  in  l.')2i).  Duke  I\Iaximilian  I. 
formed  the  Catholic  League  at  Munich  in  IfiOO; 
and  the  jieace  of  Westphalia  (l(il8)  made  no 
concessions  to  the  Protitstants  in  Bavaria.  In 
1519  the  Jesuits  were  called  into  the  country; 
and  they  reigned  supremely  up  to  the  close  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  when  the  Elector  iMaxi- 
milian  .Joseph  11.,  or  ratlier,  his  minister,  Mont- 
gelas,  expelled  thein.  The  acquisition  of  n(?w 
territories  —  the  margraviates  of  Baireuth  and 
Anspach,  the  free  cities  of  Nuremberg,  Augs- 
burg, etc.,  all  of  which  were  thoroughly  Prot- 
estant—  made  a  new  line  of  policy  necessary;  and 
by  the  constitution  of  1818,  Protestants  acquired 
equal  rights  with  Roman  Catholics. 

According  to  the  census  of  1875,  the  kingdom 
had  5,022,390  inhabitants,  of  whom  3,.573.M2 
were  Roman  Catholics,  1,392,120  Protestants,  51,- 
335  Jews,  and  5,793  belonging  to  other  denomi- 
nations. Tlie  Roman-Catholic  Church  has  two 
archbishoprics  (Munioh-Freisingen  and  Bamberg), 
and  six  bishoprics  (Augsburg,  Passau,  Regens- 
burg, Eichstiidt,  WUrzburg,  and  Spires),  and  2,756 
parishes.  With  each  cathedral  a  theological 
seminary  is  connected,  and  there  are  theological 
faculties  in  Munich  and  WUrzburg.  The  num- 
ber of  monastic  institutions  is  very  great ;  namely, 
595,  of  wliich  95  for  monks,  with  1,233  brethren, 
and  500  for  nuns,  with  5,031  sisters.  In  May, 
1877,  the  Old-Catholics  numbered  3,7113  inde- 
pendent men  in  thirty-four  congregations;  but 
the  number  was  afterwards  decreased.  The  Prot- 
estant Church  is  governed  by  consistories,  under 
a  supreme  consistory  in  Munich.  It  has  a  theo- 
logical faculty  in  Erlangen,  and  numbei'S  1,036 
parishes. 

BAXTER,  Richard,  "the  chief  of  English 
Protestant  schoolmen,"  b.  at  Rowton,  Shropshire, 
Nov.  12,  1015;  d.  in  London,  Dec.  8,  1691.  Al- 
though too  poor  in  early  life  to  be  liberally  edu- 
cated, he  was  able  by  great  diligence,  notwith- 
standing his  feeble  health,  to  acquire  extensive 
learning;  and  so,  while  not  an  accurate  scholar, 
he  was  able  to  maintain  himself  against  all 
comers  in  that  age  of  vast  erudition.  Under  the 
Puritan  influence  of  home,  he  developed  toward 
(xod;  and,  after  a  brief  experience  of  court- ways, 
he  determined  to  enter  the  ministry  of  the  Church 
of  England.  Accordingly  he  was  ordained  by  the 
Bishop  of  Worcester;  and,  after  two  years'  faith- 
ful and  fruitful  service,  he  was  called  (1640)  by  a 
happy  pirovidence  to  Kidderminster,  which  was 
destined  to  be  to  all  time  associated  with  his 
name.  He  found  the  place  a  desert,  and  left  it  a 
garden.  Tliere,  with  unflagging  zeal,  he  labored 
for  the  advancement  of  the  Redeemer's  kingdom, 
and  with  great  success.  When  he  came,  it  had  a 
bad  reputation  for  ignorance  and  vice  ;  by  the 
blessing  of  God  he  made  it  a  model  of  ,all  vii-tue. 
When  Uie  Civil  War  broke  out  (1642),  Baxter 
was  placed  in  an  awkward  piosition.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Presbyterian  party  in  the  Church, 
but  not  in  sympathy  with  tlie  Revolution :  in- 
deed, his  avowed  object  in  preaching  to  the  sol- 
diers was  to  bring  them  back  to  the  King  and 
Church.  For  safety's  sake  he  withdrew  from 
Kidderminster  to  Gloucester,  and  then  to  Coven- 
try, where  he  remained  for  two  years,  preac'.:- 


BAXTER. 


226 


BAXTER. 


ing  regularly  to  the  garrison  and  the  citizens. 
He  then  (1645)  became  ch.aplain  to  the  regi- 
ment of  AVhalley.  the  cousin  of  Cromwell.  But 
in  February,  1647,  he  finally  left  the  army,  be- 
cause of  a  severe  illness,  anil  returned  to  Kid- 
derminster. His  thoughts,  by  his  sufferings  no 
less  than  by  his  recent  experiences  (for  he  had 
just  come  from  that  wonderful  army  which  dis- 
cussed theology  from  morning  to  night),  were 
turned  toward  the  future  resi ;  and  then  it  was  he 
outlined  his  most  popular  work,  T/ie  Saints'  Ever- 
lasting Rest,  which  he  published.  London,  1650. 
From  1647  to  1660  he  remained  quiet;  but  his 
pastoral  labors  were  faithful  and  fruitful,  and 
his  publications  numerous.  Blessed  truly  was 
that  people  to  whom  he  ministered.  It  is  suffi- 
cient description  of  his  manner  and  methods  to 
say  he  was  himself  the  reformed  pastor  he  has 
described  and  commended.  He  welcomed  the 
return  of  monarchy;  and,  in  order  to  remove  gen- 
eral doubts  and  fears,  he  spread  far  and  wide  the 
letters  addressed  to  him  by  the  French  pastors, 
Daille,  Drelincourt.  and  Kaimond  Oaches,  who 
gave  Charles  a  certificate  of  Protestantism.  The 
King  showed  his  gratitude  by  appointing  Baxter 
one  of  his  chaplains.  Upon  Sept.  10,  1662,  he 
married  Margaret,  daughter  of  Francis  Charl- 
ton, Esq.,  of  Shropshire,  a  young  lady  of  wealth 
and  station,  many  years  his  junior,  who  made 
him  a  most  excellent  wife,  and  with  womanly 
fidelity  stood  by  his  side  through  all  his  ti-oubles. 
She  died  June  14,  1681,  and  he  h.as  recorded  his 
tender  appreciation  of  this  noble  woman  in  his 
Breviate  of  the  Life  of  Mrs.  Mari/aret  liaittr 
(1681).  He  had  need  of  comfort,  inasmuch  as 
the  Act  of  Uniformity  that  year  (1662)  drove 
him,  in  company  with  two  thousand  noncon- 
formist ministers,  out  of  position.  A  cruel  blow 
to  him.  In  1661  he  had  taken  part  in  the  Savoy 
Conference  (so  called  from  its  being  held  in  the 
Savoy  Palace  of  the  Bishop  of  London),  between 
the  bishops  and  nonconformist  divines,  which  had 
for  its  nominal  purpose  a  revision  of  the  Liturg\', 
and  to  this  body  liad  submitted  his  Rtrised  Lit- 
urgi/.  Besides,  the  royalist  desire  to  win  him 
back  to  the  Church  had  been  shown  liy  Lord 
Clarendon's  offer  of  the  bisho]iric  of  Hereford. 
Encouraged  by  the  friendly  aspect  of  affairs,  lie 
had  statedly  preaclied  in  London.  Hut,  after  tlie 
Uniformity  Act,  he  was  compelled  to  leave  all 
his  po.sitions,  even  his  belov(^d  Kidderminster, 
and  to  pass  laborious  and  fearful  days  at  Acton, 
where  he  was  intimate  with  Sir  JMattliew  Hale, 
and  at  Totteridge,  near  London.  His  lifc^  for 
the  next  twenty-fiv(!  years  was  a  series  of  sor- 
rows, aggravated  by  his  feeble  health.  For 
preaching  lie  was  more  than  once  arrested,  his 
library  .sold,  himself  put  under  bonds  for  good 
behavior.  But  nothing  could  daunt  liim.  He 
preached  whenever  he  had  opportunity,  and 
found  in  (iod  a  pavilion  safe  from  the  strife  of 
tongues.  He  used  the  press  to  give  wider  cur- 
rency to  his  wise  and  tender  words;  published  in 
1057  his  trumpet  Call  to  the  Unronrcrttil,  of  which 
twenty  thousand  copies  were  sold  the  first  year, 
and  which  has  bi'en  translated  into  most  ot  the 
literary  languages  of  the  world  ;  '   in  1673,  the 


1  A  cliTf^ymuH  of  tho  KHtnbilHhod  <.*htircli  In  Kn^flnnd 
bequeathed  to  Uiixivr  twenty  puiindM  for  eupleH  uf  IiIh  Call. 
for  |;ratuituua  dUtrlbutlon ;  but  Lord  Kce{ier  North  decided 


Christian  Directory  in  1674,  the  Poor  ^fan's  Fam- 
ily Book;  in  1083,  the  Cure  for  Melancholy :  in 
1685,  A  Paraphrase  on  the  Sew  Testament.  Thi.9 
latter  work  brought  him  into  his  greatest  trouble. 
On  ch<vrge  of  sedition  he  was  committed  to  the 
King's  Bench  Prison,  and  tried  in  ;\r,ay.  1685, 
before  the  notorious  Chief  .Justice  Jeffrevs,  who 
sentenced  him  to  pay  five  hundred  marks  (§1.610, 
a  large  sum  in  those  days),  and  until  it  was  paid 
to  lie  in  prison,  and  to  be  bound  to  his  good 
behavior  for  seven  ye,ars.  He  endured  eighteen 
months'  imprisonment;  but  through  the  exertions 
of  Lord  Powis,  a  Roman-Catholic  nobleman,  the 
fine  was  remitted;  and  he  was  pardoned,  and 
released  Nov.  24,  1686.  His  last  days  were  his 
best.  His  evening-time  was  light.  Delivered 
fi-om  fear  of  per.secutioii  after  King  William  HI. 
entered  England  (1688),  thorouglily  respected 
for  his  courage,  and,  above  all,  for  his  godliness, 
he  preached  when  he  was  able,  and  continued 
his  publications.  When  lie  died.  Non-conformist 
England  mourned  her  chief ;  Protestant  England, 
one  of  her  saints. 

Character.  —  Baxter  was  one  of  those  rare  men 
who  have  to  die  in  order  truly  to  live.  He  was 
in  adv.ance  of  his  day.  He  was  an  advocate  of 
Christian  union  at  a  time  of  the  fiercest  partisan- 
ships, of  Christian  liberality  at  a  time  of  the  stiff- 
est  creeds,  of  Christian  philanthropy  at  a  time  of 
the  narrowest  sympathies.  Our  entliusiasm  for 
him,  our  respect  for  his  courage,  rises  as  we  con- 
template the  miserable  state  of  his. age  and  coun- 
try. Cavaliers,  licentious,  Roundheads,  bigoted 
—  and  yet  these  were  the  conflicting  parties.  lie 
could  join  neither,  because  his  great  mind  per- 
ceived the  good  points  of  each  side,  .and  the  bad 
as  well.  He  was  a  born  reconciliator,  but  in  his 
case  the  middle  way  was  by  no  means  the  safest. 
He  was  sneered  at,  insulted,  mistrusted,  and  per- 
secuted by  both  parties.  No  one  could  under- 
stand how  Churchm.anship  and  Dissent  could 
exist  in  the  same  individual.  But  the  under- 
standing denied  liis  age  has  come  to  us.  On  the 
twenty-eighth  day  of  July,  1875,  a  statue  repre- 
senting him  in  a  preaching  attitude  was  erected 
at  Kidderminster,  and  upon  it  this  inscription : 
"Between  tlie  years  1641  and  166(1  this  town  was 
the  scene  of  the  labors  of  Rieliard  Baxter,  re- 
nowned equally  for  his  Christian  learning  and 
his  pastoral  fidelity.  In  a  stormy  and  divided 
age  he  advocated  unity  and  comprehension, 
pointing  the  way  to  everlasting  rest.  Church- 
men and  Nonconformists  united  to  raise  this 
memorial  A.D,  1875."  Dean  .Stanley  of  West- 
minster, and  Dr.  John  Stoughton,  Independent, 
of  New  College,  London,  representatives  of  the 
old  opposing  parties,  made  the  addresses.  Dean 
Stanley  (see  panqihlet,  London,  1875)  very  elo- 
quently put  Baxter's  present  )iosition  and  ac- 
knowledged worth,  when  he  said,  "  It  is  a  proof 
of  liis  (Baxter's)  real  greatness  and  eminence  that 
the  noliler  memories  of  his  cliaracter  have  sur- 
vived tile  distasteful  and  acrimonious  elements 
with  whicii  ]>!•  was  encompassed.  The  admira- 
tion of  the  best  spirits  of  his  own  and  futuri'  times 
have  prevailed  over  tlie  violence  of  petty  faction, 


Jbifl  It'Kucy  wilH  fur  "  BuperHtltlouM  ukcm  "  (i.e.,  ftocording  to 
KriKltKli  liiw  lit  the  thne,  fur  the  propjiKiUtoii  of  ii  faith  not 
upproved  by  the  Suite),  and  therefore  void.  — Btho.nu  ;  AV/«. 
lioiu  u/  Civil  law  to  Church  Jft/tity,  N.Y.,  1876,  p.  87. 


BAXTER. 


227 


BAYLE. 


and  over  his  own  coiitentioii.s  self.  Sir  Matthew 
Hale's  unfailing  regard  ;  I5islioji  Burnet's  grateful 
acknowledgment;  Ussher,  when  he  entreated  him 
to  write  the  ('all  In  the  Uncoiii:«ii<'(/. ;  Kliot,  the 
Apostle  to  the  Indians,  when  he  translated  that 
book  next  after  the  Hilile,  —  all  these  now  turn  out 
to  be  more  correct  judges,  tno7'e  proficient  seers, 
than  tlie  narrow  partisans  who  saw  in  him  a  mere 
l)utt  for  scorn  or  slander,  or  a  mere  combatant  of 
an  opposite  school." 

Writings.  Pnclri/.  —  Baxter  was  the  author  of 
a  metrical  version  of  the  I'salms,  puldished  Kjl)"-', 
and  two  volumes  of  poetry,  lie  wrote  the  hymn 
beginning,  "Lord,  it  lielongs  not  to  my  care." 
He  wrote  also  Latin  poetry.  His  Poetical  Frag- 
ments :  Heart  Imjilinjinent  with  Gnil  anil  Itself:  The 
Concorilnnt  Discord  of  a  Broken-healed  Heart, 
is  dated,  "London,  at  the  Door  of  Eternity; 
Richard  Baxter,  Aug.  7,  1681."  The  death  of 
his  beloved  wife  was  the  occasion  of  its  pub- 
lication. Baxter  invented  a  plan  of  making 
hymns  either  in  long  or  common  metre,  by  re- 
taining or  omitting  certain  designated  words. 
Prose.  — Robert  Boyle,  quoted  in  Alliltonc,  vol.  1, 
p.  143,  enaliles  us  to  compare  him  with  others 
when  he  says.  "  The  works  of  Lightfoot  extend 
to  thirteen  volumes;  Jeremy  Taylor's,  to  fifteen; 
Dr.  Owen's,  to  twenty-eight;  [but]  Baxter's,  if 
jirinted  iii  a  uniform  edition,  would  not  be  com- 
prised in  less  than  sixti/  volumes."  Orme  enu- 
merates one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  treatises. 
It  must  be  confessed  that  lie  is  exceedingly  dif- 
fuse, and  therefore  tedious.  Ilis  Saints'  Everlast- 
ing Rest,  and  Call  to  the  Unconoerted  are  probably 
known  to  most  persons  merely  by  title;  and 
indeed  the  former  is  only  readalile  in  an  abridg- 
ment of  an  abridgment.  Ilis  other  books  cannot 
lie  said  to  be  read  nowadays  at  all ;  although  his 
Gildas  Sahianus,  the  Reformed  Pastor,  and  his  Rea- 
sons for  the  Christian  Religion,  are  excellent,  and 
indeed  invaluable.  Perhaps  as  great  a  service 
as  any  he  performed  was  to  bring  to  light  that 
golden  sentence  of  the  obscure  German,  llupertus 
Meldenius,  "In  necessary  things,  L'nity  ;  in 
doubtful  things.  Liberty;  in  all  things,  Charity." 
Two  testimonies,  remarkable  in  themselves  and 
in  their  source,  deserve  quotation  (see  Allihone, 
vol.  1,  p.  143).  Dr.  Barrow  declared  "  his  practical 
writings  were  never  mended,  and  his  controversial 
ones  seldom  confuted;"  Bishop  Wilkins  said. 
"  he  cultivated  every  subject  he  handled  ;  and,  if 
he  had  lived  in  the  primitive  time,  he  had  been 
one  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church.  It  was  enough 
for  one  age  to  produce  such  a  person."  He  was  a 
preacher,  a  pastor,  a  teacher,  a  theologian  (see 
next  section),  a  mast"r  in  all  fields. 

Theology.  —  His  chief  work  was  his  Methodus 
theologif-C  Christiana-  (1681),  a  Latin  work  of  nine 
hundred  folio  pages:  to  this  his  Christian  Directory 
(1673)  was  the  practical  part.  In  theology  Bax- 
ter was  as  independent  as  he  was  in  church  polity. 
Characteristically  he  was  an  eclectic.  He  held 
to  Calvinism,  but  not  in  its  extreme  form.  He 
sought  to  find  a  common  resting-place  for  Calvin- 
ist  and  Arminian,  Episcopalian  and  Presbyterian, 
Protestant  and  Romanist,  —  aplatform  upon  which 
they  could  all  stand.  He  taught  that  all  who 
from  their  hearts  confessed  that  Christ  was  Lord 
belonged  to  the  true  catholic  Church,  which  is 
composed   of   the    believers   in    every  Christian 


denomination.  It  is  difficult,  as  Orme  confesses, 
to  get  a  clear  notion  of  what  he  really  believes, 
because  his  works  contain  few  definitions,  and 
are,  besides,  so  diffuse.  But,  .weaking  generally, 
he  taught,  that  common,  grace  was  given  to  all, 
which,  however,  needed  sj/ecial  grace  to  render  it 
effectual  to  salvation;  that  election  and  reprobation 
are  not  equally  to  be  ascribed  to  (Jod,  who  elects, 
liut  is  not  chargeable  with  the  sin  which  causes 
the  reprobation  ;  that  Christ  diiil  for  all.  therefore 
the  widest  invitation  can  be  given,  but  not  equally 
for  all.  He  taught  the  Calvinistic  theoUjgy  upon 
the  jieisecerance  of  the  saints  and  the  trill.  Those- 
who  sj'mpathized  with  him  have  been  called  Bax- 
terians. 

Lit.  —  His  numerous  controversial  and  theo- 
logical writings  have  never  been  reprinted,  and 
are  now  very  scarce.  His  Practical  Works  have 
been  published  in  23  vols.,  editedby  Rev.  William 
Orme,  London,  1830.  Another  edition  appeared 
in  4  vols.,  London,  1854.  Select  Practical  Writings, 
with  a  life  of  the  author,  by  Leonard  Bacon,  2 
vols..  New  Haven,  1844.  The  best  source  of 
information  about  Baxter  is  his  autobiography 
down  to  1684,  which  was  published  by  Matthew 
Sylvester  in  1690  under  the  title  Reliquitc  Box- 
terianw  ;  or.  Air.  Richard  Baxter's  Narratire  of  the 
Alo'it  Memorable  Passages  of  his  Life  and  Times. 
The  Rev.  Dr.  Edmvmd  Calamy,  who  was  Mat- 
thew Sylvester's  assistant  at  Blaekfriars,  issued 
an  abridgment  of  it  in  1702,  and  continued  his 
life  down  to  his  death,  and  adiled  as  a  second 
volume  an  account  of  other  ejected  ministers. 
In  the  second  edition  (1713)  of  his  Continuation 
of  the  account,  he  refutes  a  number  of  accusa- 
tions made  against  Baxter.  Neander  wrote  a 
sketch  entitled  Richard  Baxter,  ein  Mann  der 
wahrhaft  rechten  Mitte,  icelche  das  Erangelium 
allein  zu  offenbaren  ii  zu  verleihen  rermag,  Beidin, 
1833;  V.  Geulach:  Richard  Baxter  nach  seinem 
Leben  u.  Wirken,  Berlin,  1830.  A  Life  is  pre- 
fixed to  the  complete  edition  of  The  Saints'  Ever- 
lasting Rest,  N.Y.,  1855.  Also  Dean  Boyi.e  (l.ate 
vicar  of  Kidderminster)  :  Richard  Baxter,  London 
and  New  York,  1884.         SAMUEL  M.  JACKSON. 

BAXTERIANS.  See  Baxter,  Richako,  The- 
ology. 

BAYLE,  Pierre,  b.  Nov.  18,  1647,  at  Carlat,  in 
the  department  of  Aridge,  France ;  d.  Dec.  28, 
1706 ;  belonged  to  a  Protestant  family,  but  was 
converted  to  Romanism  while  studying  at  the 
Jesuit  college  in  Toulouse,  1669.  His  Romanism 
lasted  only  seventeen  months,  however.  He  ab- 
jured, and  fled  to  Switzerland,  where  he  lived 
several  years  at  Geneva  as  a  private  tutor.  He 
afterwards  removed  to  Rouen,  thence  to  Paris, 
and  was  in  1675  appointed  piro lessor  of  philosophy 
in  the  Academy  of  Sedan.  When  the  academy 
was  suppressed  by  royal  order  in  1681.  he  received 
a  chair  in  philosophy  in  Rotterdam ;  but  fi'om 
this  position  he  was  discharged  in  1093,  after 
which  time  he  lived  as  a  private  citizen,  engaged 
in  literary  occupation.  It  was  Jurieu  who  procured 
his  first  appointment  in  Sedan,  and  it  was  also 
Jurieu  who  procured  his  final  dismissal  in  Rotter- 
dam. His  Letters  sur  les  Comites,  1682,  ridiculing 
the  superstition  which  the  court  of  1680  had  called 
forth,  but  also  touching,  though  very  cautiously, 
on  the  belief  in  miracles,  was  the  first  cause  of 
irritation  between  them.     Shortly  after,  followed 


BAYLEY. 


228 


BEATIFIC. 


Critique  Generale  de  VITisloire  da  Calfini:ime,  par 
M.  Maimhourtj,  wliich  Jurieu  attacked.  But  the 
cause  of  the  final  breach  and  of  Bayle's  disnussal 
^vas  a  pamphlet,  Avis  Important  aux  Rcfiu/ii's,  1G9(), 
■which  Jurieu  ascribed  to  Bayle,  but  which  Bayle 
denied  to  have  written.  In  169.5  appeared  the 
first  voUmie  of  liis  Dictionnaire  Critique,  which  has 
exercised  considerable  influence  on  European 
civilization,  and  is  still  a  book  of  living-  value, 
famous  for  its  curious  learnins:,  marred  by  its 
skepticism;  4th  ed.,  .•\msterdam,  ITl'O,  4  vols, 
folio;  best  ed.,  Paris,  1S20-24, 16  vols.  Svo.  Also 
his  Nouvelles  de  ht  Ri'puhlique  des  Letlres,  whicli  he 
founded  in  1GS4,  and  continued  to  1687,  was  an  im- 
portant jihenomenon  in  the  literary  lifeof  thetime. 

Lit.  —  His  OEurres  Dii-erscs,  4  vols,  folio,  were 
edited  by  Des  JI.\izeaux,  The  Hague.  1727-31; 
liis  letters,  3  vols.,  appeared  at  Kotterdam,  1714; 
liis  life  was  written  by  L.\  Mo.nnoye,  Amster- 
dam. 1710, and  by  L.  Feueiib.^ch,  Augsburg,  1838. 
His  dictionary  luis  been  translated  into  English  ; 
best  ed.,  London,  17.j4-;)7,  5  vols,  folio. 

BAYLEY,  James  Roosevelt,  D,D.,  Roman- 
f'atholic  Archbishop  of  BaUiiuore,  L'.S..\.  ;  b.  in 
Xew-Yoik  City,  Aug.  23,  1814 ;  d.  in  Baltimore, 
Oct.  3,  1877,  His  aunt,  Mother  Seton,  was  tlie 
founder  of  the  order  of  Sisters  of  Charity  in 
America;  but  he  was  originally  a  Protestant,  a 
graduate  of  Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn,,  and 
fur  a  time  an  Episcopal  minister.  After  his 
change,  lie  studied  theology  in  Paris  and  Rome, 
and  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1842.  Returning  to 
America,  he  was  professor  of  belles-lettres  in  St. 
John's  College,  Fordham,  and  then  its  president 
for  one  year  (1845-46).  In  18.53  the  bishopric 
of  Xewark,  N,J,,  was  conferred  upon  him,  and 
in  1872  the  high  dignity  of  Archbishop  of  Bal- 
timore, and  Primate  of  America. 

BAYLY,  Lewis,  Bishop  of  Bangoi  in  Wales;  b. 
at  C.aermarthen,  about  1.565 ;  educated  at  Oxford ; 
became  minister  of  Evesham  in  Worcestershire 
in  1611;  con,secrated  as  bishop  in  1616;  d.  1632. 
He  will  always  be  remembered  as  the  author  of 
The  Practice  of  Piety,  directitu/  a  Christian  how 
io  walk  that  he  may  please  God,  one  of  the  most 
popular  religious  works  ever  written.  It  reached 
its  fifty-first  edition  in  1714.  It  is  also  note- 
wortliy  as  one  of  the  two  volumes  which  consti- 
tuted the  dowry  of  Bunyan's  wifi',  the  other 
being  Arthur  Dent's  I'lain  Man's  Pathway  to 
Jhiin  II. 

BDELL'IUIVI  is  a  transparent,  powerfully  and 
jileasantly  odoriferous,  wax-like  resin,  from  a  sort 
of  palm  which  was  native  to  Ai'abia,  India, 
Media,  Babylonia,  and  Bactriana.  This  exjila- 
iiation  of  a  debated  word  is  more  satisfactory  than 
that  favored  by  many  rabbins,  and  even  by  Geso- 
iiius,  — pearl.  The  word  "  bdellium  "  occurs  only 
twice  in  the  Bible,  —  once  as  a  product  of  the  land 
of  Havilah  ((jen,  ii.  12),  ami  again  as  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  appearance  of  manna  (Xum.  xi.  7). 
It  must,  therefore,  liave  b(!en  familiar  to  the 
Jews;  but  it  is  questionable  wliether  ]>carls  were. 
It  is  likely,  tlicrefore,  to  liave  been  a  gummy- 
resinous  substance ;  and  the  circumstance  that  ma- 
delcon,  one  of  the  names  for  bdellium,  wliicli 
surely  is  such  a  substance,  is  linguistically  one 
with  bedolali  (bdellium),  is  a  strong  proof  of 
the  correctness  of  the  interpretation.  Lassen 
(frul.  Allhumskunde)  considers  it  uioscus,  others 


crystal,  or  beryl.  See  Sprkxger:  Die  alte  Geogr. 
Arab.  §  59,  _  RrETSCHI. 

BEARD,  The.  The  Jews,  like  the  present 
Orientals,  were  proud  of  their  beards;  therefore 
they  let  them  grow ;  while  the  Egyptians  cut 
them  off,  but  on  high  festival  days  wore  false 
beards,  —  private  individuals,  a  beard  scarcely 
two  inches  long;  a  king,  one  of  considerable 
length,  square  at  the  bottom.  The  figures  of  gods 
were  distinguished  by  their  beards  turning  up  at 
the  end.  Tlie  Jews  also  retained  the  liair  on  the 
sides  of  the  face  between  the  ear  and  the  eye, 
and  this  had  a  religious  meaning  (Jer.  ix.  26, 
XXV.  23,  xlix,  32).  In  these  verses  "uttermost 
corners "  should  be  shaven  cheeks.  Incidental 
mention  of  barbers  is  made  in  Ezek.  v.  1.  It  wa.= 
an  unbearalile  insult  for  any  one  to  cut  off  or 
mutilate  another's  beard  (2  Sam.  x,  4  sq. ;  Isa,  vii, 
20) ;  but  in  times  of  deep  sorrow  the  beard  and 
the  hair  of  tlie  head  were  plucked  out  (Ez.  ix.  3; 
Isa.  XV.  2.  1.  6 ;  Jer.  xli.  5),  or  allowed  to  be 
unkempt  (2  Sam.  xix.  24),  or  covered,  like  the 
lepers',  in  sign  one  must  not  speak  (Ezek.  xxiv. 
17,  22). 

The  practice  of  the  Christian  clergy  in  ancient 
times  in  respect  of  wearing  beards  was  in  con- 
formity with  the  general  custom.  Long  hair  and 
baldness  by  shaving  being  alike  in  ill  repute  as 
unseemly  peculiarities,  the  clergy  wei'e  required 
to  observe  a  becoming  moderation  between  either 
extreme.  In  the  later  Roman  Church,  the  clergy 
always  shave  the  beard,  and  often  the  head,  at 
least  in  part.  See  particularly  the  interesting 
article  on  Beards  in  Encycl.  Brit.,  Vol,  III.,  and 
books  upon  Eastern  customs. 

BEARD,  Richard,  D.D.,  an  eminent  divine  of 
the  Cumlicrland  Presbyterian  Church;  b.  in  Sum- 
ner County,  Tetin  ,  Nov.  27,  1799 ;  d.  at  Leba- 
non, Tenn.,  Nov.  6,  1880.  He  was  licensed,  and 
began  preaching  in  1S20.  After  several  years,  he 
became  a  professor,  first  in  Cumberland  College, 
Princeton,  Ky.,  and  then  in  .Sharon  College, 
Sharon,  Miss.  From  1842  to  1854  he  was  presi- 
dent of  Cumberland  College;  but,  when  the  Cum- 
berland Presbyterian  Church  established  a  chair 
of  systematic  theology  in  Cumberland  Univer- 
sity at  Lebanon,  Tenn.,  1854,  he  was  so  evidently 
the  man  for  the  position,  that  it  came  naturally  to 
him.  He  w.as  repeatedly  made  moderator  of  the 
(ieneral  Assembly.  The  position  he  occupied  in 
the  esteem  of  his  brethren  was  the  best  proof  of 
his  exalted  character.  Besides  numerous  and 
valuable  contributions  to  the  periodical  literature 
of  his  church,  he  Lssued  two  works  of  pennanent 
importance,  —  his  Lectures  on  Theototpj,  Nash- 
ville, 1870,  3  vols. ;  and  Win/ am  la  C umherlanil 
Prislii/leriiiii?    Nashville,   1874. 

BEATIFIC  VISION,  or  the  direct  and  unhin- 
di'red  vision  of  (Jod.  It  is  jiart  of  the  reserved 
blessi>dness  of  the  redeemed  (1  Cor.  xiii.  12; 
1  John  iii,  2;  Rev,  xxii,  3,4),  Our  conception 
of  its  nature  must  necessarily  be  very  vague,  but 
our  belief  in  its  existence  is  foundeil  upon  Scrip- 
ture and  reason,  Tlie  only  question  concerns  its 
time.  This  has  been  much  disputed.  Tin',  Greek 
Church  and  many  Protestants,  csiiecially  Luther- 
ans and  Calvinis'ts,  put  the  vision  after  tlie  judg- 
ment day.  So  Dr.  Hodge,  Si/.ileiuatic  'J'heoloi/i/, 
vol,  iii,,  p,  860.  But  the  Council  of  Florenco 
(1439)  condenmed   this   view   in    the    following 


BEATIFICATION. 


229 


BECK. 


wnrrls;  "AVe  (letpvniiiifi  that  tho  souls  of  those 
who  have  remained  ]iure  :iiul  s|iotless  after  bap- 
tism, and  of  those  whose  sins  after  l)aptisin  liave 
been  jiardoned,  either  in  this  life  or  the  next,  are 
immediately  received  into  heaven,  and  behold 
]ilainly  the  Triune  God  as  he  is."  To  the  same 
intent  speaks  the  Constitution  of  IJenedict  XII. 
(1334-4'J)  in  the  previous  century.  So  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent,  in  the  decree  concerninff  the  "  Invo- 
cation, Veneration,  and  Relics  of  Saints,"  speaks 
of  the  saints  as  enjoying  "  eternal  happiness  "  in 
heaven  (Sess.  xxiv.  Dec.  3,  1503.  See  Schaff's 
Creeds,  vol.  ii.,  p.  200).  It  is,  however,  reasona- 
ble to  suppose  that  this  glorious  sight,  this  won- 
drous knowledge,  is  first  revealed  in  heaven,  and 
that  only  intimations  of  it  are  known  in  the 
intermediate  state.  Of  it  Dr.  Hodge  says,  "The 
incomprehensible  blessedness  of  heaven  shall  arise 
from  the  vision  of  CJod.  The  vision  is  beatific. 
It  beatifies  :  it  transforms  the  soul  into  the  divine 
image,  transfusing  into  it  the  divine  life,  so  that 
it  is  filled  with  the  fulness  of  God.  This  vision 
of  God  is  in  the  face  of  Jesus  Christ,  in  whom 
dwells  the  plenitude  of  the  divine  glory  bodily. 
God  is  seen  in  fashion  as  a  man,  and  it  is  this 
manifestation  of  God  in  the  person  of  Christ  that 
is  inconceivably  and  intolerably  ravishing"  {Sys- 
tematic Tlieuhgt/,  as  above).  The  question  of  Ber- 
nard of  C'luny  is  asked  again  :  — 

"  Say,  O  dear  country  of  my  heart !  shall  these  thy 
joys  be  mine  ? 
Shall  I,  in  that  my  precious  home,  behold  the  light 
divine  ? 

God's  o'ertlowiug  gift  obtain  ?  — 
Or  is  my  hope,  my  faitli,  in  vain  ?  " 

BEATIFICATION,  a  lower  degree  of,  and  a 
preliminary  step  to,  canonization,  declaring  a 
person  blessed  after  death,  though  not  deciding 
whether  he  is  a  saint  or  not,  and  granting  to  him 
certain  religious  honors  short  of  worship.  Origi- 
nally beatification  was  a  simple  episcopal  jireroga- 
tive,  and  the  ceremony  could  be  performed  in  any 
church ;  but  Urban  VIII.  reserved  the  right  for 
the  papal  see,  and  Alexander  VII.  forbade  the 
ceremony  to  be  performed  in  any  other  place  but 
the  basilica  of  the  Vatican.     See  Canoxiz.\tion. 

BEATON,  David,  b.  in  1494;  ayoungerson  of 
John  Beaton  of  Balfour,  in  the  county  of  Fife; 
d.  at  St.  Andrews,  May  29,  154(j ;  was  educated  at 
the  universities  of  St.  Andrews  and  Glasgow ; 
studied  canon  law  in  Paris,  and  was  made  Abbot 
of  Arbroatli  in  1523,  lord  privy  seal  in  1528, 
Bishop  of  St.  Andrews  m  1537,  cardinal  in  1538, 
Chancellor  of  Scotland,  and  legate  a  latere,  in  1543. 
In  the  political  contest  between  the  French  and 
English  party,  he  sided  with  the  former,  and 
fought  with  energy  and  courage  for  the  independ- 
ence of  Scotland  against  the  plans  of  Henry 
VIII.  In  the  religious  contest  between  the 
Romanists  and  the  Reformers,  he  took  as  decid- 
edly the  part  of  the  hierarchy,  and  did  not  scru- 
ple to  use  intrigue  and  force  when  argument  and 
persuasion  failed.  The  persecution  of  fjeorge 
Wishart  is  an  instance  :  he  was  seized,  impris- 
oned in  the  Castle  of  St.  Andrews,  tried  in  the 
cathedral  before  the  cardinal  and  a  court  of 
priests,  sentenced  to  death,  and  burnt,  without 
the  aid  of  the  civil  power.  But  a  nemesis  soon 
overtook  the  cardinal.  A  conspiracy  was  formed 
Against  him   by  a  immber  of  the  Reform  party, 


and  he  was  murdered  one  morning  in  his  bed- 
chamber. See  Chakle.s  Rogkus:  Life  of  Georije 
Wislmrl.  Edinburgh,  187(>. 

BEATTIE,  James,  b.  at  Laurencekirk,  Scot- 
land, Oct.  2.'.,  173.'>;  d.  at  Aberdeen,  Aug.  18, 
1803;  studieil  at  jMarishal  College,  Aberdeen, 
and  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  that  insti- 
tution in  170O.  He  wrote  an  Essay  on  Truth 
against  Hume,  which  was  very  successful  (1770); 
also  Dissertations  Moral  ami  Critical  (1783)  ;  Eri- 
ilences  of  the  Christian  Iieli(/ion  (178(i),  etc.  ;  and 
some  poetry,  especially  T/ie  Minstr/l  (1774),  a 
poem  of  much  merit,  by  which  he  is  best  known. 
His  life  was  written  by  Sir  William  Forbes,  3 
vols.,  1807. 

BEAUSOBRE,  Isaac  de,  b.  at  Niort,  in  the 
department  of  Deux-Sevres,  France,  March  8, 
1059;  d.  in  Berlin,  June  6,  1738;  descended 
from  a  Protestant  family ;  studied  theology  at 
Saumur;  was  made  pastor  at  Chatillon-sur- 
Indre  in  1G83;  fled  to  Holland  in  1G85;  became 
chaplain  to  the  Princess  of  Anhalt  in  1686,  and 
pastor  of  the  French  congregation  in  Berlin  in 
1695.  Together  with  Lenfant  he  gave  a  French 
translation  of  the  New  Testament,  which  ap- 
peared at  Amsterdam,  1718.  He  also  wrote 
Histoire  de  Manichc'e  et  du  manlche'isme,  2  vols., 
Amsterdam,  1734 ;  Histoire  de  la  Rifonnation,  i 
vols.,  1785-80,  and  other  works. 

BEBENBURG,  Lupoid,  d  1363  as  Bishop  of 
Bamberg;  descended  from  a  noble  Prankish 
family ;  studied  canon  law  at  Bologna,  and 
placed  himself,  in  the  controversy  between  Lud- 
wig  the  Bavarian  and  the  Pope,  on  the  side  of 
the  former.  His  De  Jurihus  Regni  et  Imperii 
lioniunoram,  first  printed  at  Strassburg  (1508), 
edited  by  Jakob  Wimpfeling,  is  remarkable,  also, 
on  account  of  its  method,  —  di.scussmg  the  subject 
liy  means  of  historical  facts  rather  tlian  abstract 
ideas  and  Aristotelian  politics. 

BEC,  Abbey  of,  situated  in  the  diocese  of 
Rouen,  was  founded  in  1040  by  St.  Herluin,  and 
became,  while  Lanfranc  and  Anselra  were  teachers 
in  its  school,  one  of  the  most  famous  centres  of 
learning.  Among  its  pupils  were  Pope  Alex- 
ander II.,  Guitmond,  Yves  de  Chartres,  CJilbert 
and  Miles  Crespin  (who  wrote  the  lives  of  its 
first  abbots),  and  Robert  de  Thoringy,  who  com- 
menced its  chronicle,  which  was  afterwards  con- 
tinued by  anonymous  writers.  About  llOO  the 
abl.)ey  was  exempted  from  the  episcopal  au- 
thority. 

BEGAN,  Martin,  b.  in  Flanders,  1550;  d.  in 
Vienna,  April  23,  1624 ;  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus;  taught  philosophy  and  theology  in  the  col- 
leges of  his  order;  became  confessor  to  the  em- 
peror, Ferdinand  II.,  and  distinguished  himself 
by  the  fury  with  which  he  labored  against  the 
Reformation.  In  his  Controversia  Anglicana  de 
Potestate  Ret/is  et  Ponlifcis,  Jlentz,  lGi2,  he  de- 
fended the  morality  of  assassinating  a  heretic 
king,  and  in  his  Quastiones  de  Fide  Harelicis 
Sen-anda,  Mentz,  1609,  he  declared  that  no 
promise  or  oath  given  to  a  heretic  was  binding. 
Rome  condemned  the  former  proposition,  Ijut 
not  the  latter. 

BEGCARELl.l.     See  Qiietists. 

BEGGUS.    See  John  X.  ok  Constantin'Opi.e. 

BECK,  Johann  Tobias,  b.  at  Balingen  in  "\Vur- 
temberg,  Feb.  22,  18u4 ;  d.  at  Tubingen,  Dec.  28, 


BECKBT. 


230 


BECKBT. 


187S.  The  facts  of  his  outward  life  are  few  :  he 
studied  at  Tubingen  from  1822  to  1826;  left  the 
luiiversity  to  become  pastor  of  Waldtheim ;  in 
1829  he  rose  to  be  '•  Stadt^Pf arrer  "  (city  pastor) 
of  Mergentheim  :  but  in  1836  he  left  the  pastor- 
ate, and  entered  the  professorate,  first  as  profess- 
or extraordinary  at  Basel,  and  then  as  professor 
ordinary  at  Tubingen  from  1843  till  his  death. 
Baur  and  he  were  for  many  years  fellow  profess- 
ors, but  they  belonged  to  different  schools;  and 
in  more  senses  than  one,  Beck  lived  after  Baur 
died;  for,  in  opposition  to  Baur,  he  led  his  pupils 
into  the  study  of  the  Bible  upon  simple,  positive 
principles.  He  had  little  respect  for  the  learned 
liut  sceptical  and  really  shallow  theories  of  the 
higher  critics.  The  very  titles  of  his  books  show 
how  intense  was  his  ardor  for  positive  Bible- 
Christianity.  He  was  the  best  modern  represen- 
tative of  the  'Wurtemberg  School  of  Bengel  and 
Oetinger.  By  plain,  homely  ways,  by  a  kind 
heart,  and  manly  independence,  he  won  respect, 
confidence,  and  affection.  He  wrote,  Eiiileilitii;/ 
ill  das  Si/stem  tier  chrlstUclicn  Lelire,  Stuttgart 
1838.  2d  ed.  1870;  Die  Geburt  chs  christlicheii  Le- 
bens,  Basel,  1839;  Die  christlicJie  Lclinrissctischafi 
itac/i  iler  biblischen  Urkitnden,  Bud.  I.,  Stuttgart, 
1841;  Die  clirislt.  Afenschentiehe,  Basel,  1842;  Um- 
ris.t  d.  bibl.  Seelcnlehre,  Stuttgart,  1843,  3d  ed., 
1877  (Eng.  trans.  BUiliral  Pfi/c/wln;/;/,  VA'uih., 
1877);  Leitfaden  d.  cliristl.  Gtaubendchre,  1862, 
2d  ed.,  1809;  Chrisd.  Liebeslehre,  1S72;  I'aMoral- 
icliren  d.  N.  T.,  1880  (Eng.  trans..  Pastoral 
Theoloyxj,  Edinb.  1882);  Clirisll.  Ethik,  1882-83, 
3  vols  ;  connnentaries  upon  Timothy  (1879), 
Revelation  (1883),  Romans  (1884,  2  vols.);  Briefe, 
188.5. 

BECKET,  Thomas,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury; 
b.  in  London,  Dec.  21,  1118;  d.  in  Canterbury, 
iJec.  29, 1170.  The  writing  of  his  name  A  Becket, 
as  if  he  were  of  noble  birth,  is  inaccurate,  and 
now  discarded. 

Life. — His  father,  Gilbert  Becket,  was  from 
Rouen  ;  his  mother,  Roesa  or  Matilda,  from  Caen. 
But,  though  thus  Norman  in  parentage,  he  was  a 
thorough  Englishnum,  full  of  national  and  local 
jiatiiotism.  His  father,  a  bai-on  of  the  city  of 
London,  gave  his  son  an  excellent  education,  with 
the  canons  of  Mcrton  Abbey,  in  London  schools, 
and  afterwai-ds  in  Paris.  There  is  no  proof  that 
lie  ever  went  to  Oxford.  His  father's  friend. 
Richer  of  Laigle, — one  of  tlie  great  barons  of 
England, — took  an  interest  in  the  boy;  and,  in 
his  castle  of  Pevcnsey,  Becket  was  introduced  to 
the  S]iorts  of  hunting  and  hawking,  in  which  lie 
became  such  a  proficient.  On  his  return  from 
I'aris,  he  was  employed  under  the  sheriffs  of  Lon- 
don, and  so  made  acquainted  with  )iolitical  busi- 
ness. But  prefiMineut  was  to  be  expected  in  the 
case  of  so  brilliant  a  scholar;  and  when  common 
friends  from  the  otlier  side  of  the  Chaimel  had 
recommended  him  to  the  notice  of  Tlieobuld, 
Archl)ishop  of  Canterbury,  who,  however,  was 
probably  already  acquainted  with  Becki^fs  father, 
lie  Wiis  immediately  taken  into  his  service  (1142), 
sent  to  Bologna  and  Auxerre  to  study  civil  and 
canon  law,  and  (juiekly  madi!  archdeacon  of  the 
see,  and  Provost  of  IJeverley.  AVhile  in  this 
double  capacity,  ISecket  showed  his  loyalty  to  the 
Church,  and  iiis  political  tact,  by  cleverly  solving 
the  difficulty  ojnnected  with  the  succession  to  the 


crown  of  England.  Securing  it  to  Henry,  while 
not  sacrificing  papal  interests,  he  made  two  secret 
journeys  to  Rome,  and  tliwarted  an  effort  to  win 
over  the  Pope  to  the  side  of  Eustace,  the  son  of 
Stephen.  When  Henry  11.  came  to  the  throne, 
he  made  Becket  his  chancellor  (1155),  on  the 
recommendation  of  Theobald  ;  and  the  ecclesias- 
tic was  immediately  forgotten  in  the  statesman. 
The  ke\-  to  the  mystery  of  Becket's  character,  his 
apparent  fickleness,  is  his  compilete  devotion  to 
the  office  he  held,  involving  a  constant  study  how 
best  to  magnify  it.  Accordingly,  when  a  chan- 
cellor, he  served  his  king  with  the  utmost  fidelity. 
He  surrounded  himself  with  the  outward  state 
befitting  so  exalted  a  station,  because  he  had  the 
wit  to  see  that  it  would  give  him  the  more  power. 
While  chancellor,  he  headed  the  chivalry  of  Eng- 
land in  the  war  of  Toulouse,  and  there  certainly 
acted  little  like  an  ecclesiastic :  for  he  joined  in 
their  bloody  work.  But  to  him  belongs  the  chief 
credit  of  bringing  England  back  from  utter  law- 
lessness to  as  strict  an  administration  of  the  law 
as  the  state  of  England  in  the  twelfth  century 
allowed.  Sufficient  emphasis  has  not  been  laid 
upon  this  fact.  He  was  one  of  the  greatest  chan- 
cellors England  ever  had.  It  was  an  evil  day  for 
him  and  for  his  fame  when  he  accepted  the  Arch- 
bishopric of  Canterbury.  He  left  an  office  he  was 
fitted  for,  for  one  he  was  not;  and  he  was,  alas  !  one 
of  those  men  who  show  their  strong  side  in  pros- 
perity, and  their  weak  in  adversity.  But  being 
elected  in  1102,  by  the  Cluapter  of  Canterbury,  on 
the  King's  command,  archbishop,  he  gave  up  his 
pomp  and  worldliness,  and  began  at  once  a  life 
of  austerities,  and  at  the  same  time  appeared  as 
the  champion  of  the  Church  against  the  State; 
so  that  he  contended  with  Henry,  his  patron  and 
friend.  Yet  this  was  not  fickleness,  but  princi- 
ple :  he  was  loyal  to  his  nuister.  Once  it  was  the 
King,  now  it  was  the  Pope  :  once  it  was  the  State, 
now  it  was  the  Cliurch.  But  becau.^e  Becket  was 
really  an  arrogant  churchman,  and  opposed  to 
po]iular  progress,  his  career  from  our  standpoint 
is  discreditable.  He  fought  against  tlie  Constitu- 
tions of  Clarendon,  Jan.  25,  1164,  which  snljjected 
clerks  (clergy)  guilty  of  crime  to  the  ordinary 
civil  tribunals,  jiut  ecclesiastical  dignities  at  the 
royal  disposal,  prevented  all  appeals  to  Rome,  and 
made  Henry  the  virtual  head  of  the  Church.  To 
these,  however,  under  pressure,  he  set  his  seal ; 
but  as  he  had  been  led  to  suppose  the  King  would 
have  been  satisfied  with  a  merely  verbal  a.ssent, 
—  a  very  different  thing  in  the  morality  of  his 
age,  —  when  compelled  to  affix  his  seal,  he  felt 
him.self  entrapped,  and  guilty  of  a  great  sin. 
The  Pope  absolved  him.  and  he  proceeded  to 
anathenuitize  the  Constitutions  with  energy.  lu 
so  doing  he  had  great  pojiular  symp.athy.  To  be 
sure,  the  ( 'onstitutions  were  not  novelties ;  yet  they 
appeared  .so  in  the  novel  form  of  statutes.  Tliey 
.were  really  most  beneficent,  helpful  in  raising 
England  out  of  barbarism  into  civilization ;  and 
Henry  was  right  in  urging  them,  liut,  as  they 
undoubtedly  detracted  from  the  jiapal  and  eccle- 
siastical power,  Becket  from  his  stand-point  was 
also  rigiit.  The  battle  thereafter  wiiged  inces- 
santly between  king  and  prelate,  disastrously  for 
the  latter.  \\\  assembly  of  the  people  was  held 
at  Norlhamiilou.  Becket  was  citinl  to  apjieai 
before  it  to  answer  the  suit  of  Jolin  the  Marshal, 


BECKET. 


231 


BECKET. 


•who  had  charged  him  with  injustice,  and  had  the 
case  removed  from  tlie  an.'hbi.sliop's  to  the  king's 
court.  Tims  to  liimsdi'  tlu^  (Uarondou  ('onstilu- 
tious,  wliich  saiietioiu'd  siurli  proceedings,  were 
applied;  but  it  surely  was  unworthy  of  the  king, 
after  having  gotti'U  jiim  in  his  power  on  one  pre- 
text, to  raise  a  charge  of  malfeasance  in  office  so 
long  a  time  after  his  connection  with  the  chancel- 
lorship had  ceased.  This  was  a  mean  trick. 
Becket  denied  the  autliority  of  the  council  over 
him,  appealeil  to  the  l'o])e,  refused  to  in;dce  any 
explanation,  fled  in  disguise,  and  after  hiding  in 
Englanil,  at  last,  with  two  companions,  crossed 
the  Channel  from  Sandwich  to  Gravelines,  Nov. 
2,  110-1.  He  hastened  to  Sens,  where  the  Pope 
(.Mexander  III.)  then  was,  whither,  also,  the 
King's  legates  were  bending  their  steps.  The 
Pope  favored,  Louis  VH.  of  France  kindly  re- 
ceived liiui,  and  he  retired  to  the  Cistercian  mon- 
astery of  Contigny,  where  he  passed  tlie  next 
two  years.  The  Pope  acted  cautiously  in  tlie 
matter,  because  Henry  had  shown  a  disposition 
to  favor  the  anti-pope,  Pascal  HI.  But,  when  tlie 
Archbi.shop  of  York  officiated  at  the  coronation 
of  Henry's  son  without  the  Pope's  permission,  the 
latter  took  decided  measures,  and  tlireat  'ued  ex- 
communication if  the  King  did  not  make  peace 
with  Becket.  This  he  did  July  22,  1170,  at 
Preteval  in  Vendome.  The  first  act  of  the  re- 
instated archbishop  was  to  excommunicate  all  his 
enemies,  —  the  Archbishop  of  York,  and  the 
bishops  w'hn  had  taken  part  in  the  coronation,  or 
who  favored  the  Clarendon  Constitutions.  Becket 
returned  to  England,  and  was  warmly  received. 
His  friends  were  many.  The  excommunicated 
]irelates  fled  to  Korinandy,  where  Henry  was: 
their  arrival  created  a  great  sensation.  The  King 
is  said  to  have  exclaimed,  "By  God's  eyes  I  if  all 
are  ejccommunicated  who  were  concerned  iu  the 
coronation,  I  am  excommunicated  also.  Is  this 
varletthati  loaded  with  kindness,  that  came  first 
to  court  to  me  on  a  lame  mule,  to  insult  me  and 
my  children,  and  to  take  my  crown  from  me  ? 
What  cowards  liave  I  about  mo,  that  no  one  will 
deliver  me  from  this  low-born  priest!  "  Four  of 
Henry's  knights — -Reginald  Fitzurse,  Hugh  de 
i\Iorville,  William  de  Tracy,  and  Richard  de 
Breton — really  or  affectedly  understood  the 
King's  words  literally;  and,  making  a  hasty  jour- 
ney to  Canterbury,  they  murdered  him  coolly, 
-I'utally,  in  Canterbury'  Cathedral.  Becket  made 
no  attempt  at  resistance  ;  indeed,  he  courted  mar- 
tyrdom. 

Death  and  Consequences.  —  The  murder  of 
Becket  has  been  considered  merely  a  deserved 
fate,  a  piece  of  rude  yet  even-handed  justice;  and 
by  others  a  veritable  martyrdom.  But  Becket 
was  far  from  being  a  saint.  He  was  abusive  in  his 
speech,  haughty  in  his  manner,  arrogant  in  his 
claims :  yet,  however  deeply  he  had  insulted 
his  sovereign,  he  was  no  traitor ;  and,  because  this 
was  the  ostensible  ground  for  the  murder,  the  act' 
was  foul,  cowardly,  only  excusable  from  the  tui'- 
bulence  of  the  time.  — ■  On  the  very  night  of  the 
murder,  the  miracles  which  made  the  shrine  of 
Tliomas  Becket  so  famous  began.  People  from 
all  parts  of  England  made  pilgrimages  to  Ins 
tomb:  one  such  is  immortalized  in  Chaucer's 
Canterbury  Talcs.  He  was  called  "  saint  "  long 
before  he  was  formally  canonized,  wluch  was  two 


years  afterwards.  The  news  of  the  murder 
greatly  affected  Henry,  and  he  took  rigorous  and 
indeed  humiliating  measures  to  remove  the  popu- 
lar imiircssion  that  he  was  directly  responsible  for 
it.  One  of  tbe  most  remarkable  scenes  in  lii.s- 
tory  was  enacted  in  Canterbury  Cathedial  when 
Henry  II.  of  England,  dressed  i;i  a  hair  shirt, 
laid  his'  head  upon  Thomas's  tomb,  and  was 
whipiied  by  the  monks  and  clergy  ]ire.sent.  But 
he  stooped  to  conquer.  He  was  a  more  powerful 
king  after  this  penance. 

Character.  ^ — Thomas  Becket  is  a  fine  study. 
He  came  at  a  time  when  tlie  country  was  ripe  fo» 
progress;  and,  while  chancellor,  he  hastened  the 
good  work ;  but  in  his  later  years  lie  tried  to 
stem  the  tide.  The  interest  of  his  life  for  most 
persons  begins  wdieii  he  leaves  the  pomp  of  the 
chancellor  for  the  asceticism  of  the  arclibisliop. 
It  was  of  deliberate  purpose  that  he  entered  into 
opposition  to  the  King.  He  dreamed  of  showing 
a  devotion  to  the  Catholic  Church  equal  to  that 
of  his  great  predecessor  Anselra;  but  alas!  he 
had  not  the  same  genius,  self-control,  and  tact. 
Anselm  and  Henry  I.  contended  for  sniiremacy, 
but  tlie  friendship  between  them  was  not  broken. 
ISeoket  contended  so  hotly,  tliat  he  was  in  open 
feud  with  his  sovereign.  Becket  was  the  first 
Ultramontane  of  his  day,  bent  upon  the  upliold- 
ing  of  papal  privileges,  more  eager  than  the  Pope 
about  them.  Curiously  enough,  he  disappointed 
his  two  patrons,  Theobald  (because  as  chancellor 
he  seemed  to  forget  the  Church),  and  Henry 
(because  as  archbishop  he  seemed  to  forget  the 
State).  Y'et,  in  serving  these  two  causes  so  faith- 
fully, he  was  not  inconsistent  witli  that  guiding 
principle  already  mentioned,  —  to  be  faithful 
to  his  master.  But  this  principle  surely  led  to 
great  changes  of  outward  conduct,  and  hence  to 
insinuations  of  hypocrisy.  Unfortunately,  the 
archiepiscopal  throne  was  not  fitted  to  him;  and 
hence  he  discharged  its  duties  in  a  strained 
fashion,  like  a  man  who  conscientiously  is  acting 
consciously  a  part.  It  is  also  important,  in 
weighing  his  character  as  archbishop,  to  bear  in 
mind  that  Thomas  died  for  tlie  rights  of  liis 
own  church,  —  for  the  right  of  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  and  none  otlier,  to  crown  the  King 
of  England,  but  that  tlie  struggle  began  upon 
quite  a  different  point,  viz.,  the  question  of  the 
exemption  of  the  clergy  from  temporal  jurisdic- 
tion. 

Lit.  —  Original  sources,  the  letters  and  con- 
temporary biographies  of  Becket  are  printed  in 
]\Ialerkds  for  the  llistorij  of  Thomas  Bectct,  Arch- 
bishop of  Cantcrbunj,  edited  by  James  Ci!.\igie 
Rohektson,  Canon  of  Canterbury;  published, 
under  tlie  direction  of  the  jNIaster  of  the  Rolls, 
1875  sqq.,  5th  vol.  1881.  This  i)ublication  super- 
sedes the  ill-arranged  collection  of  Dr.  J.  A. 
Giles  in  8  vols.,  Oxford,  1S4.5-46. 

Biof/ra/>hies. — J.  A.  Ciii.KS:  The  Life  and  Let- 
ters of  Thomas  (i  Becket,  London,  18iG,  2  vols.  ; 
F.  F.  Buss  :  Der  heil.  Tliouias  unci  sein  Kampf  fiir 
die  Freihed  der  Kirche,  Maiiiz,  1856  ;  Mokris  :  Lfe 
and  Marti/rdoni  of  St.  Tliomas  Becket,  London, 
1859;  .1.  C.  RoBEUTsON  :  Becket,  Archbishop  of 
Canterburi/ :  a  Biography,  London,  1859  (contains 
list  of  sources). 

Sketches. — .1.  A.  Fuoude  .  Life  and  Times  of 
Thomas   Becket,    London   and    Xew  York,  l.'J78 


BEDE. 


232 


BEDELL. 


(Originally  published  in  four  ai-ticles  in  the  Ninc- 
teenlli  Centunj.  the  series  was  criticised  by  Mr. 
Freeman,  in  the  Contemporary  Review  of  that 
year,  on  the  ground  of  gross  inaccuracy.  This 
attack  gave  rise  to  a  notable  exchange  of  articles 
between  the  distinguished  historians.)  See  also  in 
The  Jlimain.i  of  Rev.  R.  H.  Froudc,  Derby,  1839. 
4  vols.  :  1)  an  FIooic :  TAres  of  the  Archbishops  of 
Cwiterliitrji,  Loudon.  186(1  sqq.  ;  Lord  Cami'BELl: 
Lives  of  till-  <  hdnrellors  of  I'Jiu/lnnd,  London.  184G, 
7  vols. ;  Dean  Stanley  :  Historical  Memorials 
of  Canterhun/,  Gth  ed  ,  London.  1872;  H.  Rf.u- 
TER :  Alexander  III  ,  Leipzig.  1860-04,3  vols., 
and  the  general  church  histories  which  touch 
upon  iUc  pfiiiul.  s.\MrKi,  M.  JACKSON. 

BEDE,  or  Baeda,  The  Venerable  {lieda  I'enenr 
bills),  b.  674;  d.  May  26,  73.5;  was  from  Ids  seventh 
year  educated  in  the  Monastery  of  WVannouth  ; 
moved  afterwards  to  that  of  Jarrow.  where  he  was 
ordaiued  deacon  m  his  nineteenth,  and  presbyter 
in  his  thirtieth,  year,  and  remained  there  for  the 
rest  of  his  life,  dividing  his  time  between  devo- 
tional exercises  and  studies,  teaching,  and  writ- 
ing. What  we  know  of  his  life  we  owe  to  notices 
scattered  throughout  his  own  works,  especially 
Hist.  EccL,  V.  24.  and  to  a  letter  on  his  death  bj' 
one  of  his  pupils,  Cuthbert.  What  the  later 
vilce.  contain  is  nothing  but  worthless  fancies. 
See  Geiile:  Dis/intalio  de  IVh.  Bcil.,  Leyden, 
18-38;  K.  Weuxek  :  Beda  d  Khricurdirie,  Vienn.a, 
1875;  and  the  prefaces  and  introductions  to  the 
editions  of  Bede's  works  by  Stevenson  and  Giles. 
A  popular  account  is  given  in  the  series.  Fathers 
for  English  Readers,  by  G.  F.  Browne,  London, 
[1879]. 

The  works  of  Bede  range  over  the  whole  field 
of  knowledge  occupied  at  his  time,  —  exegesis, 
grammar,  metrics,  physics,  astronomy,  chronol- 
ogy, history,  and  biography.  At  the  end  of  his 
///.</.  I-lrrl.  he  gives  himself  a  list  of  his  works : 
but  much  has  become  lost,  much  has  been  re- 
placed by  spurious  matter,  and  much  is  still  left 
in  manuscript  The  earlier  editions  of  his  col- 
lected works —  Paris.  1544;  Basle,  1563;  Cologne, 
1612  —  are  completely  uncritical;  and  even  the 
latest,  by  Giles,  London,  1843  (12  vols.  8vo), 
and  in  Patrol.  Cursus,  Paris,  1850  (xc-xcv),  are 
unsatisfactory.  Of  his  Ecclesia.'<tical  Histori/, 
however,  there  are  good  editions  by  Smitii  (1722). 
Stevenson  (1838).' Moberly  (1869)  On  their 
time  all  these  works  exercised  a  great  iuHuence. 
They  were  copied  over  and  over  again  :  they  were 
found  in  every  lilirary  of  Europe.  Bede,  the 
humble  monk,  living  in  seclusion  in  a  small 
English  cloister,  was  indeed  the  teaclier  of  the 
whole  civilized  world. 

That  group  of  Bede's  vforks  which  has  the 
least  interest  comprises  his  poems,  of  which 
the  Liber  Epii/rammatum  is  lost,  and  the  Liber 
Hymttorum  spurious,  so  that  the  Vita  Cndberti 
and  a  few  minor  poems  are  the  oidy  specimens 
left;  his  books  I)e  Orthoi/rapkia,  De  Melrica  Arte, 
in  which  he  attempts  to  i>rove  the  superiority  of 
the  metaphorical  language  of  the  Bible  over  that 
of  the  (ireeks;  and  IJe  Natxira  Rerum,  a  com- 
pendium of  astronomy  and  geography,  establish- 
ing a  reconciliation  of  the  cosmogony  of  the 
Bible  with  that  of  the  classical  mythology. 
Much  more  interest  has  the  second  group,  the 
exegetical ;    though,  of    the    twenty-tivc    which 


Bede  himself  mentions,  the  commentaries  on 
Isaiah,  Daniel,  the  minor  prophets,  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah,  are  lost;  and  those  on  the  Kings, 
Job,  Genesis,  the  Pentateuch,  and  the  Acts,  are 
spurious.  lu  these  commentaries  the  allegorical 
explanation  has  completely  superseded  the  gram- 
matica-historical,  and  one  of  the  chief  demands 
of  the  method  is  a  fidl  quotation  of  the  views  of 
the  Fathers. 

Those  works  which  have  contributed  most  to 
Bede's  fame  are  his  historical  writings,  more  espe- 
cially his  Historia  Ecclesia.ttica  (Jenli.i  Britonum. 
It  was  tinished  in  731.  and  gives  the  political  and 
ecclesiastical  history  of  England,  from  Julius 
Cajsar  down  to  the  date  of  its  completion.  The 
introduction,  treating  the  period  befoi-e  the  con- 
version of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  is  a  mere  compila- 
tion from  Orosius,  Gildas,  Prosper  .Equit..  the 
Vila  N.  German!,  etc. ;  but  the  real  body  of  the 
work,  treating  the  period  from  596  to  731,  is  an 
independent  and  conscientious  study  of  docu- 
ments and  other  historical  sources,  and  has  made 
Bede  the  father  of  ecclesiastical  history  in  the 
English  language.  It  was  translated  from  Latin 
into  Saxon  by  King  Alfred.  Another  work,  Ve 
Ratione  Temporum.  is  a  complete  chronology,  to 
which  is  added  the  De  .Etatibiis  Seruli  Aix,  an 
outline  of  the  world's  history,  inspired  by  Au- 
gustine (iiermo  259  in  oct.  pasch.).  The  martyr- 
ologies  ascribed  to  Bede  ai'e  probablv  spurious. 

BEDELL,  William,  b.  Christmas,  lo71,  at  Black- 
Notley,  Essex,  Eng.  ;  d.  Feb.  7,  1642.  He  was 
a  scholar,  and  afterwards  a  fellow  of  Ennnanuel 
College,  Cambridge.  His  first  charge  was  at  St. 
Ednnnid's-Burv.  Suffolk;  but  after  five  years' .ser- 
vice he  went  to  \'enice  (1607)  as  chaplain  to  Sir 
Henry  Wottou,  where  he  nuide  the  acquaintance 
of  Father  Paolo  .Sarpi,  who  intrusted  to  his  care 
the  maunscript  of  his  Histori/  of  the  Council  of 
Trent.  In  1610  he  returned  to  St.  Edmund'-s- 
Bury.  and  theie  married  i\Irs.  Leah  Maw,  the 
widow  of  the  recorder  of  the  town,  who  "had 
five  small  children,  and  but  a  small  estate."  In 
1616,  since  "the  very  great  (Bury)  congregation 
found  a  great  defect  in  his  voice,"  he  removed 
to  Great  Horningshearth,  and  in  1627  he  was 
a]ipointed  "  Provost  of  the  College  of  the  Holy 
and  Cndivided  Trinity,  near  Dublin,  in  Ireland." 
Here  he  was  very  eHicient.  Without  his  knowl- 
edge, he  was  made,  in  1629.  bishop  of  the  united 
dioceses  of  Kilmore  and  Ardagh ;  but,  consist- 
ently with  his  views  on  episcopal  plurality,  he 
gave  up  the  latter  see  (1633).  His  position  was 
quite  trying,  owing  to  opposition  ;  but  amoug  the 
people  he  enjoyed  great  esteem,  and  he  reformed 
many  abuses.  He  also  h.ad  the  Old  Testament 
translateil  into  Irish  (it  was  not  ]>ublishe(l  until 
1685).  When  the  Irish  rebellion  of  Oct.  23,  1641, 
broke  out,  his  home  was  a  refuge  for  the  neigh- 
boring English:  but  he  was  kept  there  a  sort  of 
prisoner  liy  the  insnrgent.s,  until  Christmas,  when 
Ednuind  O'Ueilly  arrested  him,  and  conveye<l  the 
whole  family  to  Longhwatcr  C^astle,  where,  how- 
ever, they  w-ere  well  treated.  After  the  Christmas 
holidays,  he  was  reli'ased.  and  went  to  live  with 
the  Kev.  Deimis  Sheridan,  and  there  he  died. 
He  wrote  a  large  tieati.se  on  the  questions, 
"  Where  was  our  religion  before  Luther?"  and, 
"What  became  of  our  ancestors  who  died  in 
Popery?"       His     IJfe,    with    the    Letters    beticeet> 


SfjHiorilljA* 


233 


BEELZEBUB. 


WwUlexu'cirth  and  Bedell,  vv'as  published  by  Hishop 
Burnet,  London,  1()S5;  liy  Dr.  W.  .).'  Monck 
Jlason,  London,  l«l;i;  best  his  Life,!'!)  his  Son, 
edited  by  T.  W.  Jones,  Camden  Society,  LS72. 

BEECHER,  Lyman,  b.  at  New  Haven,  Oct.  12, 
1775  ;  d.  at  Brooklyn,  .Ian.  10,  1803;  was  educated 
at  Yale  College  ;  ordained  pastor  of  Kast  Ilanip- 
ton,  L.I.,  in  Sept.  5,  170!J  ;  removed  in  1810  to 
Litchfield,  Conn.,  and  thence^,  in  1820,  to  Boston; 
was  chosen  president,  and  professor  of  theolojjy  of 
Lane  Theological  Seminary,  C'inciimati,  in  18:32; 
returned  in  1852  to  Boston,  and  spent  the  last 
days  of  his  life  in  Brooklyn.  He  was  pre-eminent 
as  a  preacher  for  an  unconmion  union  of  imagina- 
tion, fervor,  and  logic.  At  the  same  time  he  was 
a  profound  student  of  theology,  of  which  he  was 
professor  for  twenty  years.  Yet  his  results  were 
never  presented  in  scholastic  and  technical  forms, 
but  in  the  language  of  real  life.  He  developed  a 
theology  to  be  preached  for  the  conversion  and 
sanctification  of  men,  and  for  the  regeneration  of 
human  society.  His  theological  system  is  most 
fully  developed  in  his  Views  of  Theology,  the  Faith 
once  delivered  to  the  Saints,  and  his  Reply  to  a 
Reoiew  of  it,  and  in  The  Bible  a  Code  of  Lairs.  In 
the  great  theological  and  ecclesiastical  controversy 
that  shoolc  New  EngLand,  and  divided  the  Pres- 
byterian Church,  he  took  a  prominent  part.  [He 
was  a  man  of  originality  and  gi'eat  force  of  char- 
acter, foremost  and  fervid  in  denouncing  duel- 
ling, intemperance,  and  every  form  of  innnorality. 
His  Six  Sermons  on  Intemperance  exertud  a  world- 
wide influence.  His  nunistry  was  eminently 
blessed  to  the  conversion  of  souls,  and  has  been 
continued  by  his  children,  of  whom  Edward, 
Charles,  Henry  Ward,  Thomas  K.,  Catharine, 
Harriet  (Mrs.  Stowe),  have  attained  great  prond- 
nence  in  their  respective  lines  of  work.]  His 
Autobiography  and  Correspondence,  edited  by 
Charles  Beecher,  appeared  in  2  vols.,  in  New 
Y'ork,  1864-65,  and  his  Works,  in  3  vols.,  Boston, 

1852.  EDWARD   BKECHER. 

BEE-CULTURE    AMONG    THE     HEBREWS. 

There  are  and  have  always  been  many  wild  bees 
in  Palestine,  which  hive  in  crevices  of  rocks,  old 
trees,  and  the  like  (Deut.  xxxii.  13 ;  Judg.  xiv. 
8 ;  1  Sam.  xiv.  25  sqq. ;  cf .  Herod,  5,  14).  Be- 
cause their  sting  is  painful  and  dangerous,  hostile 
armies  are  compared  to  them  (Deut.  i.  44;  Ps. 
cxviii.  12 ;  Isa.  vii.  18 ;  cf .  Homer's  Iliad,  2,  87 
sqq.).  There  were  also  domestic  bees,  which 
were  handled  by  the  bee-keepers,  and  obeyed  the 
customary  hissing  and  whistling  (cf.  the  Com- 
mentaries on  Isa.  V.  26  ;  Zech.  x.  8).  According 
to  Philo,  some  of  the  Essenes  devoted  themselves 
to  bee-cidture  (Mang.  ed.,  II.  p.  633,  Bohn's  trans, 
vol.  iv.  p.  220) ;  and  this  industry  is  also  men- 
tioned in  the  Tahuud.  Honey  is  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  a  favorite  article  of 
food  (2  Sam.  xvii.  29  ;  Ps.  xix.  11 ;  Prov.  xxiv. 
13,  XXV.  16  sqq. ;  Cant.  v.  1 ;  Ezek.  xvi.  13;  Luke 
xxiv.  42).  "  Flowing  with  milk  and  honey  "  was 
the  phrase  descriptive  of  a  rich  land  (Exod.  iii.  8 ; 
Isa.  vii.  15 ;  Jer.  xi.  5  ;  Ezek.  xx.  6)  ;  also  "  a  land 
of  oil,  olive,  and  honey  "  (Deut.  viii.  8 ;  2  Kings 
xviii.  32).  We  find  honey  introduced  in  similes 
(Prov.  V.  3,  xviii.  24  ;  Cant.  iv.  11)  ;  and  Deborah, 
which  means  "bee,"  was  a  favorite  female  name. 
1^51,  d'vash,  usually  rendered  "  honey,"  occa- 
.'iionally   means   rather   "  debs ; "   i.e.,   the   sh-up 


made  of  lioiled  grape-must,  and  which  is  an 
important  article  of  connnerce  in  the  East  (Gen. 
xliii.  11 ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  17.)  Honey  might  not  be 
used  in  meat-offerings  (Lev.  ii.  11  sq.),  not  be- 
cause bees  were  unclean,  for  a  tithe  of  honey  was 
on  one  occasion  paid  to  the  jiriests  (2  Chron. 
xxxi.  5),  but  either  because  it  .so  quickly  soured, 
or  else  because  it  emitted  an  offensive  odor  when 
burnt.  See  Lf.nckkke:  Canaan,  [Thomson: 
Land  and  Book ;  Kitto  :  Physical  History  of  Pal- 
estine; RoiUNSON  :  Later  Biblical  Researches ,  Tris- 
tram :  Land  of  Israel}.  RUETSCHI. 

BEEL'ZEBUB  (properly,  in  all  the  New- Testa- 
ment passages,  —  Matt.  x.  25,  xii.  24,  27 ;  ]\Lark  iii. 
22;  Luke  xi.  15,  18,  19, — Beelzebul),  the  name  of 
the  prince  of  the  demons ;  i.e.,  of  Satan,  and 
means  "the  Baal,  master  of  the  house."  Our 
Lord,  in  Matt.  x.  25,  plays  upon  the  word.  But 
we  are  justified  in  tracing  Beelzebul  to  the  much 
older  name  Baal  Zebub,  which  is  foimd  in  the 
Old  Testament  as  tliat  of  aii  idol. 

1.  Baal  Zeliub  was  lionored  in  Ekron,  where 
he  had  a  temple  and  an  oracle  (2  Kings  i.  3). 
The  name  means  "lord  of  flies."  In  classical 
mythology,  th(>re  was  a  god  who  protected  from 
flies.  It  is  related  that  Hercules  banished  the 
fJies  from  Olympus  by  erecting  a  shrine  to  Zeus 
Apomuios  {A  verier  of  flies)  ;  and  the  Romans 
called  Hercules  Apomuios.  A  similar  deity  is 
mentioned  in  different  places;  the  excuse  for 
such  worship  being  the  plague  flies  cause  in  those 
warm  countries. 

The  name  "lord  of  flics"  compels  us  to  con- 
sider him  the  god  of  the  sender  of,  as  well  as  the 
protector  from,  flies ;  and,  further,  as  Baal  Zebub 
is  identical  with  the  sun-god,  we  may  conjecture 
his  name  came  from  the  fact  that  flies  are  most 
numerous  in  midsummer,  when  the  sun  is  warm- 
est. And  that  he  had  an  oracle  is  to  be  explained 
by  a  substitution  of  effect  for  cause.  Flies  come 
obedient  to  certain  atmospheric  conditions;  and 
so  the  god  was  considered  to  have  caused  these 
conditions,  and  so  at  length  his  control  would  be 
extended  to  other  events,  and  accordingly  he  was 
consulted.  See  Baal.  [More  probably  because 
flies  were  believed,  at  all  events  by  the  Baby- 
lonians, to  reveal  the  future.  See  Lenormant, 
La  Divination,  p.  95.] 

2.  Beelzebul  was  early  identified  with  Baal 
Zebub ;  and,  as  was  so  often  the  case,  turned  into 
a  bad  demon,  in  accordance  with  the  later  Jewish 
ideas.  Since  Lightfoot  (Horce  Heb.  in  loco),  it  has 
been  common  to  say  that  the  name  of  the  demon 
Beelzebul  was  pm-posely  made  out  of  Beelzebub, 
in  order  to  express  contempt  and  horror;  i.e., 
"  lord  of  dung,"  instead  of  "  lord  of  flies."  But, 
inasmuch  as  such  a  name  for  Satan  does  not  occur 
outside  of  the  New  Testament,  it  is  better  to  seek 
its  derivation  in  the  old  Ekronic  worship,  which 
might,  in  the  New-Testament  times,  have  still 
existed.  Beelzebul  may  therefore  be  looked 
upon  as  precisely  the  same  name  as  Beelzebub, 
except  that  the  last  syllable  was  softened,  and 
therefore  as  ha%ang  the  same  meaning.  But  why 
did  such  a  god  become  the  head  of  the  demons  ? 
Because  the  fly  is  an  unclean  and  annoying  thing ; 
and  so  the  connection  of  Baal  with  the  flies 
showed  that  he  was  in  a  sense  the  most  unclean 
god,  and  therefore  worthy  of  the  greatest  con- 
tempt.    The  rabbins,  according  to  Seldeu,  said, 


BEER. 


234 


BELGIC. 


that,  while  flies  came  in  clouds  about  the  heathen 
sacrifices,  thev  never  approached  the  Hebrew. 
See  Literature",  imder  B.\al.   wolf  baudissin. 

BE'ER  (tvell).  1.  Name  of  a  station  of  the 
Israelites  upon  the  desert,  to  the  north  of  jSIoab 
(Num.  xxi.  16,  18)  ;  perhaps  identical  with  Beer- 
elini,  "the  well  of  the  heroes"  (Isa.  xv.  8).  2. 
The  place  in  Judah  to  which  Jotliani  fled  from 
Abiraelech  (Judg.  ix.  21). 

BEE'ROTH  {llie  icells),  one  of  the  fom-  Ilivite 
cities  to  make  a  treaty  with  Joshua  (Josh.  ix. 
17),  now  called  el-Bireh ;  the  fii-st  resting-place 
upon  the  route  from  Jerusalem  to  Nablus,  and 
tlierefore  not  unlikely,  as  tradition  says,  the  place 
where  Mary  discovered  that  the  child  Jesus  was 
not  "in  the  company"  (Luke  ii.  -14). 

BE'ER-SHE'BA  (icell  of  seven  or  of  the  oath)  was 
situated  at  the  entrance  of  the  desert,  and  at  the 
extreme  limit  of  the  land  of  Judah ;  hence  the 
expression  "all  Israel  from  Dan  to  Beer-sheba." 
It  is  named  thirty-three  times  in  the  Bible,  only 
in  the  Old  Testament.  It  has  been  a  centre  of 
religious  interest  from  the  earliest  times.  There 
Abraham  lived  (Gen.  xxi.  33)  :  indeed,  by  his 
transaction  with  .\bimelech  (25-33)  the  name  was 
given.  From  there  went  Abraham  to  sacrifice 
Isaac  (xxii.  1,  cf.  19).  Isaac  lived  there  (xxvi. 
33).  After  the  conquest  it  formed  part  of  Judah. 
Elijah  fled  thither  (1  Kings  xix.  3).  It  was  a 
.seat  of  idolatrous  worsliip  (Amos  v.  5,  viii.  14).  In 
the  time  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome  it  was  a  large 
village  or  town  fortified  by  the  Romans.  It  was, 
in  the  middle  ages,  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  attached 
to  Jerusalem.  It  then  faded  out  of  notice,  but 
in  the  fourteenth  century  was  rediscovered,  but 
as  a  ruin.  To-day  it  bears  the  name  Bir-el-Seha, 
interpreted  by  the  Arabs,  "  the  well  of  the  lion," 
and  has  two  large,  fine  wells,  surrounded  by 
troughs  used  for  watering  flocks  and  herds,  —  so 
patriarchal  is  the  manner  of  life  of  the  siuTound- 
ing  nomads. 

BECHARDS  and  BEGUINES.  In  the  latter 
part  of  the  twelfth  centmy,  associations  of  women 
were  formed  in  several  cities  of  the  Netherlands, 
living  together  in  a  common  house,  and  leading  a 
pious  life,  under  the  supermtendence  of  a  mar/is- 
tra,  and  according  to  certain  simple  rules,  but 
making  no  vows.  Such  women  were  called  Be- 
ghinfe  or  Ber/uttm.  The  origin  of  these  associa- 
tions was  owing  to  that  tending  towards  a  life  of 
contemplation,  seclusion,  and  self-sacrifice,  which 
prevailed  throughout  tlie  twelfth  and  tliirteenth 
century;  l)ut  no  donbt  the  crusades  also  played 
a  part,  depriving  many  wives  of  their  husliands, 
and  preventing  many  virguis  from  marrj-ing. 
The  origin  of  the  name  is  very  doubtful,  some 
deriving  it  from  Lambert  le  Begue,  a  priest  wlio 
lived  at  Liege  about  1180,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  the  founder  of  these  associations ;  others, 
from  an  Alsatian  word,  he(j(jf.n,"io  beg;"  others, 
again,  from  .St.  Begga,  the  daughter  of  Pepin  of 
Landen,  and  the  supposed  patron  saint  of  the 
associations.  The  form  Ber/uttf  was  originally  a 
nickname,  proliably  derived  from  the  term  JBei 
Gott,  much  u.sed  liy  the  members. 

In  the  l>eginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  sim- 
ilar associations  of  men  were  formed  ;  one  existed 
at  Louvain,  in  1220.  The  members  of  the.se 
associations  were  called  Bcgini,  or  Ber/hardi.  In 
1300  such  an  association  was  formed  at  Antwei-p, 


for  the  purpose  of  takiitg  care  of  the  poor,  nurs- 
ing the  sick,  and  burying  the  dead.  Its  mem- 
ber were  often  called  Alexions.  after  tlieir  patron 
saint  Alexius;  or  Cellitce,  from  (.-eUa.  "a  grave.' 
The  people  also  called  them  Lollards,  from  lollen 
"  to  sing  "  or  "  to  pray." 

As  these  associations  came  in  connection  with 
the  mendicant  orders,  and  their  members  began 
to  wander  tlirough  the  countries  begging,  heresies 
crept  in ;  and  from  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth, 
and  more  especially  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
the  name  Beghard  became  s^monymous  with  here- 
tic ;  in  Germany,  with  the  "  Brethren  of  the  Free 
Spirit ;  "  in  France  and  Italy,  with  the  "  Fra- 
tricelli."  Popes  and  bishops  persecuted  them.  In 
France  and  the  regions  along  the  Rhine  they 
were  often  burnt.  At  the  C'omicil  of  Vienna 
(1311)  Clement  V.  issued  two  bulls  suppressing 
both  the  Beghards  and  the  BegTiines.  John 
XXIL,  however,  confined  the  effect  of  the  bulls 
to  the  heretical  members  of  the  associations :  the 
Beguines  he  protected,  both  in  the  Netherlands 
and  in  Italy.  Nevertheless,  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, the  associations  came  into  ill  repute  every- 
where, or.  account  of  the  frivolous  lives  their 
members  led ;  and  their  numbers  decreased.  At 
present  there  are  only  a  few  beguinagice  left  in 
Belgium,  and  they  are  nearly  empty. 

Lit.  —  MosHKiM  :  De  Beghardis  et  Beguiannhus, 
Leipzig,  1790 ;  IIallmaxn  :  Die  Geschiclite  des 
Ursprungs  der  belgiichen  Beghinen,  Berlin,  1843; 
Chr.  Schmidt:  Die  Strassbm-ger  Beguinenhditser 
im  Mittelalter.  in  Alsatia,  1859. 

BEKKER,  Balthasar,  b.  in  West  Frie.sland, 
March  3(1,  1G34;  d.  there  June  11,  1698;  was 
pastor  at  Franecker,  and  afterw.ards,  since  1679, 
in  Amsterdam,  but  was  dismissed  1692.  Already 
his  De  vaste  Spysen  der  Vohnaaktcn  (•'  Strong  Fooil 
for  the  Perfect "),  1676,  gave  offence,  and  roused 
a  suspicion  of  Socinianism.  In  1680  followed 
Ondersoek  van  de  Betekenige  der  Kometen,  ridicul- 
ing the  superstitious  fears  which  the  comet  of 
that  year  called  forth,  and  made  a  still  greater 
sensation  and  gi-eater  scandal.  But  finally  his 
De  betoverde  Wecrcld  (1691),  in  which  he  denied 
the  existence  of  sorcery,  magic,  possessions  by 
the  Devil,  and  of  the  Devil  himself,  caused  the 
consistory  of  Amsterdam  to  institute  a  formal. 
process  against  him,  and  he  was  deposed. 

BEL.     See  Baai.. 

BEL  AND  DRAGON.  See  Apocrypha,  Old 
Testament. 

BELGIC  CONFESSION,  The,  w.is  written  in 
French  in  1561  by  Guido  de  Brfes  (1523-67), 
aided  by  Adrien  de  Saravia  (profes.sor  of  theology 
in  Leyden,  afterwards  in  Cambridge,  wliere  he 
died  1613),  II.  Jlodetus  (for  .some  time  chaplain 
of  AVilliam  of  Orange),  and  G.  Wiugen.  It  was 
revi.sed  l)y  Fr.ancis  .lunius  of  Bourges  (l.')45- 
1602),  a  student  of  Calvin's,  pastor  of  a  AValloon 
congregation  at  .\ntwerp,  and  afterwards  ] profess- 
or of  theologv'  at  T^eyden,  who  abridged  the 
sixteenth  article,  and  .sent  a  copv  to  (ieneva  and 
other  churches  for  approval.  It  was  probably 
printed  in  1562,  or  at  all  events  in  1566,  and 
.afterwards  translated  into  Dutch,  German,  .and 
Latin.  It  w.as  presented  to  Philip  II.  in  1562, 
with  the  vain  liope  of  securing  toleration.  It 
was  formally  adopted  by  svnods  .at  Antwerp 
(156C),    Wcsel    (1508),    ICinden     (1-571),     Dort 


BELGIUM. 


235 


BELGIUM. 


(1574),  Middlebuff;  (1581),  again  by  tlie  great 
synod  of  Dort,  April  29,  1(J19.  But  inasnnich  as 
the  Arininians  liad  demanded  pai'tial  changes, 
and  tlie  text  liad  licconie  coiTujit,  the  synod  of 
Dort  submitted  the  Freneli,  Latin,  and  Dutcli 
texts  to  a  careful  revision.  Since  tliat  time  tlie 
Belgic  Confession,  together  witli  tlie  Heidelberg 
Catechism,  has  been  the  I'ecognized  synihol  of 
the  Reformed  Churches  in  Holland  and  Belgium, 
and  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  in  Amer- 
ica. 

The  Belgic  Confession  contain.s  thirty-seven 
articles,  and  follows  the  order  of  the  Galilean 
Confession,  but  is  less  polemical  and  full  and 
elaborate,  especially  on  the  Trinity,  the  Incarna- 
tion, the  Church,  and  the  Sacraments.  It  is, 
upon  the  whole,  the  best  symbolical  statement  of 
the  Calvinistic  system  of  doctrine,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Westminster  Confe.ssion. 

The  French  text  must  lie  considered  as  the 
original.  Of  the  first  edition  of  1.5G1  or  1.562  no 
copies  are  known.  The  synod  of  Antwerp,  in 
September,  1580,  ordered  a  precise  parchment 
copy  of  the  revised  text  of  .Junius  to  be  made  tor 
its  archives,  which  cojiy  had  to  be  signed  by 
every  new  minister.  This  manuscript  has  always 
been  regarded  in  the  Belgic  churches  as  the 
authentic  document.  The  first  Latin  translation 
was  made  from  Junius*  text  by  Beza,  or  under 
his  direction,  for  the  Hannonia  Confessionum, 
Geneva,  1581.  The  same  passed  into  the  first 
edition  of  the  Corpus  el  Syntagma  Confessionum, 
(Jeueva,  1612.  A  second  Latin  translation  was 
prepared  by  Festus  Hommius  for  the  synod  of 
Dort,  1618,  revised  and  approved  1619  ;  and  from 
it  was  made  the  excellent  English  translation  in 
use  in  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  in  America. 
It  appeared  in  Greek  1623,  1653,  and  166(1,  at 
Utrecht. 

Lit.  —  H.  Grotius  :  Annates  ei  Hist,  de  rebus 
Belgicis,  Amstel.,  1658;  Gerh.  Brandt:  His- 
torie  der  Reformatie  in  en  omtrent  de  Nedcrlanden, 
Amst.,  1671-74,  4  vols.  (English  translation  by 
Chamberlayne,  London,  1720-23,  4  vols.)  ;  Ypey 
EX  Deriiout  :  Geschiedenissen  der  Nederlandsche 
Hervonnde  Kerb.,  Breda,  1819-27,  4  vols. ; 
ScHAFF  :  Ci-eeds  of  Cliristeudom,  vo\.  I.  pp.  502- 
508,  vol.  III.  pp.  .383-436. 

BELCIUM.  The  introduction  of  Christianity 
in  those  territories  which  in  1830  were  formed 
into  the  kingdom  of  Belgium,  is  obscure  :  at  the 
time  of  Constantine,  however,  several  episcopal 
sees  had  been  e.stablished  here.  The  salient 
points  in  the  history  of  the  Belgic  Church 
before  the  Reformation  are:  the  lirilliant  part 
which  the  Belgic  knights  played  in  the  first  cru- 
sades ;  the  rise  of  such  sects  as  the  Beghards  and 
Beguines,  the  Lollai-ds,  and  the  Fralres  Communis 
Vit(e,  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  (see  titles); 
and  the  appearance  of  Ruysbroeck  and  Erasmus. 
The  first  trace  of  an  open  sympathy  with  Luther 
was  found  in  an  Augustine  monastery  in  Ant- 
werp, whose  prior,  Jacob  Spreng,  was  carried  a 
prisoner  to  Brussels  in  1521,  and  compelled  to 
retract.  In  1522  the  whole  monastery  was  broken 
up;  and  in  1523  two  of  its  monks,  Henri  Yoes 
and  Jean  Esch,  were  burnt  in  Brussels.  But  in 
spite  of  very  harsh  edicts,  —  Worms,  1521,  Malines, 
1526,  Brussels,  1529,  1531,  etc.,  —  preventing  the 
introduction  and  sale  of  Protestant  wi-itings,  pur- 


sviing  and  punishing  Protestant  preachers,  etc., 
the  Reformation  spread,  especially  among  the 
lower  and  middle  classes.  Marguerite  of  .Savoy 
was  not  a  fanatic,  and  Maria  of  Hungary  was 
even  suspected  of  favoring  the  movement.  The 
excesses,  however,  of  the  Anabaptists,  and  the 
extravagances  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit, 
liurt  the  Protestant  cause  even  in  the  eyes  of  its 
friends,  and  justified  the  government  in  applying 
more  effective  means  of  resistance.  By  an  ordi- 
nance of  April  20,  15.50,  Charles  V.  introduced 
the  SpanLsh  hupiisition  in  the  provinces;  and. 
although  the  opposition  was  so  unanimous  and 
decided  that  the  name  of  the  institution  had  to 
be  altered,  the  institution  itself  was  actually 
established  and  put  in  operation  by  Philip  II. 
Nevertheless,  the  Belgic  Confession  (see  title) 
was  published  in  1562,  sent  to  Philip  II.  in  1563, 
and  accepted  by  the  synod  of  Antwerp  1566.  In 
1567  the  Duke  of  Alva  arrived,  and  the  innuedi 
ate  result  was  absolute  suppression  on  the  one 
side,  open  rebellion  on  the  other.  Alva's  suc- 
cessor, however,  Alexander  of  Parma,  succeeded 
by  the  treaty  of  Arras  (May  17,  1579)  in  separat- 
ing the  southern  provinces  from  the  northern, 
and  in  reconciling  them  with  Spain ;  and  from 
this  moment  Belgium  became  the  scene  of  a  most 
violent  Roman-Catholic  re-action.  When  Joseph 
II.  published  his  edict  of  toleration,  Oct.  13,  1781, 
the  whole  people  arose,  inflamed  by  the  .Jesuits 
and  the  priests,  and  a  revolution  was  about  to 
break  out  again,  but  this  time  against,  and  not 
for,  religious  freedom.  Again,  in  1815,  when  the 
southern  and  northern  provinces  had  been  united 
into  one  kingdom,  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Bel- 
gium, fearing  the  contact  with  Protestant  Hol- 
land, used  every  kind  of  intrigiie,  from  the  most 
insidious  seductions  in  the  royal  cal.iinets,  to  the 
grossest  play  upon  popular  passions  in  the  streets, 
in  order  to  bring  about  a  separation.  In  1830 
they  succeeded. 

According  to  the  census  of  1846,  the  last  which 
paid  any  regard  to  the  difference  of  confession, 
there  were,  out  of  4,337,196  inhabitants,  only 
10,323  non-catholics.  Since  that  time,  the  popu- 
lation has  increased  to  5,403,006 ;  but  the  pro- 
portion between  the  various  confessions  has  not 
changed.-  There  are  hardly  more  than  10,000 
Protestants  and  1,000  Jews  in  the  country.  At 
the  head  of  the  Roman-Catholic  Church  stands 
the  Archbishop  of  Malines,  and  by  his  side  five 
bishops, — of  Liege,  Naniur,  Tournaj',  Ghent,  and 
Bruges.  But  the  archbishop  is  oidy  an  adminis- 
trative centre.  The  bishops  stand  innnediately 
under  the  Pope,  and  their  power  is  very  great. 
They  have  the  right  of  all  ecclesiastical  appoint- 
ments in  their  dioceses,  and  all  officials  are  ad 
nutum  ainuL'iblles.  The  church  has  six  theological 
seminaries  and  a  theological  faculty  in  the  L'ni- 
versity  of  Louvain  :  in  the  three  other  universi- 
ties—  Ghent,  Lifege,  and  Brussels  —  there  are  no 
theological  faculties.  The  Protestants  are  organ- 
ized into  ten  congregations,  with  fourteen  minis- 
ters, and  governed  by  ii  synod,  which  assembles 
every  year.  According  to  the  constitution  of 
1830,  the  Church  is  wholly  independent  of  the 
State.  Every  denomination  has  the  right  of  pub- 
lic worship,  but  education  has  been  until  lately 
completely  controlled  by  the  Roman-Catholic 
priests   and   the   .lesuits.     The   emancipation  of 


BELIAL. 


236 


BELLAMY. 


the  school  has  for  several  years  been  the  burning 
question  of  Belgian  politics,  tlie  cause  of  cabinet 
crises,  and  riots  in  the  streets ;  and  the  victory  of 
the  liberal  party  is  by  no  means  assm-ed,  although 
recently  great  strides  have  been  taken  in  this 
direction. 

BE'LIAL  (worthlessness),  correct  form  Beliar, 
is  given  once  in  the  New  Testament  (2  Cor.  vi. 
15)  as  tlie  name  of  Satan  (the  Peshito  has  "  Sa- 
tan ").  But  in  the  Old  Testament,  Belial  never 
has  this  meaning:  there  it  is  an  appellation, 
"worthlessness,"  "destruetiveness,"  almost  always 
in  connection  with  a  word  setting  forth  the  per- 
son or  thing  whose  worthlessness  or  wickedness 
is  spoken  of ;  as,  "  num  of  Belial, '  most  fre- 
quently, '■  son  of  Belial,"  "  men  of  Belial," 
"daughter  of  Belial,"  further,  "thoughts  of  Be- 
lial," etc. ;  and  the  adjunct  is  occasionally  omitted, 
as  in  2  .Sam.  xxiii.  6;  Job  xxxiv.  18;  Nah.  i. 
15;  when  the  word  means  the  "bad,"  the  "de- 
stroyer," the  "  wicked."  The  etymology  of  the 
word  is  h'lee,  "  without,"  and  yah-ol,  "  profit," 
either  from  yah-al,  "  to  get  on  in  the  world " 
(only  ill  the  IHphil,  "  usefid  "),  or,  better,  from  ah- 
lah,  to  "  ascend  :  therefore  it  means,  to  be  "  worth- 
less." Although  thus  originally  not  a  proper 
name,  but  an  appellation,  in  the  later  Jewish  and 
Christian  literatiu-e  it  passed  over  into  a  name 
for  Satan,  not  as  the  "worthless,"  but  as  the 
"destroyer."  WOLF  B.VUDISSIX. 

BELKNAP,  Jeremy,  b.  at  Boston,  June  4, 1744 ; 
d.  there,  June  20,  1798;  was  educated  in  Harvard 
College,  and  ordained  pastor  of  the  Congrega- 
tional society  of  Dover,  N.ll.,  1767,  and  removed 
in  1787  to  Boston.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  tlie  Massachusetts  Historical  Society,  and 
^\Tote,  beside  a  number  of  sermons  and  Disserta- 
tions upon  the  Character  and  Resurrection  of  Christ, 
1795,  a  Hislori/  of  New  Hampshire,  3  vols.,  17S4- 
92,  and  American  Biography,  2  vols.,  1794-98. 

BELLAMY,  Joseph,  was  born  in  New  Cheshire, 
Conn.,  Feb.  20,  1719.  He  died  at  Bethlem 
[Bethlehem],  Conn.,  March  6,  1790,  in  tlie 
seventy-second  year  of  his  age,  and  the  fiftieth 
of  liis  ininistry  in  that  place. 

In  his  boyhood  he  was  remarkable  for  his  love 
of  study,  and  his  proficiency  in  it.  ^\'hen  only 
sixteen  years  of  age,  he  was  graduated  at  Yale 
College.  His  religious  zeal,  his  taste  and  tem- 
perament, were  signs  of  his  call  to  enter  the 
ministerial  office.  In  part  he  [inrsued  his  theo- 
logical studies  with  Jonathan  Edwards  at  North- 
ampton, Ma-ss.  ^\'hen  he  was  about  the  age  of 
eighteen  years,  he  was  approbated  as  a  preacher 
by  the  New  Haven  -Vssociation ;  and  on  the 
2d  of  April,  1740,  soon  after  he  had  entered 
his  twenty-first  year,  he  was  ordained  as  pastor 
of  the  church  at  Bethlem.  Between  1740  and 
1744  "  the  great  awakening "  was  in  progress 
tinoughout  New  England.  Young  Bellamy  threw 
his  whole  soul  into  this  work ;  itinerated  as  an 
evangelist  among  the  churches;  in  two  years 
preached  four  hundri'd  and  fifty-eight  times  in 
two  hundred  and  tliirteen  places.  Many  thought 
him  to  be,  on  the  \vh<)l(>,  equal  to  A\'hitefield  in 
his  f)OWer  over  a  thoughtful  audience.  The 
sources  of  his  power  lay  in  his  majestic  ])resence, 
his  expressive  voice,  his  vivid  imagination,  his 
deep  and  earnest  feeling,  his  dramatic  style  of 
thought  and  speech,  his  logical  as  well  as  rhetori- 


cal skill,  his  clear  apprehension  of  divine  truth, 
his  pungent  appeals  to  the  conscience  of  his 
hearers,  his  fervid  and  honest  piety.  The  im- 
pression that  he  was  domineering  arose,  in  part, 
from  his  commanding  manner.  The  impression 
that  he  was  harsh  and  rough  arose,  in  part,  from 
the  fact  that  he  was  frank  and  outspoken.  He 
was  a  character,  and  the  faults  commonlj-  ascribed 
to  him  were  a  natural  result  of  his  marked  indi- 
viduality. He  struggled  against  them.  In  de- 
.spite  of  them  he  retained  a  well-nigh  unbounded 
influence  over  those  who  knew  him.  In  ecclesi- 
astical councils  his  words  were  prized  as  emi- 
nently judicious.  His  judgment  was  honored 
by  such  literarj'  men  as  presidents  Burr,  Davies, 
Finley,  Wheelock;  such  ministers  as  Rodgers, 
Blair,  Brainerd,  Davenport,  Tennent.  He  and 
Hopkins  and  Edwards  were  united  in  a  trium- 
virate. In  1754  he  was  called,  not  unanimously, 
to  become  the  pastor  of  the  first,  then  the  only, 
Presbjierian  church  in  New- York  City.  The 
Consociation  refused  to  dismiss  him.  The  call 
was  afterwards  renewed,  and  again  declined. 

He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  American  pastor 
who  established  a  "  school  of  the  prophets  "  in  his 
own  house  (^Bibliotheca  Sacra,  vol.  XXXVIII.  pp. 
372,  373).  As  a  theological  teacher  he  was  noted 
for  his  skill  in  detecting  sophistry,  his  thorough 
acquaintance  with  the  distuictive  principles  of 
Calvinism,  the  pithy-  and  sententious  criticisms 
which  he  passed  upon  his  pupils.  Among  these 
pupils  were  Dr.  Jonathan  Edwards,  Dr.  John 
Smalley,  Dr.  Samuel  Spring  of  Newburyport, 
Dr.  Ephraim  Judson,  Dr.  Levi  Hart,  Dr.  Joseph 
Eckley  of  the  Old  South  Chinch,  Boston.  Upon 
men  like  these  the  depth  and  earnestness  of  his 
religious  character  made  a  profound  impression. 
Pupils  who  were  not  candidates  for  the  minis- 
try were  also  .sent  to  him.  Among  these  was 
Aaron  Burr,  the  future  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  son  of  Bellamy's  life-long 
friend  Aaron  Burr,  president  of  Nassau  Hall. 
The  pupils  who  were  committed  to  his  care  re- 
membered him  with  gratitude  for  his  wit,  which 
was  pregnant  with  wisdom.  A  volume  of  lacon- 
ics might  have  been  collected  from  his  conversa- 
tions with  them. 

The  published  writings  of  Bellamy  fail  to  give 
an  adequate  idea  of  his  eloquence  in  the  pulpit. 
They  develop,  however,  his  keen  insight  into 
human  nature,  his  skill  in  unravelling  the  intrica- 
cies of  spurious  religion,  his  fidelity  to  his  con- 
science, his  zeal  for  the  purity  of  tlie  Church. 
They  are  mainly  devoted  to  the  defence  of  Cal- 
vinism against  Antinomianism  on  the  one  hand, 
and  .Vrminianism  on  the  other;  al.so  to  the 
delineation  of  true  piety  as  distinguished  from 
fanaticism  on  the  one  hand,  and  latitu<linarian- 
ism  on  the  other.  Some  of  his  writings  were 
reprinted  in  Great  Britain,  and  received  high 
commendation  from  such  men  as  .\ndrew  Fidler 
and  .Idlm  Kyland.  Througli  the  influence  of 
Dr.  .Idhii  Erskine  and  the  Earl  of  Buehan,  two 
of  Bellamy's  warm  admirers  in  .Scotland,  he 
received  in'  1708  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity 
from  the  University  of  .Aberdeen.  Some  of  ids 
writings  have  passed  through  several  editions, 
and  in  1811  were  collected  and  republished  in 
New  York.  The  edition  consists  of  three  octavo 
volumes  (pp.  540,  544,  546),  and  is  prefaced  by 


BELLARMINE. 


237 


BELLS. 


iJr.  Noah  Benedict's  seiiiion,  and  an  appendix  to 
the  same,  delivered  at  the  funeral  of  Hellaniy- 
A  highly  enijihatic  recommendation  is  jircfixcd 
to  tlie  edition  by  l)rs.  Kodgers  and  Miller  of  New 
York,  Dr.  Tnimlmll  of  North  Haven,  Dr.  Mor.se 
of  Charlestown,  Dr.  Backus  of  Bethlehem,  J)r. 
Wil.son  of  Bhiladelphia,  Dr.  Grillin,  and  l'rofe.s.s- 
ors  Woods  and  tStuart  of  Andover,  the  Kev. 
Asaliel  Hooker  of  Goshen,  Conn.,  and  the  Kev. 
James  Kiehards  of  Newark.  In  18.00  another 
edition  of  Bellamy's  collected  works  was  j)ul)- 
lished  in  Boston  by  the  Doctrinal  Tract  and 
Book  Society.  It  consists  of  two  octavo  volumes 
(pp.  (113,  731),  and  is  introduced  with  a  memoir  by 
Kev.  'I'ryon  Edwards,  D.D.  See  also  Sprague's 
Aniiah,  "vol.  i.  EDWARDS  A.  I'AKK. 

BELLARMINE,  Robert  Frangois  Romulus,  b.  at 
Montepulciano,  Tu.scany,  Oct.  4,  1.042;  d.  in 
Kome,  Sept.  17,  1621  ;  a  nephew  of  I'ope  Mar- 
cellus  II.;  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  15t!0; 
went  in  1569  to  Louvain,  where  he  studied  under 
Bajus ;  returned  in  1576  to  Kome,  and  was  made 
professor  of  controversional  theology  in  the  Cul- 
legium  Romanum  ,  became  rector  of  this  institu- 
tion in  1.592,  cardinal  in  1599,  and  Archbishop  of 
Capua  in  1(502.  His  principal  work,  the  result 
of  his  labor  in  the  Culleijiwn  Romanum,  is  his 
Disputationts  de  ( 'onlrorersiis  ChrislmncE  Fidei, 
Rome,  1581-93  It  occupies  in  the  field  of  dog- 
matics the  same  place  as  the  Annales  of  Baronius 
in  the  field  of  history;  and,  like  that  work,  it  is 
a  fruit  of  those  great  exertions  which  the  Roman 
Church  made  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth 
century  to  define  and  defend  itself  against  the 
Reformation.  Vol.  I.  treats  of  the  word  of  God, 
of  Christ,  and  of  the  I'ope;  vol.  II.,  of  councils 
and  the  church;  vol.  III.,  of  the  sacraments;  and 
vol.  IV.,  of  grace  and  free-will,  and  justification 
by  good  works.  But  it  was  especially  his  views 
of  the  temporal  power  of  the  I'ope  which  gave 
offence.  This  power,  he  considers,  is  indirect, — 
the  Pope  cannot  depose  a  king  in  the  same  simple 
manner  as  he  can  a  bishop,  —  but  it  is  neverthe- 
less absolute  ;  and  in  a  conflict  between  the  Pope 
and  a  king,  or  a  body  of  national  laws,  etc  ,  the 
latter  ought  to  give  way.  Several  times  he  had 
occasion  to  apply  these  views  to  real  life,  develop- 
ing and  defending  them.  Against  Paolo  Sarpi, 
the  .spokesman  of  the  senate  of  Venice  in  its 
controversy  with  Paul  V.,  he  wrote  three  tracts 
in  Italian  and  Latin;  against  James  I.  of  Eng- 
land he  wrote  two,  ridiciding  with  elegant  irony 
the  Latin  of  the  royal  theologian ;  against  Wil- 
liam Barclay  he  wrote,  Traclalus  de  Potentate 
Summi  Pontljicis  iti  Reims  Tempuralibus ;  but  this 
book  was  forbidden  in  France,  and  caused  great 
exasperation  in  the  Galilean  Church.  Bellar- 
mine's  views  have  been  revived,  however,  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  by  Pius  IX.,  and  seem  at 
present  to  form  the  foundation  for  the  papal 
policy. 

Lit.  —  The  best  edition  of  Bellarniine's  col- 
lected works  is  that  of  Cologne,  7  vols,  fob,  1620. 
The  Disputationes  were  reprinted  at  Rome,  1832-40, 
in  4  vols.  4to.  His  life  was  written  by  Jacob 
Fuligatti,  Rome,  1624,  Daniel  Bartoli,  Rome, 
1677,  and  Nicole  Frizon,  Nancy,  1708 ;  but  the 
best  source  is  his  autobiography,  printed  1761, 
at  Ferrara,  together  with  the  votes  of  the  cardi- 
nals in  the  case  of  his  beatification.    The  book  was  i 


extremely  rare  until  J.  .1.  I.  Dollinger  and  F.  II. 
Reusch  reprinted  it,  Boun,  1887.  'I'he  autobiog- 
raphy was  i)roduccd  liy  the  Jesuits  from  Bellar- 
miue's  posthumous  papers,  as  an  arguuu-nt  in 
favor  of  his  beatification.  But  the  piece  made 
just  the  opjjosite  impression;  and  the  Jesuits 
liave,  since  that  time,  been  very  anxious  to  |)re- 
vent  its  publicati<m,  and  especially  to  destroy  the 
above-mentioned  volume.  II.  TiiiKltsrn. 

BELLS  are  an  invention  of  the  Christian 
Church.  'Phey  were  unknown  to  the  Jews  and 
the  Pagans,  and  they  are  not  used  by  the  Mo- 
hannnedans.  .Small,  globular,  clo.sed  bells,  (m- 
tbuialniki,  were  used  l)y  the  Hebrews  (Exod. 
xxviii.  33),  the  Greek.s,  and  the  Romans,  on 
clothes,  in  the  hath.s,  at  sacrifices,  etc.;  but  the 
invention  of  oiu-  church-bells  is  generally  a.scribed 
to  Bishop  Paulinus  of  Nola  in  Canjpania,  who 
died  in  431.  Also  their  Latin  luime  )io/a  or  cnm- 
pana  (campauum),  the  latter  of  which  is  still 
living  in  the  Italian  language,  is  generally  de- 
rived from  him.  But  this  derivation  .seems  to 
be  a  mistake ;  for  in  the  writings  of  Paulinus, 
though  several,  even  elaborate  desci-iptions  of 
churches  are  given,  no  mention  is  ever  made  of 
bells.  Further,  tintinnalnda  were  called  noUe  long 
before  the  time  of  Paulinus;  and  campana  refers 
most  probably  to  the  aex  campanum,  a  metal 
spoken  of  by  Pliny,  from  which  bells  were  first 
made.  The  German  name  Glocke,  from  the  old 
high  German  clocchOii  '"  knock  ")  was  adopted  in 
mediaeval  Latin  under  the  forms  clmjua,  clucca,  or 
cioccum,  whence  tlie  French  cloche  and  the  Eng- 
lish ''clock." 

The  fir.st  bell  was  probably  simply  an  enlarged 
lintiiuiabulum  i  and  it  is  thus  called  by  Polydorus 
\'ergilius,  who  ascribes  its  first  use  to  Pope  Sabi- 
nianus,  the  successor  of  Gregory  I.  It  was  intro- 
duced to  replace  the  cursor  ("  runner")  and  the 
tuba  ("trumpet")  in  calling  together  the  faithful 
to  service.  Its  use  soon  became  general.  In  the 
seventh  century  we  meet  it  in  France.  It  was  the 
bells  of  .St.  Stephan's  Church  in  Orleans,  which 
in  610  caused  a  panic  in  the  army  of  King  Chlo- 
tair. .  In  the  eighth  century  bells  became  connuon 
throughout  the  realm  of  Charlemagne.  The  cam- 
panitm  optimum,  or  gxeat  bell  for  the  Cathedral  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  was  made  bj'  Tancho,  a  monk  of 
St.  Gall,  and  a  famous  bell-founder.  In  the  ninth 
century  bells  were  brought  to  the  East.  Duke 
Ursus  of  Venice  sent  twelve  great  bells  as  a  pres- 
ent to  the  Byzantine  emperor  (Michael,  or  Basi- 
lius),  and  the  emperor  erected  a  belfry  for  them 
at  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia.  In  the  East,  how- 
ever, their  general  introduction  was  checked  by 
the  spread  of  Islam,  the  Mohammedans  contem- 
plating them  with  a  kind  of  dread,  and  forbid- 
ding even  the  Christians  to  use  them. 

In  the  Western  Church  the  bells,  like  all  other 
church-furniture,  were  consecrated,  or,  as  it  was 
called,  baptized,  before  taken  into  use.  The  bell 
was  washed  with  water,  then  oil  was  poured 
upon  it,  and  under  chants  and  prayers  the  priest 
made  the  sign  of  the  cross  over  it.  There  is  a 
capitulary  of  Charlemagne,  from  787,  which  ex- 
pressly forbids  the  baptism  of  cloccce.  but  it  ia 
probable  that  cloccce  there  refers  only  to  tinlinna- 
hula,  or  such  bells  as  were  in  every-day  use.  In 
the  tenth  century  it  also  became  cu«tomary  to 
give  the  bell  a  name.     In  968  Pope  John  XIII. 


BELSHAM. 


238 


BENEDICITE. 


consecrated  the  great  bell  of  the  Church  of  tlie 
Lateral],  and  gave  it  his  own  name,  loannes. 

BELSHAM,  Thomas,  b.  at  Bedford,  Eng.,  April 
26.  1750:  d.  at  llampstead,  Xov.  11,  1829;  was 
educated  at  tlie  Dissenting  Academy  of  Daven- 
try,  and  became  (1781)  head  of  tliis  institution, 
but  left  it  in  1789,  liaving  adopted  Unitarian 
views;  was  head  of  the  Unitarian  College  of 
Hackney  until  1796,  when  it  ceased  to  exist. 
He  became  minister  to  the  Essex-street  chapel 
in  London  in  1805.  The  most  prominent  of  his 
works  are :  Jieriew  of  Amerlrnn  Uiiitai-ianism,  1815; 
Evidences  of  C/iri.illnnili/,  London,  1822,  2  vols. ; 
and  The  Epistles  of  Paul  the  Apostle,  translat- 
ed, ■with  exposition  and  notes,  London,  1822,  4 
vols.  A  Life  of  him,  together  with  his  letters, 
wa.s  publislied  by  J.  AVilliams,  London,  18133. 
The  death  of  Dr  Priestley  left  him  the  leading 
Unitarian  in  England.  The  "  Unitarian  Societ}' 
for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge  and  the 
Practice  of  Virtue  "  was  his  suggestion.  He  had 
an  important  share  in  the  Improved  Version  of 
the  y^etc  Testament  tipon  the  Basis  of  Archbishop 
Xeircome's  Neio  Translation,  with  Notes  Critical 
and  Ex/ihinalori/,  London,  1808. 

BELSHAZ'ZAR  (ma>/  Bel  protect  the  Kincj),  the 
first-born  son  of  Nabonidus  (the  usurper  of  the 
Babylonian  throne)  and  a  daughter  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and  thus  his  dpiasty  had  a  color  of 
legitimacy.  In  consequence  of  his  maternal  de- 
scent, Belshazzar  could  be  called  the  son,  i.e.  de- 
scendant, of  Nebuchadnezzar  (Dan.  v.  2, 11  sqq  ). 
But,  even  if  his  mother  had  not  been  the  daugh- 
ter of  Nebuchadnezzar,  he  might  still  be  styled  as 
above,  just  as  Sargon  sjioke  of  the  preceding  Assy- 
rian kings  as  his  ancestors  (see  G.  Rawlinson, 
The  Five  Great  Monarchies,  3d  ed.,  London,  1870, 
II.  p.  139  sq.;  Schrader,  Keilinschriften  u.  A.  T., 
Giessen,  1876,  p.  25-1  sq.),  and  a.s,  in  2  Chron. 
xi.  14,  the  successors  of  Jeroboam  I.  are  called 
his  sons,  although  in  fact  they  belonged  to  otlier 
dynasties.      Belshazzar,    tlie    crown-prince    and 

i'oint-king,  was  nominated  by  his  father  regent  of 
5abylon,  and  to  him  was  confided  the  defence  of 
the  city  against  Cyrus.  How  he  kept  liis  trust 
let  Daniel's  wonderfully  graphic  account  testify 
(Dan.  v.).  When  Babylon  fell,  he  was  killed  :  liis 
father,  however,  who  had.  been  (lefeate<l  by  Cyrus 
at  Borsippa,  after  the  capture  of  Babylon,  was 
banished  to  Carmenia,  but  there  made  ruler.  Tlie 
narrative  of  Daniel  in  regard  to  Belsliazzar  has 
been  abundantly  verified  by  Sir  Henry  Kawlin- 
son's  decipherment  of  several  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions. (^)ne  passage  reads,  "Me  Nabu-nahid  (X.u- 
bonidus).  King  of  Babylon,  from  sin  against  tliy 
great  divinity,  do  thou  save  me,  and  liealth  and 
long  days  numerous  do  tliou  multiply.  And  of 
Bel-sar-uzur  (Belsliazzar),  my  eldest  son,  the  de- 
liglit  of  my  heart,  in  the  wor.ship  of  Ihy  great 
divinity,  his  heart  do  thou  establisli,  and  may  he 
not  consort  with  sinners.''  —  This  identification 
renders  intelligible  the  otherwise  strange  promise 
of  Belshazzar's  to  make  tlie  interpreter  of  tlie 
writing  on  tlie  wall  the  third  ruler  in  the  king- 
dom. We  now  know  that  B(,'lsliazzar  was  the  sec- 
ond, and  so  he  would  place  tlie  inteqireter  next 
to  himself.  —  The;  wi-iting  on  the  wall  must  liave 
ajilieared  in  startling  coiitra.st  to  the  cnncifdrm 
in.scriptioiis  already  upon  it,  which  .set  forth  the 
>raise8  of  tlie  gods  and  the  victories  of  tiic  kings. 


See  the  books  quoted,  also  Pusey  on  Daniel,  Ox- 
ford, 1868 ;  J.  Menant's  Babylon  et  la  Chaldjie, 
Paris,  1875.  a.  kohler. 

BEMA  (Jau,  (Sttivu)  means  in  classical  literature 
an  elevated  platform  of  a  semicircular  shape,  des- 
tined to  carry  the  sella  currules,  or  throne  of  some 
magisterial  official.  Hence  it  became  a  fit  name 
for  that  part  of  the  Christian  church  formed  by 
the  apsis,  where  stood  the  throne  of  the  bishop 
and  tlie  seats  of  lower  clergy.  In  this  significa- 
tion it  occurs  in  the  fifty-sixth  canon  of  the  synod 
of  Laodicea,  which  forbids  the  clergy  to  enter  the 
bema  and  sit  down  before  the  arrival  of  the  bish- 
op. There  is,  however,  also  a  more  restricted 
sense  of  the  word,  in  which  it  signifies  any  kind 
of  elevated  seat  or  place,  such  as  the  cathedra, 
the  pulpit,  etc.,  and  in  which  it  is  synonymous 
with  ambo. 

BENA'IAH  (whom  Jehovah  built),  the  name  of 
several  Israelites.  The  most  important  of  them 
is  the  son  of  Jehoiada,  the  chief  priest  (1  Chrou. 
xxvii.  5),  and  a  Levite,  though  born  in  Kabzeel, 
a  city  in  t!;e  south  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  21).  He 
was  the  captain  of  David's  bodj'-g-uard,  the 
Cherethites  and  Pelethites  (2  Sam.  viii.  18; 
1  Kings  i.  38),  and  in  this  capacity  carried  over 
his  allegiance  to  Solomon,  and  executed  the  royal 
sentence  upon  Adonijah  and  Joab  (1  Kings  ii. 
25,  30,  34),  and  thus  eventually  became  Joab's 
successor.  In  the  catalogue  of  David's  mighty 
men  he  is  mentioned ;  and  three  of  his  exploits 
are  recorded  in  justification  of  his  rank,  wliich 
was  between  the  first  three  of  the  Gibborim,  or 
"mighty  men,"  and  the  thirty  "valiant  men  of 
the  armies."  These  three  exploits  were :  (1)  he 
slew  two  sons  of  Ariel,  a  distinguished  IMoabite, 
or  of  the  king  of  IMoab  ;  (2)  he  slew  a  lion  which 
had  fallen  into  a  pit  in  time  of  snow ;  (3)  he 
slew  an  Egyptian  giant,  who,  according  to  the 
additions  in  the  Septuagint,  carried  a  spear  so 
huge  that  it  seemed  like  a  tree  thrown  across  a 
ravine  ;  but  he  forced  it  from  his  hand,  and  killed 
the  giant  with  his  own  weapon.  Benaiah  was 
captain  of  the  host  for  the  third  moiitli  (1  Chron. 
xxvii.  5),  and  his  course  .consisted  of  twelve  di- 
visions of  twenty-four  hundred  men  eacli.  In  1 
Chron.  xxvii.  34  we  read,  "After  Ahithophel,  was 
.Jehoiada,  the  son  of  Benaiah,"  as  counsellor  of 
the  king.  It  is  probable  that  the  names  are 
transposed,  and  that  Benaiah  himself,  and  not 
his  son,  occupied  tliis  dignified  position  after  the 
death  of  Ahithophel. 

The  other  men  of  the  same  name  are :  1.  One 
of  the  thirty  mighty  men,  an  Ephraimite,  captain 
of  the  eleventh  monthly  course  (2  Sam.  xxiii. 
30);  2.  One  of  the  "princes"  of  the  families 
of  Simeon  (1  Chron.  iv.  3()) ;  3.  A  Levite  in 
David's  time,  who  was  musical  (1  Chron.  xv.  18, 
20,  xvi.  5) ;  4.  A  jiriest  who  blew  the  trumpet 
before  the  ark  in  David's  time  (1  Chron.  xv.  24, 
xvi.  6)  ;  5.  A  descendant  of  jVsapli  (2  Chron.  xx. 
14) ;  6.  A  Levite,  who  in  Ilezekiah's  time  was 
an  over.seer  of  olferings  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  13);  7. 
The  father  of  I'elaliali,  "a  iirince  of  the  people" 
in  the  time  of  Kzekiel  (Kzek  xi.  1,  13);  8.  Two 
[or  four]  contemporaries  of  Ezra  who  Iiad  foreign 
wives  (ICz.  X.  2.''),  30-35,  43).  ORELLI.' 

BENEDICITE,  the  alti'inative  to  the  Te  Deum 
ill  the  Book  of  Common  I'rayer.  These  two  are 
liie  only  portions  of  the  kind  iu  the  book,  which 


BENEDICT. 


239 


BENEDICT. 


^re  not  o£  canoiiiual  Scripture  orifiiii.  The  Bene- 
dlcile  is,  liowfver,  really  an  expansion  of  the  Ilini- 
dred  and  Forty-eighth  Psaliii,  and  is  otherwise 
called  the  "Song  o[  the  Three  Holy  Children," 
and  is  found  among  the  Old-'l'estanient  Apocry- 
pha, as  part  of  the  Greek  addition  to  l)aniel, 
inserted  between  the  twenty-third  and  twenty- 
fourth  verses  of  the  third  chapter.  It  was  used 
as  a  hymn  in  the  later  Jewish  Churcli,  and  very 
early  adopted  for  use  in  tlie  public  service  of  tlie 
Christian  Churcli.  Chrysostoni  calls  it  "  that 
-admirable  and  marvellous  song,  which,  from  that 
day  to  this,  hath  been  sung  everywhere  through- 
out the  world,  and  shall  yet  be  sung  in  future 
generations."  See  Puoctok  :  History  of  lite  Book 
•if  CdJiunoH  Pnii/rr  (Utli  ed.,  1874),  p.  225  sq. 

BENEDICT  is  the  name  of  one  schismatic  and 
fourteen  regular  popes.  —  Benedict  I.,  .lune  3, 
uT-l-July  3(1,  578;  a  native  of  Konie;  was  elected 
inuiiediately  after  the  death  of  his  predecessor, 
John  III.,  July  13,  573,  but  could  not  be  conse- 
crated until  a  year  after,  as,  on  account  of  the 
invasion  of  the  Lombards,  the  imperial  con- 
ftrniation  of  the  election  had  great  difficulty  in 
reaching  Rome  from  Constantinople.  The  letter 
to  the  Spanish  bishop  David,  ascribed  to  him,  lias 
been  proved  spurious  by  Pagi  (ad  aim.  577  not.  2). 
His  life  is  found  in  INIuratori,  Rer.  Ital.  Scr., 
III.  p.  133.     See,  also,  Paulus  Uiaconus,  De  Geslis 

Longob.,    II.,  10,    III.,  11 Benedict  II.,   June 

26,  68-l:-March  7,  685,  had  also  to  wait  a  whole 
year  after  his  election  before  the  imperial  con- 
lirmation  arrived,  and  the  consecration  could  take 
place,  but  procured  from  the  Eriiperor,  Constan- 
tine  Pogonatus,  an  ordinance,  according  to  which 
the  Pope,  for  the  future,  could  be  consecrated 
immediately  after  his  election,  without  w'aiting 
for  the  imperial  confirmation.  He  was  very 
zealous  to  have  the  sixth  ecumenical  council, 
which  had  condemned  the  Monothelites  and  their 
champion,  Pope  Honorius,  accepted  by  the  Span- 
ish Church,  and  succeeded  at  the  synod  of  Toledo, 
684.  His  life  is  found  in  Muratori,  Rer.  Ital. 
Script.,  III.  p.  145.  For  his  relation  to  Wilfrid, 
Bishop  of  York,  see  Vita  Wilfridi,  by  Eddius 
Stephanus.  —  Benedict  III.,  Sept.  29,  855-April 
7,  858,  was  regularly  elected,  when  the  repre- 
sentatives of  Ludwig  II.  and  Lothar  raised  the 
cardinal-presbyter,  Aiiastasius,  as  anti-pope,  and 
imprisoned  Benedict  in  the  Lateran  Palace.  The 
pieople,  however,  proved  faitliful  to  their  can- 
didate. The  emissaries  of  the  two  emperors 
gave  up  the  intrigue:  Anastasius  was  expelled, 
and  Benedict  installed.  The  introduction  of  the 
Peter's  pence  in  England,  and  the  foundation  of 
the  Anglican  school  in  Rome,  were  due  to  the 
visit  of  King  ^Ethelwulf  and  his  son  Alfred  to 
Rome  during  the  reign  of  Benedict.  His  vigor- 
ous policy  in  all  relations  with  the  Frankish  and 
Bj'zantine  empires  was  probably  the  work  of  his 
famous  successor,  Nicholas  I.  See,  besides  his 
life  in  Muratori:  Her.  Ital.  Script.,  III.  p.  247; 
Prudentii  Trecensis  Annates,  and  Hincmari  Remen- 
sis  Annales  in  Hon.  German.  Script.,  I.,  and  Epis- 
tnlce  Nicoliii  I.,  in  JIansi :  Concil.  Collet,  XV.  p. 
159.  —  Benedict  IV.,  900-903,  recognized  Formo- 
sus,  whom  .John  VIII.  had  anathematized  as  an 
usurper,  as  a  duly  elected  Roman  pontiff.  See 
Watterich,  Potit.  Rom.  Vita;,  I.  p.  659.  —  Bene- 
dict V.     Li  order  to  sustain   Leo  VIII.   against 


.John  XII.,  the  Emperor  Otlio  I.  was  marching 
with  a  great  army  against  Rome  ;  but,  before  he 
reached  the  city,  John  XII.  died  (May  14,  964), 
and  Renedict  V.  was  elected  in  his  place.  When 
the  emperor  arrived  before  the  city,  however,  the 
people  surrendered  Benedict.  A  formal  process 
was  instituted  against  him.  He  was  deposed,  and 
carried  captive  to  (iermany,  where  lie  lived  at 
the  court  of  Archbishop  Adeldag  of  Hamburg 
till  his  death,  July  5,  966.  See  Wattkkich  : 
Pontif.  Rom.  Vitce,  I.  p.  45;  Liutprandus:  Dc 
Oltonis  Rehus  in  Url/e  Roma  Gestis ,  Adam  dk 
Bremen:  Gest.  Ham.  Eccl.  Pontif.  —  Benedict 
VI.,  Jan.  19,  973-July,  974,  was  elected  immedi- 
ately after  the  death  of  John  XIII.  (Sept.  6,  972), 
but  not  consecrated  until  the  Emperor  Otho's 
confirmation  of  the  election  arrived.  Soon  after 
the  death  of  Otho  I.,  the  affairs  of  the  empire 
fell  into  disorder.  Crescentius  de  Theodora  and 
the  deacon  Boniface  arose  against  Benedict,  and 
threw  him  into  prison,  where  he  was  strangled. 
His  life  is  found  in  Watterich  :  Pontif.  Rom. 
Vitce,  I.  p.  65;  Muratori:  Rer.  Ital.  Script., 
III.  2,  p.  332;  Eccard:  Corp.  Hist.  Med.  .€ri, 
Leipzig,  1723,  II.  p.  1640.  —  Benedict  VII.,  Octo- 
ber, 974-October,  983,  began  his  reign  by  anathe- 
matizing Boniface  VII.,  and  showed  himself 
very  submissive  to  the  emperor,  Otho  II.,  and 
very  partial  to  the  Monastery  of  Clugny,  whose 
plans  of  ecclesiastical  reforms  he  adopted.  See 
Watterich  :  Pontif.  Rom.  Vitce,  I.  p.  66  and 
686.  — Benedict  VIII.,  May,  1012-April  7,  1024, 
gained  the  support  of  Henry  II.,  though  the  anti- 
pope  Gregory,  defeated  in  battle,  and  expelled 
from  Rome,  sought  refuge  at  the  German  court ; 
crowned  Henry  II.  and  his  spouse  Kunigunde  at 
Rome  in  1014,  and  obtained  from  him  a  reumr- 
ciation  of  the  right,  held  by  the  Othones,  to  con- 
firm the  election  of  a  pope ;  defeated,  by  the  aid 
of  Pisa  and  Cienoa,  the  Saracen  chief  jklogehid, 
when  he  invaded  Italy,  and  expelled  him  from 
Sardinia;  worked  in  luiison  with  Henry  II.  for 
the  general  introduction  of  the  reform-plans  of 
Clugny,  though  without  fully  satisfying  tlie  Clu- 
niacenses  themselves.  See  Watterich:  Pontif. 
Rom.  Vitce,  I.  pp.  69,  700 ;  Amori  :  Storia  dei 
Muselmanni  in  Sicitia,  Florence,  1858,  vol.  III.; 
Sadee  :  Die  Stellunij  Kai.icr  Heinr.  II.  zur  Kirche, 
.Jena,  1877.  —  Benedict  IX.,  January,  1033-,July 
16,  1048;  a  son  of  Count  Alberic  of  Tusculum,  a 
nephew  of  Benedict  VIII.  and  John  XIX. ;  was 
only  ten  years  old,  when,  by  the  intrigues  and 
violence  of  his  father,  he  w-as  elevated  to  the 
papal  chair,  but  exasperated  the  Romans  to  such 
a  degree  by  his  scandalous  life,  that  a  rebellion 
broke  out  in  1044,  and  Sylvester  III.  was  elected 
in  his  stead.  He  succeeded  in  expelling  Sylves- 
ter; but,  doubting  whether  he  would  be  .able  to 
maintain  himself  against  the  Romans,  he  sold 
his  dignity  for  one  thousand  pounds  silver  to 
Gregory  VI.  Henry  III.  now  convened  a  synod 
at  Sutri,  Dec.  20,  i046,  in  which  Sylvester"  IH. 
and  Gregory  VI.  and  Benedict  IX.  were  de- 
po.sed,  and  "Clement  11.  was  made  pope.  But 
Clement  IT.  died  Oct.  9,  1047;  and  before  the 
new  pope,  Damasus  II.,  could  come  into  posses- 
sion of  the  chair,  Benedict  IX.  succeeded  in 
returning  once  more  to  Rome.  He  was  soon 
expelled^  however,  and  compelled  to  retire  to 
Tusculum.      Wheu   and   where  he   died  is  not 


BENEDICT. 


240 


BENEDICT. 


known.  See  Annnles  Romnni  (J[.  G.  S.  V.,  p. 
468)  ;  Th.  Mittlkk  :  De  Schismate  in  Ercl.  Rom. 
fuh  Bened.  IX.,  Turici,  1835.- — Benedict  X., 
April  5,  10.58-April,  10.i9,  was  elevated  to  the 
papal  chair  by  the  Roman  noLility,  the  counts  of 
'rusculuni,  Galeria,  and  Jlonticelli,  after  the 
death  of  Stephau  X.,  but  resigned  immediately 
after  the  return  of  Hiklebrand  from  Germany, 
and  was  kept  in  clo.se  confinement  for  the  rest  of 
liis  life.  See '\V.\TTKUicn  :  Pod  I  if.  Rom.  Vil(e,J. 
pp.  203-219,  738. —  Benedict  XI.,  Oct.  22,  1-303- 
July  7,  1304,  was  able,  by  his  noble  and  mild 
pi'oceedings,  to  reconcile  the  kings  of  France 
and  Sicily,  and  even  the  family  of  Colonna, 
but  was  poisoned  just  as  he  was  prepared  for 
an  energetic  stroke  at  the  participants  in  the 
fray  of  Anagni.  See  Muratori  :  Rer.  Itnl.  Script., 
III'.,  IX.,  Xr.,  XIII.;  L.  GArriKU;  B.^nedict  XI., 
Paris,  1863:  Ch.  Gi!AXD.ikax  ;  T.( s  irr/islrcx  de 
Benoit  AV.,  Pari.s,  1883.  —  Benedict  Xll.,  Dec.  20, 
1334-Apnl  25,  1312,  remained  in  Avignon  in  spite 
of  the  urgent  entreaties  of  the  Romans  to  return 
to  their  city.  Also  Barlaam,  and  the  approaches 
of  the  Byzantine  court,  lie  received  somewhat 
coldly,  knowing  that  the  religious  question  was 
only  used  as  a  cover  to  their  jiolitical  interest. 
His  dependence  on  tlie  French  court  twice  pre- 
vented him  from  coming  to  an  understanding 
with  Lewis  the  Bavarian  :  the  result  of  which 
was,  that  Lewis  emancipated  himself  altogether, 
and  even  assumed  the  imperial  title  without  soli- 
citing the  confirmation  of  the  pope.  See  Balu- 
ziL'.s :  Vi/tg  Paparum  Avenioneiuium,  I.  p.  197- 
243;  MiKATORi:  Rer.  Ital.  Script.,  III.  2,  p. 
527;  Carl  Muller:  Der  Kampf  lAubci(j  ilex 
Baiern  mil  der  romiachen  Curie,  Tiibingen,  1880. 
II.  —  Benedict  XIII.,  a  (I'eter  de  Luna),  .Sept. 
28,  1394-\ov.  17,  1424,  took,  in  the  schisms  be- 
tween Urban  VI.  and  Clement  YIL,  the  side  of 
the  latter,  and  was  unanimously  elected  his 
successor  on  the  condition  that  he  should  do 
every  tiling  in  his  power  to  heal  the  schism.  The 
remedy  pi'oposed  was  that  both  tlie  rival  popes, 
Boniface  IX.  in  Rome,  and  Benedict  XIII.  in 
Avignon,  should  resign  ;  but  neither  of  them  was 
willing  to  do  so.  The  schism  continued ;  France, 
Spain,  and  Scotland  adhering  to  Benedict  XIII., 
Italy  and  Gernumy  to  Boniface  IX.  Twice, 
however,  France  withdrew  its  obedience,  —  Sept. 
1,  1398,  when  Benedict  XIII.  was  shut  up  in  his 
palace  in  Avignon,  and  for  some  time  kept  there 
as  a  prisoner;  and  May,  1408,  when  lie  fled  from 
Avignon,  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Poniscola, 
—  an  estate  belonging  to  his  family  in  Aragon. 
Twice  he  was  formally  dc'fiosed  and  condemned, . — 
by  the  Council  of  Pisa,  1409,  and  by  that  of  Con- 
stance, 1417 ;  but  on  the  rock  of  Peniscola  he 
still  continued  to  declare,  "  Wne  is  the  only  true 
Cliurch."  See  Bai.uzius;  Vil.  J'ap.  Arion.,  I. 
p.  .')()2;  Du  Pi:vs:  Hi^toirc  dn  Schi.tme,  1378- 
H28,  I'aris,  1654;  Maimbouro  :  llisloire  de 
Grand  Sc/iisme  d'OccidetU,  Paris,  1678.  —  Bene- 
dict XIII.,  b  (of  tlic  house  of  Or.sini-Gravina), 
May  29,  1727-Foli.  21,  1730,  was  a  learned  and 
pious  man,  but  somewhat  weak  in  his  relati<iMs 
with  the  temporal  jKiwers,  and  com|>li'tely  in  (lie 
hands  of  his  minister,  Cardinal  Coscia,  who  liy 
Clement  XII.  wa-s  deprived  of  liis  ecclesiastical 
dignity,  and  condemned  to  ten  years'  imprison- 
ment,    lie  distinguished  liiinself  a.s  .an  author ; 


and  his  collected  works  appeared  in  Rome,  1728, 
3  vols.  fol.  See  A.  Borgia  :  Benedicti  XIII. 
Vita,  Rome,  1752.  —  Benedict  XIV.  (Pro.spero 
Lambertini),  Aug.  17,  1740-May  4,  1758;  b.  at 
Bologna,  1675;  Bishop  of  Ancona,  1727;  cardinal, 
1728  ;  Archbishop  of  Bologna,  1731 ;  distinguished 
himself  as  an  author,  both  before  his  elevation  to 
the  papal  ch.air  (De  Serrorum  Dei  Bealijicatione), 
and  after  (De  Si/nodo  Diocesano).  In  his  foreign 
policy  he  was  willing  to  make  great  concessions, 
even  against  the  advice  of  his  college  of  cardinals, 
as  shown  by  the  concordats  he  concluded  with 
Naples,  Sardinia,  and  Spain.  But,  as  a  spiritual 
ruler  of  the  Church,  he  often  showed  considerable 
firmness,  especially  in  his  relations  to  the  .Tesuits. 
Twice  he  administered  very  severe  rebukes  to  the 
society  for  the  frivolous  manner  in  which  it  car 
ried  out  the  mission  in  China  and  on  tlie  coast 
of  JIalabar,  accommodating  Christianity  to  the 
most  scandalous  Pagan  rites  in  order  to  secure 
purely  commercial  relations  with  the  natives. 
He  understood  that  the  society  had  —  to  use  a 
mild  expression  —  beconae  an  anachronism  ;  and, 
shortly  before  his  death,  he  charged  the  patriarch 
of  Lissabou,  Cardinal  Saldanha,  with  a  thorough- 
going reform  of  the  order,  so  far  as  Portugal  was 
concerned.  But  his  successor  revoked  the  bull. 
With  the  Protestants  his  relations  were  kindly, 
as  was  shown  by  manj-  small  traits.  He  was  the 
first  pope  who  gave  the  ruler  of  Prussia  the  title 
of  "king,"  the  curia  having  hitherto  always 
styled  him  "Margrave  of  Brandenburg."  Bene- 
dict's collected  works  appeared  in  Rome,  in  12 
vols.  4to,  1747.  For  his  life,  see  Sandixi  :  Vit(B 
Ponlif.  Roman.,  Ferrara,  1763,  II. ;  Gu.\rnacci  : 
Vita:  Rom.  Pontif.,  II.,  Vie  du  Benedeti  XIV., 
Paris,  1783. 

BENEDICT  OF  NURSIA,  b.  in  480,  at  X'ursia, 
in  tlie  pi-oviiu'c  of  ^'aleria;  d.  March  21,  543,  at 
Monte  Casino;  was  educated  in  Rome,  but  fled 
from  tlie  city  in  494,  only  fourteen  years  old,  dis- 
gusted at  the  worldliness  and  confusion,  both  of 
the  students  and  the  studies,  and  retired  first  to 
Enfide  (the  old  Anfidena,  the  present  Altidena), 
and  then  farther  east,  among  the  mountains,  to 
Subiago,  in  order  to  perfect  himself  in  holiness 
by  a  life  of  seclusion  and  devotion.  At  Subiago 
he  met  witli  a  monk,  Romanus,  who  encouraged 
liim  in  his  purpose,  and  aided  liim  in  carrying  it 
out.  He  took  up  liis  abode  at  the  bottom  of  a 
dismal  cavern ;  and  here  he  spent  tlie  time  in 
lioly  contemplations,  and  fighting  the  temptations 
of  the  flesh,  provided  with  food  by  Romanus, 
who,  by  means  of  a  rope,  lowered  down  to  him 
daily  a  part  of  his  own  scanty  ration.  After 
the  lapse  of  three  years  (in  497)  he  was  discovereil 
by  some  shepherds,  who  first  shrank  b.ack  from 
him  as  from  a  wild  animal,  but  soon  recognized 
the  signs  of  a  holy  life  in  the  .apparition,  and 
prostrated  themselves  before  liiin.  Others  were 
.attracted,  (iradually  he  was  drawn  out  of  this 
utter  seclusion;  and  in  510  the  monks  of  the 
Monasterv  of  Vicov.aro  chose  him  their  abbot.  At 
this  time  lie  .st-ems  to  have  abandoned  the  au.stere 
asceticism  which  he  originally  prufessi'd  ;  for  he 
allowed  his  monks  to  drink  wine  Ihil  the  iin- 
condilioiial  ol«'(li('iice  lie  demanded,  iuid  (he  strict 
regiilaritv  which  lie  enforced  in  the  hourly  alter- 
nation ot  devotional  practices  and  manual  labor, 
exasperated  them;  and  they  tried  to  jioison  him. 


BENEDICT. 


241 


BENEDICTINE. 


He  left  the  moiiastpij',  and  returned  to  the 
cavern;  but  tlie  world's  eye  was  once  set  upon 
him,  as  upon  a  liglit  lit  in  the  darkness.  Much 
people  gathered  around  him,  —  delicate  youths  of 
rich  families,  old  roughs  from  the  (iothic  hordes, 
—  to  obtain  his  guidance  to  a  holy  life.  lie 
organized  minor  connnuuitics  of  twelve  monks 
under  an  abbot,  and  estahlished  twelve  such  ceno- 
bies  in  the  neighborhood  of  Snbiago,  constituting 
himself  supreme  abbot.  But  new  trovdiles  arose. 
Though  monastic  life  was  still  a  wild-growing 
plant,  without  any  clearly  defined  mission,  with- 
out any  thoroughly  developed  organization,  and 
consequently  liable  to  fall  into  the  most  singular 
aberrations,  it  was,  nevertheless,  to  all  men's  eyes, 
the  highest  expression  of  the  religious  cravings 
of  the  age.  To  enter  a  monastery  was  considered 
the  only  true  cunversio,  to  live  in  a  monastery, 
the  only  true  religio.  Hence  arose  a  bitter  jeal- 
ousy from  the  side  of  the  secular  clergy  towards 
the  monks.  A  priest  from  the  neighborhood  of 
Subiago,  Florentius,  actually  tried  to  poison  Ben 
edict;  and,  when  this  failed,  he  attempted  to 
seduce  the  monks  by  sensual  temptations.  Bene- 
dict then  determined  to  leave  the  place;  and  in 
528  he  led  his  little  army  into  Campania,  to 
Monte  Casino,  where  he  transformed  an  old 
Apollo  temple,  with  its  adjacent  grove,  into  a 
Christian  oratory  'in  the  centre  of  a  circle  of 
cenobies.  In  529  he  jTronudgated  his  famous 
rules,  which  wei'e  destined  to  be,  through  many 
centuries,  the  rules  of  all  the  monasteries  of  the 
Western  Church.  The  monastei'y  of  Monte  Casi 
no  grew  rapidly,  and  was  soon  able  to  send  out 
colonies.  In  580  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Lom- 
bards, the  monks  fleeing  to  Rome,  and  it  was  not 
rebuilt  until  720;  but  in  the  mean  time  (in  633) 
a  French  monk,  Aigulf,  dug  up  the  bones  of 
Benedict,  and  carried  tliem  to  France,  where  they 
were  deposited  in  a  monastery  near  Fleury,  —  a 
circumstance,  which,  however,  does  not  prevent 
the  present  monks  of  Monte  Casino  to  exhibit 
the  bones  of  the  founder  of  their  order,  together 
with  a  bull  of  Urban  II.,  condemning  all  who 
doubt  the  genuineness  of  the  exhibit.    See  Bene- 

IIICTINES 

Lit.  —  The  only  literary  monument  which  Ben- 
edict has  left  of  himself  is  his  rules,  often  printed 
and  commented  upon,  best  by  Ed.  Martene  : 
Commentarius  in  Regulam  S.  P.  Benedicti,  Paris, 
1690  :  the  other  works  which  have  been  ascribed 
to  him,  and  which  may  be  found  in  Blbliotheca 
Patrum  Maxima,  Lyons,  1677,  torn.  IX.  p.  640,  are 
spurious.  His  life  has  been  written  by  Mege  : 
Vie  de  St.  BenoisI,  Paris,  1696 ;  by  the  Boli.and- 
isTs :  Act.  Sa7ict.  March,  tom.  III.  p.  274-357 ; 
and  by  Mabillon  in  Act.  Sand.,  A.iS.B.,  I  p.  3, 
and  Ann.  Ord.,  S.B.,  I.  p.  1-177;  but  these  ac- 
counts are  only  fanciful  expansions  of  the  life 
given  by  Gregory  the  Great,  in  his  Dial.  II., 
which  itself  is  overloaded  with  the  miracles  and 
legends.  albrecht  VOGEL. 

BENEDICT  OF  ANIANE.b.  in  Languedoc, 750; 
d.  at  Suda,  Feb.  12,  821 ;  of  Gothic  descent ;  the 
son  of  a  covmt  of  Magelone ;  was  educated  at  the 
court  of  Charlemagne,  whom  he  accompanied  on 
his  campaign  to  Italy  in  774,  but  having  on  this 
occasion  saved  his  brother  from  drowning  while 
crossing  the  Ticino,  he  made  a  vow  to  renounce 
the  world,  changed  his  name  AVitiza  for  that  of 
17  —  1 


Benedict,  retired  to  the  Monastery  of  St.  Sequa- 
nus  in  the  diocese  of  Langres,  and  became  a 
monk.  Destined  by  nature  to  greatness  in  what- 
soever sphere  his  life  might  enter,  he  embraced 
monasticisni  with  an  ardor  very  rare  in  that  time, 
and  adopted  the  jiractice  of  the  most  rigid  asceti- 
cism. But  his  self-sacrifice  and  .self-torture  pro- 
duced no  other  impression  than  that  of  spite  and 
contempt,  and  he  gradually  came  to  understand 
t)i;it  to  become  something  great  in  the  order  of 
life  which  he  had  chosen  meant  to  elevate  and 
purify  this  very  order  itself.  He  did  not  recoil 
from  the  task,  however.  In  779  he  left  the  Mon- 
astery of  St.  Sequanus,  and  foimded  a  model 
monastery  on  one  of  the  paternal  estates  in  Lan- 
guedoc, on  the  River  Aniane.  His  talent  for 
organization  and  government  proved  to  be  very 
extraordinary.  He  simply  revived  and  enforced 
the  rules  of  his  great  ideal,  Benedict  of  Nursia^ 
but  his  activity  was  soon  felt  as  a  great  blessing, 
not  only  by  his  own  monks,  but  by  all  the  mo- 
nastic institutions  of  the  country,  and  he  became 
one  of  the  most  intimate  advisers  of  Lewis  the 
Pious,  Charlemagne's  son.  King  of  Aquitania. 
Together  with  Alcuin  he  partook  in  the  negotia- 
tions with  the  Adoptionists,  and  thus  he  came 
into  personal  contact  with  Charlemagne  himself. 
His  dreams  approached  their  realization.  His 
idea  was  to  make  the  monastic  order  an  active 
member  of  the  social  organism,  a  constituent  ele- 
ment of  civilized  life,  the  bearer  of  the  science  and 
learning  of  the  church  ;  but,  in  the  carrying-out 
of  this  idea,  he  had  to  contend,  not  only  with  tlie 
abject  condition  of  the  order  itself,  but  also  with 
the  whole  institution  of  canonici,  whicli  already 
seemed  to  have  assumed  these  functions,  and  even 
with  an  opposing  party,  represented  by  Adalhar 
and  \Vala.  Nevertheless,  when  Lewis  the  Pious 
ascended  the  throne,  Benedict  found  the  way 
open  for  his  plans.  He  was  called  to  found  and 
preside  over  the  Monastery  of  Juda,  near  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  in  order  to  be  in  steady  and  close 
connection  with  the  court.  He  was  made  super- 
intendent-general of  all  the  monasteries  of  the 
realm;  and  in  the  great  council  of  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle  (817)  he  succeeded  in  giving  the  monasteries 
a  well-defined  position  in  the  state,  at  the  same 
time  introducing  great  reforms  in  their  interior 
organization.     See  Benedictines. 

Lit.  —  Of  Benedict's  writings,  those  against  the 
Adoptionists  may  be  found  in  Baluze  :  Miscel- 
lanea, V.  p.  1-62.  Those  concerning  monasticism 
have  been  edited  :  Codex  Ret/ularum  by  Holste- 
Nius,  Paris,  1663  ;  and  Cuncordia  liecjularum  by 
Hugo  Menard,  Paris,  1638.  His  life,  written 
by  Ardo,  has  been  edited  by  Bollaxdus,  in  Act. 
Sanct.,  Feb.  2,  and  by  JIabii.i.on,  in  Act.  Sanct., 
O    S.  11..  1.  ALBKECIIT   VOGEL. 

BENEDICTINE  EDITORS,  EDITIONS  OF 
THE  FATHERS,   AND   OTHER  WORKS.      The 

editors  embrace  such  scholars  as  Mabillon,  ^lont- 
fau(;on,  Sainte-Marthe,  D'Achery,  ^Martene,  Du- 
rand.  Rivet,  Carpentier,  Tassin,  and  Pitra.  The 
following  is  a  complete  list  of  these  highly  es- 
teemed and  now  very  co.stlv  works.  1.  Barnabas 
(Menard),  4to,  1642;  2.  lanfranc  (D'Achery), 
fob,  1648;  3.  Bernard  (iMabillon),  2  vols,  fob, 
1667;  4.  Anselm  (Gerberon),  fob,  1675;  5.  Au- 
f/usline  (Delfan  and  others),  11  vols,  fob,  1679- 
1700 ;   0.   Coisiodorus  (Garet),  2  vols,  fob,  1679 : 


BENEDICTINES. 


•242 


BENEFICE. 


7.  Ambrose  (Du  Fiische  and  Le  Nourri),  2  vols., 
1686-90;  8.  Hilarii  (Constant),  fol.,  1693;  9.  Je- 
Tome  (Martiany  and  others),  5  vols,  fol.,  1693- 
1706;  10.  ylM(iHa.<i'(«  (Montfa^uon),  3  vols,  fol., 
1698  ;  11.  Gregoni  of  Tours  (Ruiuart),  foL,  1699  ; 
12.  Gregory  the  Great  (De  Sainte-Martlie),  4  vols, 
fol.,  176-5  ;  13.  HMebert  (Beaugendre),  fol.,  1708; 
14.  Irenceus  (Massuet),  fol.,  1710;  1.5.  Lucius 
Ccecilius  (Le  ^ourri),  8vo,  1710 ;  16.  Chriisostom 
(Montfau(;on),  13  vols,  fol.,  1718-38;  17.  Cyril 
of  Jerusalem  (Toultee  and  Waran),  fol.,  1720; 
18.  Basil  (Garnier  and  IMaran),  3  vols,  fol.,  1721- 
30;  19.  Cyprian  (Maran),  fol.,  1726;  20.  Justin 
Martyr  (Maran),  fol.,  1742;  21.  Oriyen  (De  la 
Rue),  4  vols,  fol.,  1733-59;  22.  Gregoni  Nazian- 
zen  (Clemencet),  1st  vol.  fol.,  1778 ;  2d  vol;,  1842. 

Besides  editions  of  the  Fathers,  these  scholars 
produced  such  works  as  Art  de  verijier  les  dates 
(1783-87,3  vols,  fol.);  Acta  Sanctorum  Orel.  S. 
Benedicti  (1088-1702,  9  vols,  fol.);  Annales  Ordi- 
nis  S.  Benedicti  (1713-39,  6  vols,  fol.)  ;  Thesaurus 
Nocus  Anecdotorum  (1717,  .5  vols,  fol.);  Veteriwi 
Scriptorum  et  Monumentorum  Amplissima  Collection 
(1724-33,  9  vols,  fol.)  ;  Spicilegium  Solesmense  (10 
vols.  4to).  SeeTASsiN;  Histoire  de  la  Congrega- 
tion de  St.  Maur  (to  which  house  these  famous 
scholars  belonged),  Paris,  1770. 

BENEDICTINES.  When  Benedict  of  Nursia 
(see  title)  composed  his  rules  of  monastic  life 
(.529),  lie  had  probably  no  idea  of  the  influence 
they  were  destined  to  exercise.  He.  like  the  whole 
age  ill  which  he  lived,  considered  the  monastery  a 
place  of  refuge,  a  steppmg-stono  towards  holiness, 
but  only  for  tlie  individual :  that  it  might  have  a 
social  mission,  and  become  one  of  the  most  pow- 
erful organs  of  the  Church,  he  did  not  realize. 
That  tendency,  Iiowever,  towards  compact  unity, 
which  is  so  characteristic  for  the  Church  of  Rome, 
had  already  at  that  time  grown  so  strong,  that 
monasticism  could  not  develop  further  without 
as.suming  the  apjiearance  of  uniformity.  At  the 
same  time  as  Benedict  many  other  persons  were 
eager  to  establish  order  and  regularity  in  this 
field.  —  Cassiodorus,  Equitius,  and  Eugippius  in 
Italy ;  C«sarius  and  Aurelianus  of  Aries  in 
France ;  Isidore  of  Hispalis  in  Spain.  But  only 
Benedict  succeeded.  His  rules  were  the  wisest, 
the  mildest,  the  most  moderate ;  and  they  found 
in  Gregory  the  Great  a  most  enthusiastic  support. 
He  introduced  them  in  Italy,  Sicily,  and  England. 
In  543  Maurus  brought  them  to  France.  In  the 
seventh  century  they  spread  in  Spain ;  in  the 
eighth  century  Boniface,  himself  a  Benedictine, 
establkshed  them  m  Germany. 

In  the  eiglith  century  the  Benedictine  monas- 
tery passed  through  a  very  severe  crisis,  from 
which  it  was  rescued  only  by  the  energy  of  Bene- 
dict of  .\niane  (.see  title).  It  was  from  its  very 
origin  an  aristocratic  institution.  Its  inmates 
belonged  to  the  highest  classes  of  society  ■  to  the 
slave  and  the  serf  its  doors  were  closed.  In  cour.se 
of  time  it  had  grown  immen.sely  rich.  The  noble 
families  which  .sent  their  sons  to  live  within  its 
walls  beipieathed  great  estates  to  it;  and  under 
the  liaiids  of  the  monks  these  estates  became  very 
prosperous,  and  yielded  great  revenues.  The  con- 
sequence was,  that  gradually  tlie  very  cliaracter  of 
the  institution  changed.  Each  mon;isteiy  lieing 
a  law  unto  itself,  without  responsibility  before 
any  central  authority,  the  rules  were  modified  and 


remodelled,  until  a  wide  entrance  stood  open  for 
all  kinds  of  worldly  interests  and  passions.  In 
the  best  monasteries  the  monks  lived  like  canoni- 
ci ,  in  the  worst,  like  robbers  and  rioters.  To 
this  danger  from  within,  came  another  from  with- 
out. The  riches  of  the  monasteries  began  to 
tempt  the  neighboring  lords,  and  abbeys  were 
often  given  as  fiefs  to  laymen.  It  was  Benedict 
of  .\niane,  wlio,  in  the  Council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
(817),  at  once  secured  the  social  position  of  the 
monasteries  of  the  Frankish  Einpu-e,  and  carried 
out  a  moral  reform  by  enforcing  the  original 
rules.  In  the  tenth  century  similar  reforms  were 
introduced  by  Archbishop  Frederick  of  Mentz, 
.Vrchbishop  Adalbera  of  Rheiins,  Archbishop 
Buiistaii  of  Canterbury,  and  others. 

The  lack  of  central  organization,  which  had 
become  very  apparent  during  this  same  period, 
was  remedied  by  the  formation  of  the  so-called 
congregations  Several  independent  monaster- 
ies miited  to  guard  in  common  over  the  strict 
maintenance  of  the  rules  within  the  pale  of  the 
congregation  ;  and  several  of  these  congregations, 
as,  for  instance,  that  of  Clugny,  labored  with  great 
success,  and  exercised  considerable  influence  on 
the  general  life  of  the  Church.  The  period  of 
prosperity  was  short,  however.  Other  monastic 
orders  arose,  especially  the  mendicant  orders,  and 
threw  the  Benedictines  into  the  sliade.  The 
attempts  at  reform  and  re-organization  made  by 
Clement  V.  and  Benedict  Xll.  failed  The  ef- 
fects of  the  Reformation  and  of  the  jealousy  of 
the  Jesuits  were  very  detrimental  to  the  order. 
Nevertheless,  it  rose  once  more.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  it  became  the  representative  of 
the  science  of  the  Roman  Church.  The  coiigr*^- 
gation  of  St.  ^Slaur  has  rendered  great  services  to 
the  science  of  history :  but  the  political  reforms 
of  Joseph  II  ,  the  French  Revolution,  and  the 
civil  wars  in  Spain,  have  almost  killed  the  order ; 
and  Austria  is  now  the  only  country  in  which  it 
shows  any  vigor. 

Lit.  —  Mabii.lon  :  Acta  Sand.  Ord.  St.  Dened. 
and  Annales  Onlinis  S.  B..  Zikgklhaur  and  Le- 
GiPo.NT  ■  Histona  Litteraria  Ordinis  S.  B.,  Vienna, 
17.57,  4  vols,  fob;  Helyot  :  Histoire  des  Ordrcs 
MonastHjues,  Religieux  el  Militaires,  Paris,  1714- 
19,  8  vols.  4to ;  Mdntalemiikkt  :  Les  Moines  de 
I'Occidenl.  5  vols.,  Paris,  1680,  trans,  into  English, 
I.ond  .  1860  sqq.  7  vols.  ALBRECIIT  VOOEL. 

BENEDICTION  is,  hi  the  Roman  Chinch,  a 
sacred  tliougli  not  sacr.amental  act,  1)V  which  the 
grace  of  (iod  is  implored  in  belialf  of  some  per- 
son or  thing,  and  which  consists  in  the  making 
of  the  sign  of  the  cross,  in  aspersion  of  holy 
water,  etc.,  together  with  the  recitation  of  some 
])rescribed  formula.  Of  such  formulas  there  are 
innumerable  collections,  —  libri  lienedictionales, 
bcnediclionalia  almost  every  diocese  liaving  a 
collection  of  its  own.  In  the  Evangelical  Chui'ch 
there  is  no  act  which  really  resembles  the  bene- 
diction of  tlic  Roman  Church. 

BENEFICE,  in  ecclesiastical  langu.age  bencfici- 
uin  icrli  sKislicum,  comprises  both  tlie  oj/icium  or 
munsteriuin  witii  its  duties,  and  the  compensation 
for  their  fulfilment,  the  stiperuhum  or  prwbenda, 
and  IS  thereby  distinguished  from  the  commenda, 
which  is  an  enjoyment  of  ecclesiastical  revenues 
without  corresponding  duties,  and  from  the 
jiensiu,  which  is  an  enjoyment  of  a  part  of  au 


BENEFIT. 


243 


BBNGEL. 


ecclesiastical  revenue  as  coiiipeiisatioii  for  duties 
fulfilled.  In  the  primitive  church  there  were  no 
•benefices.  All  tlie  property  of  a  church  was 
lumped  together  in  one  mass,  and  administered 
by  the  bishop  :  the  revenues  were  divided  between 
the  bishop  and  the  clergy,  the  church  and  the 
poor.  In  course  of  time,  however,  as  each  episco- 
pal church  grew  into  a  iliocese,  and  each  diocese 
became  completely  divided  uj)  in  parishes,  it  was 
natural  that  the  great  donations  of  real  estate 
which  had  been  made  to  the  church  were  parti- 
tioned out,  and  a  suitable  measure  allotted  to 
each  parish  church  for  the  maintenance  of  its 
minister.  Instances  of  such  a  development  occur 
as  early  as  the  sixth  century,  and  with  the 
eleventh  the  development  was  about  completed. 
As  all  secular  property  was  based  on  a  system  of 
tief,  so  all  ecclesiastical  property  was  based  on  a 
system  of  benefices  ;  and  between  the  two  systems 
there  were  no  other  difi^erences  than  those  natu- 
rally arising  from  the  differences  between  the 
Church  and"  the  State,  their  character  and  their 
purpose.  The  appointment  to  a  benefice,  the 
priieUii}  or  inxlilutio  canonica,  comprised  the  selec- 
tion of  a  fit  candidate  (desi/jnalin),  and  the  confer- 
ring of  the  benefice  to  the  candidate,  the  collalin, 
concenio  or  instituii<)\>ro'^er.  With  henejicia  niajora 
the  selection  of  the  candidate  often  took  place  by 
election,  as,  for  instance,  by  the  chapters ;  or  bj' 
nomination,  a.s,  for  instance,  by  the  king ;  and 
then  followed  the  papal  conjirmalin  or  inxlilutio. 
With  henejicia  minora  the  selection  often  consisted 
in  a  simple  presentatio  palroni,  after  which  fol- 
lowed the  episcopal  admii:sio.  The  conditions  for 
a  valid  appointment  were,  that  the  l)enefice  was 
vacant,  tliat  the  candidate  was  a  fit  person,  that 
no  simony  took  place,  that  the  candidate  held  no 
other  lienefice,  etc.,  —  conditions  which  seem  to 
have  been  dictated  by  simple  common  sense,  but 
which  the  Roman  Church  often  disregarded  in 
the  moist  offensive  manner. 

BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY.  See  Clergy,  Bene- 
fit OK. 

BENEZET,  Anthony,  b.  at  St.  Quentin,  France, 
Jan.  31,  1713  ;  d.  at  Philadelphia,  May  3,  1784 ; 
belonged  to  a  Huguenot  family  which  in  1715  was 
driven  from  France  by  Romish  persecution  :  re- 
moved to  London,  joined  the  Quakers,  and  came 
to  Philadelphia  in  1731.  Educated  in  a  mercan- 
tile house,  and  prosperous  in  business,  Anthony 
left  this  career  in  1740,  and  became  head  of  the 
Friends'  English  School  in  Philadelphia.  For 
the  rest  of  his  life  he  was  engaged  in  teaching ; 
always  eager  to  alleviate  sufferings  wherever  he 
met  them,  but  more  especially  passionately  oj> 
posed  to  slavery,  against  which  many  of  his 
writings  are  directed :  A  Caution  to  Great  Britain 
and  her  Colonies,  1767  ;  Historical  Account  oj' Guin- 
ea, 1772;  Ohxervations  on  the  Indian  Natices  o/ this 
Continent,  1784.  etc.  There  is  a  memoir  of  him 
by  Roberts  Vaux,  Xew  York,  1817. 

BENEVOLENCE,  BENEFICENCE.  The  for- 
met  is  the  love  of  mankind  in  general,  accompa- 
nied with  a  desire  to  promote  their  happiness,  and 
is  distinguished  from  the  latter,  which  is  the  prac- 
tice, while  benevolence  is  the  desire,  of  doing 
good.  Benevolence  nuist  be  universal,  reaching 
to  every  man  without  exception,  but  beneficence 
cannot  be  so  universal,  for  it  is  necessarily  con- 
fined   by   .several    considerations;    such   as    our 


knowledge  of  olijeets  and  their  different  circum- 
stances, as  well  as  our  own  abilities,  and  opportu- 
nities of  exercising  them,  'iUf  liuties  oi'  benevo- 
lence include  tho.se  we  owe  to  men,  purely  on  the 
ground  of  their  being  of  the  same  .species  as  our- 
selves, tliose  we  owe  to  our  country,  those  we  owe 
to  families  and  individuals,  and  tho.se  we  owe 
to  (iod.  The  objects  of  our  beneficence  are  like- 
wi.se  all  those  wlio  are  in  the  sphere  of  our  influ- 
ence and  action,  without  resjiect  of  party  or  .sect. 
Benevolence  is  called  disinterested  wlien  unmixed 
with  thought  of  pei'son.al  advantage.  The  means 
of  beneficence  are  connmmication  of  temporal 
supplies  ((iiil.  vi.  6),  prayer  (Jas.  v.  10),  sympa- 
thy (Rom.  xii.  I.t),  Christian  communion  (Col. 
iii.  Iti).      .See  Buck's  '/'h< (j/<ji/i<-al  l)ictionarij. 

BENCEL,  Johann  Albrecht,  b.  at  Winnendeii, 
Wiirtemberg,  .June  24.  1687  ;  d.  at  Stuttgart,  Nov. 
2,  1751  ;  studied  theology  at  Tiibingen,  and  was 
appointed  professor  at  the  seminary  of  Denken- 
dorf  in  1713  ;  prelate  of  Herbrechtingen  in  1741  ; 
and  prelate  of  Alpirsbach,  with  residence  in  Stutt- 
gart, in  1749.  With  bis  firm  faith  in  the  full  in- 
spiration and  ab.solute  authority  of  the  Bible,  he 
felt  very  much  perplexed  at  the  great  number  of 
variations  in  the  text  of  tlie  Xew  Testament,  and 
with  characteristic  humility  and  perseverance  he 
immediately  went  to  work  investigating  the  mat- 
ter. He  procured  all  the  editions,  maimscripts 
and  translations,  he  could:  and  in  1734  he  pub- 
lished his  text  and  an  Apjiaralus  Criticus,  which 
indeed  became  the  starting-point  for  the  wliole 
modern  text-criticis7n  of  the  Xew  Testament. 
His  fanioiis  canon  was.  The  more  ilifficult  reading  is 
to  he  preferred.  Tiiis  critical  work  was  followed  by 
an  exegetical  one.  Gnomon  Novi  I'eslamenti.  Tiiliin- 
gen,  1742,  which  has  been  often  reprinted  in  Latin, 
and  translated  into  (ierman  by  C.  F.  Werner, 
1853;  and  into  Engli.sh,  in  "Clarke's  Library." 
Edinburgh,  18.57,  1858;  and  by  Lewis  and  Vin- 
cent, Philadelphia.  1860,  1861;  and  remains  unto 
this  day  a  treasure-house  of  exposition  delivered 
in  sentences  whose  point,  clearness,  brevity,  and 
wondrous  depth  of  meaning,  render  them  not  only 
worthy  of  patient  study,  but  a  part  of  the  mental 
stores  of  the  attentive  student.  It  was  the  fruit 
of  twenty  years  of  labor  ;  and  it  has  been  said  of  it, 
that  it  "condenses  more  matter  into  aline  than 
can  be  extracted  from  the  pages  of  other  writers." 
His  principles  of  interpretation  are  stated  in  his 
Essay  on  the  Riyhl  iVai/  of  Ilandlinij  Divine  Sub- 
jects. Briefly  it  was  to  "put  notihing  into  the 
Scriptures,  but  to  draw  every  tiling  J'rom  them, 
and  suffer  nothing  to  remain  hidden  that  is  really 
in  them."  To  this  end  he  proceeded,  in  strict  con- 
formity to  grammatical  rules,  but  untrammelled 
by  dogmatical  or  symbolical  considerations,  to 
study  the  New  Testament.  In  theology  he  was 
a  moderate  Lutheran,  but  much  more  a  Christian 
anxious  to  hear  what  tlie  Spirit  saith  unto  the 
churches.  He  united  profound  reverence  for  the 
Bible  with  an  acuteness  which  let  nothing  escape 
him.  In  1740  appeared  his  Exposition  of  the 
Apocalypse  (last  German  ed.,  1858),  translated  by 
.lohn  RoViertson,  London,  17-57;  in  1741  his  Ord'o 
Temporum.  In  both  these  works  he  fixes  the  be- 
ginning of  the  millennimii  in  1836.  His  apoca- 
lyptic calculations  were  of  course  doomed  to  dis- 
appointment. His  Life  was  written  by  his  son 
as  an  introduction  to  the  Gnomon,  and  is  found 


BENHADAD. 


244 


BENOIT. 


in  the  translations  mentioned  above,  by  J.  Cn. 
F.  Bi'RK,  liis  great-grandson,  Stuttgart,  1831; 
translated  by  Walker,  l^oudon,  1837 ;  and  best, 
with  new  materials,  by  Oskar  Wachter:  J  A. 
liengers  Lebensalmss,  Stuttgart,  1865;  also  the 
article  on  Beiigel  by  J.  Ch.  F-  Burk  in  Herzog, 
2ded 

BEN-HA'DAD  (son,  i.e.,  wor.shipper,  of  Hailad, 
the  sun),  the  religious  name  of  three  S\Tian 
kings.  1.  The  son  of  Tabrimon  came  to  the  suc- 
cor of  Asa.  King  of  Judah,  against  Baasha,  King 
of  Israel  (1  Kings  xvi    18).     See  Ba.\siia 

2  The  son  of  the  preceding  was  at  war  with 
Ahab  and  Jehorain,  kings  of  Israel,  and  was  once 
badly  defeated,  but  escaped  by  fraud  and  strata- 
gem'(1  Kings  XX.).  I.,ater  on,  Ben-hadad  be- 
sieged Jehorain  in  .Samaria,  and  so  straitly,  that 
famine  compelled  mothers  to  eat  their  own  chil- 
dren. By  divine  intervention  the  SjTian  host 
was  dispersed,  and  plenty  regained  (2  Kings  ri. 
S-vii.  20).  Hazael's  assas-sination  of  Ben-hadad 
occurred  the  next  year  (\'iii.  15).  Three  successful 
campaigns  against  Ben-hadad  II.  are  mentioned 
upon  the  tablets  of  the  Assyrian  king,  Shalina- 
neser  II.  (B.C.  858-823),  undertaken  in  the  sixth, 
eleventh,  and  fourteenth  years  of  the  latter  mon- 
arch. Thoroughly  in  agreement  with  the  Bible, 
Shalmaneser  says,  that,  at  the  time  of  the  first 
expedition,  the  Syrian  king  was  in  league  with 
"  Achabbu,"  i.e.,  Ahab  of  Israel  (cf.  1  Kings  xx. 
34) ;  and  it  is  safe  to  conjecture,  with  Sclirader 
(Riehm,  Hwh.  Bib.  All.  p.  164),  that  the  misfor- 
tunes of  Ben-hadad  in  subsequent  campaigns 
alienated  the  allies;  for  we  find  Israel  in  open 
revolt  from  her  Syi'ian  lord. 

3.  The  son  of  Hazael  was  called  Ben-hadad. 
He  was  the  master  of  Israel ;  but  Jehoahaz.  in 
answer  to  prayer,  received  the  promise  of  deliv- 
erance. The  '•  Savior "  was  his  son  Jehoash  (2 
Kings  xii.  5,  c(  ^.  25).  The  prophet  Amos  (i.  4) 
declares  that  a  fire  should  devour  the  palaces  of 
Ben-hadad  III. 

Schrader,  in  Riehm,  calls  attention  to  the  Assy- 
rian form  of  the  name,  Bin-hidri,  i.e.,  Ben-hadar, 
tlie  exact  form  preserved  in  the  Septuagint,  which 
is  therefore  nearer  right  than  the  Hebrew. 

BENJAMIN  OF  TUDELA,  a  Spanish  rabbi,  b. 
in  Navarre;  d.  in  1175.  After  many  years  of 
travel  (116()-73)  in  Europe  and  the  East,  vi.s- 
iting  Constantinople,  Egypt,  Palestine,  Assyria, 
Persia,  penetrating  to  the  frontiers  of  China,  he 
published  his  Itinerary  in  Hebrew,  under  the  title 
Mazahth  ('•  peregrinations  '' ).  Tiie  work  swarms 
with  errors,  geographical,  chronological,  and  of 
every  kind,  raising  almost  the  presumption  that 
the  author  never  was  in  the  places  lie  attempts  to 
describe.  The  work  has  pa.ssed  through  many 
editions,  and  been  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages. It  first  was  printed  by  Soncini,  at  Con- 
stantinople (1513,  8vo),  reprinted  in  Antwerp  in 
1.575,  with  a  Latin  translation  by  Ariiis  Monta- 
nus.  Later  editions  are  those  of  Constantin  L'Em- 
jiereur  (Brunet  .says  tlie  Hebrew  text  used  was 
inaccurate),  Lyon,  1033,  in  Latin  ;  of  Barratier, 
Amsterdam,  1734,  2  vols  in  French;  and,  best 
of  all,  that  of  Aslier,  in  English,  London  and 
Berlin,  1810,  2  vols.  The  first  volume  contains 
the  text;  the  .second,  the  notes  and  iiuinerous 
e.ssays.  See,  also,  the  edition  of  Lelewel,  Bru- 
xelles,  1852. 


BENNETT,  James,  D.D.,  a  preacher  and  schol- 
arly writer  of  the  Congregationalists  of  England  ; 
b.  in  London,  May  22,  1774 ;  d.  in  London,  Dec. 
4,  1862 ;  studied  at  tiosport,  under  Dr.  Bogue ; 
settled  at  Ronisey  Hants,  in  1796,  and  ordained 
there  April,  1797  Whilst  here,  he  published 
Memoirs  of  Risdon  Darracott,  And  together  with 
Da\nd  Bogue,  D.I)  ,  The  History  of  Dis.ienlers  from 
the  Kei-ulution,  1688,  to  the  Year  1808,  2d  ed., 
London,  1833,  2  vols.  In  1813  became  theologi- 
cal tutor  of  the  Rotherham  Independent  College, 
and  pastor  of  the  adjoining  church.  Here  he 
pulilished  Life  of  Dr  Boyne.  and  Lectures  on  the 
History  nf  Christ,  2d  ed.,  1828  In  1828  he  was 
called  to  the  pastorate  of  the  ancient  church  at 
.Silver  Street,  London,  which  afterwards  removed 
to  the  new  chapel  in  Falcon  Square.  He  attracted 
great  attention  by  his  Lectures  on  Infidelity.  3d  ed., 
1847,  at  the  close  of  which  he  was  accustomed  to 
invite  infidels  to  public  controverey.  His  later 
works  are.  The  Preaching  of  Chri.il,  Justifcation 
as  lierealed  in  Scripture,  in  opposition  to  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent,  and  Mr  jVeirman's  Lectures,  1840, 
Lectures  on  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  1846,  and  the 
Congregational  Lecture  on  The  Theology  of  tlie 
Early  Christian  Church,  1840.  He  pnblislied  also 
a  large  amount  of  miscellaneous  works  in  the 
form  of  letters,  articles,  sermons,  etc.  His  son  is 
the  celebrated  I.ondon  physician,  .Sir  J.  Risdon 
Bennett.  Llewelyn  d.  bevak. 

BENNO,  St.,  b.  near  Goslar,  Hanover,  1010; 
d.  at  Meissen,  June  16,  1106 ;  was  educated  in  a 
monastery  at  Hildesheim,  where  he  took  holy 
orders  ni  1028,  and  was  ordained  deacon  in  1035, 
and  priest  in  1040;  was  appointed  teacher  in  the 
cathedral  school  of  Goslar  in  1051,  and  wrote, 
while  there,  l)e  Dictamme  and  Expositiones  supra 
Evangelin  Dmninculia,  which  are  still  extant;  and 
became  Bishop  of  Meissen  in  1067.  By  Henry- 
IV.  he  was  twice  imprisoned  (in  1075  and  in 
1078),  suspected  of  secretly  encouraging  the  Saxon 
insurrection  ,  and  in  1065  he  was  even  deposed 
for  having  declared  himself  in  favor  of  Hermann  : 
but  in  1088  he  was  again  re-instated  in  his  office 
on  the  recommendation  of  Clement  HI.  He  was 
a  rather  insignificant  character,  weak  and  vacil- 
lating in  all  great  questions;  but  he  held  the 
Gregorian  views  in  all  chmch  matters;  and  in 
1523  .\drian  VI.  found  it  opportune  to  canonize 
him,  which  occasioned  a  sharp  attack  from 
Luther.  His  remains  are  deposited  in  JSIunich, 
and  he  is  the  patron  saint  of  Bavaria.  See  Ussile- 
gium  i".  Bennonis,  Munich,  1765,  by  C.  F.  Seys- 
SAHrii,  and  Apologia  Bcnnoniana,  Munich,  1773. 
by  .\.  Ckammk.I!. 
"  BENOIT,  Ren6,  b.  1521,  at  .\ngers;  d.  in  Pari.s, 
1608;  accompanied  Mary  Stuart  to  Scotland  as 
her  confes.sor:  was  after  his  return  appointed 
pa.storto  the  Chnrcii  of  St.  Eustache  in  Paris,  and 
played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  controversies  of 
the  Ligue,  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  oiiposition 
to  the  (iiii.ses  and  the  lUtramonlanes.  In  1566  he 
published  a  transl.-itiou  of  the  Bible,  which,  how- 
ever, was  not  much  more  than  a  reprint  of  the 
fJeneva  translation.  It  was  condemned  by  tlie 
faculty  ;  and  when  (in  1588)  Henry  \\ .  made  him 
profe.s.sor  of  theology  in  the  Collrgrs  de  iXararre, 
he  was  coni]i<'lled  to  suliscribe  the  condemnation 
of  himself.  .Still  more  he  exa.s))eratcd  the  Ultra- 
montaiu.'s   by  liis   Catholic  Apology,  in  wliich  he 


BBNOIT. 


245 


BERENGARIUS. 


tried  to  prove  that  the  King  did  not  forfeit  Ins 
right  to  the  throne  by  professing  the  Protestant 
faitli.  When,  as  a  rewanl,  tlie  King  afterwards 
made  him  Bisliop  of  Troyes,  tlie  I'ope  refused  the 
■confirmation,  and  in  1004  he  had  to  renounce  the 
ortice. 

BENOIT,  Elle,  b.  in  Paris,  Jan.  20,  1040;  d.  at 
Delft,  Xov.  15,  17-8;  studied  pliilosophy  in  Paris, 
and  theology  at  Montauban  ;  was  appointed  min- 
ister at  Alen9on  in  1(365;  lied  in  lt)84,  after  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  to  Holland, 
and  became  minister  to  the  Walloon  congrega- 
tion ill  Delft.  He  wrote  several  controversional 
tracts,  books  of  editicatiou,  etc. ;  but  his  principal 
work  is  his  Hisloire  de  V Edit  de  Naiiles,  5  vols., 
Delft,  1G93-95,  which,  written  with  great  accura- 
cy, and  giving  a  number  of  documents,  is  one  of 
the  best  sources  of  the  history  of  the  Protestant 
Clnu'ch  in  France. 

BENTHAM,  Thomas,  b.  at  Sherburn,  York- 
shire, Eng.,  151:5;  d.  at  Lichfield,  Feb.  21,  1.578; 
was  educated  at  Oxford ;  embraced  the  Kefor- 
mation ;  left  the  country  on  the  accession  of 
Mary,  and  lived  for  some  years  at  Zin-ich  and 
Basel,  but  returned  before  her  death  to  take 
charge  of  a  Reformed  congregation  in  London, 
and  was  made  Bishop  of  Lichfield  and  Coventry 
in  1559.  He  translated  the  Psalms,  Ezekiel,  and 
Daniel,  in  the  "  Bishops'  Bible." 

BENTLEY,  Richard,  b.  at  Oulton,  Yorkshire, 
Jan.  27,  1662 ;  d.  at  Cambridge,  July  14,  1742 ; 
was  educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge ; 
•ordained  deacon  in  1090 ;  nominated  to  the  Boyle 
lectureship  in  1092  ;  appointed  master  of  Trinity 
College,  Cainliridge,  in  1699,  Archdeacon  of  Ely 
ill  1700,  and  /iro/e^sor  re<jius  in  divinity  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1717.  Besides  liis  eminent  merits  as  a 
critical  piiilologist,  he  exercised  a  great  iuHuence 
on  the  theology  and  the  religious  views  of  his 
time,  especially  by  his  Confutation  of  Atheism,  or 
luijht  Sermons  preached  at  Boyle's  Lectures,  Lon- 
tlon,  1698,  translated  into  Latin,  French,  and 
Oermaii,  and  Remarks  upon  a  late  Discourse  of 
Free-thinking,  London,  1713,  which  actually  si- 
lenced the  atheists,  and  drove  them  into  deism. 
.Vfter  great  and  laborious  preparations,  compar- 
ing editions,  manuscripts,  etc.,  he  published  in 
I7i7  Proposals  for  printing  a  New  Edition  of  the 
Greek  Testament.  He  anticipated  the  principle 
of  Lachmann,  and  intended  to  substitute  for  the 
Textus  Receptus  the  oldest  attainable  text  of  the 
Xicene  or  ante-Niceiie  age;  but  this  plan  met 
with  so  much  opposition  from  the  side  of  the 
tlieologians,  that  he  was  compelled  to  give  it  up. 
■  His  collected  works  were  published  in  London, 
18:i6,  3  vols.,  edited  by  A.  Dyck;  his  Correspond- 
<:nce,  in  1842,  2  vols.,  edite<l  by  Wokdswouth. 
His  life  was  written  by  Bishop  Monk  in  1830,  2d 
2d.,  London,  1833,  2  vols.,  by  J.acoi!  ]\[.\hly, 
Leipzig,  1868,  and  by  J.  C.  Jkuh,  London,  1882. 

BEOWULF,  the  oldest  epic  poem  in  any  Ger- 
manic tongue,  recounts,  in  3,184  double  lines  of 
Anglo-Saxon  alliterative  verse,  the  exploits  and 
death  of  the  hero  Beowulf.  He  is  represented  as 
leaving  his  home  in  the  country  of  the  Geats,  upon 
hearing  of  the  murders  perpetrated  by  a  fiendish 
monster  named  Greudel,  at  the  court  of  tlie  Dan- 
ish king,  Hrothgar,  and  proceeding  thither  with 
fourteen  chosen  companions  for  the  purpose  of 
encountering  and  slaying  the  destroyer.     He  suc- 


ceeded in  tliis  undertaking,  and  also  in  despatch- 
ing (jrendel's  mother,  who  appeared  as  the  aven- 
ger of  her  .son.  In  his  old  age,  after  having  reigned 
for  many  years  over  his  kinsmen  the  (jeats,  he 
was  slain  in  combat  with  a  dragon.  His  body 
was  consumed,  and  a  mound  was  reared  ujjoii  a 
lofty  promontory  to  commemorate  his  name.  The 
poem  naturally  falls  into  four  great  divisions ;  viz., 
(a)  Beowulf's  figlit  with  (irendel,  (6)  his  fight 
with  Grendel's  mother,  (c)  his  return,  (</)  his 
death.  Certain  episodic  passages,  and  others 
which  clearly  imply  an  acquaintance  with  the 
Scriptures,  must  be  regarde<l  as  later  additions. 
Example  of  the  latter  are  vers.  107-114,  178-188, 
1724-1781,  etc.  The  origin  of  the  poem  must 
be  sought  in  heathen  times,  and  among  the  Teu- 
tonic tribes  of  northern  Denmark  and  southern 
Sweden.  Though  its  nucleus  is  evidently  myth- 
ical, it  contains  an  admixture  of  historic  fact. 
The  Hygelac  of  vers.  2355-2367  and  other  passages 
has  been  identified  with  the  Chochilaicus  of  Greg- 
ory of  Tour.s,  and  his  expedition  with  one  that 
took  place  in  the  second  decade  of  the  sixth 
century. 

Our  recension  of  the  poem  probably  dates  from 
the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century,  though  the 
single  manuscript  in  which  it  is  contained  (Vi- 
tellius  A.  XV.  of  the  British  Museum)  belongs  to 
the  tentli  century. 

Lit.  —  Among  the  best  editions  are  those  of 
Kemble,  London,  1835;  Thorpe,  Oxford,  1855; 
Grein,  in  Ids  Bihl.  der  angels.  Poesie,  Gottingen, 
1857-04;  and  Heyne,  4th  ed.,  Paderborn,  1879. 
Extracts  in  the  original  are  contained  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Readers  of  March,  X.Y.,  1870,  and 
Sweet,  Oxford,  1879.  There  are  P^nglish  transla- 
tions by  Kemble,  London,  1837;  Wackerbarth, 
London,  1849 ;  Thorpe,  in  his  edition,  Oxford, 
1855;  Arnold,  in  his  edition,  London,  1870;  and 
Lumsden,  London,  1881.  Analyses  and  partial 
translations  may  be  found  in  Turner's  Hist,  of 
the  Anglo-Saxons,  Loudon,  1836  (and  earlier  edi- 
tions), and  Morley's  English  Writers,  London,  1867. 
Cf.  also  the  following  from  a  great  number  of 
monographs  and  essays,  —  Leo  :  Ueher  Beowulf, 
Halle,  1839;  Haigh :  The  Anglo-Saxon  Sagas, 
London,  1861.  albert  S.  cook. 

BERCEANS,  or  BARCLAYITES,  a  sect  founded 
by  John  Barclay,  1734-1798,  and  still  represented 
by  a  few  congregations  in  Scotland.  Claiming  to 
imitate  the  ancient  Beroeans  (Acts  xvii.  11),  they 
reject  all  human  authority,  and  acknowledge  only 
the  Scriptures  as  the  rule  of  conduct. 

BERENGARIUS  OF  TOURS,  b.  at  Tours,  in 
the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century ;  d.  in  the 
adjacent  Island  of  St.  Cosme,  1088;  a  representa- 
tive of  that  craving  for  spiritual  independence 
which  every  now  and  then  comes  to  the  surface 
all  through  the  history  of  the  middle  ages,  and 
which  in  its  latent,  often  unwilling,  opposition 
to  the  authority  of  the  Church,  sometimes  ap- 
proaches very  near  to  the  principles  of  modern 
rationalism ;  was  a  pupil  of  Bishop  Fulbert  of 
Chartres,  and  became  in  1040  director  of  the  ca- 
thedral school  in  Toui's.  By  his  talent  as  a 
teacher,  and  by  his  learning,  both  in  the  fathers 
(especially  Gregory  tlie  Great  and  .\ugustine)  and 
in  the  classical  literature,  from  which  he  had  ac- 
quired a  freer  method  of  reasoning  and  a  clearer 
expression  for  his  thoughts,  he  soon  brought  the 


BERENGARIUS. 


246 


BERKELEY. 


school  into  a  flourishing  condition  ;  pupils  gath- 
ered around  him  from  every  quarter.  But  his 
studies  in  the  Bible  and  the  fathers  had  led  him 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  view  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per generally  accepted  throughout  the  Church 
since  the  time  of  Paschasius  Radbertus  was  wrong, 
that,  indeed,  the  whole  doctrine  of  transubstan- 
tiation  was  an  inepta  recordia  vulgi.  He  taught 
that  in  the  Lord's  Supper  it  was  necessary  to  dis- 
tinguish, with  Augustine,  between  the  symbols, 
facramenlum,  and  the  thing  symbolized,  res  sacra- 
menti:  and  though  at  tirst  he  seems  to  have  been 
somewhat  cautious  in  divulging  his  conviction  on 
this  point,  rumors  of  his  heterodoxy  gradually 
oozed  out.  In  1046,  and  again  in  1048,  Adelman, 
scholasticus  at  Liege,  and  a  friend  of  his,  ad- 
dressed some  anxious  queries  to  him  in  private 
letters.  In  1049  Bishop  Hughes  of  Langres 
attacked  him  publicly  in  a  book ;  and  in  1050 
he  himself  wrote  a  letter  to  Lanfranc,  at  that 
time  the  greatest  teacher  of  the  Church,  re- 
proaching him  because  he  still  held  the  views  of 
Paschasius,  and  thereby  made  Scotus  a  heretic. 
Lanfranc  received  the  letter  in  Rome,  and  im- 
mediately laid  the  case  before  a  synod,  which 
condemned  Berengarius  without  a  hearing,  nay, 
without  a  summons.  This  injustice  was  too 
glaring,  however;  and  a  new  synod  was  con- 
voked to  Vercelli,  Sept.  1,  same  year.  But  when 
Berengarius  went  to  Paris  to  obtain  the  permis- 
sion of  the  King,  his  abbot,  to  go  abroad  to  the 
.synod,  the  King,  Henry  I.,  thought  it  a  good  oi> 
portunity  to  get  hold  of  his  canon's  property,  and 
threw  him  in  a  dungeon.  He  was  condemned 
by  the  synod  of  Vercelli,  and  rescued  from  the 
King's  clutch  only  by  the  powerful  aid  of  his 
friends,  —  Count  Gaufried  of  Anjou,  and  Bishop 
Eusebius  Bruno  of  Angers.  Henry  I.,  vexed  at 
having  missed  an  opportunity  of  rapine,  now  con- 
voked a  synod  at  Paris,  which  also  condemned 
the  wealthy  heretic ;  but,  under  the  protection  of 
Gaufried  and  Eusebius  Bruno,  Berengarius  sat 
quietly  in  Tours,  though  the  fanaticism  and  ha- 
tred of  his  adversaries  surged  higher  and  higher 
around  him  every  hour.  When,  in  1054,  Cardi- 
nal Hildebrand  arrived  in  France  as  papal  legate, 
he  tried  to  bring  the  matter  to  an  i.ssue ;  and 
Berengarius  succeeded  in  satisfying  the  synod  of 
Tours.  But  only  for  a  moment  was  tlie  uproar 
stilled.  In  1059  he  was  again  siuumoned  before 
a  .synod  in  Rome ;  and  here  he  was  met  with  such 
an  outV)urst  of  fury,  that,  stunned  by  fright,  he 
fell  upon  his  face,  and  retracted.  Thereby  he 
saved  his  life;  but  the  weakness  of  that  moment 
he  never  forgot,  and  hardly  had  lie  returned  to 
Tours  before  ne  trampled  upon  his  owni  retraction, 
and  began  to  teacli  and  preach  his  original  ideas 
with  increased  vigor  and  bitterness.  Synod  after 
synod  condemned  him  ;  but  he  continued  disre- 
garding the  verdicts,  imtil  at  last  Gregory  VI L, 
who  .seems  to  have  felt  kindly  towards  him,  but 
was  vexed  because  this  controver.sy  threatened  to 
interfere  with  his  reform-plans,  compelled  him, 
at  a  synod  in  Rome  (107H),  to  retract  a  .second 
time,  and  to  keep  silent  for  tlie  rest  of  his  life. 
He  retired  to  the  Island  of  St.  Cosme,  where  lie 
lived  in  deep  solitude. 

Lit.  —  A  complete  list  of  all  sources  and 
documents  concerning  this  point  of  inediiPval 
church-history  may  be  found  ill  11.  Sidmndoui-- : 


Berengarius  Ttironensis,  Berlin,  1850;  sei',  also, 
ReuTER  :  Gesrhiclile  (I.  relig.  Aiijklurimci  im  j\Iit- 
telalter.  1875,  I.  p.  91:  and  Guitmcxd's  works  in 
BM.  Pair.,  Lugd.,  XVIll.  His  De  Sacra  Ca;r.a 
was  edited  by  Vischer,  Berlin,  1834.       JACOBI. 

BERGIER,  Nicolas  Sylvestre,  b.  at  Darnay,  in 
Lorraine,  Dec.  31.  1718;  d.  in  Paris,  April  1!), 
1790  ;  attracted  attention,  while  still  a  teacher  in 
the  college  at  Besan^on,  by  some  essays  on  phi- 
lologj'  and  mj-thology,  but  abandoned  afterwards 
this  line  of  study,  and  devoted  liimself  to  Chris- 
tian apologetics,  and  polemics  against  the  En- 
cyclopedists. In  1765  he  jiublished  Le  Dc'isme 
rtfutd  par  lui-meme,  and  in  1708  tlie  Certilwie  des 
preuves  du  christianismr,  which  achieved  a  great 
success,  and  occasioned  "N'oltaire,  who  wrote  against 
it,  to  temper  his  tone,  and  be  a  little  more  care- 
ful about  liis  facts.  In  1709  followed  Apologie 
de  la  Religion  chrctienne  against  Ilolbach,  and  in 
1771  Examen  du  matc'rialisme.  He  also  wrote  a 
Diclionnaire  the'ologiquc,  which  formed  part  of  the 
Encyclopedic  mtlhodique,  but  has  several  times 
been  separately  edited,  latest,  Paris,  1808,  6  vols. 
As  a  reward  for  his  great  services,  he  was  made  a 
canon  of  Noire  Dame  in  Paris,  and  confessor  to 
the  courts  of  the  king. 

BERGIUS,  Johannes,  b.  at  Stettin,  1587;  d.  at 
Frankfort-on-tlie-Oder,  1G58 ;  studied  theology  at 
Heidelberg  and  Strassburg ;  visited  England, 
France,  and  the  Xetherlands ;  and  was  in  1016 
appointed  professor  of  theology  in  the  University 
of  Frankfort,  whose  faculty  professed  the  Re- 
formed faith.  He  represented  Brandenburg  at 
the  Leipzig  conference  (1631)  and  at  the  Thorn 
colloquiiun  (1642),  but  declined  to  be  present  at 
the  synod  of  Dort,  as  his  stand-point  was  union- 
ism rather  that  Calvinism.  His  ideas  of  the  uni- 
versality of  the  divine  grace  he  developed  in  his 
Der  IVitle  Gotles  von  aller  Mensckens  Seliykeil, 
1653.  In  his  controversies  with  the  Lutherans 
he  was  very  moderate.  On  the  members  of  the 
house  of  Brandenburg  he  exercised  great  in- 
fluence. 

BERKELEY,  George,  the  author  of  the  Minute 
Philosopher ;  h.  at  Kilcrin,  or  I )ry.sert  Castle,  in 
the  county  of  Kilkenny,  Ireland.  March  1"2,  1685; 
d.  suddenly,  at  Oxford,  Jan.  14,  1753.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College.  Dublin,  and  obtained 
a  fellowship  in  1707.  He  lived  there  in  an  "at- 
mosphere charged  with  the  elements  of  re-action 
against  traditional  scholasticism;"  and  his  Com- 
mon-Place Book  shows  how  his  mind  worked  under 
its  stimulus.  Very  early  in  life  he  was  possessed 
by  the  idea,  which  he  subse(iuently  in  various 
forms  worked  out,  that  no  existence  is  conceiva- 
ble and  therefore  possible,  which  is  not  either  con- 
scious .spirit,  or  the  ideas  (i.e.,  objects)  of  which 
such  .spirit  is  con.scious.  "  Exi.stiiig  tilings  consist 
of  ideas  or  objects  perceived  or  willed  ;  while  per- 
ception and  volition  are  inconceivable  and  impos- 
sible, save  as  the  operations  of  mind  or  .siiirit. 
No  object  exists  a]i:irt  from  the  mind:  mind  is 
therefore  the  deepest  reality;  it  is  tlie  /iriiis,  both 
in  tliduglit  and  existence,  if  for  the  moineiit  we 
a.ssume  the  ]iopiilar  dLstinction  between  the  two." 
From  this  theory  he  never  wavered:  with  it 
already  developed  he  appeared  as  an  atitJior. 
In  171)7  he  issued  two  .short  tracts  upon  mathe- 
matics; in  1709  the  jVcic  Theory  of  Vision,  —  an 
examination  nf  visual  consciousness  to  Jirove  that 


BERKELEY. 


247 


BERLEBURG. 


it  really  <iffords  110  grnund  for  belief  in  the  reality 
of  the  objects  apparently  seen.  In  1710  appeared 
his  Principles  of  Human  Knoirl(^f///e,  in  which  his 
theory  received  complete  exposition.  Meanwhile 
Berkeley  had  taken  orders,  and  1711  lie  jireached 
his  Discourse  nn  Passice  Oheilicnce,  in  which  he 
worked  a  "theological  ntilitarianisin."  In  171'5 
he  left  the  university,  went  iiji  to  London,  formed 
many  desirable  acfiuaintances,  and  gained  a  most 
enviable  reputation  for  learning,  humility,  and 
piety,  wliich  was  strengthened  by  the  appearance 
of  his  Dialogues  helwcen  Hylns  and  Phiionous 
(1713),  —  a  work  of  great  literary  beauty  and  skill. 
The  next  seven  years  were  spent,  for  the  most 
part,  on  the  Continent.  In  1722  he  was  appointed 
Dean  of  Dromore;  in  1724,  Dean  of  Derry,  the 
"best  preferment"  in  Ireland.  In  .\ugust,  1728, 
he  married,  and  in  .September  sailed  for  America, 
to  carry  out  his  darling  jiroject  of  establishing  a 
college  in  the  Bermuda  Islands,  with  the  aim  of 
extending  Christianity  and  civilization  in  Ameri- 
ca. He  w-as  led  to  lielieve  that  government  took 
great  interest  in  his  plans,  for  which  he  had  vol- 
untarily made  great  personal  sacrifices  and  great 
exertions.  He  landed  at  Newport,  R.I.;  but 
three  years  of  waiting  for  the  promised  aid  con- 
vinced him  of  the  vanity  of  his  hopes.  He  re- 
turned to  London,  and  published  in  1732  Alciph- 
ron,  or,  the  Minute  P!i ilosopher,  the  fruit  of  liis 
studies  in  America.  The  book  is  a  powerf id  refu- 
tation of  the  free  thinking  then  so  popular  and 
fashionable:  it  is  probably  the  mo.st  famous  of 
his  works.  In  1734  he  was  raised  to  the  bish- 
opric of  Cloyne,  Ireland.  In  1744  he  wrote  tlie 
curious  iihilosophico-medical  work,  Philosophical 
Reflexions  and  Inquiries  concerning  the  Virtues  of 
Tar-water.  In  the  second  edition,  printed  the  same 
year,  the  title  Siris,  and  the  words  'a  chain  of,'  were 
prefixed  to  the  orignal  title.  Frofes.sor  Fraser calls 
it  "the  profoundest  English  philosophical  work 
of  the  last  century."  In  1752  Berkeley  went  to 
Oxford  to  live,  to  end  his  days  in  wished-for  re- 
tirement, and  there  he  died. 

Bishop  Berkeley  was  certainly  one  of  the  purest 
and  sincerest  Christians  in  history.  AVhile  in 
the  world,  he  was  not  of  it.  And  he  has  peculiar 
claim  upon  the  attention  of  Americans,  because 
of  his  long  residence  on  his  farm  near  Newport. 
While  there,  he  greatly  endeared  himself  to  all, 
and  is  yet  remembered.  Trinity  Church  in  New- 
port, a  fine  old  wooden  structure  in  which  he 
sometimes  preached,  still  stands;  as  does  the 
house,  three  miles  froni  Newport,  which  he  built 
and  lived  in,  and  named  "  Whitehall,"  in  honor 
of  an  English  palace.  About  a  mile  from  the 
house  is  the  rooky  shore ;  and  a  horizontal  cleft 
in  the  rocks  is  stiU  pointed  out  as  a  retreat  to 
which  Berkeley  went  to  meditate,  and  to  which, 
also,  he  was  wont  to  take  his  friends.  In  Alciph- 
ron,  Berkeley  has  given  permanent  record  of  his 
life  at  Newport ;  and  not  a  little  of  the  charm  of 
that  work  is  due  to  this  fact.  AVhile  there,  he 
made  at  least  one  convert,  the  Kev.  Dr.  Samuel 
Johnson,  first  president  of  Columbia  College, 
New  York,  who  published  in  his  Elementa  Phi- 
losophica  an  exposition  of  Berkeley's  teaching. 
Jonathan  Edwards  is  also  claimed  as  a  Berkleian. 
And  Berkeley  did  more  :  he  left  his  impress  on 
here  and  there  a  speculative  mind  in  Khode 
Island,  and   a  speculative   tendency  has  always 


characterized  its  gifted  men.  Another  strong 
claim  upon  us  is  becau.se  it  was  he,  who,  inspirea 
by  the  prospect  of  planting  arts  and  learning  in 
Anierica,  uttered  the  prophetic  ver.se:  — 

"  Westwaril  tlie  course  of  empire  takes  its  way; 
Tlic  four  first.  a<"ts  .-ilrca'ly  [last, 
A  tiftli  sliall  close  tin;  draiii.i  with  tliii  day: 
Time's  noblest  offs|)nng  is  the  last." 

The  quotations  made  above  are  from  Mr.  Ad- 
amson's  article  in  the  Enci/cl.  Brit.,  9th  ed. 

Lit.  —  The  cla.ssical  edition,  snper.seding  all 
others,  of  Berkeley's  Complete  Works,  is  that  by 
Professor  A.  C  Fr.\ser,  Oxford,  1871,  4  vols", 
(the  fourth  volume  contains  Life,  Letters,  and  Dis- 
sertation on  his  Phdosophy).  Professor  Fhaseu 
and  Professor  T.  II.  Green  have  each  furnished 
a  volume  on  Berkeley  to  the  series  of  Philosophic 
Classics  for  English  Readers  and  English  Philoso- 
phers respectively. 

Essays.  —  Collyns  Simon  :  Unirersal  fmma- 
terialism  (1847)  ;  the  same :  Nature  ami  Eletnents 
of  the  External  iroWrf  (1862)  ;  Frieduich  •  L'eber 
Berkeley's  Idealism  us . 

Adverse  Reviews  of  his  Theory  of  Vision. — 
Baii.ev  :  Review  of  Berkeley's  'I'heoni  of  Vision 
(1842);  Abbott:  Sight  'and  Touch  (1864): 
MoNCK :  Space  and  Vision.  Modern  editions  of 
separate  works  have  appeared,  e.g..  The  Princi- 
ples of  Human  Knowledge,  with  Prolegomena  and 
Annotations,  by  Pi'ofe.ssor  Krauth  (a  merito- 
rious and  learned  compilation,  presenting  a  val- 
uable epitome  of  what  has  been  said  about 
Berkeley). 

BERLEBURG  BIBLE,  The,  was  an  annotated 
Bible  with  a  new  translation  (German)  as  its 
basis,  in  which  it  was  attempted  to  explain  the 
Scriptures  according  to  the  teachings  of  the  Mys- 
tics. The  execution  of  the  work  is  very  unequal ; 
and  the  spirit  is  sometimes  rather  sectarian  than 
Christian,  as  when,  with  bitterness,  oppo.sing 
views  are  attacked.  But,  on  the  whole,  it  must 
be  granted  that  the  "  Bible "  contributed  to 
quicken  the  spiritual  life  of  its  readers. 

The  work  was  comprised  in  eight  folio  volumes, 
issued  1726-42.  The  translation  was  made  under 
the  direction  of  1\I.  Haug,  and  shows,  particularly 
in  the  Old  Testament,  a  shocking  absence  of 
grammatical  knowledge,  of  literary  taste,  and  of 
poetic  sense.  The  commentary  was  in  a  sense 
an  anthology,  inasmuch  as  it  presented  choice 
extracts  from  mystical  writers,  all  the  way  from 
Origen  down  to  Madame  Guyon  and  Mrs.  Leade. 
But  a  great  part  was  the  work  of  otherwise 
totally  obscure  persons,  who  somewhat  plaintively 
described  themselves  as  "pastors  persecuted  for 
the  sake  of  heterodoxy." 

This  pretentious  work  was  written  by  the  mys- 
tical school,  who  were  the  degenerate  descendants 
of  the  Pietists,  —  the  fruit  of  the  re-action  from 
the  dry  and  formal  orthodoxy  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  It  was  a  sort  of  continuation  of  the 
Marburg  Bible  of  1712,  edited  by  Horch  ;  but  it 
was  no  iiuprovement.  Count  Casimir  of  Sain- 
Witgenstein-Berleburg  was  its  patron.  It  cannot 
be  said  to  he  happy  in  its  idea  or  execution. 
Three  sen.ses  of  the  Word  were  taught,  —  the  lit- 
eral, the  moral,  and  the  secret  or  prophetic.  To 
interjiret  the  latter,  the  commentators  boasted  of 
the  possession  of  tlie  spirit  who  originally  wrote 
the  words.     Their  central  doctrine  was  the  regeii- 


BERN 


248 


BERNARD. 


eration.  Tliey  taught  that  men  could  perfectly 
keep  the  coniniaudineuts  of  God,  and  receive  into 
tlieniselves  in  such  a  manner  the  righteousness  of 
C'hriyt,  that  the  primitive  human  nature  is  tliere- 
liy  restored.  Of  course,  their  conception  both  of 
sin  and  of  redemption  was  heterodox. 

The  work  never  reached  a  second  edition,  and 
copies  are  now  scarce.  Curiously  enough,  in 
addition  to  the  canonical  books,  they  gave  a  num- 
ber of  apocr^-phal  writings,  botli  on  the  Old  and 
the  New  Testament,  and  also  extracts  from  >Iose- 
phus  and  the  Fathers.  c.  WEIZSACKER. 

BERN,  The  Disputation  of,  occupies  a  promi- 
nent place  among  the  many  disputations,  confer- 
ences, and  coUoquia  which  were  held  in  Ger- 
many during  the  period  of  the  Reformation, 
because  it  arrived  at  a  practical  result.  For  a 
long  time  the  Reformation  made  only  slow  prog- 
ress in  Bern  :  both  the  character  of  the  people 
and  the  manner  of  their  life  made  them  less  sus- 
ceptible to  new  ideas.  But,  as  soon  as  an  evan- 
gelical party  was  formed,  the  jealousy  and  arro- 
gance of  the  Roman  Church  immediately  began 
to  cause  trouble.  According  to  the  usages  of 
those  days,  a  reconciliation  was  attempted  by 
means  of  a  disputation;  and  May  21,  1526,  such 
a  disputation  was  opened  in  Baden  before  a  large 
and  brilliant  assembly.  Faber,  Eck,  Murner  of 
J.,uzern,  spoke  on  the  Roman  side;  (Ecolampadius, 
on  the  evangelical.  But  the  defeat  of  the  latter 
party  was  a  foregone  conclusion,  and  the  evan- 
gelical cause  might  have  been  completely  lost  in 
Bern,  had  not  the  Roman  Church,  by  the  violent 
and  domineering  manner  in  which  it  used  its 
victory,  called  forth  a  re-action,  which,  in  less 
than  two  years,  proved  fatal  to  her  cause.  A 
new  disputation  was  opened  at  Bern,  Jan.  7, 
1.528,  and  lasted  to  Jan.  26.  The  Roman  digni- 
taries and  celebrities  who  had  been  invited  de- 
clined to  1)6  present.  On  the  side  of  the  evan- 
gelical, spoke,  besides  Kolb  and  Ilaller,  preacli- 
ers  of  Bern,  Capito,  and  (Ecolampadius.  The 
assembly  was  very  numerous ;  and  ten  doctrinal 
points  of  purely  evangelical  bearing  were  agreed 
upon,  and  subscribed  to  by  most  of  the  clergymen 
present.  Feb.  7,  1528,  the  Refornuition  Edict 
was  issued.  The  nutss  was  abolished,  the  images 
were  removed  from  the  churches,  the  episcopal 
power  was  annulled,  etc.,  and  the  Refornuition 
was  established  witliout  the  least  violence  or 
disturbance. 

Lit. — The  acts  of  the  disputation  were  pub- 
lished at  Zurich,  1528,  and  again  in  16(18  and 
1701.  FisciiKu:  Geschiclite  iler  DispHtation  un/l 
Reformation  in  Bern,  Bern,  1828.  See  the  "  Ten 
Theses  of  Bern,"  in  Sciiaff  :  Creeds,  vol.  III. 
pp.  208  s.jq. 

BERN,  Synod  of.  By  this  title,  the  fir.st  re- 
formed synod  tliere  held  (in  1532),  together  with 
all  the  acts  it  passed,  is  meant.  The  .synod  num- 
bered two  hundred  and  twenty  of  the  clergy  of  the 
country,  and  lasted  from  the  9th  to  the  13tli  of 
January  inclusive,  with  Cajuto  as  its  principal 
figure.  They  formeil  a  I'astoi's  Manual  and  a 
Church  Directory,  distinguislie(i,  even  among  the 
monuments  of  the  Reformation,  for  its  apostolic 
force  and  unction,  warmth  and  siiu;erity,  homely 
simplicity  and  i)ractical  wisdom.  T/ie  Aels  of  the 
Synod  were  ollicially  printed  at  Basel,  1532,  under 
the  title  "  Benier  Syuodus-Onnung  wie  sich  pfar- 


rer  und  prediger  zu  Statt  und  Land  Bern,  in  leer 
und  leben,  halten  sollen,  mit  w^•terem  bericht  von 
Christo,  und  den  Sacramente'n,  beschlo.ssen  im 
Synodo  daselhst  versamlet,  am  IX.  tag  Januarii 
An.  MDXXXII. ;  "  again  officially  reprinted  1728 
and  1775  ;  privately,  with  original  and  modern- 
ized text,  by  Lauener,  Basel,  1830.    F.  trechsel. 

BERNARD  OF  CLAIRVAUX,  b.  1091,  at  Fon- 
taines, near  Dijon,  Burgundy;  d.  at  Clairvaux, 
Aug.  20,  1153;  canonized  by  Alexander  III.,  1173; 
was  the  third  son  of  a  noble  and  wealthy  family, 
and  received  a  complete  training  in  all  knightly 
accomplishments,  but  felt  himself  so  strongly 
drawn  toward  things  holy,  that,  in  spite  of  the 
remonstrances  of  his  family,  he  retired  in  1113  to 
the  Monastery  of  Citeaux  (Cislerlium),  and  be- 
came a  monk.  Though  the  Monastery  of  Citeaux 
(founded  in  1098  by  Stephan  Harding)  was  re- 
nowned for  the  .severity  and  strictness  of  its  rules, 
Bernard,  nevertheless,  produced  a  strong  impres- 
sion in  the  circles  into  which  he  had  entered,  by 
the  austerity  of  his  ascetic  practices,  and  by  the 
passionate  energy  with  winch  he  concentrated  his 
whole  life  on  the  one  thing  needful.  When,  in 
1115,  the  monastery  proved  too  small  for  the 
number  of  persons  asking  for  admission,  —  Ber- 
nard, for  instance,  came  in  company  with  thirty 
others  whom  he  had  converted  f I'om  the  world,  — 
and  it  was  found  necessary  to  .send  out  a  colony 
and  found  a  new  monastery,  Bernard  was  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  emigrants.  They  .settled  in 
the  wild  and  bari'en  gorge  of  Clairvaux  (Clara 
Valtis)  ;  and  it  cost  an  incredible  amount  of  per- 
severance, hard  labor,  aiul  self-sacrifice,  to  build  a 
house  in  this  inhospitable  region.  But  the  nion- 
astei'v  prospered  wonderfully,  and  its  abbot  soon 
became  famous.  He  was  severe,  almost  austere, 
but  he  was  not  hard :  to  all  he  showed  a  kindness 
of  heart  and  a  suavity  of  manners  which  charmed 
and  con.soled.  He  was  humble  and  meek;  but  he 
was  not  diffident :  on  one  thing  he  was  so  sure, 
that  his  conviction  made  him  a  coimnander,  aiul 
a  harbor  of  refuge  to  every  one  who  felt  weak, 
or  doubtful,  or  tempted.  He  was  yoiuig,  ami 
singularly  inexperienced;  but  he  had  that  magical 
intuition  into  characters  and  circumstances  which 
comes  from  perfect  sincerity  of  heart,  and  fur- 
nishes the  best  aid  to  any  one  who  is  sick,  and 
the  best  remedy  to  any  thing  which  is  wrong. 
So  great  was  the  confidence  he  enjoyed,  that  in 
1128  he  was  called  upon  to  draw  up  the  rules  for 
the  Older  of  the  Templars. 

In  the  .schism  which  broke  out  after  the  death 
of  Honorius  II.,  Bernard  iunnediately  and  re.so- 
lutely  took  the  side  of  Innocent  II.;  and  the 
enormous  energy  which  he  developed  in  the  c;ise 
decided  both  the  course  and  the  issue  of  the  con- 
test. At  the  synod  of  Estampes  he  induced  the 
French  clergy  to  recognize  Innocent.  The  recog- 
nition by  Louis  VI.  of  France,  Henry  I.  of  Eng- 
land, and  Lothair  of  (iermany,  followed  soon 
after,  and  was,  partly  at  least,  also  the  residt  of 
his  exertions.  Lothair  he  even  persuaded  to  give 
up  some  of  the  claitns  which  Ik;  based  on  the 
concordat  of  Worms,  and  to  nuike  a  campaign 
to  Italy  to  expel  Anaclet  II.  "While  Innocent 
staid  in  France,  Beriuird  accompanied  him  from 
place  to  ]>iace,  an<l  preached  to  the  peopli;  in  his 
l)ehalf,  with  an  eloquence  whose  effect  often  ap- 
proached  the   miraculous.      In   France   ho   bore 


1 


BERNARD. 


240 


BERNARD. 


down  every  trace  of  opposition ;  and  in  Italy 
too,  wliitlier  he  went  twice  (in  113:?  an<l  11-5'!), 
lii.s  presence  was  more  effective  llian  tliat  of  tiie 
armies  of  Lotliair.  Shortly  after  the  ending'  of 
the  schism,  the  controversy  with  Alielard  began. 
Abelard  was  a  rationalist;  Kernard,  a  mystic: 
Abelard  lield  tliat  the  doctrines  of  Cln-istianity 
onght  to  pass  tln'ongh  the  sifting  of  reason,  in 
order  to  become  a  fit  snbject  of  faith  ;  while  Uer- 
nard  demanded  tliat  they  shoidd  be  embraced  at 
once  by  faith,  through  an  act  of  the  will.  \\'ith 
Abelard,  faith  meant  reasoned  c<)M\  iction  :  with 
llernard,  intellect  meant  enthusiastic  contempla- 
tion. Between  those  two  men  a  conflict  was 
imavoidable.  But  at  tlie  synod  of  Sens  (1140), 
where  Abelard  expected  to  meet  Bernard  as  his 
counterp.art  in  a  disputation,  Bernard  appeared 
as  his  accuser.  Abelard  refused  to  defend  him- 
self, and  appealed  to  the  Pojje ;  but  Bernard 
frustrated  the  appeal,  and  Abelard  was  in  reality 
4'ondemned  indieard.  Peter  Venerai)ilis,  how- 
ever, the  great  Abbot  of  C'lugny,  with  whom 
Abelard  sjient  tlie  last  years  of  his  life,  after- 
"wards  brought  about  a  personal  reconciliation 
lietween  the  two  antagonists.  lVrh;ips  the  great- 
est, or,  at  all  events,  the  most  striking,  e.\ploit 
which  Bernard  performed,  was  the  preaching  of 
the  second  crusade,  1146.  lie  roused  the  people 
of  France  and  (iermany  to  a  pitch  of  enthusiasm 
hardly  smpassed  by  that  whicli  produced  the  first 
crusade ;  but  the  lesult  corresponded  very  poorly 
to  the  preparations,  and  he  felt  himself  somewhat 
embarrassed  at  the  complete  failure.  Very  re- 
markable, also,  was  his  activity  in  Sontli-westcrn 
France  (1147-40),  among  the  heretics  of  AIbi 
and  Toulouse,  though  he  was  not  completely  suc- 
cessful in  this  case,  either,  lie  met  there  with  a 
state  of  mind  which  somewhat  resembled  his 
own,  and  the  miracnlous  in  liis  personal  influence 
became  somewhat  weakened  by  this  circumstance. 
The  works  of  Bernard  comprise  a  numlier  of 
sermons,  especially  on  the  Canticles ;  a  ninnber 
of  mystic  theosophic  treatises,  De  Diligent/o  Deo, 
De  Gradihus  Ilnuiililalis  et  Superbio'.,  etc.  ;  De  Con- 
nideratione  ad  Eiitjenium  111.  (ed.  Murter,  Inns- 
bruck, 1885),  a  most  characteristic  work  ;  a  poem 
in  hex.ameter ;  and  a  series  of  hymns,  still  living 
both  in  the  Roman  Catholic  and  in  the  Keformed 
ehnrches  (the  most  famous  is  the  familiar,  "  O  sa- 
cred head  now  wounded,"  which  was  translated 
into  German  liy  (ierhardt) ;  and  four  hundred  and 
nineteen  letters  of  the  greatest  historical  and  psy- 
chological interest.  His  style  is  generallj'  strained, 
.  artificial,  and  cumbersome  ;  but  his  thoughts  have 
oft«n  the  same  power  as  hunger  or  thirst.  They 
absorb  tlie  whole  man  \\hom  they  beset,  and 
throw  him  with  passionate  decision  in  one  direc- 
tion. The  best  edition  of  liis  works  is  that  by 
MabilloN;  Paris,  1667,  2  vols,  folio,  afterwards 
often  reprinted,  .i-s  in  Mignc.  18.54,  4  vols.  yvo. 
This  edition  contains  Ids  life  written  by  his 
friend  and  disciple  Godfrey. 

Lit.  —  Bernard's  life  was  written  thrice  in 
the  twelfth  century,  —  by  AA'illiam  of  Thierry, 
(ianfredes  of  Clairvaux,  and  Alanns  ab  Insulis. 
Of  modern  biographies  the  most  remarkable  are 
by  Nkandeu  :  Der  heil.  Bernhard,  Berlin,  1813,  .3d 
ed.,  1865,  translated  from  the  first  edition  by  Sfa- 
tilda  AVrench,  London,  184;!;  andMoRisox"  Life 
and  Times  vf  St.  Btniard,  1J^6;J,  'Jd  ed.,  1877. 


BERNARD  OF  MENTONE,  b  at  Annecy,  in 
Savoy,  ii-_':5;  d.  at  .Vovara,  May  28.  1008;  re- 
ceived an  excellent  education  as  the  only  child  of 
rich  and  noble  parents,  but  determinecl  very  early 
to  renounce  the  world,  and  retired  to  a  monas- 
tery of  Aosta,  took  holy  orders,  and  was  after- 
wards appointed  arelide.acon.  In  Aosta,  as  well 
as  in  his  hmne,  he  often  witnessed  the  unsiieaka- 
ble  misery  to  which  pilgrims  were  subjected  when 
crossing  the  Alps.  A  hos])ice  had  Ixkmi  entcteil 
in  one  of  the  p:isses  m  the  ninth  eenlury;  but  it 
had  been  destroyed,  and  the  passes  w(^re  now  held 
by  gangs  of  robbers.  In  973  Abbot  Majolns  of 
Clugny,  when  returning  home  from  Italy  across 
yT/o/i.v  Jovis  (Mont  Joux),  was  captunnl  by  such 
a  gang,  and  compelled  to  pay  an  enormous  ran- 
.som  (see  Pertz :  Afon.  Germ.  VI.  651,  VII.  54). 
Bernard  himself  took  part  in  the  military  expedi- 
tion against  the  robbers;  and  on  the  higlie.st  and 
most  dangerous  spot  of  the  pass,  surrounded  on 
all  sides  with  perpetual  snow  and  ice,  he  founded 
a  great  and  magnificent  hospice,  and  peopled  it 
with  Angustinian  monks.  Afterwards  he  added 
another  but  minor  hospice  in  the  pass  of  Co- 
himna  .furis  (Colona  Jon)  ;  and  both  these  Iios- 
pices  have  been  maintained  to  our  day,  having 
the  nanie  of  their  founder, —  the  Greater  ami 
Lesser  St.  Bernard.  Bernard  was  canonized  by 
Innocent  XL  in  1681.  His  life  is  given  in  Act. 
■Saiict.,  June  1.5,  vol.  III.,  p.  547-564.  See  also 
L.  BuRC.r.XKK  :  Leiien  iind  Wcrken  d.  h.  Bernhard. 
Luzern,  1856,  and,  with  respect  to  the  history  of 
the  hospice,  Le  Comierratcur  Sui.tue,  Tom.  V.,  pp. 
231-280. 

BERNARD,  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  Pri- 
mate of  Spain  ;  the  chief  promoter  of  llie  Grego- 
rian .sy.stem  of  the  Papacy  in  Spain;  b.  at  Ageu 
in  France;  d.  in  Spain,  1125;  for  a  time  was  a 
soldier,  then  turned  a  Benedictine  monk  ;  |iroinot- 
ed  to  Abbot  of  the  Sahagima  Monastery  in  Ca.s- 
tile,  1080,  and  rendered  Gregory  VII.  such  help 
in  his  reforms  that  he  loaded  him  with  favors. 
King  Alfonso  VI.  nominated  him  Archbishop  of 
Toledo  as  a  reward  of  his  services  in  taking  th;ifc 
city  from  the  Moors  ;  and,  when  he  went  to  lionie 
(1087)  to  receive  the  pallium.  Pope  Urban  11. 
named  him  Primate  of  the  Spanish  Church.  II(^ 
renewed  with  redoubled  vigor  his  efforts  to  re- 
form the  Church  according  to  the  Gregorian  plan, 
but  by  so  doing  raised  a  storm  of  opposition  : 
nevertheless  he  persevered.  Among  his  reforms 
was  the  introduction  of  the  Roman  Liturgy  in 
place  of  the  Mozarabic.  As  an  indication  of  his 
warlike  character  may  be  mentioned  his  raisin*' 
an  .army  which  he  intended  to  command  upon  a 
crusade  into  Palestine;  but  Pope  Paschal  II.  for- 
bade him  and  ail  Spaniards,  under  penalty  of  the 
baim,  from  engaging  in  such  an  entei-prise.  Four 
of  his  sermons  are  given  in  Bernardi  ClaivTvall. 
opera  V.,  P.aris,  1719.  Cf.  Asciib.\ch  :  Geschicliti: 
der  Ahnoravidcn.  HERZOG. 

BERNARD  {Bemardns)  DE  BOTONO,  b.  in 
Parma,  about  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury ;  studied  law  at  Bologna;  became  profe.ssor 
and  canon  there ;  went  to  Rome,  and  occupied 
for  many  years  a  prominent  position  at  the  jmpal 
court,  but  returned  to  lecture  in  Bologna  ;  d.  1266. 
He  is  famous  as  the  author  of  the  so-called  Glossa 
ordinaria  to  the  Decretals  of  Gregory  IX.,  issued 
probably  1210.  MEJEIt. 


BERNARD. 


250 


BBRNICE. 


BERNARD,  Claude,  called  the  "  Poor  Priest;  " 
one  of  the  most  goiily  men  of  the  Koman-Catliolic 
Church  during  the  seventeenth  century,  sliowing 
in  his  whole  life  what  energy  tlie  romantic  char- 
acter can  develop  when  deeply  affected  by  reli- 
gion; b.  in  Dijon,  15SS;  d.  Iti41.  'J'he  son  of  a 
jurist,  he  studied  law  liiniself,  and  for  a  time  led 
a  licentious  life,  but  was  converted  by  a  vision  of 
his  departed  father.  He  became  a  priest,  and 
made  Paris  his  residence,  where  he  exercised  an 
extraordinary  self-denial  and  philanthropy;  gave 
awav  all  he  had  to  the  poor,  including  an  inherit- 
ance of  four  hundred  thousand  francs  ;  spent  his 
whole  time  in  preaching,  and  visiting  the  poor 
and  .sick,  not  shrinking  from  the  most  disgusting 
diseases.  He  was  a  man  greatly  beloved  and  a 
.saint,  canonized,  not  by  the  Pope,  but  by  the  peo- 
ple. Of  the  sketches  of  his  life,  see  especially 
that  by  L'empereur.  HERZOG.  " 

BERNARD  OF  CLUNY  (not  to  be  confounded 
with  his  namesake  and  contemporary  of  Clair- 
vaux)  ;  b.,  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, of  English  parents,  at  Morlaix  in  Brittany; 
d.  at  Cluny.  Xothing  of  his  life  is  known,  yet 
his  memory  is  imperishable.  He  was  the  author 
of  De  Conlemptu  Slumli,  a  Latin  poem  of  nearly 
three  thousand  hues,  dedicated  to  his  abbot,  Peter 
the  Venerable,  d.  1156,  general  of  the  Benedictine 
order  ]t  is  a  bitter  satire  upon  the  corruptions 
of  the  age,  but  opens  with  a  description  of  the 
peace  and  glory  of  hea\en ;  and  this  part  of  tlie 
poem  is  so  exquisite,  that  it  excites  universal  ad- 
miration. The  earliest  publication  of  the  poem 
is  by  M.atthias  Flaciits,  in  a  volume  of  other  poems 
calling  for  a  reformation  of  ecclesiastical  abuses, 
Basel,  15u7,  and  live  or  six  times  since.  Dr.  Trench 
has  issued  ninety-six  lines  of  it  in  his  Sacred 
Latin  Poelnj.  These  extracts  have  been  freely 
reproduced  liy  the  Rev.  John  Mason  Neale  {Thf 
RhylUm  (if  liernanl  ile  Morlaix,  Monk  of  Cluni/.  on 
the  Celestial  Counlri/,  London,  1858,  ;5d  ed.,  18()1)  ; 
and  portions  of  this  English  reproduction  have 
pa,s.sed  into  general  use  in  our  hyinn-books  as  the 
most  pojinlar  of  hynnis  about  heaven.  They 
are.  Brief  Life  i.i  here  our  Portion  (IIic  hrerir  riri- 
tur),  For  tliee,  O  dear,  dear  Countrii .'  (O  Imna  pa- 
Iria),  and  Jerusalem  the  Golden  .'  (  Urhs  St/i>n  urea) . 
See  them  all  in  SchafY's  (,'ltrisl  in  Song  (Xew  York, 
1868,  London,  1809).  The  metre  of  the  original 
poem  is  very  strange ;  the  lines  are  dactylic  liex- 
ametres,  with  the  leonine  (sometimes  a  tris.syllabic 
or  dactylic)  and  tailed  riiyme,  each  line  being 
broken  up  in  three  cqu;il  parts,  —  a  most  difficult 
metre,  wliich  only  a  .special  grace  and  inspiration 
enabled  the  author,  as  he  believed,  to  master. 
The  following  arrangement  of  the  first  two  lines 
will  make  this  intelligible  :  — 

"  nora  novis.shHc/  i|  tempuri  pe.s.srnia  II  sunt:  \\g\lcmiis .' 
Ecce!  iiiiiia'-id-i'  li  imiuinut  arbiter  ||  illu  sup/cmHs  !  " 

Besides  Xeale's  free  translation,  there  are  the  more 
literal  versions  of  portions  by  Dr.  Ahkamam 
CoLKS  (K.Y.,  1806),  .S.  W.  ])rn'ii;i.i>  (N.Y., 
1867),  who  luis  attempted  to  reproduce  the  origi- 
nal, and  D.  'J'.  Moiujan  (lli/iiius  and  other  Poetry 
of  the  Latin  Church,  London,  1880),  who  presents 
a  spirited  version  of  UrOs  Syun  Inchjta  ( The 
lleuccnbj  Zion). 

It  is  worth  noting  tlial  Bernard  cites  the  ca.He 
of  the  Biddendeii  Maids  of  Kent,  1.  1013  scjci  ,  a-s 


a  proof  that  the  last  days  had  come.  See  Fla- 
cius'  ed.,  Basel,  1557,  p.  283.  The  "  Maids  "  were 
ALary  and  Elizabeth  Ohulkhurst,  born  at  Bidden- 
deii in  1100.  They  were  joined  together  by  the 
shoulders  and  hips,  and  lived  to  the  age  of  thirty- 
four.  See  liRKWKR:  The  Heailer's  Hundiouk  if 
Allusions,  etc.,  sub  "  Biddenden  Maids." 

BERNARDIN  OF  SIENNA,  St.,  h.  at  Ma.s.sa. 
1-380;  d.  at  Aquiia,  May  30,  1444;  entered  the 
order  of  the  Franciscans  in  1402,  and  became 
the  most  famous  preacher  of  his  time,  often  ad- 
dressing audiences  of  thirty  thousand,  and  im- 
pressing peoj)le  so  powerfully,  that  the  men  burnt 
their  cards  and  dice,  the  women  their  frivolous 
finery.  He  refused  the  bishoprics  of  Siena,  Fer- 
rara,  and  Urbino  successively.  His  sermons  were, 
like  most  .sermons  of  the  Franci-scans,  moral 
rather  than  religious.  A  number  of  them  have 
been  translated  into  Latin,  and  published  in  a 
collective  edition,  Paris,  1639,  and  Venice,  1745. 
He  was  canonized  in  1450  by  Nicholas  V.  See  Bek- 
TiiAi'MiF-r!  -.Hist,  de  Saint  Bemardin,  Paris,  1862. 

BERNICE,  often,  but  less  accurately,  Bekemck 
(victorious),  was  the  eldest  daughter  of  Herod 
.\grippa  I.;  betrothed  at  a  tender  age  to  Mark, 
the  son  of  Alexander  I^ysimachus,  the  alabarch, 
or  chief  officer  of  the  .lews,  in  Alexandria  ;  but,  as 
he  died  eie  the  marriage  was  consummated,  she 
became  the  wife  of  her  uncle,  Herod,  King  of 
Chalcis  (Joseph.  Antiq.  XIX.  5,  1),  liy  whom  she 
had  two  sons,  Bernictanus  (or  Beniicianus)  and 
Hyrcanus  {Antiij.  XX.  5,2;  H'or.  II.  11,6).  Her 
husband  died  when  she  was  but  twenty  years  old 
(A.D.  48),  and  she  went  to  live  with  her  brother, 
-Agrippa  H.  Rumor  declared  their  intimacy  to  be 
criminal.  She  met  the  charge  by  inducing  I'ole- 
nion,  the  King  of  Cilicia,  to  be  circumcised,  and 
to  marry  her.  Joseph iis  thought  her  wealth  was 
the  main  attr.iction.  At  all  events,  the  union  did 
not  last  long,  and  again  .she  lived  in  the  palace  of 
her  brother  (Antiq.  XX.  7,  3),  with  whom  she  vis- 
ited Festus,  and  thus  heard  Paul's  defence  (Acts 
x.\v.  23.  xxvi.  30),  A.D.  00.  The  bruit  of  their 
relations  reached  Rome,  aiul  Juvenal  alludes  to  it 
{Sat.  VI.  156-160).  Her  courage  enabled  her,  at 
the  risk  of  her  own  life,  while  in  .leru.salem  per- 
forming a  vow,  to  Kii]>]ilicale  the  Roman  procura- 
tor Florus  to  spare  tlie  poor  Jews  (  ]\'iir.  II.  1.5,  1). 
She  united  with  her  brother  in  the  attempt  to  dis- 
suade the  Jews  from  war  (  llVo-.  II.  10.  5).  Dur- 
ing the  war  she  espoused  the  Roman  side,  and 
was  the  mistre.ss  of  Vespasian,  and  then  of  his 
son  Titus.  She  followed  the  hitter  to  Rome,  after 
the  capture  of  Jenisalem;  and  so  infatuated  wa.s 
he  with  her,  that  it  is  said  that  he  (Uwired  to  make 
her  his  wife,  but  the  clamor  the  rumor  laised 
obliged  him  to  dismiss  her.  In  A.D.  71).  when 
Titus  bcianie  sole  emjieior,  she  visited  Rome 
again,  although  she  was  then  fifty  years  old,  to 
try  to  regain  her  old  jiosition ;  but  Titus  was 
wary,  and  paid  her  no  attentions.  .See  Tacitus, 
Ilist.  II.  SI;  Suetonius,  Tiliis  7;  Dio.  Cass. 
LXVI.  15,  18.  Of  her  later  history  we  know 
nothing,  (^iiintilian  speaks  {Inst.  (hut.  iv.  1) 
of  having  i>leaded  her  cause  on  some  occasion  not 
otherwise  allniled  to,  on  which  she  her.self  sat  as 
judge  (Nolde,  //i.s7.  Idem,  \f.  4o3  .sq.).  Anothei' 
undated  fcict  about  her  is  a  souvenir  of  her  visit 
to  .\lhens,  in  the  sh.ipe  of  the  inscription  upon 
a  column,  "Julia  Berenice,  the  great  Queen.     To 


BERNO. 


251 


BERTHOLD. 


Julia,  flanslit<>r  of  King  Agrippa"  (Corp.  Iiiscrip. 
gra^c.  11.  301). 

lic'iiiicu  reniiiuls  us  of  Cleopatra.  Both  had 
extiaoidiiiary  Ijeauty,  firm  wills,  and  loosf  char- 
acters. Both  wore  very  ambitions,  and  fertile  in 
Ti'sources ;  and  both  scrupled  not  to  use  their 
charms  to  gain  their  ends. 

BERNO,  d.  1048;  was  monk  in  a  Benedictine 
monastery  at  I'riim,  near  Treves,  when  Henry 
II.  made  hiin  Abbot  of  Keichenan  in  Lake  Con- 
stance, 1008;  accompanied  Ileni-y  II.  to  Home  in 
1014,  and  brought  back  a  number  of  musical  im- 
provenients,  which  he  introduced  in  (ierniany; 
brought  the  school  and  library  of  Keicheiiau  to  a 
very  fiourishing  condition,  and  built  the  Church 
of  .St.  Alary;  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  \'i!a 
S.  Uilnlrici,  jiublished,  together  with  a  (Jermaii 
translation  from  the  thirteenth  century,  at  Munich 
in  1844;  a  Vita  S.  Meijinradi,  found  in  Mahil- 
i.ox :  Ann.  Oril.  Berno.  axe.  IV.;  and  musical 
treatises  published  in  Gkruert:  Script.  Keel,  de 
Musica,  1 1 

BERNO,  Abbot.     See.Ci.UGNY. 

BERQUIN,  Louis  de,  b.  at  Passy,  abouM400; 
d.  in  Paris,  April  17,  1529;  studied  law,  and  bore 
the  reputation  of  being  a  vei-y  strict  and  consci- 
entious member  of  the  Uomau  Church,  when  a 
controversy  with  Dn  Cheiie,  member  of  the  Sor- 
bonne,  led  him  into  the  investigation  of  Luther's 
writings  and  the  great  reformatory  questions  of 
tlie  day.  But  Luther's  writings  had  been  forbid- 
den by  the  Parliament  of  Paris;  and  when  some 
of  them  were  found  in  Berquin's  study  he  was 
imprisoned  (Aug.  1,  1523),  and  released  only  by 
the  mediation  of  l.,ouise  of  Savoy.  He  now  re- 
tired to  his  estates  in  Artois;  but  he  did  not 
desist  from  his  investigations,  nor  conceal  the 
result  of  them.  lie  translated  tlie  Encliiridion 
of  Erasmus,  with  notes,  and  wrote  several  polemi- 
cal tracts.  On  the  instance  of  the  Bishop  of 
Amiens,  he  wasagiiin  imprisoned  (Jan.  10,  1526), 
and  a  formal  })rocess  of  heresy  was  instituted 
against  Iiiin.  This  time,  too,  he  was  saved,  but 
only  by  the  interference  of  the  King  himself. 
His  friends  advised  him  to  leave  the  country,  or 
at  least  to  keep  silent ;  but  this  he  considered  to 
be  against  his  conscience.  He  directly  attacked 
the  Sorbonne,  it«  members  and  its  tenets ;  and 
now  his  doom  was  sealed.  Imprisoned  for  the 
third  time  (in  tlie  beginning  of  March,  1529),  he 
was  sentenced  (April  16)  to  have  his  tongue 
pierced  by  a  hot  iron,  and  to  remain  in  prison  for 
the  rest  of  his  life.  He  appealed  to  the  King; 
-but  this  irritated  his  judges  to  such  a  degree, 
that  by  a  second  sentence  they  condemned  him 
io  be  burned  alive ;  and  the  sentence  was  imnie- 
iiately  executed  in  the  Greve-place,  April  17, 
1529.  He  was  tlie  first  Protestant  martyr  in 
France. 

BERRUYER,  Joseph  Isaac,  b.  at  Rouen,  1681 ; 
d.  in  Paris,  1758 ;  was  a  Jesuit,  and  became 
famous  by  his  H'lstoire  du  peuple  de  Dieii,  a  kind 
of  transcription  or  paraphrase  of  the  Bible,  of 
which  the  first  part,  the  Old  Testament,  appeared 
in  seven  volumes,  1728;  tlie  second,  the  Gospels, 
in  four  volumes,  1753;  and  the  third,  the  Epis- 
tles, in  1758,  after  the  death  of  the  author.  The 
first  part  is  an  obscene  romance,  full  of  indecent 
descriptions;  the  third  is  a  scandalous  absurdity, 
drawing   the   Christian  doctrines  ^ — for  instance, 


that  of  the  Trinity  —  down  into  scurrility;  the 
second  is  a  transition  from  the  oik'  to  the  other. 
When  the  first  part  api)eared,  the  bishops  of 
Prance  protested;  and  a  Jiarly  williiu  the  order 
itself  compelle<l  the  geneial  to  coimjiand  a  new 
and  expurgated  edition.  When  the  second  part 
aiiiicared,  the  protest  of  the  French  Church  wag 
ri'lieated  with  incn'a.sed  energy;  and  the  Pope  put 
the  book  on  the  Index,  repeatedly  condemning  it 
as  an  abominable  offence.  Neverthele.ss,  the 
Jesuits  published  the  third  part,  had  the  book 
translated  into  foreign  languages,  and  reprint  it 
every  now  and  then. 

BERTHIER,  Gulllaume  Francois,  b.  at  I.s.soii- 
dun.  in  the  Department  of  Indre,  April  7,  1704; 
d.  at  Bourges,  Dec.  15,  1782;  was  a  Jesuit;  con- 
tinued the  iHslinre  de  P Er;ti.ie  O'allicaiie  of  Brumoy 
down  to  1529;  edited  for  some  time  the  Journal 
de  Trernnx ,  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  children 
of  the  Dauphin  after  the  suppression  of  his  order, 
but  banished  from  the  country  in  1764.  His 
CEueres  Spirituelle.'i  were  published  in  five  vol- 
umes, in  Paris,  1811. 

BERTHOLD  THE  FRANCISCAN  {Prater  Perk- 
tolilus-),  h.  at  Katisbou  about  1220;  d.  there  Dec. 
14,  1272;  entered  the  order  of  the  Franciscans; 
was  ordained  priest,  and  started  in  1252  on  a 
tour  as  itinerant  preacher,  through  Bavaria, 
Alsace,  Switzerland,  Austria,  Bohemia,  Moravia, 
and  Silesia,  gathering  immense  crowds  wherever 
he  came,  and  addressing  people,  both  in  the 
churches  and  in  tlie  open  field.  He  was  strongly 
opposed  to  the  frivolous  preachers  of  indulgence, 
and  to  the  false  confidence  in  the  power  of  the 
saints.  See  complete  edition  of  his  sermons  by 
F.  PFEiKFKn  and  J.  Stobl,  Vienna,  18G2-80,  2 
vols.;  Xevv  High  German  translation  by  F. 
GiiBEL,  Schaffhausen,  1850-51,  2  vols.  ;  and  his 
biography  by  SxROMBEitGKR,  Giitersloh,  1877. 

BERTHOLD  OF  CHIEMSEE,  b.  at  Salzburg, 
1465 ;  d.  at  Saalfelden,  July  19,  1543 ;  was  made 
Bishop  of  Chiem.see  in  1508,  but  resigned  in  1525. 
He  was  probably  author  of  the  Omm  Eeceleaia, 
which  appeared  anonymously  at  Laudshut  in  1524, 
and  gives  a  trenchant  description  of  the  corrup- 
tion of  the  Roman  Church,  both  in  head  and  in 
members.  In  his  retirement  he  wrote  the 
Tewtsehe  Thenloqeij,  which  appeared  (1528)  in  Mu- 
nich, and  (1.531),  in  Latin  translation,  at  Aiig.s- 
burg.  It  is  a  scholastic  development  of  the  doc- 
trinal system  of  the  Roman  Church,  held  polemi- 
cally against  the  reformatory  movement,  but  able 
and  original.  The  book,  in  German,  with  dic- 
tionary, and  a  life  of  the  author,  was  republished 
at  Munich  in  1852,  edited  by  W.  Rkithmkier. 

BERTHOLDT,  Leonhard,  b.  at  Emskirchen, 
Bavaria,  May  8,  1774;  d.  at  Erlangen,  IMarch  22, 
1822;  studied  theology  and  Oriental  pliilology  in 
the  University  of  Erlangen,  where  he  was  ap 
pointed  extraordinary  professor  of  philosophy  in 
1805,  and  full  professor  of  theology  in  1806,  in 
consequence  of  his  important  work  upon  Daniel, 
Erlangen,  1800-1808,  2  vols.  His  principal  work 
is,  Historisch-kritiscl)e  Einteitunr/  in  die  sdnimtlickeu 
Icanonischen  u.  a/wcri/pkischen  Schri/)en  des  A.  und 
N.  Testmnenls,  Erlangen,  1812-19,  6  vols.  Of  less 
interest  is  his  Einleitmu/  in  d.  Ilteol.  Wisaenschaji, 
2  vols.,  1821-22;  and  of  still  less,  liis  HandbucK 
d.  Bor/menyescliie/ite,  2  vols.,  1822-23.  As  a 
teacher,  howe^■el•,  and  as  editor  of   the  Kritischt 


BERTHOLD. 


252 


BETHANY. 


Journal  der  neueslen  theol.  TMteratur,  one  of  the 
jiiiucipal  orgaiLS  of  the  rationalistic  parly,  his 
actiritj'  was  stimulating  iii  many  ways. 

BERTHOLD,  Apostle  of  Livonia,  formerly 
Abbot  of  the  Cistercian  Monastery  of  Lokkum ; 
was  in  1196  consecrated,  by  the  Archbishop  of 
Bremen,  bishop,  and  the  successor  of  Meinhard, 
the  first  missionary  and  bishop  of  the  Livonians. 
He  pursued  a  difi'erent  policy  from  his  predeces- 
sors ;  for  he  sought  not  only  to  convert,  but  also 
to  subjugate,  the  heathen.  For  this  purpose  he 
raised  in  Lower  Germany  a  cnusading  army, 
embarked  at  Liibeck,  and  sailed  to  the  mouth  of 
tlie  l)una.  There  he  gave  battle  to  the  Letts, 
gained  a  victory,  but  was  killed  July  24,  llOS. 
(See  Albert  of  Riga.)  AVintf.r  :  Die  Ci.iler- 
cienser  des  nordoslhchen  Devlsclilanils,  Gotha,  1868. 

BERTHOLD,  founder  of  the  Carmelites.     See 

CaK-MLLITES. 

BERTRAM,  the  name  by  which  Ratramnus 
is  frequently  quoted. 

B^RULLE,  Pierre  de,  b.  near  Troves,  Feb.  4, 
1.575;  d.  in  Paris  suddenly,  while  celebrating 
mass,  Oct.  2,  1G29,  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits, 
and  an  intimate  friend  of  Francois  de  Sales ; 
enjoyed  the  confidence  of  Louis  XIII.,  and  was 
well  received  in  court-circles,  especially  among 
ladies;  introduced  tlie  Spanish  order  of  St.  The- 
lese,  and  founded,  iu  spite  of  the  opposition 
of  the  Jesuits,  the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory; 
was  used  in  many  important  diplomatic  negotia- 
tions, and  made  a  cardinal  in  1627.  A  common 
rumor  said  that  he  was  poisoned  by  Richelieu. 
His  works  were  collected  by  P.  Bourgoing,  in 
2  vols.,  1G44,  new  ed.,  1856.  His  life  has  been 
written  by  Habkkt  dk  Cerisi,  1646,  Tau.\r.\ud, 
1818.  and  Noui;isson,  1856. 

BERYLLUS,  Bishop  of  Bostra  in  Arabia,  in 
the  middle  of  the  third  century;  entertained  cer- 
tain heretical  views  concerning  the  person  of 
Christ,  but  was  brought  back  to  the  Orthodox 
faith  by  Origen.  His  views  are  known  to  us  only 
from  one  passage  in  Eusebius,  /list.  KrcL,  W.  33 
(lie  is  mentioned  VI.  20) ;  and  very  different  con- 
ceptions of  them  have  been  advanced  by  Schleier- 
inacher,  Xeander,  Dorner,  Baur.  Xitzsch,  etc. 

BESCHITZI,  Elijah,  d.  in  1491,  .at  Adrianople, 
■where  he  was  born,  and  where,  in  H(!0.  he  .suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  chief  of  the  Karaite  Jews. 
He  left  an  unfinished  work,  Adarct  Elijahou 
(mantle  of  Klijali),  which  was  completed  in  1497 
by  his  brother-in-law,  Caleb  Afcndopulo,  and 
published  at  Constantinople  in  1.031  by  his 
grandson,  and  which  is  held  in  the  _gi-oatest 
esteem  by  all  Karaites,  because  it  is  ba.sed  on 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  whole  earlier  Karaite 
literature,  which  is  now  mostly  lost.  There  is 
an  edition  of  this  work  bv  Fikkowitz,  Eupatoria, 
1.835. 

BESSARION,  b.  at  Trebizond,  1305;  d.  at 
Ravenna,  Xov.  19,  1472;  was  educated  in  Con- 
stantinople, wliere  he  .studied  mider  Chrysokok- 
kes;  entered  the  order  of  tiie  IJasilians  in  1423, 
and  continued  his  .studies  in  Peloponnesus,  under 
Gcmistus  Pletho;  was  made  Archbishop  of  Xica^a 
in  1437,  and  accompanied,  ni  the  following  year, 
the  emperor,  John  VII.  Pala^ologus,  on  his  voyage 
to  Italy  to  .'iolicit  the  aid  of  Western  lOiu-ope 
against  the  Turks.  The  condition  for  lliis  anl 
Hceiiied  to  be  a  reconciliation  between  tlie  Greek 


and  Roman  churches ;  and  at  the  councils  of  Fer- 
rara  and  Florence  such  a  reconciliation  was  actu- 
ally brought  about,  chiefly  through  the  exertions 
of  Bessarion.  But  the  effect  was  quite  the  oppo- 
site of  wliat  had  been  expected,  and  Be.ssarion 
remained  in  Italy.  He  was  made  a  cardinal,  and 
continued  to  labor  for  his  unhappy  fatherland, 
and  in  a  certain  respect  he  also  became  a  media- 
tor between  (Jreece  and  Rome.  He  gathered  a 
large  circle  of  scholars,  Greek  and  Latin,  in  his 
palace;  encouraged  with  profuse  liberality  the 
study  of  the  antique  literatures;  collected  a  great 
library,  which  he  bequeathed  to  Venice,  and  which 
was  the  first  public  library  in  Europe ;  translated 
Greek  authors  into  Latin,  and  wrote  himself  in 
Latin  :  in  short,  he  was  one  of  the  chief  leaders 
in  the  movement  called  the  Renaissance.  His 
works,  among  which  the  Cimlra  Calumnialorent 
Pla/onis  is  the  most  celebrated,  have  never  been 
collected,  and  remain  mostly  unprinted.  .See  Fa- 
BJiicius :  Bib.  griEca  X.  p.  401,  XL  p.  GSO ;  II. 
Vast  :  Lc  Carili)i<il  neasarinn,  Paris,  1879. 

BESSEL,  Gottfried,  b.  Sept.  .5,  1672,  .at  Buch- 
hein,  nearMayence;  d.  at  Gottweich,  near  Vien- 
na, in  1749;  studied  at  Wiirzburg  and  Salzburg; 
entered  the  order  of  the  Benedictines  in  1693 ; 
was  ordained  priest  in  169G,  and  was  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Mayence  used  in  various  diplomatic 
negotiations.  In  1707  he  converted  the  Princess 
Elizabeth  Christine  of  Brunswick  to  Romanism, 
and  in  1710  her  grandfather,  Duke  Anton  L'lrich, 
on  which  occasion  he  published  anonymously  his 
Qui»r/u(ir/iiila  .  .  .  Motira  or,  in  (iernian,  I'iwfzffi 
Bedeiiken,  which  attracted  some  attention.  In  1714 
he  was  made  Abbot  of  the  5Ion;isfery  of  (jott- 
weich.  and  in  1732  he  began  the  publication  of 
his  Chrimicon  Godivicense.  which,  however,  was 
never  finished. 

BETH-AB'ARA  (linnse  of  /he  ford)  is,  according 
to  the  received  text  since  Origen,  the  name  of  the 
place  upon  the  .lordan  where  John  baptized  (John 
i.  28).  But  the  most  ancient  manuscripts  read 
Bethany :  and  this  is  the  re.ading  adopted  by  the 
Xew  Testament  revisers,  and  is  correct.  As  Can- 
on Westcott  says,  "  Betliabara  is  a  mere  correction, 
made  as  early  :is  the  second  century,  for  Bethany, 
which  was  probably  an  obscure  vill.age  in  Pera^i, 
and  not  to  be  confounded  with  lielliany  on  the 
Mount  of  Olives."  Bihle  Com.  iu  loco.  Origen 
could  not  find  any  such  place  upon  that  river, 
and  decided  for  the  present  reading;  .and  all  the 
F.ithers  followed  him  .In  Judg.  vii.  24  there  is 
a  Beth-barah  ;  but  this  was  situated  on  the  right 
bank,  and  not,  like  liethabara,  upon  the  iefl  bank 
of  the  .lordan,  below  Hc^thsan.  Lieut.  Conderpro- 
jioses  to  identify  lieth-abara  with  Abarah,  a  lead- 
ing ford  of  the  .lonl.an  on  the  road  to  (!ilead. 

BETH'ANY  (hoti.-ie  of  iiiiscri/,  because  of  its 
lonely  situation,  and  because  lepers,  iHipuIarly 
called  the  "  poor,'  sought  asylum  there ;  others. 
house  of  dales),  a  village  situated  on  the  eastern 
slope  of  Mount  Olivet,  to  the  left  of  the  road 
leading  from  JerusahMU  to  .lericho,  fifteen  fur- 
longs from  the  former  city  (about  two  miles),  .and 
ever  memorable  for  its  associations  with  .lesus 
(Matt.  xxi.  17;  M:vrk  xi.  1 1,  12  ;  ,Iohn  xi.)  It  is 
now  called,  from  IIk;  miracle,  cl-A:trii/ch,  "place 
of  Lazarus."  .Simon  the  leper  also  lived  here 
(Mark  xiv.  o)  ;  and  from  here  our  Lord  ascended 
(Luke  xxiv.  bO).    "It  is  now  a  poor  uiouutaiji 


BETHEL. 


253 


BETHLEHEM, 


liaiTilot  of  forty  nulo  stone  houses  inhabited  by 
Moslems." 

BETH'EL  (hoii.w  of  Gtnl).  a  place  twelve  miles 
north  of  .Jerusalem,  now  called  Ilflliii,  but  origi- 
nally Lti:,  the  residence  of  a  Canaanitish  king 
(Josh.  viii.  9  sq.,  xii.  IG;  Judg.  i.  2:5,20),  and 
associated  with  the  patriarchs  ((ien.  xiii.  13, 
xxviii.  17-19,  xxxv.  •i).  Joshua  assigned  tiie  town 
to  Ijenjamin  as  its  frontier  town  towards  Kjili- 
raim  (.Josh,  xviii.  l:i,  22).  It  formed  part  of  the 
Northern  Kingdom;  and  Jeroboam  made  it  the 
chief  seat  of  tiie  calf-worship  (1  lyings  xii.  28-33, 
xiii.  1).  The  reason  of  its  selection  w.as  jiroba- 
bly  it,s  sacred  cliaractor  fi'om  patriarchal  times, 
and  the  presence  there  of  the  ark  and  tlie  taberna- 
cle for  so  long  a  time  (see  marg.  .Judg  xx.  18, 
26,  31,xxi.2;  cf.  1  Sam.  x.  3).  In  manifesta- 
tion of  .Jehovah's  auger  at  this  desecration,  the 
propliet  Hosea  calls  it  Beth-aven  {house  nf  noth- 
iiu/ness,  or  idols)  ;  and  Amos  (v.  o)  solemnly  warns 
tlie  people  against  entering  the  town.  After  the 
captivity  it  was  again  inhaVjited  by  the  Benja- 
niites  (Neh.  xi.  31).  In  the  time  of  the  Macca- 
bees it  was  fortified  by  liacchide.s,  the  general  of 
Demetrius,  the  usurper  of  the  kingdom  of  Syria 
(.Joseph.,  vln^Vy.  XIII.  1,3).  It  is  not  named  in 
the  New  Testament;  but  .Josephus  tells  us  it  was 
taken  by  Ve.spasian  (War.  IV.  9,  9).  It  is  now  a 
miserable  village  of  about  four  hundred  inhabit- 
ants standing  amid  ruins  which  cover  about  tour 
acres.     (B.adeker). 

BETHES'DA  (hoti.te  of  mercy,  or  of  the  flowing 
water),  a  pool  in  Jei'usalem  near  the  sheep-gate 
(Neh.  iii.  1,32,  xii.  39;  .John  v.  2).  Tradition 
incori'ectly  identifies  it  with  the  modern  Birkei- 
Israil,  which  is  an  empty  reservoir  within  the 
city,  three  hundred  and  sixty  feet  long,  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  feet  wide,  and  eighty  feet  deep, 
half  filled  with  r\dibish.  But  it  is  a  pi'oblem 
where  Bethesda  really  was.  The  guide  in  the.se 
identifications  should  be  the  statement  of  Nehe- 
niiah,  that  the  sheep-gate  was  neai-,  and  on  the 
north,  or  more  probably  north-east,  side  of  the 
temple.  Robinson  identified  it  with  the  inter- 
mittent Pool  of  the  Virgin,  in  the  Kedron  Valley, 
which  answers  one  of  the  conditions  of  John's 
narrative ;  but  it  is  much  too  small,  and  does  not 
yield  sufficient  space  for  the  five  porches.  Capt. 
Warren  identifies  it  with  the  double  pool  under 
the  Convent  of  the  Sisters  of  Zion,  near  the 
north-west  corner  oi  the  Haram  enclosure.  In 
corroboration  is  the  mention  by  Ensebius  of  two 
pools  lying  in  juxtaposition,  of  which  one  was 
the  sheep-pool.  But  a  better  identification  is 
"with  the  lialf-filled  w.ater  re.servoir  adjoining  the 
Church  of  St.  Anne,  which  the  older  writers  call 
the  "  piscina  interior."  In  the  time  of  the  Cru- 
sades it  was  distinguished  from  Birket  Israil, 
called  the  Sheep-pool ;  and  arontnl  it  five  porches 
■were  traced.  This  is  in  all  jirobability  the  .same 
as  the  "piscina  natatoria"  (swinuuing-ba.sin)  in 
Itiner.  Antonini  Placentini  of  the  sixth  century. 

This  identification  may  be  perhaps  to-day  con- 
sidered certain.  That  it  preserved  its  curative 
properties  is  proven  by  the  votive  tablet  found  in 
the  Church  of  St.  Anne,  which  dates  from  the 
Hid  of  the  first  or  the  beginning  of  the  second 
century.  The  giver  was  Pompeia  Lucilia,  po.ssi- 
bly  some  great  lady  who  lepaired  the  porches 
ruined  during  the  siege.     Perhaps  she  was   the 


daughter  of  Jjucilius  Bassus,  Roman  legate  in 
Palestine  after  the  cajitnre  of  Jerusalem  (.lo- 
sephus,  War.  VII.  (J,  1  and  4). 

The  name  Bethesda  in  original  form  and  mean- 
ing is  uncert.ain.  The  common  intcM'pretation  is 
given  above ;  but  on  the  ground  of  the  u.sage  of 
the  .second  component,  Delitzsch  proposed  "house 
of  the  portico,"  and  Canon  We.stcott,  "  hou.se  of 
the  olive  "  (JUIjU:  Conuiienlary  in  loro). 

See  article  in  Riehm's  Jlunilwdrleriuch  des  bib- 
li.ichr.m  Alterlums,  and  in  Lichteiiberger's  Ency- 
clope'die  des  .SVwrr/rr.s'  iieliijienses. 

BETH-HO'RON  (/lou.w  of  the  honnw),ihc  name 
of  two  places,  the  "  Upper  "  and  the  "  Nether  " 
Beth-horon  (Jo.sh.  xvi.  o,  3),  about  three  miles 
apart,  on  the  opposite  sides  of  a  ravine  or  steep 
pas.s,  now  distinguished  in  like  manner,  and  called 
Bcil  Ur  et-Tahui  and  El  Foka.  The  Upper  i.s 
adnurably  situated  upon  the  fop  of  a  mountain 
spur;  but  the  Nether  was  more  important.  Both 
are  now  uninhabited.  The  towns  lay  upon  the 
boiuidary  line  between  Benjamin  and  Kphraim, 
and  were  counted  with  the  latter  (.Jo.sh.  xxi.  22). 
They  were  upon  the  road  from  Gibeon  to  Aze- 
kah  and  the  Pliilistine  J'lain.  Through  the  pa.ss 
l)etweeu  them  fled  the  Amorites  after  the  b;ittle 
of  Gibeon  (.Josh.  x.  10  sq.).  Solomon  fortified 
both  villages  (1  Kings  ix.  17;  2  Chr.  viii.  b). 
Judas  Maccab.Tus  fought  two  battles  there  (1 
Mace.  iii.  16  sq.,  vii.  39  .sq.),  and  there  was  the 
army  of  Cestius  Gallus  siuTounded,  and  almo.st 
entirely  destroyed  (.Joseph.,  War.  II.  19,  8).  In 
the  days  of  Ensebius  and  .Jerome  the  two  Beth- 
horous  were  small  villages.  From  their  time  the 
j)laces  appear  to  have  been  unnoticed  until  USOl  ; 
then  again,  until  Dr.  Roliin.son  visited  them  in 
1838,  and  afterwards  described  them,  they  are 
not   mentioned.  \) 

BETH'LEHEM  (house  of  bread),  the  modern 
Beitlahni,  the  name  of  two  towns  spoken  of  in 
the  Bible.  1.  A  town  in  Zebulun  (,Iosh.  xix. 
15),  now  a  poor  village,  six  miles  west  of  Naza- 
I'eth. 

2.  Bethlehem-.Iudah,  a,s  it  is  called  in  ,Tudg. 
xvii.  7,  9,  xix.  1,  2,  18,  and  Rethlehem-Ephratah 
in  !Micah  v.  2,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  preced- 
ing. Ephrath,  or  Ephratah  {the  fruitjul)  ((ien. 
xxxv.  19,  xlviii.  7;  Ruth  iv.  11;  Ps.  cxxxii.  G), 
was,  perhaps,  not  originally  the  name  of  the  city, 
but  a  de.scription  of  the  locality  in  which  it  lay. 
and  one  which  answers  now ;  for  the  modern 
like  the  .ancient  Bethlehem  is  built  upon  a  hill, 
and  all  about  it  are  ridges  of  terraced  vineyards, 
and  gardens  with  evergreen  olives,  and  hixuriant 
fig-trees.  The  wine  of  Bethlehem  is  considered 
better  than  that  of  Jerusalem.  The  women  rival 
their  Christian  sisters  of  N.azareth.  Here  is  an 
air  of  industry,  thrift,  and  comfort,  whicli  are 
very  rare  in  the  East.  The  inhabitants  (about 
five  thou.sand)  are  almost  all  Christians,  the 
Mohammedan  quarter  having  been  destroyed  in 
1831. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice,  that,  in  1  Chron.  ii.  19, 
an  Ephrath  .appears  as  the  wife  of  Caleb,  ami 
mother  of  llnr,  whose  son  .'^alma  founded  Bethk>- 
hem  (vers,  .'il,  54).  But  S.almah  (Ruth  iv.  20, 
marg.),  or  Salmon  (ver.  21),  was  the  lather  of 
Boaz.  Hur  was  also  the  grandfather  of  Bezaleel, 
who  superintended  the  work  of  the  tabernacle; 
and,  since  trades  are  singularly  fixed  ui  the  East, 


BETHLEHEM. 


254 


BETHSAN. 


it  may  well  be  that  the  father  of  David,  as  the 
Targuin  of  Jonatlian  relates,  was  a  "  weaver  of 
the  veils  of  the  sanctuary ; "  and  thus  tlie  town 
o£  Bethlehem  was  connected  in  memory  with 
the  heroic  Caleb,  with  Bezaleel  the  builder  of  the 
tabernacle,  and  with  David  the  poet-king-. 

But  the  "  little  '  city  had  no  lack  of  memories. 
Here,  long  before  Caleb's  day,  had  Rachel  brought 
forth  Beuoni,  and  yielded  up  her  life  for  her 
cliild.  On  the  spot  where  she  died,  Jacob  erected 
a  pillar;  and  a  little  white  Mohaumiedan  mosque 
reminds  every  passer-by  of  the  touching  incident 
of  patriarchal  life  (Gen.  xxxv.  16-20,  xlviii.  7). 
Here,  in  the  days  of  the  Judges,  was  the  scene 
of  the  charming  idyl  of  Ruth.  Here  David  was 
born.  For  a  draught  from  the  well  at  its  gate 
he  longed  on  one  occasion,  but  woidd  not  take 
it  when  tlie  three  heroes  broke  through  the  ranks 
of  the  Philistines  and  brought  it  to  him,  because 
it  was,  in  his  estimation,  "the  blood  of  men  "  (1 
Chron.  xi.  15-19).  Rehoboam  fortified  Bethle- 
hem (2  Chron.  xi.  G).  Mention  is  made  of  the 
khan,  or  caravanserai  of  Chimham,  close  to  Beth- 
lehem, as  a  resting-place  or  starting-point  for 
travellers  on  the  way  to  Egypt,  which  gives  rise 
to  the  very  probable  supposition  that  Chimham, 
the  son  of  Barzillai,  received  from  David,  as  a 
recognition  of  his  father's  fidelity  and  self-sacri- 
fice, a  possession,  perhaps  a  Davidic  family  prop- 
erty, upon  which  he  built  a  khan.  '•  Children  of 
Bethlehem  '  returned  with  Zerubbabel  from  Baby- 
lon (Ez.  ii.  21;  Xeh.  vii.  26). 

But  all  these  facts  and  incidents  coiniected 
with  Bethlehem  are  of  little  moment,  compared 
with  the  one  transcendent  event  wliich  there  took 
place.  "  Hie  de  virgine  !Maria  Jesus  Christus 
natus  est  '  (Here  Jesus  Christ  was  born  of  the 
Virgin  Mary.) 

Tradition  pointed  out,  even  in  Justin  iMartyr's 
day,  in  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  a  cave 
in  wliich  the  Lord  of  life  saw  light;  and  it  is 
every  way  likely  that  for  once  tradition  and  fact 
coincide.  Over  the  sjiot,  Constantine,  or  rather 
Helena  his  mother,  erected  a  basilika  (A.D.  327), 
the  oldest  church  in  Christendom,  which  still 
stands  as  part  of  the  present  Church  of  the  Na- 
tivity, or  of  St.  Mary.  Here  Jerome  lived  for 
thirty  years,  and  made  his  so-called  Vidgate 
translation  of  the  Bible,  and  died  (119).  The 
church  escaped  destruction  by  the  Moslems,  it 
is  said  by  a  miracle,  1010;  and  hen"  Baldwin 
was  crowned  king,  1101 ;  and  in  1110  Bethlehem 
was  raised  to  tlie  rank  of  an  episcopal  S(!0.  The 
church  was  thoroughly  restored,  and  munificently 
decorated,  by  the  Byzantine  Emperor  Manuel 
Comnenos  (ilI3-80).  Tlie  church  was  covered 
with  lead.  In  1482  the  roof  was  repaired,  Ed- 
ward I\'.  of  England  giving  the  lead.  But 
toward  tlie  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
Turks  turned  the  lead  roof  to  account  hy  making 
bullets  out  of  it.  Inuring  the  present  century  the 
roof  has  been  again  repaired. 

The  present  church,  like  the  Church  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  in  Jerusalem,  is  singularly  com- 
prehensive of  "lioly  places."  It  is  entered 
through  tlio  Latin  Monastery,  which  looks  like  a 
mcdiiuval  fortrcs.s.  (The  (jreeks  and  Arini'iiians 
have  monasteries  in  contiguous  buildings.)  Jn 
the  crypt  beneath  it  is  shown,  iji  the  "Cliapel  of 
the  Nativity,"  the  place  where  Clirisl  «as  uorn. 


Opposite,  and  three  steps  down,  is  the  Chapel  ot 
the  Manger,  in  which  there  is  a  marl)le  manger. 
The  original  C?)  wooden  one  was  taken  by  I'ofw 
Sixtus  V.  to  Koine,  and  set  up  in  the  Chmch  of 
Santa  ^laria  Maggiore.  In  the  same  extensive 
crypt  are  other  chapels,  called  after  different 
events  or  persons,  the  most  interesting  of  which 
is  the  Chapel  of  St.  •leronie,  the  cell  in  which 
the  great  scholar  lived  and  worked.  See 
ToBLKK :  Belhlehem  in  Paleslina,  St.  Gallen  u. 
Bern,  1849;  [Rohixsom:  Researches;  Sciiaff: 
Through  Bible  Lands,  1879.]     FR.  vr.  SCIIULTZ. 

BETHLEhEMITES  is  the  name  of  two  orders 
of  monks.  I.  The  origin  of  the  first  is  very  ob- 
scure. It  was  established  at  Cambridge  in  1257: 
its  members  wore  a  red  star  on  the  breast,  sym- 
bolizing the  .star  which  led  the  wise  men  to  Beth- 
lehem. II.  The  founder  of  the  second  order  was 
a  Franciscan  monk,  Pierre  de  Betheucourt ;  b.  in 
1619;  d.  in  1667.  It  was  confirmed  by  Innocent 
XI.  in  1687.  Its  principal  seat  is  Guatemala,  and 
it  numbers  in  Central  America  about  forty  houses. 
Its  members  follow  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine,  and 
wear  around  the  neck  a  medallion  \\ith  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  birth  of  Christ  in  Bethlehem. 
To  attend  tlie  sick  is  the  main  object  of  the 
order. 

BETH'PHAGE  (house  of  fif/s),  a  place  near 
Bethany  iii>on  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Tradition 
locates  it  half  way  between  the  suniinit  of  the 
IMouut  and  Bethany ;  but  more  probably  it  was 
on  the  road  from  Bethany  to  Jerusalem,  and  at 
the  spot  wliere  the  holy  city  first  becomes  visible 
to  one  coming  from  tlie  east. 

BETHPHANY,  a  primitive  name  for  the  festi- 
val best  known  in  the  West  as  the  Epiphany. 

BETHSAI'DA  (house  of  Jish),  the  appropriate 
name  of  two  places  upon  the  shore  ot  Galilee's 
lake. 

1.  Belhsaida  of  Galilee,  the  birthplace  of  An- 
drew, Peter,  and  Philip  (John  i.  44  sq.,  xii. 
21),  the  scene  of  many  a  minK^e  of  Christ  (Matt, 
xi.  21;  Luke  x.  13),  was  upon  the  west  .shore  in 
or  by  the  "land  of  Gennesaret,"  i.e.,  the  jilain  el 
Ghuieeir,  not  far  from  Capernaum  (Mark  vi.  45, 
cf.  ver.  53;  John  vi.  17,  24).  But  the  nearer 
identification  depends  upon  tliat  of  Capeknaum 
(which  see),  and  that  is  a  vexed  question. 

2.  Belhsaida  Julias,  often  niinitioned  by  Jose- 
plins  (Aniii/.  XVni.  2,  1),  known  to  Pliny,  in 
Lower  (iaulonitis,  just  where  the  Jordan  empties 
itself  into  the  lake.  t)riginally  a  village,  Philip 
the  tetrarch  enlarged  it  into  a  city,  and  named  it 
Julias,  in  honor  of  Julia,  the  daughter  of  Augus- 
tus, and  wife  of  Tilxnius.  In  its  neighborhood 
the  feeding  of  the  five  thousand  took  place  (Luke 
ix.  10). 

Some  scholars,  e.g..  Dr.  W.  M.  Thomson,  de- 
clare that  the  two  Bethsaidas  were  really  only 
the  east  and  west  ]>arts  ot  one  city,  wliich  was 
built  upon  the  Jordan  at  the  place  it  enters  tljn 
lake  now  Ciillrd  Aim  Zany. 

BETH-SHE'AN  (house' of  quiel),  BETH'SHAN, 
or  BETH'SAN,  was  situated  in  the  lirridny  of 
I\Ianassch  (.losh.  xvii.  11),  and  coiiiniand<;d  tlie 
entrance  of  the  Valll^y  of  Jezreel  where  it  opens 
into  the  .lordau  Valley.  It  is  on  the  road  from 
Jerusalem  to  Damascus,  and  is  about  time  miles 
from  the  Jordan.  It  remained  in  the  hands  of 
the  Canaaiiites  until  the  time  of  David;  there  the 


\ 


BETH-SHBMESH. 


255 


BEZA. 


corpse  of  Saul  was  exhibited  (Jiuig.  i.  27 ;  1  Sam. 
xxxi.  Id).  L'lulei-  Soloiiioii  it  formed  part  of  one 
of  the  twelve  coiiiiiiissariat  districts  (1  Kings  iv. 
12).  Tile  (ireeks  called  it  N'yssa,  or  Nysa,  in  hon- 
or of  Dionysus  (Hacchus),  probably  because  of  its 
wine;  l)ut  it  was  more  gt^nerally  called  .Scythopo- 
lis,  the  city  of  tlie  Scythians  (Jud.  iii.  10 ;  2 
Mace.  xii.  29  stp),  because,  in  the  second  lialf  of 
the  seventh  century  15. C,  the  country  was  invad- 
ed by  the  Scytliians  on  their  way  to  Kgypt,  and  a 
few  of  them  settled  in  ISethsheau.  This  circum- 
stance explains  how  the  city  was  considered  non- 
.lewish  and  unholy  (2  Mace.  xii.  -'SO;  Joseph., 
War,  11.  IS,  1,  ;i,  4;  Lifi,  U).  It  belonged  to  the 
l>ecapolis,  and  it  wa.s  here  that  Alexander  Jan- 
nueus  made  the  alliance  with  Cleopatra  (Joseph., 
Aniii/.  XVIII.  13,  2).  Scythopolis  became  an 
epsicopal  see.  It  is  now  called  Beisan,  and  con- 
tains many  interesting  ruins  of  temples,  a  large 
theatre,  a  Roman  arch;  and  about  it  are  many 
ancient  tombs. 

BETH-SHE'MESH  (house  of  l/ie  sun).  1.  The 
same  iis  Ir.sliemesh,  "city  of  the  sun,"  and  Mount 
Ileres  "mountain  of  tlie  sun"  (Josh.  xix.  41; 
Judg.  i.  35),  a  sacerdotal  city  near  Kirjath-jearim, 
and  about  fourteen  miles  from  Jerusalem.  It  is 
noted  as  the  place  to  which  the  ark  was  returned, 
and  at  which  Jehoash,  King  of  Israel,  defeated  and 
took  prisoner  Aina/.iah,  King  of  Judah  (2  Kings 
xiv.  11).  Under  Ahaz  the  Philistines  occupied  it 
and  other  towns  in  the  locality  (2  Chron.  xxviii. 
18).  Upon  its  site  to-day  is  the  ruined  village 
of  Ain  Shenis,  "fountain  of  the  sun,"  which  is 
evidently  constructed  of  ancient  materials. 

2,  3.  Tliere  were  two  other  places  of  this  namr  : 
one  was  in  the  tribe  of  Issachar  (Josh.  xix.  2'_) ; 
the  other  was  PhoMiician  in  origin  (.losh.  xix.  38; 
.ludg.  i.  33),  and  belonged  to  Naphtali,  but  was 
not  occupied  by  that  tribe. 

Beth-shemesh  is  the  name  Jeremiah  gives  to 
Ileliopolis,  or  On  in  Egypt  (Jer.  xliii.  13).  The 
meaning  is  identical. 

BETH'ULIA  (oirghi  of  JehoraJi)  was  the  centre 
of  the  events  recorded  in  the  apocryphal  Book  of 
.ludith,  but  is  not  elsewhere  mentioned.  Its  sit- 
uation is  very  minutely  described,  —  among  the 
mountains  of  Ephraim,  south  of  the  Valley  of 
Jezreel,  and  near  Dothaim  (Dothan),  and  on  a 
mountain  which  overlooked  the  plain  of  Esdra- 
elon,  and  commanded  the  passes  from  that  plain 
to  the  hill-country  of  Maiiasseh.  Strange  as  it 
may  seem,  it  has  not  been  identified,  although 
many  attempts  have  been  made.  If  the  place  is 
not  an  imaginary  one,  as  may  well  be,  it  is  proba- 
bly an  altered  name. 

BETHUNE,  George  Washington,  b.  in  New 
York  city,  March  18,  1805;  d.  in  Florence,  Italy, 
April  27,  1862.  lie  w.as  graduated  from  Dickinson 
College,  Carlisle,  Peiiu.,  1823;  entered  the  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary;  was  married  1825; 
licensed  by  the  Second  Presbytery  of  New  York, 
July  11,  1820;  was  missionary  to  the  colored 
people  and  sailors  at  Savannah,  Ga.,  for  a  year, 
—  a  post  for  which  his  perfect  familiarity  with 
nautical  phrases,  and  his  great  love  of  human 
nature,  eminently  fitted  him.  He  then  began  his 
regular  ministry,  and  was,  in  succession,  pastor  of 
the  following  cliurches  in  the  Reformed  (Dutch) 
denomination  :  Rhinebeck,  1827-30;  Utica,  1830- 
3i;  First  Church,  Philadelphia,  1831-37;  Third 


Church,  organized  by  Iiini,  18.37-49;  Central 
Church,  Brooklyn, 184;)-50;  Cliiirch  on  tlie  Heights, 
organized  for  him,  18.50-5!);  as.sociate  minister 
in  Twenty-first  Street  Church,  New  Vork,  1859- 
(52.  lie  was  in  his  day  one  of  th<^  most  idoipient 
preachers  and  jmblic  sjieakers  in  tli(;  country; 
but  lie  was,  besides,  a  .scholar,  a  theologian,  and  a 
poet.  He  was  a  very  lovable  man.  His  publica- 
tions were  numerous.  His  most  valued  are  :  ICdiiy 
LdsI,  Early  Sliced,  with  original  poem,  Phil., 
184G ;  The  British  Female  J^oels,  with  biographical 
and  critical  notices,  Pliil.,  1848 ;  l.iujs  of  Loce  and 
Faith,  Phil.,  1848;  Memoirs  of  Mrs.  Jonnna  lie- 
thune,  N.Y.,  1857  ;  Expository  Lectures  on  the  Heidel- 
herg  Catechism,  N.Y.,  18(J4.  He  also  edited  with 
rare  skill  and  con  iimorc,  for  he  was  an  enthusi- 
astic fisherman,  Walton's  Complete  Ani/ler,  N.Y., 
1847,  new  ed.  1880,  2  vols. 

See  Memoirs  of  Rev.  Georije  W.  Bethune,  D.D., 
by  Rev.  A.  R.  Van  Ne.st,  \)'.\).,  N.Y.,  1807. 

BETH'-ZUR  (house  of  the  rock),  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Judah,  now  a  ruined  village,  Beilsur,  four 
miles  north  of  Hebron,  was  fortified  by  Reho- 
boam,  and  once  the  "strongest  place  in  all  Juda;a" 
(Joseph.,  Antiip  XIII.  5,  0).  As  such,  it  played 
an  important  part  in  the  wars  of  the  Maccabees 
(1  Mace.  iv.  29,  vi.  32-47,  xi.  05  sqq.).  Ac- 
cording to  an  unlikely  tradition,  reported  by  Eu- 
sebius  and  Jerome,  the  eunuch  of  Queen  Caudace 
was  baptized  by  I'hilip  at  Aiit  ed-Dirweh,  —  a 
spring  near  Beth-zur  (Acts  viii.  20-39). 

BETKIUS,  Joachim,  b.  Oct.  8,  1001,  in  Berlin; 
d.  Dec.  12,  1663,  at  Linum,  near  Fehrbellin,  where 
he  was  pastor  for  more  than  thirty  years.  He 
was  a  Pietist  before  Pietism  yet  existed.  The 
cause  of  the  religious  misery  of  his  age  in  Ger- 
many he  ascribes  to  the  ministers.  Among  h:s 
works  are  :  Cliristianismus  Elhnicus,  Berlin,  1633  ; 
Saccrdoiium,  1040;  Antichrislentlium,  Amsterdam, 
1050  ;• /!■>(■/(/;««;  Germiviicc,  Amsterdam,  1660. 

BEVERIDGE,  William,  b.  at  Barrow  in  1037; 
d.  at  Westminster,  March  5,  1708 ;  was  educated 
at  Cambridge ;  became  Archdeacon  of  Colchester 
in  1681,  and  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph  in  1704.  In 
church-history  he  made  himself  a  deserved  repu- 
tation by  his  Institutionum  Chrimoloijicarum  Libri 
Duo,  London,  1609 ;  and  in  canon  law,  by  the 
edition  and  intei^iretation  of  its  sources,  Imbtimov 
sire  I'andectie  Canonum  S.  Apost.  el  Concil.,  Oxiord, 
1672.  His  collected  works,  including  liis  Private 
Thoitr/hls  tipon  lielii/ion,  and  Doctrine  of  the  Church 
of  Eni/land,  were  published  in  9  vols.,  London, 
1824, and,  more  complete,  in  12  vols., Oxford,  1844- 
48.  He  has  been  styled  "  the  great  reviver  and 
restorer  of  primitive  piety."  He  was  very  learned, 
earnest,  and  devout,  and  justly  esteemed. 

BEZA,  Theodore  (originally  de  Besze),  the 
friend  and  biographer  of  Calvin ;  b.  in  Vezelai 
Castle  in  Burgundy,  where  his  father  was  gov- 
ernor, June  24,  1519  ;  d.  in  Geneva,  Oct.  15,  1605. 
When  only  three  years  old,  his  micle,  Nicholas 
de  Beza,  a  counsellor  of  the  Parliament  of  France, 
took  him  to  Paris,  but  in  December,  1.528,  sent 
him  to  Orleans,  to  be  educated  by  ]Melchior  Wol- 
mar,  the  Greek  teacher  of  Calvin,  a  Suabiau 
scholar  of  eminence,  and  a  Protestant  withal. 
AVith  Wolmar  he  lived  until  1534,  when  the 
latter  returned  to  Germany.  From  !May,  1535, 
to  August,  1539,  he  was  a  student  of  law  at  the 
University  of  Orleans ;  but,  when  he  had  received 


BEZA. 


256 


BEZA. 


the  degree  of  licentiate  in  law,  lie  began  his 
pmctice  in  I'aris.  Not  being  fond  of  the  law, 
but  devoted  to  jx)etry,  rarely  gifted,  a  poet  an<l 
a  scliolar,  of  high  social  position,  abunditntly 
supplied  with  money,  —  for,  although  not  in 
orders,  he  enjoyed  the  income  of  two  benefices, 
with  tlie  prospect  before  him  of  being  the  heir  of 
iiis  other  uncle,  Claudius,  the  Abbot  of  Froiniont, 
—  it  was  natural  that  he  should  yield  to  the 
seductions  of  the  gay  capital,  and  live  among  his 
social  equals,  the  wits,  the  scholars,  and  the 
beauties  of  Paris.  Proof  is  lacking  that  Beza 
was  ever  grossly  immoral.  He  was  probably 
more  frivolous  than  ciiniinal.  Even  his  impme 
relations  with  Claude  Desnoz  were  not  so  rep- 
rehensible as  tliey  have  been  represented;  for 
he  was  faithful  to  her,  and  at  last  fulfilled  his 
])romi.se  to  marry  her.  hi  15^8  he  published 
his  JucenUia,  a  collection  of  Latin  poems,  and 
fliereby  won  the  reputation  of  being  the  best 
Latin  jioet  of  liis  day.  But  in  that  year  he  had 
a  severe  sickness,  which  sobered  him.  The 
instructions  of  the  pious  A\'olmar  influenced 
him  thus  late ;  and  at  length  he  resolved  to  leave 
his  sinful  life,  give  up  his  benefices,  and  go  to 
(ieneva.  This  lie  did.  By  advice  of  Calvin  he 
iniblicly  professed  the  Protestant  faith,  and  mar- 
ried his  mistress.  In  November,  1549,  he  was 
ajipointed  professor  of  Greek  in  the  Academy  of 
Lau.sanne ;  but  he  did  not  confine  his  energies 
to  that  department.  He  revived  the  sacred 
tlramas  of  the  jniddle  ages,  and  wrote  (1550)  a 
liighly  successful  one,  called  Aiiraluun's  Sacrifice, 
in  which  he  cleverly  contrasted  Ronum-C'atlioli- 
cism  with  Protestantism.  He  aided  Calvin  in 
liis  connuentaries  upon  Paul's  Epistles  and  the 
iipistle  to  the  Hebrews;  defended  the  burning  of 
Servetus;  attempted  to  unite  Swiss  and  German 
Protestants  in  protesting  against  the  French 
yiersecution  of  the  AN'aldenses  in  Piedmont,  but 
tailed,  owing  to  untimely  disputes  about  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  got  more  lilame  than  praise 
for  his  attempt.  In  the  fall  of  155S  he  removed 
to  Geneva,  to  be  professor  in  the  academy  there. 
He  was  al.so  from  this  time  the  coadjutor  of 
Calvin.  His  career  was  brilliant.  Li  15G0  he 
issued  his  completed  metrical  translation  of  the 
I'salter,  upon  which  he  had  been  engaged  for  a 
number  of  years.  He  finished  the  work  of 
Clement  Jfarot,  who  had  translated  fifty.  The 
reception  of  this  work  was  most  enthusiastic.  It 
may  be  sa-id,  indeed,  that  the  French  Reformed 
Church  dates  from  its  first  use.  In  1501,  in  the 
Abbey  of  Poissy,  near  I'ari.s,  upon  tlie  Oth  of 
September,  Beza  stood  in  the  presence  of  a  bril- 
liant assembly  of  nobles  and  clergy,  presided 
over  by  the  young  King,  Charles  IX.  A\'itli 
learning,  with  ehMpience,  with  spiritual  fervor, 
lie  pleaded  for  his  beloved  Protestantism.  \\'hat- 
ever  may  have  been  the  hopes  of  the  different 
debaters,  the  debate  did  no  good,  except  that  it 
I'stablished  Beza  as  the  head  of  the  Keformed 
Church.  Calvin  died  May  27,  1504.  Beza  natu- 
rally furnished  his  biography,  and  with  great 
reluctance,  as  far  as  he  could,  took  his  jilace. 
Like  him,  he  wa.s  the  .soid  of  the  educational  and 
ecclesiastical  affairs ;  but  he  relaxed  .somewhat 
the  governmental  rigor.  His  thorough-going 
•lefence  of  Calvin's  view  of  the  Lord's  Sujiper 
bruuglit  him  into  conflict  with  the  Lutherans,  as 


at  ^Ibmpelgard  (1585),  in  debate  with  Andreii; 
and  with  Zwinglians,  as  in  debate  with  Bullinger 
and  Ramus  (1571). 

In  158S  his  beloved  but  childless  wife  died; 
and  lie  married,  in  order  to  have  the  care  he 
needed,  a  widow,  Cathaiine  del  Piano.  U])  to 
his  sixty-fifth  year  he  was  singularly  free  from 
sickness,  notwithstanding  his  incessant  labors; 
but  the  liust  twenty  yeare  of  his  life  were  one  long 
struggle  against  di.sease.  Ciiadnally  he  gave  his 
attention  to  fewer  and  fewer  objects,  though 
much  of  his  old  fire  was  left  him  still ;  for  he 
replied  in  a  vigorous  satire  to  the  story,  circulated 
industriously  by  the  Roman-Catholics,  that  he 
had  recanted  upon  his  death-bed.  He  resigned 
all  his  official  positions  in  1600,  and  breathed  out 
his  noble,  devoted  Christian  life  five  years  later. 

The  literary  labors  of  Beza  were  long-con- 
tinued and  fruitful.  In  addition  to  those  already 
mentioned,  lie  wrote,  omitting  very  many  minor 
publications,  1.  Epistola  7)iaf/ifi[ri  Benedicli  Passa- 
rdiilii,  Paris,  1551  (a  satire,  written  in  macaronic 
verse,  directed  against  President,  afterward  Abbot 
Lizet,  a  violent  persecutor).  2.  De  liicrelicis  a 
cioi/i  viai/isiratu  puitieiKjh,  Genevfe,  1554  (a  de- 
fence of  the  burning  of  Servetns).  3.  Aiinola- 
lioncs  in  jVociiin  Tesiainentmit ,  Parisiis,  1556,  fol. 
4.  Novum  Testumentu)ii  Domini  7wstri  Jesii  Christi 
laline  Jam  olim  e  veleri  inlerprete,  nunc  deiiuo  a  Th. 
Beza  rersuni  cum  eiusdcm  annotalionihus,  in  (/iiibus 
ratio  inlcrprcladotiis  reddilur,  Geneva>,  1556,  fol. 
(a  faithful  and  elegant  translation).  5.  Con/e.isio 
clirialianic  fidci  tl  eiusdem  cijUatio  cum  papisticis 
hferifsihus,  Geneva.',  1560.  This  masterly  defence 
of  the  Reformed  faith  appeared  originally  in 
French.  It  was  translated  into  English,  London, 
1563  and  1565.  6.  Vie  de  I.  Calcin,  Geneve, 
1563  or  1564.  But  his  most  valuable  work  was, 
7.  lesu  Clirixti  D.  N.  Norum  teslamentum  sive 
novum  fwitus,  cuius  yrccco  lexlui  respondent  interpre- 
lalioiii's  ducc,  una,  veins,  altera,  nora,  Theodori 
Bczcc,  ditiijenter  ah  eo  recofjnita.  Eiusdcm  Tli.  Bezm 
annotationes,  quas  ilidem  in  hac  secunda  editione  re- 
corjnocil  et  ai'i-cssione  non  parva  locupletacil.  Indices 
eliam  duo,  thcohyis  (priesertini  Hebraiccc,  Grcecm  et 
Latince  linguce  sludiosis)  mullum  profuluriudiecti  sunt. 
[(Jenevfp,]  Anno  1565.,  Heiir.  Stephanus.  Beza 
had  received,  from  the  library  of  the  elder  Robert 
Stephens,  a  copy  of  the  New  Testament,  to  which 
was  added  readings  from  several  more  nianu- 
.scripts  than  the  father  had  used  in  Ids  third 
edition  (1550).  In  Beza's  second  edition  (1582), 
called,  however,  upon  the  titlepage,  tertia  cditio, 
much  help  was  derived  from  the  uncial  manu- 
scripts, Codex  I).  Gosp.  and  Acts  (Codex  Beza, 
Gra:co-Latinus,  now  in  the  library  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Cambridge,  to  wliich  Beza  presented 
it  in  1581),  and  Codex  Claromontanus,  of  the 
I'auline  Epistles,  now  in  Paris  [see  Bible- 
Tkxt,  jXew  'J'eslameiitJ.  from  the  Peshito,  and  a 
I^atin  translation  of  the  Arabic  version.  The 
third  edition  a)>peared  in  1.589,  also  under  the 
date  1588;  and  the  fourth  (1508),  which  diffiMs 
little  from  the  third,  is  less  accurate,  and  wa.s 
reprinted  in  Cambridge,  1642.  The  counting  of 
the  above  edition  is  confused  by  Beza's  iinpro])er 
reckoning  of  his  Latin  edition  of  15.')7  (the  title- 
page  gives  1556,  tlie  last  page,  15.57)  as  hinjirst  edi- 
tion, which,  as  it  docs  not  contain  the  (Jreek  ti'xt, 
it  certainly  was  not.     The  latter  editions  of  Beza 


BIBLE. 


257 


BIBLES. 


were  the  main  basis  of  tlie  authorized  English  ver- 
sion, not  only  becanse  they  were  (lie  latfst  and 
the  best,  l)ut  also  because  Beza,  the  survivinp; 
]iatviarch  of  tlie  Heforiners,  e::erted  by  liis  Latin 
version  and  exegetical  notes  a  inarlied  inllnence 
upon  tlie  Kinj;-  James'  translators,  as  lie  had  pro- 
\  ioiisly  upon  the  (ienevan  (lo.'iTand  1500).  The 
lliMoire  eccl('siaf:lifjue  des  Efj/I.ies  ri'fhrmce.'!,  Ant- 
^Yerp,  1580  (best  ed.,  Paris,  1882,  2  vols.),  is  not  his. 

For  the  biography  of  Hez.a,  in  addition  to  the 
original  work  of  one  of  his  favorite  pupils, 
Antoiiie  J.,a  F.aye  (Gen.,  1000),  see  F.  Cr. 
ScHi.ossKR:  Lchcn  ties  Thcoilor  Beza  a.  dot  Peter 
Marli/r  Vermili,  Heidelberg,  ISO!);  .1.  AV.  Baum: 
Tliendor  Bezo,  niicli  liandxchrifltichen  Quellcn  ihir- 
i/cKlelll,  Leipzig  (Berlin).  1843  et  185'  (unhappily, 
this  great  work  only  exi*;iids  to  15G3]  ;  Hkinkicii 
Hki'PK  :  Theodor  Beza.  Lehen  u.  ausyewiildle 
Schiiflen,  Elberfeld.  18fjl. 

BIBLE.  The  olde.  Protestant  theologians, 
under  the  title  Affecti^.,cs  Scripturcv  Sucrce,  put 
together  the  particular  aftributes  of  the  Bible  as 
the  inspired  rule  of  faiili  and  practice,  a.  The 
primary  attributes,  such  as  come  directly  from  the 
divine  origin  and  canonicity  of  the  Scriptures : 
1.  Divine  autliorili/,  in  ojiposition  to  the  Socinians, 
wlio  underrated  the  Old  Testament,  and  to  the 
Konian  Church,  which  grounds  the  authority  of 
the  Scriptures  upon  the  Church.  This  attribute 
itself  is  partly  an  authority  to  bind  men  to  be- 
lieve what  it  teaches,  and  jiartly  the  final  appeal 
in  germane  questions.  The  .Scriptures  had  divine 
autliority  as  the  highest  law  and  tlie  sujjreme 
court.  2.  Sufficiency.  The  Bible  contains  all 
that  is  requisite  for  Christian  faith  and  life,  and 
for  the  attaiumeut  of  heaven.  3.  I'er.yiicuili/, 
ill  opposition  to  Koman-Catholic  notions  of  vagne- 
ne.ss  and  obscurity,  and  Arminian  and  Socinian 
denial  of  the  necessity  of  the  Spirit's  aid  to  under- 
stand the  Bible.  Clearness  was,  indeed,  only 
predicated  of  the  Bible  as  a  whole  :  j)ortions  were 
allowed  to  be  obscure;  e.g.,  the  Revelation,  and 
parts  of  Ezekiel  and  Daniel.  It  was  necessary 
to  believe  only  the  "  saving  truths  ;  "  and  to  these 
the  historical  portions  of  the  Bible  and  the  dog- 
matics of  the  schools  did  not  belong.  Nor  was 
it  asserted  that  every  saving  truth  could  be  in- 
stantly grasped.  There  were  truths  only  the  re- 
generate could  understand,  and  they  not  without 
prayer  and  divine  aid,  a  knowledge  of  the  lan- 
guage, and  a  mature  and  unprejudiced  mind. 
4.  To  the  Scriptures  was  attributed  a  power  of 
Self-iiUerpreiation :  Scripture  interprets  Scripture. 
See  HKHMiiNp:uTics.  5.  Dieine  efficacy,  :isii'^iimst 
the  (Quakers  and  others  wlio  saw  in  the  Scripture 
only  "  dead  letters."  The  Truth  of  Scripture  is 
usually  reckoned  in  the  first  class ;  but  this  attri- 
bute is  so  bound  up  with  that  of  insiiiration,  that 
it  does  not  require  to  be  enumerated  separately. 
h.  The  secondary  attributes  of  Holy  Scriptiu'e, 
or  such  as  come  indirectly  from  the  same  sources : 

1.  Necessity.  A  revelation,  if  made,  must  be  con- 
tained in  writing.  iveither  an  "inner  light" 
nor  sinqile  tradition  will  afford  sufficient  surety. 

2.  Integrity.  Xothiuj  necessary  to  the  canon  has 
been  lost :  the  lost  books  were  either  uninspired, 
ordesignedsiiiiplylorlocalu.se.  3.  Uncorrujitcd 
text.  The  Hebrew  ot  the  Old  Testament,  and  the 
Greek  of  the  New  Testament,  have  come  down 
to  us  as  written.     4.  Accessibility.     The  Bible  is 

18  —  1 


adapted  to  the  reading  of  all  ages,  classes,  and 

sexes. 

The  modern  Protestant  theologians  liave  modi- 
fied the  definition  of  these  predicates;  yet  they 
express  sul)stantially  th(!  mind  of  evangelical 
Christcndoni.  II.   I'.MiKT  (KIM.   KOUEL). 

BIBLE  CHRISTIANS,  or  BRYANITES,  a  sect 
closely  resembling  the  Methodists,  from  whom 
they  diifer  merely  in  having  a  more  popular  form 
of  church-government,  consisting  of  equal  num- 
bers of  ministers  and  laymen,  in  rejecting  the 
title  "Reverend,"  on  the  ground  that  it  intro- 
duces distinctions  in  the  body  of  Christ,  and  in 
giving  women  the  fullest  liberty  to  preach.  But 
in  doctrine  and  practice  they  are  like  the  Method- 
ists. In  the  United  States  there  is  only  one  con- 
gregation, which  is  in  Philadelphia,  and  calls  Rev. 
William  Cowherd,  who  left  the  ministry  of  the 
Church  of  England  in  1800,  its  founder.  In  Eng- 
land, in  1876,  they  numbered  3(J8  chapels  and 
14,352  members,  with  Go  preachers  and  057  local 
preachers ;  in  Canada,  135  chapels,  40  preachers, 
and  4.08G  members;  in  Australia,  100  chapel-s,  34 
preachers,  147  local  j.ireachers,  and  2,045  members. 
All  these  claim  to  be  the  spiritual  children  of  Rev. 
William  Bryrtn  of  Cornwall,  who  leftthe  Wesleyans 
in  1815.     See  art.,  P.ini.i-;  Cmu.sri.vxs,  p.  25S5. 

BIBLES,  Pictured,  and  BIBLICAL  PICTURES. 
Pictured  Bibles  have  existed  from  the  dawn  of 
printing.  Indeed,  long  before,  in  the  earliest 
Christian  days,  miniatuies  were  painted  with 
loving  care  by  holy  hands  upon  the  Bible  parch- 
ment^rolls ;  for  just  as  the  ancients  had  illustrated 
Homers  and  Virgils,  so  the  Christians  had  illus- 
trated Bibles.  The  great  number  of  these  little 
pictures  thus  made,  and  the  great  beauty  of  many 
of  them,  attest  the  skill,  the  industry,  and  the 
piety  of  the  makers.  An  instance  of  great  inter- 
est is  Codex  2  (which  see  under  Bible  Text, 
New  Testament).  But  the  cost  of  these  pic- 
tures excluded  the  people  from  po.s.se,ssing  them, 
or  even  seeing  them.  AVhen,  however,  woodcuts 
were  invented,  and  the  printing-press  set  up,  the 
peojjle  could  share  in  whatever  profit  these  pic- 
tures afforded.  Long  before  the  Reformation; 
JIartin  Schdn  in  Kolmar  issued  a  book  of  the 
life  and  sufferings  of  Jesus,  with  excellent  cuts. 
The  Bible  printed  in  1477  by  Anton  Sorg  and 
Zainer,  in  Augsburg,  had  woodcuts.  Towards 
the  close  of  the  century  there  wei'e  more  pojiular 
editions,  with  pictures  from  the  Passion  of  our 
Lord,  the  Apiocalypse  (already  a  favorite  theme 
for  the  artist),  and  the  Canticles,  besides  the  so- 
called  Bible  of  the  Poor  (^Biblia  Pauperum), — brief 
biblical  selections,  with  simjile,  rude  woodcuts. 
The  sixteenth-century  artists  put  their  powers  at 
the  .service  of  the  Bible,  and  to  the  present  time 
their  work  remains  vmequalled.  Albrecht  Diirer 
(1498,  1507-13),  L.  Cranach  (1500),  Hans  Scheuf- 
felen  (1508),  and  other  masters,  illustrated  dif- 
ferent portions  of  Scripture.  The  Reformers 
made  use  of  the  same  help  in  their  work.  Cuts 
derived  from  the  CoburgerBible(Niirnberg,  1483), 
adorned  the  Apocalypse  in  even  the  first  edition 
of  Luther's  New  '  Testament.  The  Romanists 
followed.  The  Episcopal  vicar,  J.  Beringer,  in 
1526-27  printed  Luther's  New  Testament,  with  a 
few  changes,  Init  with  the  addition  of  sixt)"-five 
cuts,  as  did  Emser  in  1527,  under  the  patronage  of 
Duke  George,  much  to  l^uther's  anger,  that  sucu 


BIBLES. 


258 


BIBLE-READING. 


uiiwasheii  hands  should  touch  his  wovk.  In  1.534 
Luther's  Old  Testament,  illustiated,  and  the  Xew 
with  additional  ilhistiations,  appeared  in  AVitten- 
herg.  Christophorus  AValther,  the  coi  rector  for 
the  press  of  Hans  l.nfft,  declared  that  the  pictures 
were  partly  of  Luther's  designing  ;  and  Melancli- 
thon  wrote  to  Stigel  (Sept.  26,  15-14).  th.at  he 
sometimes  busied  himself  with  designs  for  Bible 
)>ictures,  which  he  gave  over  to  the  finishing- 
touches  of  Lucas  Cranach,  —  so  high  was  the  esti- 
mation of  the  lieformers  for  pictorial  effects.  The 
Koman-Catholic  improved  version  of  Dietenber- 
ger  (1534)  had  many  woodcuts.  Indeed,  it  was 
not  possible  in  those  days  to  get  the  Kible  without 
them.  The  high-water  mark  in  this  line  was 
reached  in  the  Bible  printed  by  Hans  Kraft  in 
Wittenberg  (1.572,  1574,  1576,  and  1.584).  Be- 
sides these  illustrated  Scriptures,  there  were  col- 
lections of  Bible-pictures.  Thus  Graff  issued  a 
Bible-history  (1536-53).  But  the  best  work  was 
produced  by  Hans  Holbein,  whose  inimitable 
Pictures  from  the  Old  Testament  appeared  with  a 
Latin  text  in  Lyons,  1538,  1.543,  1.547,  with  .an 
English  text,  1549,  and  with  a  French  text,  15-50. 
Many  other  similar  Bible-histories  followed  in 
this  century.  Particularly  worthy  of  mention  is 
Feyerabend's  (1.571),  a  manual  which  sets  forth 
the  weightiest  topics  of  biblical  history  and  ar- 
choeology  by  means  of  two  hmidred  small  wood- 
cuts, with  Latin  verses  attached.  The  letterpress 
was  furnished  by  Pastor  Heinrich  Peter  Keben- 
stock,  and  the  illustrations  by  .lost  Animann  of 
Zijrich.  Similar  works  were  published  in  France 
and  the  Netherlands :  Vila  J.  Ckrlstl,  Antwerp, 
1537 ;  Figures  rfu  Vieux  Testament  par  'I'ourues, 
Lyons,  1559;  Quarlrlns  hlstnrlques  ile  la  lillicl  par 
Claude  Paradin,  1553,  which  appeared  also  with 
Spanish  and  Italian  letterpress. 

Wood-engraving,  the  glory  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  did  not  flourish  in  the  ne.xt  centuries : 
the  copper-plate,  more  pretending,  less  ''popular," 
took  its  place.  In  1607  Bodalocchio  and  Lan- 
franco  issued  the  Rajfuel  BlUe,  so  called  liecause 
it  contained  the  fifty-two  famous  pictures,  mostly 
from  the  Old  Testament,  with  which  that  great- 
est of  painters  had  decorated  tlie  lo;i'jlii  of  the 
Vatican.  In  a  very  much  lower  scale  of  artistic 
merit,  but  much  more  widely  circulated,  and  really 
more  useful,  were  the  Icunes  Bllillcw  and  l/lslorice 
:Sacr(e  (Matthiius  Meriau,  Frankfort,  1025-27,  and, 
later,  in  (ierman  and  Dutch),  veritable  treasures 
in  many  evangelical  households  of  those  countries, 
father  nations-were  quite  as  prolific  as  the  (ier- 
nians.  In  the  eighteenth  century,  books  of  the 
class  were  multijilied.  Hubnei''s  Illhllsc/ie  lllstorien, 
1714,  with  unspeakably  bad  pictures,  was  a  prize 
for  the  youth  of  three  generations.  Another  popu- 
lar work  was  the  Augsburg  Histories  f ram  the  liible. 
Illustrated,  in  five  parts,  by  .lohann  I'lr.  Kraus 
(1700)  often  reprinted.  Tlic  Dutchmen,  Danck- 
ers  (1700),  Tafereeleu  (1740),  and  Pet.  Schots 
(1749);  the  Frenchmen,  ISasnage  (1705)  and  Mar- 
tin (1724);  the  Englishmen,  Clarke  (1739),  and 
Fleetwood,  whose  Coiitpeudlous  lllstorij  nf  the  Old 
and  New  Testament  (170(i)  was  illustrated  with  a 
hundred  and  twenty  cojiper-plates  and  ran  through 
seven  editions),  —  and  many  others  in  these 
lands,  issued  comjiilations  and  original  works 
upon  Bible  themes,  with  illustrations  of  more  or 
leis  merit-     In  the  hrtt  year  of  the  present  cen- 


tury there  was  begun  in  London  The  Hithj  DMe, 
with  engravings  from  pictures  and  designs  by  the 
most  eminent  artists.  This  great  work  Wiis  in 
seven  elephant  folios  in  classic  "style,"  but  full 
of  the  modern  romantic  mannerisms  and  afl'ecta- 
tions.  .Such  faiilts  are  glaring  enough  in  copper 
and  steel :  in  wood-engraving  they  are  unbearable. 
Instead  of  the  sim]>le  strengtli  of  the  woodcut, 
the.se  presented  caricatures,  unnatural,  theatri- 
cal ;  aufl  the  matter  was  made  worse  when  Ger- 
man booksellers  printed  the  engravings  from 
casts,  e.g.,  the  ))orrible  cheap  cuts  which  the  Cal- 
wer  Union  used  for  the  Bible  histories  of  Dr. 
Barth ;  although  in  their  one  himdredth  edition 
more  worthy  engravings  were  substituted.  The 
i-ecent  effort  after  so-called  realism  lias  led  to  pro- 
ductions such  as  Bro%\n's  Self-Inter/n-elhig  Bllile 
(London  and  Xew  York),  with  views  of  Bible 
cities  and  landscapes,  and  the  tierman  Ilildburg- 
hauser,  Pracht  Haushihel,  published  in  1830,  of 
Vihich  a  million  copies  have  been  sold.  These 
books  are  in  the  main  showy  and  inartistic;  but 
of  late  years  true  art  has  paid  deserved  homage  to 
the  Word;  and  Olivier  (1834),  Overbeck  (1841), 
Cotta  (1850),  now  Ihockhaus,  have  issued  illus- 
trated Bibles  which  weie  praisewoi'thy.  .\t  last 
.lulius  .Schnorr  of  Korolsfeld,  a  niasterliand,  pub- 
lished his  drawings  under  the  title  The  Jillile  In 
(240)  Pictures.  Thepublishersubsequently  issued 
an  abridgment.  But  there  is  needed  a  Bible  for  the 
people  which  shall  be,  like  the  Keformation  Bibles, 
a  true  house-book,  a  family  inheritance,  loved 
by  old  and  young.  [Bida's  beaulifnl  illustrations 
to  the  New  Testament,  and  Dore's  (1866)  on  the 
entire  Bible,  deserve  enijihatic  approval.  Schaff's 
Pojiidar  Com.  on  the  N.  T.  is  richly  illustrated  with 
Bible  scenes  from  photograjihs.]  H.  MKHZ. 

BIBLE-READING  BY  THE  LAITY,  AND  BI- 
BLE PROHIBITION.  1.  in  the  Roman-Catho- 
lic Church.  Upon  this  point,  as  upon  so  many 
others,  the  Roman-Catholic  Chuicli  is  agitated 
by  conflicting  opinions;  but  she  does  not  allow 
these  differences  publicly  to  apjiear.  Her  con- 
duct at  different  times  has  also  varied.  But  it  is 
a  matter  of  complete  demonstration,  that  the 
greatest  of  the  Fathers  u)ion  whiuu  she  so  fondly 
rests,  such  as  Augustine.  Jerome,  and  (iregory  I., 
not  only  allowed,  but  commended,  the  reading 
and  the  study  of  the  Scriptures;  ;uul,  further, 
that,  from  the  beginning,  the  .Scriptures  have  been 
circulated  in  the  vernacidarof  manynations.  (See 
Bini.F.  Vkusio.vs.)  In  the  middle  ages,  among  the 
Romanic  and  Gernumic  peoples,  there  was  for  a 
long  period  no  talk  of  prohibiting  the  reading  of 
the  Bible;  although  it  is  true  the  Church  did  not 
trouble  herself  to  translate  and  circulate  it,  and 
looked  u]ion  the  gradual  sjiread  of  ignorance  of 
Latin  with  great  complacency,  because  it  nar- 
rowed to  extinction  the  circle  of  Bible-readers. 
But  the  growth  of  the  Papacy  was  death  to  the 
study  of  the  Bible,  (iregory  V'll.  (Ilihlebrand), 
in  pious  strain  wrote  to  J)uke  Wratcslaw  of 
Bohemia,  in  lOKO,  that  God  was  pleased  to  allow 
th(^  Holy  Word  to  remain  in  some  localilies  un- 
known (i.e.,  wheri^  Latin  was  not  understood) 
in  order  to  save  the  ]ieople  from  error. 

Untiajipily  the  appeal  made  to  the  Bible  by 
theCathari,  Albigeuses,  and  \\'al(li'nses, — sects  of 
the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  (ti'uturies.  which  strove 
to  reform    abuses, — only   served   to   deepen   the 


BIBLB-READINa. 


25n 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES. 


conviction  of  many,  that  the  Rible  was  a  danger- 
ous liook,  because  its  unrestrictc(l  readinu;  startpd 
heresies  amonj,'  the  neople.  And  therefore  vari- 
ous councils,  no  doubt  sincerely,  as  that  of  Tar- 
racoiia  (1234),  endeavored  to  clieck  its  spread. 
And  wlien  attempts  were  made  to  spn^ad  vernac- 
uiar  translations  of  it,  many  were  scandalized; 
and  th(!  Council  of  Oxford  (1108)  ordered  that 
no  one  should  make  such  a  translation  witliout 
the  consent  of  his  bishop  and  of  the  provincial 
synod.  In  the  same  spirit,  Berthold,  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Mainz  (Mayence),  in  14G8  issued  an 
edict  against  the  printing  of  any  sort  of  religious 
book  in  German,  giving,  among  other  reasons,  the 
singular  one,  that  the  German  language  was  un- 
adapted  to  convey  correctly  religious  ideas,  and 
therefore  they  would  be  profaned. 

Notwdthstanding  prohibitions,  the  editions  of 
German  and  other  vernacular  Bibles  greatly 
increased.  When  Luther's  translation  came  out, 
and  was  so  eagerly  caught  up,  the  Roman  Church 
was  compelled  to  take  some  action  concerning 
it.  Erasmus  and  prominent  ecclesiastics  had 
warmly  recommended  tlie  reading  of  the  Bible. 
But  the  shrewd  ones  among  the  Roman  clergy 
saw  that  this  advice  must  l>e  rebuked  by  the 
highest  authority.  One  of  the  results,  therefore, 
of  the  Council  of  Trent  (1545-03),  was  a  regu- 
lation in  regard  to  reading  the  Bible.  Accord- 
ing to  Rule  111.  of  the  Ten  Rules  concerning  Pro- 
hibited Hooks,  the  reading  of  versions  of  the  Old 
Testament  made  by  heretics  is  allowed  to  pious 
and  learned  men,  provided  they  have  the  permis- 
sion of  their  bishop  ;  but  no  one  was  allowed  to 
read  an  heretical  version  of  the  New  Testament. 
Rule  IV.  states,  that,  inasmuch  as  the  reading  of 
the  Bible  in  the  vernacular  is  in  general  more 
full  of  danger  than  of  use,  it  can  be  allowed 
only  to  those  who  are  too  well  grounded  in  the 
faith  to  be  shaken,  and  who,  for  that  reason,  have 
the  permission  of  their  pastors  or  confessors. 
Such  reading,  moreover,  is  to  be  only  of  approved 
translations,  and  even  them  booksellers  cannot 
sell,  save  upon  permission  of  the  bishop.  What 
a  sad  contrast  to  Protestantism ! 

The  rise  of  Jansenism  (see  title)  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and  especially  the  appearance, 
under  its  encouragements,  of  the  French  New 
Testament  of  Quesnel  (Paris,  1699),  which  had 
moral  reflections  under  each  verse,  and  was  pro- 
fessedly intended  to  popularize  the  reading  of 
the  Bible,  caused  the  renewal,  with  increased 
stringency,  of  the  rules  already  quoted.  Even 
that  sweet  spirit  Fenelon  considered  Bible-read- 
ing dangerous  to  the  laity.  Pope  Clement  XL, 
in  the  famous  bull  Uniijenitus  (.Sept.  8,  1713), 
anathematized  Quesnel's  version,  and  by  so 
doing  caused  a  great  commotion  :  indeed,  things 
came  to  such  a  pass,  that  the  bull  itself  was  ridi- 
culed upon  the  streets  of  Paris.  In  consequence 
of  this  reception  of  Tridentine  ideas,  a  milder 
course  was  adopted.  But  in  the  ne.Kt  century 
the  great  spread  of  Bibles,  due  to  the  Bible 
societies,  awakened  the  solicitude  of  Rome.  Pius 
VH.  (1810),  Leo  XII.  (1824),  Gregory  XVI. 
(1832),  and  Pius  IX.,  tried  to  check  the  circula- 
tion of  the  Protestant  versions,  but  did  not  forbid 
the  reading  of  the  Bible.  Rome  is  no  friend  to 
education  in  any  direction,  and  especially  not  in 
the  Bible,  because  sh"?  knows  full  well  that  her 


distinctive  doctrines  are  not  based  upon  the 
Word,  but  contradict  it.  And  so,  while  here 
and  there  aie  defenders  of  Bible-reading,  the 
Church  cannot  consistently  advocate  the  sjiread 
of  the  Bible.  .Strangely  enough,  .Sender  and 
Lessing,  and  other  Protestant  rationalists,  liave 
taken  similar  ground  against  allowing  th(!  laity 
to  read  the  Bible.  See  Ak.nai.'i.d  :  l)e  la  lecture 
(le  I'ecriture ;  IIaoki.mkyku  :  d'esc/iiihle  des  Bibel- 
verbuls,  Ulm,  1783;  A.  J.  O.WMi'S  :  ICntirurf  zu 
einer  Gesc/iic/ile  lies  Bil/ellesens,  Wiirzburg,  1780; 
Van  Ess:  Uehcr  das  notwendiycn  u.  nillzliche 
liitiellescn,  Leipzig,  1808.  IIKKZOO. 

2.  In  the  Greek  Church.  In  the  Turkish  Em- 
pire, as  early  as  Cyril  Lucar  (d.  1038),  the  ques- 
tion of  circulating  the  Scriptures  was  agitated; 
but  the  Confession  of  Dositlieucs  (Q.  1)  answers  it 
in  the  negative  as  far  as  the  common  people  are 
concerned.  [See  Schaff's  Ckickds  of  Ciuustkn- 
DOM,  vol.  11.  p.  433.]  In  consequence,  the  New 
(jreek  (Romaic)  translation,  which  was  made 
about  that  time,  had  a  very  limited  sjiread.  Prot- 
estant versions  have  been  more  kindly  received; 
and  in  1817  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
allowed  the  printing  and  free  circulation  of  such 
a  New  Testament,  but  stopped  the  Olil  Testa- 
ment, because  it  was  from  tlie  Hebrew,  and  not 
conformed  strictly  to  the  Septuagint.  The  un- 
wi.se  attempt  to  brave  this  prohibition  resulted, 
in  1830,  in  the  condemnation  of  the  entire  Bible 
as  nncanonical.  In  Greece  opinion  is  divided. 
In  Russia  the  Czar  Alexander  I.,  in  1813,  as  is 
v/ell  known,  favored  the  establishment  of  a  Bible 
Society  in  St.  Petersburg  (see  Bihlk  Socie- 
ties) ;  but  his  successor,  Nicholas  L,  sup])re.ssed 
the  society  in  1820,  and  allowed  only  the  old 
Slavonic  version  (see  under  Bihi.k  Vkhsions) 
to  be  circulated.  This  was  a  practical  prohibi- 
tion of  the  Bible,  because  that  version  can  be 
read  by  comparatively  few.  At  no  time  has 
there  been  in  the  Greek  Church  the  same  oppo- 
sition to  Bible-reading  as  in  the  lloinan  Church; 
and  this  is  particularly  the  case  in  Russia,  where, 
at  the  present  d.aj-,  there  are  large  sects  which  dis- 
play considerable  scriptural  knowledge.  Since 
1809,  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  have 
been  able  to  do  something.  [It  has,  according 
to  the  eighty-first  report  (1880),  agencies  in  St. 
Petersburg,  JMoscow,  Odessa,  Charkotf,  Tiflis,  and 
elsewhere.  The  one  at  Odessa  was  formed  in 
1S08,  and  had,  up  to  1885,  di.sseminated  1,324,305 
copies:  the  one  at  St.  Petersburg,  formed  in  1828, 
had  di.sseminated  3,821,1.59.  During  the  war  with 
Turkey,  in  1877,  the  New  Test.ament  was  widely 
circulated  in  the  Russian  army.  The  holy  synod 
allows  the  sale  of  the  .Scriptures  only  in  the 
authorized  Russian  version.]  G.\S8. 

BIBLE  SOCIETIES.  I.  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society. —  It  was  founded  in  London, 
March  7,  1804.  Other  societies  had  been  organ- 
ized previously,  which  partly  or  wholly  made 
their  object  the  distribution  of  the  Bible.  Tlie 
principal  of  these  were  :  1.  Tlie  Socicti/  for  Pro- 
moting Christian  Knowledge  (c.  1G98).  Its  objects 
were  the  erection  of  free  schools,  the  spread  of 
the  Bible  and  the  Prayer-Book,  and  religious 
tracts,  also  the  support  of  foreign  missions,  es- 
pecially in  India.  It  published  the  Bible  in  En- 
glish, \Velsh,  iSIanx,  and  Arabic.  2.  The  Societii 
for  the  Propaga'wn  of  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts 


BIBLE   SOCIETIES. 


2G0 


BIBLE   SOCIETIES. 


(1701),  with  similar  objects  in  special  reference 
to  tlie,  American  Colonies.  3.  The  Scotlix/i  Snci- 
eli/  for  Propariatinrj  Vltrislian  Knnwledtje  (1709), 
whose  field  included  the  Highlands,  the  Scottish 
islands,  and  part  of  Xorth  ^America,  supplying 
them  will)  evangelists,  Bibles,  and  edifying  liooks 
in  Ga'lic.  4.  The  Socitly  for  Promoliiif/  Relirjious 
Knowlcd'je  among  the  Poor  (1750)  also  distributed 
Bibles  aiid  religious  books.  5.  The  Bible  Snciel;/, 
later  called  The  Xaml  and  Military  Bible  Societi/ 
(1780),  which  worked  exclusively  among  tlie  sol- 
diers and  sailors.  6.  The  .'Society  for  the  Support 
and  Encouragement  of  Sunday  Schoola  (17S5)  dis- 
tributed gTatuitously  Bible  and  other  books  in 
Sunday  schools.  Xor  was  Ireland  behindhand. 
7.  The  Association  for  Discountenancing  Vice,  and 
Promoting  the  Knowledge  and  Practice  of  the  Chris- 
tian Religion,  established  in  Dublin  in  17!)"2.  did  a 
similar  work  ai^iong  the  poor  Irish.  8.  A  French 
Bible  Society  was  founded  in  London  in  the 
same  year  (1792),  for  publishing  the  Bible  in 
French ;  but  the  tin-.es  did  not  favor  the  enter- 
prise, and  so  the  money  collected  for  this  pur- 
pose was  applied  to  other  things.  But  the  desire 
for  such  a  society  among  the  French  Protes- 
tants was  very  great,  more  especially,  because  no 
Protestant  Bibre  had  been  printed  in  France 
since  1678. 

Although  these  facilities  existed,  yet  the  de- 
mand far" exceeded  the  supply.  Particulaily  was 
this  the  case  in  Wales,  where  the  Hev.  'I'homas 
Charles  of  Bala  in  Marionethshire  had  been 
Breaching  for  twenty  years  as  an  itinerant  minis- 
ter. This  devoted  man  everywhere  awakened  a 
keen  interest  in  the  Bible;  but  many  were  com- 
pelled to  walk  long  distances  before  they  could  get 
a  copy;  while  in  J>ondon,  in  December,  1802,  the 
thoug'ht  came  to  Charles,  'Why  not  found  a  Bible 
society  for  Wales?  He  imparted  this  idea  to 
liis  friend  Tarn,  who  introduced  him  to  the  exec- 
utive committee  of  the  London  Tract  Society, 
before  whom  Charles  gave  a  moving  account  of 
tlie  famine  for  the  word  of  God  among  his  own 
people.  His  speech  made  a  deep  impression,  par- 
ticularly upon  a  Bajitist  minister,  .losepli  Hughe.s, 
one  of  the  secretaries  of  the  Tract  Society.  "  Cer- 
t;iinly,"  said  he.  "  such  a  society  might  be  formed ; 
and,  if  for  Wales,  why  not  for  the  Kingdom  and 
for  the  world?  "  Joseph  Hughes  had  given  utter- 
ance to  the  idea  of  a  Bible  society  for  the  world. 
The  next  step  was  to  awaken  interest,  and  find 
out  the  extent  of  the  destitution  at  home  and 
abroad.  In  the  last  direction  the  Rev.  C.  F.  A. 
Steinkopf,  pastor  of  the  German  laitheran  Church 
in  the  .Savoy  (in  the.  Strand,  London),  was  partic- 
ularly useful.  A  ))ublic  meeting  was  held  March 
7,  1804,  at  the  London  Tavern  (on  the  call  of  Mr. 
Hughes) :  three  hundred  persons  attended  it. 
Anione  the  various  dcnonunations  represented 
were  Quakers,  wlio  were  consideied  to  be  de- 
.spLsers  of  the  Bible,  and  who  k(>pt  themselves 
aloof  from  the  other  denominations,  and  did  not 
join  with  them  in  any  work,  save  that  of  the 
aiiolition  of  slavery,  ftut  it  was  (piickly  evident 
the  Bible  society  j)re.sented  coinmon  ground  upon 
■which  all  sect.s  and  jiarties  could  stand.  Dis- 
senters met  Churchmen,  and  in  their  interest  in 
the  common  work  forgot,  for  a  time,  their  differ- 
ent interj>retation  of  the  same  book.  But  t)ie 
latter  were  not  at  ouce  ready  to  joiu  the  niove- 


ment.  Tlie  first  of  the  Chinch  clergy  present  to 
favor  the  enterprise  was  the  Rev.  John  Owen, 
who  was  inipres.sed  by  the  address  of  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Steinkopf  upon  the  Bible  destitution  on  the 
Continent.  And  his  example  found  imitators. 
The  roughly  drawn-np  by-laws  were  adopted. 
An  executive  committee  of  thirty-six  laymen,  fif- 
teen from  the  Chiuch  of  England,  fifteen  di.ssen- 
ters,  six  foreigners  residing  in  or  near  London, 
was  cho.sen,  and  seven  hundred  pounds  subscribed. 
The  committee  then  chose  as  secretaries  the  Rev. 
Messrs.  Joseph  Hughes  (Baptist)  and  Josiali 
Pratt  (Church  of  England)  ;  and  after  a  few 
weeks  the  Rev.  John  Owen  was  made  another 
secretary,  and  then  the  Rev.  C.  F.  A.  Steinkopf, 
secretary  for  the  foreign  lands,  on  nomination  of 
Lord  Teignmoutli,  a  former  governor-general  of 
India.  The  Bishop  of  London,  Dr.  Porteus,  Wiis 
elected  President.  Besides  the  Bi.shop  of  Lon- 
don, the  Bishops  of  Durham,  Exeter,  and  St. 
Davids,  and  many  other  influential  persons,  such 
as  "W'ilberforce  and  (iranville  Sliarpe,  famous  for 
their  work  against  slavery,  joined  the  movement. 
The  constitution  of  the  society  soon  was  defi- 
nitely made,  and  the  society  started  upon  its  ca- 
reer. As  at  present  organized,  the  business  of 
the  .society  is  conducted  by  the  committee  men- 
tioned above.  Besides  the  president,  there  are 
vice-presidents,  a  treasurer,  and  secretaries.  The 
members  pay  an  annual  fee  of  one  guinea,  and 
can  buy  Bibles  at  a  discount.  In  order  to  excite 
wider  interest,  and  facilitate  the  distribution  of 
the  Bible,  auxiliary  and  branch  societies  are 
formed,  which  p.ay  in  their  collections  into  the 
common  fund,  and  receive  their  Bibles  at  a  dis- 
count. In  connection  w  ith  these  are  a.ssociations 
which  collect  smaller  sums,  and  provide  the  poor 
with  Bibles  on  the  payment  of  a  very  low  weekly 
charge.  In  1814  associations  of  women  were 
formed:  now  there  are  those  of  sailors,  soldiers, 
and  even  of  children. 

The  .society  began  it.s  career  by  first  meeting 
the  wants  of  AV'ales.  Twenty  thousand  Welsh 
Bibles  and  five  thousand  Testaments  were  printed. 
Providentially  but  a  short  time  before,  the  art  of 
■stereotyping  had  been  invented.  AVhen,  in  ISOd", 
the  first  w.agonful  of  Bibles  came  into  Wales,  it 
wa-s  received  like  the  ark  of  the  covenant;  and 
the  people,  with  shouts  of  great  joy,  dragged  it 
into  the  city.  In  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  the 
society  distributed  the  Bible  in  an  improved 
(iPL'lic  translation.  The  .society  also  turned  its 
attention  to  the  Irish,  to  the  asylums;  in  short  it 
started  out  to  sujiply  Great  Britain  with  Bibles 
printed  without  note  or  comment,  and  it  has 
nobly  accomplished  its  design.  But  it  lias  not 
forgotten  that  it  is  a  foreign  as  well  as  British 
Bible  Society.  It  has  .sent  its  agents  everywhere  ; 
it  lias  excited  a  world-wide  interest  in  the  word 
of  (jod,  and  now,  especially  in  inission-lields,  is 
supplying  the  pure  water  of  life  unto  millions 
of  thirsty  .souls.      (.S<'e  below.) 

II.  Bible  Societies  upon  the  Continent  of 
Europe.  When  the  British  and  Foreign  liible  So- 
ciety began  operations,  I'.umpe  was  convulsed  by 
war;  and  .so,  although  the  demand  for  the  Bible 
was  in  a  measvne  supplied,  not  so  much  was  done 
as  would  otherwise  have  been.  Enrojie  liad  her 
own  Bible  societies :  Germany  in  jiarticular  w.is 
well  supplied.    1.  The  Canstein  Bible  Inslilule  was 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES. 


261 


BIBLE   SOCIETIES. 


founcl(?d  ill  1710  by  the  Freiherr  von  Canstein 
(.see  title),  and  has  been  very  active  in  circnlat- 
iii;;'  Uibles  in  several  languages.  2.  The  destitu- 
tion ill  Austria  excited  the  merchant  Kiiwliiig  in 
Xurnberg,  and  led  to  tlie  organization  of  the 
Xurnberg  (Nuremberg)  IJible  Society  on  May  10, 
1801.  Tlie  British  and  Foreign  Hible  Society 
contributed  stereotype  plates  of  the  German  Hi- 
l)le.  The  Basel  friends  to  the  Bible  cause  joined 
in  the  niovenient,  and  after  two  years  (1806)  it 
was  shifted  to  the  latter  city,  and  called  tlie  Ilasel 
Hible  Society.  [Tliey  report  (1880)  an  issue  of 
1)84,313  copies.]  3.  It  might  be  supposed  that 
tlie  Bible  would  be  rarely  found  in  tlie  Koman- 
Catholic  portion  of  (iermany;  nor  would  any 
e.xi>ression  of  regret  over  the  fact  be  exjiected. 
AH  the  more,  therefore,  was  the  astonishment 
when  a  Roman-C'atliolic  priest  in  South  (jermany 
wrote  a  letter  expressing  great  joy  over  tlie  found- 
ing of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  and 
assuring  them  that  many  priests  of  his  acipiaint- 
aiice  desired  their  people  to  I'ead  the  Bible.  As  a 
practical  expo.sition  of  this  desire.  Dr.  Wittmann 
founded  in  180a  the  Koman-Catholic  Reijen^liurij 
(Katisbon)  Bible  Society.  Dr.  Wittmann  liim- 
.self  translated  the  New  Testament  into  (jermaii. 
The  priest  Gossner  in  JInnicIi,  and  Leander  van 
Ess  (see  title),  the  celebrated  Benedictine  niouk, 
and  professor-extraordinary  at  the  University  of 
Marburg,  also  furnished  translations,  which  were 
printed  by  the  society,  and  zealously  spread. 
The  Freiherr  von  A\'essenberg  and  Bisliop  Sailer 
gave  the  work  their  cordial  support.  But  Rome 
viewed  the  society  with  dislike ;  and  a  Papal  bull 
forbade  the  circulation  ot  the  Scriptures  in  one 
of  their  districts  ((riiesen),  and  in  the  sjiring  of 
1817  suppressed  the  society.  It  had,  previous 
to  that  date,  printed  almost  a  half  million  of  Tes- 
taments. Gossner,  who  persisted,  in  spite  of  the 
bull,  to  circulate  the  Scriptures,  was  driven  out 
of  IMunich.  Van  Kss,  however,  kept  on  his  Bible- 
work,  although  he  I'esigued  his  positions  in  18l!J; 
and,  under  the  patronage  of  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society,  pushed  on  his  translation  of 
the  Bible,  and  at  last  published  a  complete  Bible 
in  (iermaii  in  1810.  4.  The  Berlin  liihle  Sncieli/ 
was  founded  Feb.  11,  180(5.  It  owes  its  origin  to 
the  Moravian  preacher  Jiinicke,  who  liad  jiresent- 
ed  to  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  the 
great  scarcity  of  Bohemian  Bibles.  The  latter 
society  contributed  a  large  quantity  of  Bibles 
and  Testaments  in  Bohemian,  Polish,  and  Lithu- 
anian (since  a  branch  had  been  established  in 
1810  in  Konigsberg).  The  Berlin  Society  in 
August,  1814,  was  converted  into  the  ]'ruxf:ian 
Bible  Society,  and  set  before  itself  the  circulation 
of  the  Scriptures  throughout  the  Kingdom.  It 
now  has  many  branches,  and  is  doing  noble  work. 
[Total  issues'(1885)  5,103,413  copies.] 

The  most  of  the  societies  were  founded  after 
1812,  and  at  the  incitement  of  INIessrs.  Steinkopf 
and  Pinkerton,  who  repeatedly  visited  the  Con- 
tinent. In  this  way  was  started,  .5,  the  Wiirttem- 
herf/  Bible  Society  in  February,  1813,  which  became 
one  of  the  most  flourishing  in  Germany.  [Total 
issue  (1885)  1,051,657.]  Otiiers,  in  Hannover, 
Saxony,  and  the  smaller  German  states,  followed ; 
and  so  in  Hungary  in  1811,  but  it  was  suppressed 
by  a  Papal  bull. 

6.  Nor  did  Switzerland  lag  behind.     After  tlie 


transfer  of  the  Niiriiberg  Society  to  Ba.sel,  a 
great  activity  was  excited.  Stcinkopf's  tour 
through  Switzerland  in  1812  awoke  great  enthu- 
siasm ;  and  Bible  societies  sprang  up  every wlii're. 
7.  In  1816,  at  Latour  a  Bible  Society  fur  tlie  Wal- 
(leuniiins  was  established.  [Issue  last  reported 
4,238..] 

8.  'I'he  Unitcil  NethirUinih  Bible  Society  was 
founded  in  1815  [issue  reported  (1881)  1,621,384]. 
A  Bible  society  for  sailors  was  also  started. 

[9.  In  France  tlie  movement  was  begun  by  the 
London  Frcncli  Bible  Socictyfovnwil  in  1792 ;  but  the 
breaking-out  of  the  Revolution  effectuall_v  checked 
it.  An  edition  of  the  New  Testament  was  ])rint- 
ed  in  Paris  in  1802  by  another  Eiigli.sh  society; 
but  the  recommencement  of  hostilities  in  1S04 
again  jirevented  the  Bible's  circulation.  The  re- 
action in  the  year  1815  found  the  Protestants  in 
France  ready  foi-  bolder  work  on  tlieir  own  ac- 
count, and  so  in  1818  the  Protestant  Bible  Society 
of  Paris  was  established  [issue  reported  (1882) 
639,478].  The  subsidies  generously  granted  by 
the  Briti.sh  and  Foreign  were  withdrawn  at  the 
close  of  the  sixth  year,  because  of  dilTerence  of 
views  in  regard  to  the  Apociypha.  In  1826  the 
British  and  Foreign  voted  to  exclude  from  their 
liberality  all  tho.se  societies  wliicli  persisted  ;u 
printing  tho.se  books.  The  French  .society  thought 
to  cut  the  knot  by  printing  Bibles  with  and  witli- 
oiit  them.  Tlie  success  of  this  society  has  also 
been  conditioned  by  internal  strifes  ;  for  there  are 
two  jiarties,  one  contending,  that  instead  of  the 
so-called  revision  of  Ostervald.  which  is  confes.s- 
edly  inaccurate,  the  text  be  tliat  of  Perret-Gentil 
for  the  Old  Testament,  and,  for  the  New  Testa- 
ment, tlie  Geneva  version  and  that  of  Arnaud. 
The  result  of  the  internal  strife  was  the  formation, 
in  1864,  of  the  Bible  Society  of  France,  whicli  per- 
sists in  printing  the  old  version,  and  rejecting  the 
Apocryplia  [issues  reported  (1884),  about  500,- 
000].  —  (.).  DouKN,  in  Encyclopc'die  des  Sciences 
Reliyieuses,    vol.  11.,  pp.  284-286]. 

10.  In  the  Northlands  the  work  of  the  Briti.sh  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  was  (piite  strangely  opened 
up:  IMe.s.srs.  J.  Paterson  and  Ebenezer  Henderson 
(Scotchmen)  went  to  Copenhagen,  tliere  to  em- 
bark as  missionaries  to  'I'ranquebar  [a  town  in 
Ilindostan,  then  a  Danish  possession].  The  plan 
fell  through  ;  but  they  met  Thorkeliu,  who  turned 
tlieir  attention  to  the  need  of  Bibles  among  the 
Icelanders.  There  were  only  fifty  Bibles  in  a 
population  of  fifty  thousand.  Tlie  two  Scotch- 
men laid  the  matter  before  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society,  which  promised  to  defray  half 
the  expenses  of  five  thousand  Testaments.  The 
]irinting  was  begun  in  1806  at  Fiihuen ;  but  the 
war  between  Denmark  and  England  abruptly 
ended  it.  But  in  1812  Hender.son  received  per- 
mission to  remain  in  Copenhagen  in  order  to  com- 
plete the  printing  of  the  whole  Icelandic  Bible, 
and  notwithstanding  the  war,  to  correspond  with 
England,  —  an  instance  of  very  marked  confi- 
dence. On  Aug.  8,  1814,  the  Danish  Bible  Soci- 
ety was  founded  [issues  reported  (1876),  340.026] ; 
in  1815  that  of  Iceland  [issues  reported,  10,445]. 

11.  In  1831  the  Eranyelical  Bible  Society  in 
Russia  was  established  witli  the  aim  of  circulat- 
ing the  Bible,  without  notes,  among  all  Protes- 
tants dwelling  within  the  limits  of  the  Russian 
Empire.     Its  support   comes  in  the  main  from 


BIBLE   SOCIETIES. 


262 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES. 


Germans  [issues  reported  (1S82).  1,011.259].  In 
Sweden  tlie  Bible  .Society  dates  from  1814  [i.ssiies 
reported  (1880)  921,747];  in  Norway  from  1816 
[issues  reported  (ISSO)  248.924] ;  in  Russia  from 
Jan.  19,  1813;  but  it  was  suppressed  in  1826 
by  the  emperor,  up  to  wliicli  time  tlie  Britisli 
and  Foreign  had  aided  it  to  the  extent  of 
£16,833.  [Privately  formed  in  1863,  on  May  2,  , 
1869,  the  Socie/i/  for  the  Disseminalion  of  the  Hohj  ; 
Scriptures  in  llussia  was  founded,  and  honored 
by  the  imperial  sanction.  The  rules  of  the  j 
society  are:  1.  To  disseminate  only  Scriptures! 
sanctioned  by  the  Holy  Synod ;  2.  To  sell  bound 
Scriptures  as  largely  as  possible,  but  also  to  dis- 
tribute gratuitously,  or  at  reduced  jirices,  wheie 
the  occasion  demanded.  It  makes  free  use  of  the 
colportage,  and  in  this  way  the  Bible  finds  its 
way  into  the  remotest  villages  of  the  empire.  Up 
to  1881,  6lJS,103  copies  of  the  Scripture  iiad  been 
distributed,  and  the  work  is  carried  on.  It  de- 
pends mainly  upon  voluntary  subscriptions.  See 
Bible  Societi/  Itccnrtl,  October,  1880,  and  Biblk 
Reading,  The  Greek  Church']. 

In  Southern  Europe  we  find  the  il.alta  Bible 
Society  (1817),  the  Ionia  Bible  Society  in  Corfu 
(1819)  [issues  reported,  7,377].  In'  Iiulia  the 
ISible  is  translated  into  the  various  dialects;  and 
the  Bible  Society  of  Calcutta  (1811)  [issues  re- 
ported (188.5)  1,997..582]  of  Bombay  (1818)  [is- 
sues reported  (1885)  539.884].  of  .AJadras  (1820) 
[issues  reported  (1885)  3,394,061)],  and  so  of  other 
places  of  Asia,  attests  the  interest  in  this  great 
and  blessed  work. 

As  has  already  been  abundantly  evidenced,  it  is 
impossible  to  treat  separately  theBritish  and  For- 
eign Bible  .Society  and  those  already  named  ;  for 
the  latter  liave  been  in  such  large  measure  ad- 
juncts of  the  former,  that  their  interests  are  iden- 
tified. It  is  fitting,  therefore,  to  close  this  ac- 
count of  the  Bible-work  abroad  by  a  return  to 
the  great  society.  Its  work  has  not  been  carried 
on  without  hinderances  and  difliculties :  .some  of 
these  were  inevitable,  such  as  those  connected 
with  making-  translations  in  as  yet  unprinted  or 
even  miwritten  tongues;  but  others  came  from 
the  sinful  heart  of  bigotry  and  prejudice.  The 
High-Church  party  in  the  Established  Church 
opposed  the  Bible  Societj',  because,  forsootli,  it 
interfered  with  their  pet,  the  Society  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  Christian  Knowledge,  (ithers  thought 
it  dangerous  to  put  the  Bible,  without  note  or 
comment,  into  the  hands  of  the  laity,  and  espe- 
cially of  the  heathen.  Indeed,  it  was  prophesied, 
that,  if  this  were  done,  there  would  be  an  end  of 
British  rule  in  India :  hence  the  governors-gen- 
eral for  many  years  opposed  the  society.  But 
more  ridiculous  complaints  were  made:  such 
men  as  Bishop  Marsh  fain  would  bind  the  Bible 
with  the  Book  of  Connuon  Prayer,  and  thus  main- 
tain the  purity  of  the  Christian  faith.  ]5ut  (lod 
did  not  suffer  this  grand  society,  wliich  gave  out- 
ward expression  to  his  thought  of  Christian  unity, 
to  be  overthrown  by  any  attacks.  'I"he  most 
serious  trouble,  however,  came  in  connection  with 
the  .\)iorry]ilia;  and  the  fight  lasted  from  1825  to 
1827,  and  well  nigh  split  the  .society.  At  first 
the  Bible  printed  for  the  Canstein  .Society  con- 
tained the  Apocrypha;  but  in  1811  attention  was 
called  to  this  fact,  and  the  committee  determined 
to  exclude  it.    After  much  agitation,   in  which 


Dr.  Andrew  Thomson  of  Edinburgh,  and  the 
Edinburgh  Society,  were  leaders  in  opposition 
to  the  Apocryplia,  in  regard  to  which  they  used 
very  hard  language,  it  was  resolved.  May  3,  1827, 
that  the  fundamental  law  of  the  society  be  fully 
and  distinctly  recognized  as  excluding  the  circu- 
lation of  the  Apocrypha;  and  therefore  no  per- 
son or  society  spreading  the  Apocrypha  could 
hereafter  receive  any  pecuniary  aid  from  the  so- 
ciety. The  consequence  was,  that  the  societies 
upon  the  Continent,  where  the  Apocrypha  was 
universally  used,  and  of  which  the  British  So- 
ciety had  founded  over  fifty,  separated  them- 
selves from  the  parent  societ}'.  Strangely  enough 
the  Edinburgh  and  most  of  the  Scotch  societies, 
though  it  would  seem  they  had  won,  thenseelves 
seceded.  The  society  then  established  uyencies 
in  various  parts  of  the  Continent.  See  Apocry- 
pha. The  refusal  of  the  society  in  1831  to  alter 
its  constitution  so  as  to  exclude  non-Triuitarians, 
and  to  withdraw  from  circulation  in  France, 
Spain,  and  Portugal.  Bibles  translatea  from  the 
Vulgate,  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Trinitarian 
liible  Hocieti/,  which,  however,  is  of  exceedingly 
limited  operation.  The  fifty-fourth  Annual  Re- 
port (1885)  shows  that  during  the  year  it  received 
£2,374,  9s..  and  circulated  281,426  Bibles,  Testa- 
ments, and  portions.  Colporters  work  for  it  in 
France,  Russia,  and  Italy. 

The  present  work  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  is  carried  on  through  nuxiliar)/  and 
branch  societies,  gradually  formed  in  every  district 
of  the  United  Kingdom  and  in  the  colonies;  af/enln, 
who  at  home  and  abroad  investigate  local  require- 
ments, and  supply  information  for  the  guidancfe 
of  the  committee;  dcpijls  for  the  sale  of  the 
Bible  in  almost  every  town  in  England  and  in 
many  places  abroad  ;  colporters,  to  some  extent  in 
England,  and  very  largely  on  the  Continent  and 
in  India ;  and,  lastly,  by  //rants  to  sori<iies.  espe- 
cially to  those  of  a  missionary  or  philanthropic 
nature,  also  in  aid  of  Bible  translations.  [The 
Eightj'-first  Annual  Re^iort  was  presented  May  6, 
1885.  During  the  year  the  recei]its  were  £253,- 
765,  and  llie  issues  4,161,032:  or.  from  the  begin- 
ning, 104,196,965.  Its  president,  the  Earl  of 
Shaftesbury,  died  Oct.  1,  1885.]      C.  SOIIOELL. 

III.  Bible  Societies  of  the  United  States  of 
America.  (1)  The  Amiricon  JUIile  Somti/  was  sng- 
gested  by  the  success  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society,  and  was  the  union  of  many  existing 
organizations.'  lu  1777,  during  the  Bevolution- 
ary  War,  Congress  were  memiirialized  to  print 
thirty  thousand  copies  of  the  Bible  in  order  to 
supply  the  demand.  But,  owing  to  the  want  of 
type  and  paper,  they  could  not  l)e  printed,  and 
hence  the  Committee  on  Commerce  was  empow- 
ered to  import  twenty  thousand  copies  from  Hol- 
land, Scotland,  or  elsewhere,  at  the  expense  of 
Congress.  In  consequence  of  the  embargo,  this 
scheme  could  not  be  carried  out;  and  in  1782,  on 
another  memorial,  a  eomuiittee  reported,  recom- 
mending a  Bible  i)rinted  by  Robert  Aitken  in 
I'hil.adidphia.  But  Bibles  were  not  in  those 
times  printed  in  sufficient  quantity,  nor  at  low 
enough  prices,  for  the  poor.  In  1808  the  first 
organization  for  the  supply  of  the  Bible  was 
fornu'd  in  Philadelphia.  The  idea  was  ipiiekly 
taken  up  everywhere;  so  that  in  .Tune,  1816,  a 
hundred   and    twenty-eiglit  Bible  societies  were 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES. 


263 


BIBLE   SOCIETIES. 


rejxyrteil.  The  credit  of  the  idea  of  \initii)!; 
these  societies  into  one  seems  due  to  the  Rev. 
Samuel  ,1.  Mills,  who  reported  the  spiritual  des- 
titution of  the  AV'r.st  and  South-west  in  LSI 5;  hut 
the  first  one  to  take  active  measures  in  such  a 
direction  was  the  Hon.  Elias  Houdinot.  president 
of  the  New  .Jersey  Hible  Society,  who  in  .Ian.  1, 
1816,  made  the.  first  public  communication  in 
favor  of  a  national  liible  movement.  The  New 
York  15il)le  Society  was  the  first  to  follow  it  by 
formal  action.  Mr.  Houdinot  issued  a  circular 
dated  .Jan.  17,  181G,  and  appointed  Wednesday, 
May  S.  ISKi,  and  New  York,  as  the  time  and 
place  for  holding  the  convention.  Accordingly 
sixty  delegates,  representing  twenty-eight  15ible 
societies  of  various  sections  of  our  country,  and 
of  various  denon)inations  (Congregational,  I're.s- 
byterian,  Protestant-Episcopal,  Slethodist-Episco- 
pal,  Reformed  Dutch,  Baptist,  and  the  Society  of 
Friends),  met,  and  adopted  a  constitution,  and 
elected  tlie  officers  and  board  of  managers.  Mr. 
Boudiuot  was  appropriately  made  the  first  presi- 
dent. 

The  list  of  presidents  since  then  is  as  follows : 
Hon.  Elias  lioudinot,  1816-21;  Hon.  .John  .Jav, 
1821-28;  Hon.  Richard  Varick,  1828-31;  Hoii. 
fTohn  Cotton  Smith,  1831-40;  Hon.  Theodore  Fre- 
linghuvsen,  1840-02;  Hon.  Luther  Rradi-sh,  1862- 
04;  .James  Lenox,  1864-71;  William  H.  Allen, 
1872-Hll;  S.  Wells  Williams,  1881-83;  Hon.  Fred- 
erick T.  Frelinghuysen,  1884-85.  The  Sixty-ninth 
Annual  Report  was  presented  May  14,  1885.  The 
total  receipts  were  ^587,914.  The  number  of  vol- 
umes of  the  Scripture  printed  at  the  liilile  House, 
New  York,  was  822,507;  thus  divided,  —  I?ibles, 
307,500;  New  Testaments,  410,000;  portions,  08,- 
100;  volumes  for  the  blind,  967  ;  besides  .397.600 
volumes  printed  abroad  for  the  Society;  making  its 
entire  circulation  in  sixty-nine  years,  45,440,200. 

The  society  is  conducted  by  a  board  of  mana- 
gers, composed  of  thirty-six  laymen,  of  whom 
one-fourth  go  out  of  office  every  year,  but  are  re- 
eligible,  ami  so,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  they  remain. 
Every  clergyman  wlio  is  a  life-member  of  the 
society,  if  he  be  not  entitled  to  receive  any  salary, 
emolument,  or  compensation  for  services  from 
the  society,  is  entitled  to  meet  and  vote  witii  the 
boai'd  of  managers,  and  be  possessed  of  the  same 
powers  as  a  manager  himself.  The  officers  con- 
sist of  a  president,  about  thirty  vice-presidents, 
three  secretaries,  a  treasurer,  au  assistant  treas- 
urer, and  a  general  agent.  In  connection  with 
the  main  societies  there  are  auxiliaries,  which 
collect  nroney,  carry  on  local  Bible  distribution 
and  promote  interest  in  the  Bible  cause.  The 
number  of  such  auxiliaries  in  1880  was  about  two 
thousand. 

The  history  of  the  American  Bible  Society  is 
not  a  record  of  unbroken  peaceable  labor.  Two 
serious  storms  have  imperilled  its  existence. 
The  first  of  these  troubles  arose  in  1835,  when  it 
was  learned  that  Ur.  Judson  and  his  coadjutors 
had  published,  .at  the  expense  of  the  society,  in 
their  Burmese  translation  of  the  New  Testament, 
a  transldlinn  instead  of  a  transliteration  of  the 
Greek  words  lja/>tisini>s,  baptizo,  rendering  them  by 
itnmersiiin  and  to  immerse.  After  long  considera- 
tion of  the  matter,  the  managers  Resolved,  "  That 
in  appropriating  money  for  the  translating,  print- 
ing, or  distributing  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  in 


foreign  languages,  the  managers  feel  at  lil)erty 
to  encourage  only  such  versions  .is  contorm  in  the 
jirinciple  of  their  translation  to  the  common 
ICnglisli  version,  at  least  so  far  as  that  all  the 
religions  denominations  represented  in  this  so- 
ciety can  consistently  use  and  circulate  said  ver- 
sions in  their  several  schools  an<l  communities." 
This  resolution  was  communicated  to  the  .several 
missionary  boards  receiving  ajipropriations  from 
the  society,  with  the  recpiest,  that,  in  apjilying  for 
aid,  they  would  slate  that  the  versions  they  [>ro- 
posed  to  circulate  were  in  accordance  with  the 
resolution.  Many  of  the  Hajitists  took  olfenee  at 
this  resolution.  A  controversy  ensued,  and  the 
practical  effect  was  the  formation  of  a  rival 
Bible  society.  See  below  American  and  Foreit/n 
Tiihie  Socieli/. 

The  second  trouble  spoken  of  came  from  an 
entirely  different  source.  In  1817  the  attention 
of  the  board  of  managers  was  called  to  the  dis- 
crepancies found  in  differeiit  editions  of  the  ICng- 
lish  Bible  in  respect  to  the  use  of  It<dic  words, 
capital,  letters,  and  the  article  a  or  an ,  and  the 
Committee  on  Versions  were  instructed  to  under- 
take a  careful  collation.  'I'heir  final  report  wius 
made  May  1,  1851,  and  in  it  they  stated,  tliat.  in 
colhating  five  stamlard  copies  of  English  and 
American  imprint  with  the  original  edition  of 
1611,  nearly  twenty-four  thousand  variations 
were  recoi-deil,  solely  in  the  text  and  pnnctu.a- 
tion,  not  one  of  which  marred  the  integrity  of 
the  text,  or  affected  any  doctrine  or  precept  of 
the  Bible.  The  standard  determined  upon  by  the 
committee  at  first  met  with  the  unanimous  ap- 
proval of  the  board  of  managers  and  the  public. 
All  the  new  editions  were  conformed  to  it,  and 
for  several  years  these  J-iililes.  were  circulated 
without  the  slightest  objection.  The  fact  was, 
the  changes  in  the  text  introduced  by  the  com- 
mittee were  very  few  and  slight;  their  great 
oliject  being  to  .secure  uniformity,  and  not  to 
touch  the  original  version,  except  in  cases  of  evi- 
dent inadvertence  or  inconsistency,  open  and 
manifest  to  all.  A  few  proper  names  were  con- 
formed to  the  Old  Testament  spelling,  as  .Judah 
for  .Tuda,  Sinai  for  Sina,  Zion  for  Sion,  Noah  for 
Noe,  sera]ihim  for  seraphims,  etc.  As  Dr. 
Charles  Hodge  said,  "  Not  one  reader  in  a  thou- 
sand would  notice  the  alterations,  uidess  they 
were  pointed  out."  Other  alterations  consisted 
in  changing  the  chapter-he.adings,  so  as  to  make 
them  a  little  more  descriptive,  or,  as  in  the  Song 
of  Solomon,  less  of  a  comment.  For  a  time  all 
went  w-ell;  but  in  the  fall  of  18.50  the  Rev.  A.  C. 
Coxe,  then  of  Baltimore,  now  Bishop  of  Western 
New  York,  questioned  the  right  of  the  society  to 
make  these  alterations,  and  in  .January,  18.57, 
published  a  pamphlet,  in  which  lie  charged  th» 
society  with  having  maile  twenty-four  thousand 
changes  in  the  veision  of  1810.  This  to  hic 
excited  mind  proved  that  the  demon  of  rational- 
ism, "exorcised  from  its  German  haunts,"  had 
governed  the  society.  The  pamphlet  did  it* 
work.  It  stirred  up  great  excitement.  The  Old 
School  Assembly  of  1857  debated  the  matter, 
and  instructed  its  board  of  publication  to  print 
a  Bible.  Dr.  Hodge  wrote  an  article  on  the  sub- 
ject in  The  Princeton  Rericic,  July,  1857.  So 
great  w.as  the  opposition  excited,  that  the  lx)ard 
of  managers  were  compelled  to  bow  before  the 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES. 


264 


BIBLE  TEXT  —  Old  Test. 


storm.  Among  the  soberest  men  the  question 
was  merely  one  of  constitutional  authority,  —  had 
the  society  the  power  to  introduce  chansjes  from 
the  Bible"  of  1011?  It  was  finally  decided  it 
had  not.  Accordingly  on  Jan.  28,  18.58,  the 
board  "  Resolved,  That  this  Society's  present 
standard  English  Bible  be  referred  to  the  stand- 
ing committee  on  versions  for  examination ;  and 
in  all  cases  where  the  same  differs  in  the  text  or 
its  accessories  from  the  Bibles  previously  pub- 
lished by  the  society,  the  committee  are  directed 
to  correct  the  same  by  conforming  it  to  previous 
editions  printed  by  this  society,  or  by  the  autlior- 
ized  British  presses,  reference  being  also  had  to 
the  original  edition  of  the  translators  printed  in 
1611 ;  and  to  report  such  corrections  to  this  board, 
to  the  end  that  a  new  edition,  thus  perfected, 
may  be  adopted  as  the  standard  edition  of  the 
society."  The  committee  reported  in  18.">9  and 
1860;  and  from  this  "standard  edition  "  all  Eng- 
lish Bibles  are  now  printed.  The  relation  of  the 
Bible  Society  to  the  Revised  A'ersion  is  at  pres- 
ent (1881)  much  discussed.  The  constitution  of 
tlie  Society  would  have  to  be  altered  before  it 
could  publish  any  other  English  Bible  than  King 
.lames' Version  (art.  I.);  and  it  would  not  be 
expedient  to  do  .so  before  public  opinion  decides 
in  favor  of  the  Revised  Version. 

(2)  American  and  Fnreir/n  Bible  Socict;/.  This 
is  a  IJaptist  society.  It  was  organized  in  Phila- 
delphia (April,  1836)  by  those  Baptists,  headed  by 
the  Rev.  S.  11.  t'one,  D.l).,  a  former  secretary  of 
the  American  Bible  Society,  who  felt  themselves 
aggrieved  by  the  resolution  quoted  above.  Dr. 
Cone  was  made  president.  The  society  was  de- 
clared ui  be  "  founded  upon  the  principle  that  the 
originals  in  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  are  the  only 
authentic  standards  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  and 
that  aid  for  the  translating,  printing,  or  distribut- 
ing of  them  in  foreign  languages,  should  be  af- 
forded to  such  versions  only  as  are  conformed  as 
nearly  as  po-ssible  to  the  original  text;  it  being 
understood  that  no  words  are  to  be  transferred 
which  are  susceptible  of  being  literally  translated." 
The  constitution  declares  (Art.  II.)  '•that,  in  the 
distribution  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  English 
language,  the  commonly  received  version  shall 
be  used  initil  otherwise  directed  by  the  Soci- 
ety." See  Annual  Reports.  The  society  is 
similar  in  organization  and  management  to  the 
American  Bible  Society.  The  annual  meetings 
are  held  in  New- York  City.  The  Forty-third  An- 
nual Report  was  presented  May  13,  1880.  The 
balance  in  treasury  May  1,  1879,  w.is  !$r),(l2;5.14. 
The  receipts  of  tlie  year  from  individual  and 
church  offerings  were  .'?;j,002.62 ;  from  estates 
and  other  sources  were  $2,023.08;  total  receipts, 
87.920.70.  The  society  supported  several  native 
Bible  readers  and  distributers  among  the  '.rolugus 
of  India  and  the  freednien  of  the  South. 

(3)  American  Biljle  Union  was  organized  in  1850 
by  those  members  of  the  American  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society  who  demanded  that  the  priuciiile 
of  circulating  "  such  versions  only  as  are  con- 
formed as  nearly  as  po.ssible  to  the  original  text " 
should  be  applied  to  the  Englisli  version;  i.e., 
that  version  should  itself  be  revised.  The  cibject 
of  the  Tnion  is  "to  procure  and  circulate  tlie 
most  faithful  versions  of  the  Sacred  .Scriptures, 
in   all   languages,  throughout  tho  world."     The 


first  appropriation  by  the  Union  v.-as  toward  the 
Karen  version  in  1851.  The  Twent>/-eif!hth  Armual 
Report  was  presented  Nov.  14, 1877.  The  receipts 
for  the  year  were  .'J16,299  93.  Since  then  the 
Union  has  not  made  any  report.  It  secured  tho 
services  of  ,a  number  of  eminent  Baptist  and 
other  biblical  scliolars,  especially  Rev.  I)rs.  II.  B. 
Hackett,  A.  C.  Kendrick,  and  T.  .7.  C'onant.  The 
latter  devoted  his  whole  time  since  1857  to  the 
work,  and  finished  tlie  New  Testament  and  .a 
part  of  the  Old.  In  1S5Q  it  published  the  re- 
vised Book  of  .lob;  in  1805,  the  completed  revised 
New  Testament;  in  1868,  Genesis;  in  1869,  the 
Psalms;  in  1871,  Proverbs;  in  January,  1878, 
Josluia,  .ludges,  and  Ruth.  First  and  Second 
Samuel,  First  and  Second  Kings,  and  First  and 
Second  Chronicles,  are  ready  in  manuscript.  It 
has  also  prepared  an  Italian,  Spanish,  Chinese 
(colloquial  for  Ningpo),  Siamese,  and  Sgau-Karen 
New  Testament.  Tlie  revisions  of  the  Union  are 
among  the  best  individual  revisions  ever  made. 

In  May,  1883,  botli  the  last-named  Societies 
turned  over  their  plates  to  the  American  Baptist 
Publication  Society,  Philadelphia,  which  publishes 
their  works,  and  also  the  RevLsed  New  Testament 
with  the  American  revisers'  jireferonces  incorpo- 
rated with  the  text.  S.  M.  JACKSON. 
(KfviBtd  by  Rev.  E.  W.  Gilman,  P.D.,  Sue.  .\inci-.  Bible  Soc.) 

BIBLE  TEXT.  I.  Old  Testament.  The  ordi- 
nary Hebrew  text,  the  Massnretic,  is  the  result 
of  the  alterations  and  other  additions  made  with- 
in a  certain  period  by  Jewish  scholars.  But, 
concerning  the  time  and  the  principles  of  these 
changes,  there  w.as  in  the  seventeenth  century 
great  difference  of  opinion  among  Christian 
(mainly  Protestant)  Hebrew  scholars.  On  the 
one  side  stood  the  15uxtorfs  (father  and  sou)  and 
their  party,  who  held,  in  the  interest  of  the  then 
prevalent  views  of  inspiration,  to  the  absolute 
completeness  and  infallibility,  and  hence  exclu- 
sive value,  of  the  Massoretic  text;  and,  further, 
attributed  that  text  to  Ezra  and  the  Men  of  the 
Great  Synagogue  (Sopherim),  who,  under  the 
inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  cleansed  the  text 
of  all  accumulated  error,  added  the  vowel-points, 
the  accents,  and  other  punctuation-marks,  thus 
settling  the  reading  and  pronunciation;  also 
made  the  right  division  into  verses,  paragrapiis, 
and  books;  and,  finally,  they  held,  that,  by  the 
care  of  (lOd,  the  text  thus  made  has  been  kept 
from  all  error,  and  presents  to-day  the  veritable 
ironh  of  (iod.  On  the  other  side  w.-is  the  ])arty 
of  Johannes  Morinus  and  Ludovicus  Cappellus, 
who,  in  the  interest  of  pure  historicity,  com- 
bated these  o]iinions,  maintained  with  equal 
learning  the  later  .age  of  the  JNIassoretic  text,  and 
sought  to  vindicate  value  and  usefulness  for  the 
old  versions  and  other  critical  helps.  They  fell 
into  m.any  errors  in  respect  to  the  details  of  the 
history  of  the  text;  but  their  general  view  was 
sujiported  by  irresistible  arguments,  and  is  now 
universally  adopted.  This  view,  instead  of  ile- 
riving  the  existing  text  from  any  gathering  of 
inspired  men  in  Ezra's  time,  assigns  it  to  a 
much  later  date  and  quite  different  men,  and, 
instead  of  ahsoltite,  claims  for  it  only  a  rela- 
tive, completeness,  and  a  higher  value  tlian  other 
forms  of  the  text.  A  glance  at  the  history  of 
the  text  will  show  how  this  agreement  has  beeu 
brought  about. 


BIBLE  TEXT  — Old  Test. 


265 


BIBLE  TEXT  — Old  Test, 


1.  Concerning  the  oldest  or  anle-cannnicn!  his- 
tory of  the  text  of  the  Old-Testament  writings, 
■we  have  almost  no  positive  information,  and 
only  few  indirect  hints.  The  books  were  proba- 
bly written  upon  skins,  perhaps  also  on  linen : 
indeed,  as  paper  was  used  from  very  early  times 
in  Egypt,  it  is  possible  that  it  was  used  by  the 
Bible-writers  ;  parchment  appears  to  have  been 
later.  By  the  end  of  tlie  .Judaic  monarchy  the 
roll  was  the  usual  form  (I's.  xl.  7;  .lei-.  xxxvi.  14; 
Ezek.  ii  9;  Zech.  v.  1).  The  original  character 
was  the  old  Hebrew,  which  was  almost  identical 
with  the  old  Pliienician  and  Moabite.  Speci- 
mens of  this  are  pre.served  in  the  inscriptions  on 
cut  stones  of  the  eiglith  or  seventh  century  B.C., 
in  the  coins  of  tlie  Asniona'ans  and  those  belong- 
ing to  the  time  of  the  Jewisli-Konian  war,  and, 
in  somewhat  different  form,  in  Samaritan  writ- 
ings. The  inaccurate  division  of  words  in  later 
texts  proves,  that,  in  the  earlier,  the  words  were 
not  regularly  divided  by  particular  marks  or 
spaces ;  yet  it  is  not  thereby  proven  that  the 
words  were  not  divided  at  all.  It  is,  however, 
probable,  in  analogy  to  the  primitive  Arabic,  that 
the  verses  were  somehow  indicated ;  but  it  is 
certain,  that,  in  this  early  day,  the  manuscripts 
were  without  vowel-points  and  accents.  While 
the  language  lived,  this  occasioned  no  trouble. 

We  possess  no  details  concerning  the  way  in 
which  the  text  was  multiplied  and  preserved; 
but,  inasmuch  as  the  writings  did  not  then  have, 
in  the  popular  estimation,  the  character  they  after- 
wards had,  it  is  likely  th.at  they  were  less  care- 
fully handled,  and  that  the  s.ame  amount  of  pains 
was  not  taken  in  copying  them.  This  statement 
rests  upon  the  fact  that  those  parts  of  the  Old 
Testament  which  we  possess  in  double  forms  vary 
between  themselves  in  ways  that  indicate  a  cor- 
ruption of  the  text,  going  back  to  ante-canonical 
times;  i.e.,  when  copies  were  neither  made  nor 
corrected  so  laboriously. 

2.  The  second  period  in  the  history  of  the  text 
extends  from  tlie  Exile  lo  the  rise  of  I  lie  Massoreles. 
The  canon  was  completed  slowly,  through  the 
exertion  of  Ezra,  Neheniiah,  and  the  Men  of  the 
Great  Synagogue,  although  we  may  properly  date 
the  formation  of  a  part  of  the  canon,  especially 
the  law,  from  Ezra,  and  extend  the  period  of  set- 
tling the  text  and  vocalization  down  to  tlie  close 
of  the  Talmud,  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  century 
A.D.  It  was  the  period  of  the  determmation  of 
the  penmanship  and  text,  the  pronunciation  and 
division  :  in  short,  in  a  traditional  verbal  form, 
the  major  part  of  the  ISlassorah  was  collected. 

(a)  A  change  of  an  external  kind  was  the 
development  of  a  sacred  handwriting,  under  the 
influence  of  the  Aramaic  characters,  the  so-called 
square  or  Babylonian- Aramaic  ("  Assyrian  ") 
character.  Jewish  tradition,  which  is  clearly 
wrong,  attributed  the  square  character  to  Ezra, 
described  it  as  the  change  from  the  Hebrew  to 
the  Aramaic  mode  of  writing,  and  asserted  that 
the  old  Hebrew  character  was  left  to  the  Samari- 
tans. A  study  of  Assyrian,  Persian,  and  Cilician 
geals  and  coins,  and  of  the  Aramaic  manuscripts 
from  the  third  to  the  first  century  B.C.,  and  of 
the  Palmyrene  inscriptions  from  the  first  to  the 
third  century  A.D.,  has  enabled  us  to  trace  the 
development  of  the  present  Hebrew  alpliabet 
through  a  thousand  years,  back  to  800    B.C. 


Ezra,  therefore,  may  have  influenced  the  u.se  of 
the  Aramaic  alpluiiiet  ;  but  the  .sipxare  character 
was  not  formed  in  his  day,  nor  for  centuries 
afterwards;  nor  was  the  Aramaic  alphabet  then 
used  outside  of  the  narrow  circle  of  doctors  of 
the  law.  Matt.  v.  18  is  commonly  quoted  in 
proof  of  the  completion  of  the  present  Hebrew 
alphabet  in  the  first  century;  but  the  recently- 
studied  Palestinian  inscriptions  for  the  century 
before  and  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
give  clearer  evidence.  Tlie  Talmud  lays  down 
minute  rules  on  this  subject,  and  therefore  the 
writing  of  the  manuscripts  scarcely  varies  a  par- 
ticle through  centuries. 

(6)  As  soon  as  the  Scriptures  obtained  canoni- 
cal authority,  and  were  used  in  divine  service, 
the  variations  between  the  manuscripts  would  be 
observed,  and  the  necessity  of  having  one  stand- 
ard text  would  be  apparent.  The  preparation 
of  such  a  text  began  with  the  Law,  and  that 
among  the  Jews  in  Babylon  ;  but  the  other  two 
divisions  of  the  canon  (the  Prophets  and  the 
Hagiographa)  were  probably  not  reached  in  this 
period,  as  they  were  never  held  in  as  high 
esteem.  In  the  oldest  critical  sources,  in  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch  and  in  the  Septuagint,  we 
have  evidence,  from  the  end  of  the  fifth  century 
before,  to  the  second  before  Christ,  to  show  that 
the  widest-spread  and  most  approved  manuscripts 
differed  verbally  a  good  deal.  And  these  varia- 
tions are  not  to  be  set  down  to  the  charge  of 
carelessness  or  wilfulness  on  the  part  of  the 
Hellenistic  Jews  and  Samaritans,  as  was  the  old 
opinion,  but  are  explained  by  the  less  weight  then 
put  upon  exact  uniformity  of  the  text,  and  the 
existence  of  the  mistakes  in  current  copies. 
And  when  the  Septuagint  and  the  Samaritan  Pen- 
tateuch agree  in  good  readings,  and  still  oftener 
in  bad  ones,  against  the  ^lassoretic  text,  we  are  to 
conclude  that  these  readings  were  spread  by 
many  copies  current  among  the  Palestine  Jews, 
and  are  therefore  not  to  look  upon  them  as  offen- 
sive or  thoroughly  unreliable.  But  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  when  Judaism  was 
held  under  the  authority  of  the  rabbins,  it 
became  possible  to  prepare  a  uniform  standard 
text,  although  this  idea  was  not  realized  until 
many  generations  had  worked  upon  it.  But  the 
progress  toward  it  can  be  proved.  The  Greek 
versions  of  Aquila  and  Theodotion,  made  in  the 
second  century,  have  fewer  variations  from  the 
Massoretic  text  than  those  which  preceded  them  ; 
and  the  Targums  to  the  Law  and  the  Prophets, 
completed  in  Babylon  in  the  third  and  fourth 
centuries,  have  still  le.ss.  (The  supposition  is 
groundless  that  the  later  Jews  corrected  their 
text  according  to  the  Targums.)  .Still  nearer 
the  Massoretic  text  is  Origen's.  The  Talmud 
itself  bears  witness,  by  its  biblical  quotations 
agreeing  with  the  Massoretic  text,  that  the  con- 
sonantal text  was  practically  finished  before  the 
Talmudic  era  closed. 

We  are  not  able  to  say  upon  -what  principles 
the  work  was  done ;  but  the  way  in  which  they 
have  preserved  the  individuality  of  the  several 
authors  is  remarkable,  and  enables  us  to  deny 
that  these  critics  would,  on  dogmatic  grounds,  in- 
tentionally alter  a  passage  (cf.  such  verses  as  Ps. 
xxii.  18 ;  Isa.  xix.  18,  liii.  9).  We  know  nothing 
concerning  the  number  or  quality  of  the  manu- 


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266 


BIBLE  TEXT  -  Old  Test. 


scripts  used,  and  can  readily  believe  that  if  for  any 
book  the  manuscripts  were  few  or  inferior,  and  yet 
they  agreed  in  a  faulty  reading,  tliat  that  faulty 
reading  would  be  adopted  and  thus  fixed.  Xot- 
withstandiug,  we  confidently  assert  that  the  men, 
not  always,  but  in  general,  have  chosen  the  correct 
reading ;  and  so  the  text  as  a  whole  is,  although 
not  absolutely  correct,  the  best  and  the  most  reli- 
able. It  lay,  however,  entirely  out  of  the  power 
of  such  critics,  owing  to  the  want  of  the  appara- 
tus, to  correct  textual  errors  and  variations  in  the 
current  manuscripts ;  and  therefore  it  is  undenia- 
ble that  errors  may  have  remained  in  their  text,  and 
the  errors  thus  left  would  be  perpetuated.  The 
critical  apparatus  of  the  time  is  fragmentarily 
concealed  in  the  later  Massorah,  but  cannot  be 
separated  from  the  other  matter.  The  Talnmd 
allows  a  little  insight  into  the  critical  efforts  of 
the  time.  Thus  in  one  place  it  says  that  the 
Sopherim  ("  the  Jlen  of  the  Great  Synagogue  ") 
had  removed  in  five  places  a  falsely  introduced 
f' ;  in  another,  that  in  eighteen  places  they  had 
preseiTed  the  correct  text.  Component  parts  of 
the  critico-exegetical  apparatus  of  the  older  time 
were  the  three  sorts  of  Keri,  well  known  to  the 
Talmudists,  and  by  them  deduced  from  primitive 
tradition, — K'ri  v'lo  K'lkibh,  "read,  but  not  writ- 
ten ;  K'thihh  v'lo  K'ri,  "  WTitten,  but  not  read ;  "  and 
K'ri  uck'thibh,  "read  and  written."  The  three 
kinds  of  K'ri  have,  it  is  true,  for  the  most  part,  only 
exegetical  value ;  e.g.,  they  give  the  usual  instead 
of  the  unusual  grammatical  forms,  show  where 
one  must  understand  or  omit  a  word,  or  where 
the  reader  should  use  an  eupliemistic  expression 
for  the  coarse  one  in  the  text :  they  are  therefore 
scholia  upon  the  text.  But  many  of  these  K'ris 
are  really  various  readings,  resting  upon  compar- 
ison of  manuscripts,  as  the  oldest  versions  prove, 
and  therefore  are  veritable  fragments  of  the  criti- 
cal apparatus  at  the  disposal  of  the  old  Jewish 
rabbins. 

(c)  The  development  of  the  pronunciation,  or- 
thography, and  verse  and  paragraph  making,  of 
the  text,  kept  equal  pace  with  its  settlement. 
From  its  original  composition  down  to  the  close 
of  the  Talmud,  it  was  unvocalized  and  unpunctu- 
ated.  The  old  versions  (particularly  the  Greek) 
and  Josei)hus,  depart  so  widely  from  the  ]Masso- 
retic  text,  that  they  settle  this  point.  If  only  one 
differed,  it  were  explicable;  but  they  all  differ  in 
ways  that  could  not  happen  if  the  present  spell- 
ing were  in  use.  Origen  printed  a  text  differing 
in  pronunciation  from  the  Massoretic.  Jerome 
knew  nothing  about  vowel-signs,  not  even  the 
diacritical  point  over  the  .<r/iin.  The  Tahnud,  and 
so,  at  the  present  day,  the  public  or  holy  manu- 
scripts of  the  Jews,  present  an  unpointed  text. 
The  pronunciation  was  not  variable,  liowever,  but 
developing  steadily  towards  the  present  system. 
Of  course  time  was  required  to  bring  it  into 
vogue ;  but  before  the  end  of  the  period  it  was  so 
firmly  established,  that  .Jerome's  pronunciation 
differed  very  little  from  the  Ma.ssoretic,  and  he 
was  so  sure  of  its  correctness,  that  he  appeals  to 
it  again.st  the  text  of  the  Versions;  an<l  ilie  Tal- 
mud gives  it  tlirougliout  correctly.  Hefore  the 
Ma.ssoretes,  there  was  tlie  pronunciation,  not  yet 
written,  but  handed  down  by  word  of  nu)utli, 
although  some  scholars  may  have  used  signs  in 
their  books  to  help  their  memory. 


Clo.sely  connected  and  mutually  dependent  were 
the  pronunciation  and  the  dirixinn  of  words.  The 
latter  was  finished  in  this  period.  The  .Samari- 
tan Pentateuch,  in  which  eacli  word  is  separated 
from  its  neighbor  by  a  punctuation-mark;  the 
Septuagint,  wliich,  indeed,  does  depart  frequently 
in  its  division  from  the  JIassoretic  text,  but  only 
in  the  case  of  words  which  might  be  written 
closer  together  without  any  loss  of  legibility; 
the  Targums,  which  have  the  same  word-divis- 
ions as  the  Massoretes ;  and,  again,  the  "  final 
letters  "  of  the  square  character, —  these  are  cumu- 
lative proof  of  the  coiTectness  of  the  above  state- 
ment. 

The  third  step  —  the  division  into  verses — wa& 
also  taken  in  this  period.  The  study  of  the  text, 
the  custom  of  reading  the  Law  and  the  Propheti- 
cal books  in  the  synagogue,  would  make  some 
such  division  imperative.  In  the  Talmud  it  ap- 
pears to  be  already  completed.  Often  the  num- 
ber of  verses  in  particular  books  or  paragraphs  is 
given,  and  it  nearly  agrees  with  the  Massoretic. 
The  division  into  lines  in  the  poetical  books  was 
perhaps  original,  certainly  very  early ;  but,  when 
the  ^lassoretes  introduced  the  accents,  poetry 
was  written  close,  like  prose.  This  verse-division 
and  counting  was  taught  in  the  schools  ;  but  no- 
rules  are  given  for  its  writing,  nor  did  any  punc- 
tuation-marks indicate  it. 

Earlier  than  the  division  into  ver.ses  is  that 
into  sections  of  larger  or  smaller  length,  because 
these  were  more  necessary  for  the  untlerstanding 
of  the  Scriptures,  and  their  reading  in  divine 
worship.  Perhaps  some  of  them  were  in  the 
original  text.  The  sections  of  the  Law  were  at 
least  pre-Talmudic ;  for  in  the  jNIishna,  and  fre- 
quently in  the  Gemara,  they  are  mentioned,  and 
in  the  latter  they  are  traced  to  Mosaic  origin, 
and  exist  in  synagogue-rolls.  They  were  indi- 
cated by  spacing, —  the  larger  sections,  by  leaving 
the  remainder  of  the  line  at  their  close  unfilled, 
the  next  section  beginning  with  a  n(>w  line,  on 
which  account  they  were  called  "  open  "  sections  : 
the  smaller  sections  were  sepai"ated  from  each 
other  onlj'  by  a  small  space,  and  were  therefore- 
called  "closed." 

For  the  divisions  of  the  whole  canon,  and  the 
arrangement  of  the  books,  see  article  C'.\xox. 

Extraordinary  pains  wi'r<^  taken  before  the 
Massoretes  to  perpetuate  in  its  purity  the  text 
thus  divided  and  vocalized.  We  iind  in  the  Tal- 
mud regulations  for  the  mode  of  writing  not  only 
the  ordinary,  but  the  so-called  "extraordinary," 
characters,  which  denoted  the  middle  letter  of  a 
book,  or  served  some  purjiose  now  unknown,  or 
which  were  only  by  accident  in  the  text. 

3.  The  third  period  of  the  textual  history  of  the 
Old  Testament  is  the  Massoretic,  usually  reckoned 
as  extending  from  the  sixth  until  (he  eleventh 
century,  wIkmi  the  .Jewish  scholars  removed  from 
the  East  to  North  Africa  and  Spain.  'I'liis  period 
embraces  the  age  of  the  Massoretes  Jii'oper,  and 
has  for  the  l?ible-text  the  sauK^  importance  as  the 
Talnmdic  period  had  for  tlie  Law.  'I'he  word 
iiKissora  means  "tradition,"  and  exactly  describes 
the  work  done.  .Ml  the  tra<litional  marks  and 
divisions  of  tlie  sacn'd  text,  all  the  recognized 
thongli  unrecorded  helps  to  its  understanding, 
the  iironunciation  wliich  had  lieen  handed  down, 
—  these  were  recorded  by  the   Massoretes  in  a> 


BIBLE  TEXT  —  Old  Test. 


267 


BIBLE  TEXT  —  Old  Test. 


fixed  and  official  form.  There  were  two  chief 
schools  working,  however,  together,  —  the  Raliylo- 
nian  and  Palestinian  (at  Tiberias).  We  readily 
understand  their  origin.  They  met  the  growing 
demand  after  accui'acy.  (See  Mas.sora.)  'i'heyde- 
pended  upon  the  existent  materials,  and  built  upon 
them.  But  a  great  part  of  their  product  was 
new. 

(a)  They  took  the  "  textus  receptus  "  jnst  as  it 
stood,  but  in  places  made  a  few  changes,  and  at 
all  events  gave  it  its  settled  form  by  minute  at- 
tention to  the  writing  of  the  consonants.  'J'hey 
also  appended  critical  notes  upon  the  text,  in  part 
derived  from  the,  Talmudic  period,  but  in  part 
new,  esisecially  the  "  grannnatical  conjectures,' 
showing  that  wliere,  according  to  the  grannmir  and 
the  genius  of  the  language,  one  should  expect  an- 
other reading,  nevertheless  the  text  should  stand. 
Finally  the  great  majority  of  the  K'riti  date  from 
the  Massoretes. 

(6)  The  Massoretes  fixed  the  reading  of  the 
text  by  the  introduction  of  the  vowel-signs,  the 
accents,  and  the  signs  which  affect  the  reading  of 
the  consonants  (daghesh  lene  and  forte,  mappik, 
raphe,  and  the  diacritical  point).  And  the  pro- 
nunciation tliey  thus  brought  about  was  not  an 
invention,  but  the  purest  tradition.  A  striking 
piroof  is  the  unanimity  of  the  Babylonian  and 
Palestinian  schools  working  independently.  The 
systems  were  different  (that  of  the  latter  was 
more  complicated,  although  destined  to  gain  and 
keep  the  ascendency),  yet  the  result  was  substan- 
tially the  same.  The  i'm-mer  was  fully  develojied 
about  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century ;  the  lat- 
ter, in  the  seventh  century.  From  the  eleventh 
century  the  Jews  have  pretended  that  their  pro- 
nunciation was  primitive. 

(e)  The  divisions  of  the  text  into  verses  and 
paragraphs  made  in  the  former  period  were  re- 
tained, and  only  slightly  modified.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  this  period  the  end  of  the  verses  was 
marked  by  the  Soph  PasCik  (J),  and,  when  the 
accents  were  introduced,  by  Silluk  besides.  The 
old  sections  (divisions  for  public  reading)  were 
also  retained ;  but  in  addition  there  were  intro- 
duced some  fifty-three  or  fifty-four  large  sections 
of  the  Pentateuch  (Parshiyoth)  for  sabbath  pub- 
lic reading,  and  the  Haphtaroth,  sections  from 
the  prophets. 

(rf)  But  even  these  efforts  could  not  entirely  re- 
move variations.  Hence,  before  the  end  of  this 
period,  the  doctors  either  attempted  to  find  out  by 
an  elaborate  comparison  the  correct  punctuation, 
and  fix  it,  or  marked  the  important  variations  in 
"  the  punctuation,  or  added  a  caution  to  each  appar- 
ently wrong  and  yet  correct  punctuation.  The 
mass  of  notes  which  the  JIassoretes  added  to  the 
text  relate  to  these  matters.  The  notes  in  two 
famous  codices,  and  remarks  of  rabbins,  were  fre- 
quently cited  as  authoritative.  Famous  codices 
were  ben  Naphlali  and  heyi  Aslier,  Vjoth  from  the 
first  half  of  the  lOth  century.  The  respect  for 
the  latter  gradually  predominated. 

(e)  As  the  Talmudists  had  already  shown  their 
superstitious  regard  for  the  text  by  counting  its 
letters,  and  deciding  which  was  the  middle  verse 
of  the  Bible,  how  often  a  certain  word  occurred, 
etc.,  the  Massoretes,  of  course,  wrote  down  this 
information,  and  sacredly  preserved  it. 

But  their  inventions  of  the  pronunciation  and 


punctuation  were  gains  which  quickly  were 
shared  by  all ;  and  to-day,  outside  of  the  syna- 
gogue-rolls, all  Hebrew  is  read  liy  means  of  them. 
See  Massora. 

4.  Since  the  Mas.soretes  closed  their  labors, 
the  history  of  the  Hebrew  text  is  the  recital  of 
the  efforts  made  to  hold  fast  to  and  perpetuate  the 
Massoretic  text.  The  manuscri|jts  may  bi?  ili- 
vided  into  two  cl.asses,  —  the  jmblic  or  holy,  and 
the  private  or  common.  Tlie  first  are  synagogue- 
rolls,  and  have  been  prepared  so  carefully,  and 
watched  so  closely,  that  the  possibility  of  varia- 
tion and  error  is  reduced  to  a  mininnim.  But 
they  contain  only  the  Pentateuch,  or  also  the  five 
Megilloth  (Canticles,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Eccle- 
siastes,  Esther)  and  the  Haphtaroth.  contain  the 
text  of  the  Massoretes,  without  their  additions, 
and  are,  for  the  most  part,  of  recent  origin, 
although  antique  in  form,  being  written  upon 
leather  or  jiarcFiment.  The  private  manuscripts 
are  written  upon  the  same  material,  but  also 
upon  paper,  in  book-form,  with  the  Massoretic 
additions,  vowel-points,  etc.,  —  complete,  the  so- 
called  Greater  Manr^ora,  or,  abridged,  the  Less. 
As  a  general  thing,  the  consonantal  text,  the 
points,  the  K'ris,  and  other  additions,  frequently 
including  translations  and  rabbinical  commentary, 
are  written  by  different  hands.  It  is  often  diffi- 
cult, and  indeed  impossible,  to  determine  the 
date  and  nationality  of  a  manuscript;  but  none 
of  the  manuscripts  now  known  are  really  very 
old.  The  oldest  authentic  date  is  A.D.  916  for 
the  Prophet  Codex,  and  .\.D.  1009  for  an  entire 
Hebrew  Bible,  both  of  which  are  preserved  in 
the  Imperial  Liljrary  of  St.  Petersburg. 

The  oldest  are  generally  the  more  accurate. 
The  number  of  errors  which  crept  in  awakened 
solicitude,  and  led  to  well-directed  efforts  to  get 
a  pure  text.  In  this  line  the  labors  of  ^leir  ha 
Levi  of  Toledo  (d.  1244)  upon  the  Pentateuch 
text  ai'e  renowned.  But  the  art  of  printing 
opened  a  way  of  escape  from  copyists'  errors,  and 
very  early  it  was  taken.  The  first  book  to  ap- 
pear was  a  Psalter,  in  1477,  the  first  complete 
Bible  at  Soncino  iu  1488.  Luther's  Old  Testa- 
ment was  translated  from  the  edition  of  this 
Bible,  which  appeared  at  Brescia  in  1494.  The 
first  edition  of  the  Bomberg  Rabbinical  Bible 
and  the  Bomberg  hand-editions  contain  substan- 
tially the  same  text.  The  second  independent 
edition  derived  from  manuscripts  is  that  in  the 
Complutensian  Polyglot  (1514-17).  The  text  is 
vocalized,  but  not  accented.  The  t/iird  important 
recension  is  the  second  edition  of  the  Bomberg 
Rabbinical  Bible,  cura  R.  Jacob  ben  Chajim, 
Venet.,  1525-20,  corrected  according  to  the 
Massora,  which,  indeed,  it  contains.  This  con- 
tains the  various  readings  collected  by  Aaron 
ben  Asher.  It  was  freijuently  republished  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  edition  of  Jos. 
Athias,  cum  pr.nef.  Jo.  Leusdenii,  1661,  rested 
upon  some  very  old  manuscripts,  and,  with  im- 
provements, was  re-issued  in  1705  by  Van  der 
Hooght ;  and  this  edition  has  remained  the 
standard.  The  most  recent  attempt  at  a  revised 
text  is  that  of  S.  Baer  and  Fr.  Delitzsch,  who 
have  issued  separately  the  Books  of  Genesis, 
Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Job,  the  Psalms,  Proverbs, 
Isaiah,  Ezekiel,  Daniel,  the  minor  Prophets, 
Leipzig,  1801-84.  A.  DlLLM.^-N. 


BIBLE  TEXT  — New  Test. 


2f)8 


BIBLE  TEXT  — New  Test. 


II.  The  New  Testament.  1.  History  of  the 
Written  Text.  The  autographs  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament very  early  disappeared,  owing;  to  the 
action  of  constant  use  upon  the  perishable  pajiy- 
rus;  for  this  appears  to  have  been  the  material 
(2  John  ver.  12).  If  they  wei-e  really  not  in  the 
handwriting  of  the  apostles,  but  in  that  of  their 
amanuenses,  as  we  know  Paul's  Epistles  generally 
were  (Kom.  xvi.  22;  2  Thess.  iii.  17),  then  it  is 
the  easier  to  account  for  tlie  phenomenon.  The 
papyrus  rolls  preserved  to  the  present  day  were 
never  much  used:  indeed,  the  most  of  them  have 
been  found  in  sarcophagi,  and  so,  of  course,  were 
never  used  at  all.  The  ink  was  lampblack  mixed 
with  gum  dissolved  in  water;  copperas  (sulphate 
of  iron)  being  sometimes  added.  The  piens  were 
of  reed  {calamus).  The  writing  was  entirely  in 
uncials  (capitals),  with  no  separation  of  the 
words  (except  rarely  to  indicate  the  beginning  of 
a  new  paragraph),  no  breathings,  accents,  or 
distinction  of  initial  letters,  and  few,  if  any, 
marks  of  punctuation.  The  evangelists  may 
have  denominated  their  conijiositions  "  Gos- 
pels," although  .lustin  regularly  speaks  of  the 
•'Memoirs  by  the  Apostles;"  but  all  addition  to 
the  name  is  later,  and  presupposes  a  collection  of 
the  (iospels.  In  the  case  of  the  Epistles  the 
brief  address,  e.g..  To  the  Romans,  was  probably 
added  by  tlie  original  sender,  and  other  marks  of 
genuineness  given  (cf.  2  Thess.  iii.  17).  The 
Muratorian  Fragment  (second  half  of  the  second 
century)  calls  our  Ads  and  Apocah/pse  by  these 
names,  and  so  proves  the  early  use  of  these  desig- 
nations. The  designation  "Catholic  (General) 
Epistle "  is  first  met  with  at  the  close  of  the 
second  century  (ApoUonius  in  ii,useb..  Hist.  v.  18, 
§  5,  where  the  First  Epistle  of  John  is  probablj' 
meant).  Tlie  application  and  limiting  of  the  term 
to  the  whole  of  our  present  collection,  is  of  later 
date ;  for  even  in  the  third  and  fourth  century  it 
was  customary  to  give  this  term  to  ecclesias- 
tical epistles,  like  that  of  Barnabas,  or  those  of 
Dionysius  of  Corinth,  which  were  not  specially 
addressed. 

The  external  history  of  the  New-Testament 
text  for  a  thousand  years  prior  to  the  invention 
of  printing  can  be  traced  by  means  of  manu- 
scripts. Before  the  formal  close  of  the  canon 
(end  of  fourth  century)  there  were  probably  few 
single  manuscripts  of  the  entire  New  Testament. 
[Of  the  thousand  known  m<anuscripts  of  the 
New  Testament,  only  about  thirty  include  all  the 
books.]  Some  of  those  of  the  fourth  and  fifth 
century  now  preserved  contain  not  only  the  Greek 
Old  Testament  (X  A  B  C),  but  also  writings 
which,  though  not  canonical,  were  read  in 
churches,  and  studied  by  catechumens.  Thus 
attached  to  the  Codex  Sinaiticus  (n)  were  the 
Epistle  of  Barnabas  and  the  Shepherd  of  Iler- 
mas;  to  the  Codex  Alexanilriiuis  (A),  two  "  epi.s- 
tles "  ascribed  to  Clement  of  Rome  [the  second 
spurious,  and  not  an  epistle,  but  a  homily],  and 
the  so-called  J'sullerium  Saloinonis.  'I'he  four 
Gospels  were  most  frecjuently  copied,  the  Pau- 
line Epistles  oftener  than  the  Catholic  Epistles 
or  the  Acts,  least  often  the  Apocalypse.  The 
Gospels  were  usually  arranged  in  our  present 
order,  then  came  tlie  I'aulino  Epistles,  the  Acts, 
and  the  Catholic  l^pistles  :  the  Apocalypse  always 
last.     The  arrangement  of  the  Epistles  differed: 


indeed,  there  was  no  model.  [On  the  various 
arrangements,  see  particularly  Credner's  Oe- 
.tchichte  lies  N.  T.  Kanon,  heniusg.  voii  Volkmar 
(1860),  p.  393  ff.  and  Gregory's  Proler/nmnia  to 
Tischendorf's  Sth  ed.  of  the  (jr.  Test.  pp.  131  sqq. 
De  lihrorum  online.^ 

The  use  of  parchment  or  vellum  prevailed 
from  the  fourth  to  the  eleventh  century;  then 
came  in  cotton,  and  afterwards  linen  paper  (cf. 
Wattenbach,  Dus  Schriftwesen  im  MitteUiller.  2te 
Autl.  pp.  114  sq.).  The  growing  scarcity  of 
parchment  led  to  the  re-use  of  the  old  skins",  the 
former  writing  being  erased  or  washed  off;  and 
imfortunately  it  oftener  happened  that  it  was  a 
biblical  manuscript  which  was  thus  turned  into 
a  patristic  one  than  the  reverse.  Such  manu- 
scripts are  termed  Codices  palimpsesti  or  rescripti. 
In  many  cases,  by  the  use  of  chemicals,  the 
original  text  has  been  recovered  in  modern 
times.  The  most  famous  New-Testament  pal- 
impsest is  the  Codex  Ephrnemi,  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tur}%  re-written  upon  in  the  twelfth,  .^s  papy- 
rus disappeared  from  use,  the  book  form  was 
generally  substituted  for  the  rolls,  in  manuscripts 
written  on  parchment  or  paper.  The  books  were 
mostly  made  up  of  quaternions,  i.e.,  quires  of  four 
sheets,  doubled  so  as  to  make  sixteen  pages, 
less  frequently  of  five,  though  later  quires  of  six 
sheets  were  common.  The  division  of  the  page 
into  columns  was  at  first  retained,  two  being  the 
usual  number  (e.g..  Cod.  .\lex.);  but  in  many 
manuscripts  (e.g.,  Cod.  Ephraemi)  the  lines  run 
across  the  page.  Exceptionally,  N  has  four  col- 
umns, B  three.  From  the  seventh  and  eighth 
centuries  the  present  accents  were  more  or  less 
used,  but  very  arbitrarily  and  irregularly.  The 
uncials  gradually  changed  their  earlier  simple 
round  or  .square  forms,  and  from  the  tenth  cen- 
tury yielded  to  the  cursives.  The  earliest  punc- 
tuation was  by  means  of  a  blank  space  and  a 
simple  point.  Euthalius,  a  deacon  in  .\lexan- 
dria,  in  the  year  458  published  an  edition  of  the 
Epistles  of  Paul,  and  soon  after  of  the  .-Vets  and 
Catholic  Epistles,  written  stirhometriralli/,  i.e.,  in 
single  lines  containing  only  so  m.-my  words  as 
could  be  read,  consistently  with  tlie  sense,  at  a 
single  inspiration.  This  mode  of  writing  was 
used  long  before  in  copying  the  poetical  books 
of  the  Old  Testament.  It  involved,  however,  a 
great  waste  of  parchment,  so  that,  in  manuscripts 
of  the  New  Testament,  it  was  superseded  after  a 
few  centuries  by  punctuation-marks. 

l_Divisions  of  the  text  were  early  made  for  vari- 
ous purjioses.  In  the  third  century  Ammonius 
of  .\lexandria  prepared  a  H.armony  of  the  (ios- 
pels,  taking  the  text  of  Matthew  as  the  basis, 
and  placing  by  its  side  in  parallel  columns  the 
similar  passages  in  the  other  Gospels.  This  of 
course  destroyed  the  continuity  of  tlieir  narra- 
tive. Ensebius  of  Ca^sarea,  in  the  early  part  of 
the  fourth  century,  av.ailing  himself  of  the  work 
of  Ammonius,  devised  a  method  of  conqiaring 
the  parallel  passages  not  open  to  this  olijectiim. 
He  divided  the  text  of  e.ach  (iospel  into  sections, 
the  length  of  which,  varying  gre.atly  (in  John 
xix.  (i  there  are  three,  and  in  twenty-four  other 
instances  two,  in  a  sinfjle  verse),  was  determined 
.solely  by  their  relation  of  parallelism  orsimlKari- 
ty  to  passages  in  one  or  more  of  the  other  Gos- 
pels, or  by  their  having  no  Darallel.     These  sec- 


BIBLE  TEXT  — New  Test. 


269 


BIBLE  TEXT  — New  Test. 


tions  (often  t'lToneously  ascribed  to  Aminoiiius) 
were  tlieii  numbered  consecutively  in  the  niarjjiu 
of  the  Gospel  in  black  ink  ;  Matthew  liuvint,'  .'inr), 
Mark  2m(nal  2:W ),  l.uke  :j  I'J,  and  .John  232.  "They 
were  distriluited  by  Eusebius  into  ten  tables  or 
canons,  prefixed  to  the  (jospels,  and  containing 
the  sections  correspondinij  in  — 

I.  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke,  John,  71. 
II.   Mattliew,  Mark,  I.iike,  111. 

III.  Matthew,  Luke,  Jolui,  2J. 

IV.  JIattliew,  Mark,  John,  20. 
V.    Matfliew,  Luke,  ,S2. 

VI.   Matthew,  Mark,  47. 
VII.   Matthew,  John,  7. 
VIII.   Luke,  Mark,  14. 
IX.   Luke,  Johu,  21. 
X.  Scctioiia  ppctiliiir  to  Matthew 62,  Mark  21, 
Luke  71,  John  117. 

Under  the  number  of  eacli  section  in  the  mar- 
gin of  tlie  several  Gospels  wa.s  written  in  red 
ink  the  number  of  the  canon  or  table  to  which  it 
belonged.  On  turning  to  its  place  in  this  table, 
the  iniraber  of  the  corresponding  section  or  sec- 
tions in  the  other  Gospels  stands  with  it,  so  that 
the  parallel  piassages  may  readily  be  found.  For 
example,  the  first  verse  of  Matt.  iv.  forms  the 
fifteenth  Eusebian  section  ;  the  niimber  two 
under  this  takes  us  to  the  second  canon  or  table, 
where  it  appears  that  section  fifteen  in  Matthew 
corresponds  to  six  in  Mark,  and  fifteen  in  Luke; 
i.e..  to  Mark  i.  12,  ami  Luke  iv.  1.  In  some 
manuscripts  the  parallel  sections  are  indicated  at 
the  bottom  of  the  page.  They  thus  correspond 
to  our  marginal  references.  See  Eusebius,  Episl. 
ad  Carpianum ;  Burgon,  T/ie  Last  Tivelve  Verses 
of  S.  Mark  (1871),  p.  295  ff. 

Wholly  different  in  character  and  purpose  from 
the  Eusebian  sections,  and  probably  older,  is  a 
division  of  the  (iospels  into  chapters,  called  nr?.oi, 
also  itefuXaia  majora  (in  Latin  manuscripts,  breves'), 
found  in  most  m.anuscripts  from  the  Alexandrine 
and  the  Ephraera  (A,  C)  of  the  fifth  century  on- 
wards. Of  these  chapters  Matthew  contains 
68,  j\Iark  48,  Luke  83,  John  18.  The  numbers 
by  which  they  are  designated  in  the  margin  of 
manuscripts  refer  to  tire  titles  describing  their 
contents  at  the  top  or  bottom  of  the  page,  or  in 
a  list  prefixed  to  each  Gospel,  or  often  in  both 
places.  A  certain  portion  at  the  beginning  of 
each  Gospel  is  not  numbered ;  for  example,  the 
first  chapter  in  Matthew  corresjionds  with  our 
chap.  ii.  1-15,  and  is  entitled  Ucpl  tuv  na-juv  ("Con- 
cerning the  Magi  ").  There  is  a  similar  division 
in  the  Acts  and  Epistles,  to  which  Euthalius 
(cir.  A.D.  458),  though  not  its  inventor,  gave 
wide  currency  by  his  stichometric  edition  of  these 
books.  The  Apocalypse  was  divided  by  Andreas, 
Bishop  of  Cffisarea  in  Cappadocia  (cir.A.D.  50t)), 
into  twenty-four  Uyoi,  or  cluipters,  and  each  of 
these  chapters  into  three  acipakaia,  or  sections,  the 
former  number  answering  to  the  twenty-four 
elders  spoken  of  in  the  book  (Rev.  iv.  4)  ;  the 
latter  suggested  by  the  threefold  division  of  hu- 
man nature  into  body,  soul,  and  spirit  (conip.  1 
Thess.  v.  23),  as  the  author  himself  tells  lis. 

In  the  Vatican  manuscript  (B),  there  is  a  di- 
vision of  the  Gospels  into  much  shorter  chapters 
(Matt.  170,  Mark  62,  Luke  152,  John  80),  very 
judiciously  made.  This  has  been  found  in  only 
one  other  manuscript,  the  Codex  Zacynthius  (H). 


In  tlie  Acts  and  Ejiistles  the  V;itiean  manuscript 
has  a  twofold  division  into  chapters.  —  one  very 
ancient,  tlie  other  later,  but  both  different  from 
the  Euthalian.  In  the  older  division,  tin;  Pau- 
line Epistles  arc  treated  as  one  book.  (For  fur- 
ther details  see  Tischendorf,  N.T.  Vat.  1867,  p. 
XXX.;  Scrivener,  Inlrod.,  2d  ed.,  p.  .02.)  Other 
ancient  divisions  of  the  New  Testament  into 
chajiters  were  more  or  less  widely  current,  espe- 
cially in  Ijatin  an<l  Syriac  manuscripts. 

The  subscriptions  at  the  end  of  the  Pauline 
Epistles  in  many  manuscripts  are  generally  as- 
cribed to  Euthalius.  At  least  six  of  these  are 
untrustworthy  (1  Cor.,  Gal.,  1  and  2  Thess.,  1 
Tim.,  Tit.). 

The  division  of  the  Bible  into  our  present  chap- 
ters has  been  generally  attributed  to  Cardinal 
Hugo  de  Sancto  Caro  (Ungues  de  St.  Clier),  a 
Dominican  monk  (d.  A.l).  1203)  who  used  it 
for  his  great  concordance  of  the  Latin  Vulgate. 
But  there  appear  to  be  much  better  grounds  for 
ascribing  it  to  Stejihen  Langton,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  (d.  1228).  (See  Dr.  C.  R.  Gregory's 
Prolegomena  to  the  eighth  critical  edition  of  Tisch- 
endorf's  N.T.  Gr.)  It  is  found  only  in  very 
late  Greek  manuscripts.  The  division  of  the 
New  Testament  into  our  present  verses  'was  made 
by  Robert  Stephens  (Estienne,  Stephanus)  in  his 
N.1\  Gr.  el  Lot.,  printed  at  Geneva,  in  1551.  An 
earlier  division  of  the  New  Testament  into  verses 
about  three  times  as  long,  by  Sanctes  Pagninus, 
in  Ills  Latin  translation  of  the  Bible  (L3'ons, 
li52S),  did  not  find  favor.  The  whole  Bible  was 
first  divided  into  our  present  verses  in  Robert 
Stephens's  edition  of  the  Latin  Vulgate  in  1555 
(not  1548,  or  1545,  or  1558,  as  stated  by  many 
writers).  The  first  English  New  Testament  so 
divided  was  Whittingham's  translation,  Geneva, 
1557  ;  the  first  English  Bible,  tlie  Genevan  ver- 
sion of  1500. 

Another  ancient  division  of  the  New-Testa- 
ment text  remains  to  lie  noticed,  —  the  lessons,  or 
lections  {iivayvCiGEL^^  iivayvijafiara,  TrefUKOTrai'),  from  the 
Gospels  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Acts  and  Epis- 
tles on  the  other,  read  in  the  public  services  of 
the  church.  The  history  of  these  is  obscure,  and 
they  varied  much  at  different  periods  and  in  dif- 
ferent regions.  The  lessons  for  the  Sundays  and 
chief  festivals  of  the  year  seem  to  have  been  the 
earliest  ;  next  were  added  lessons  for  the  Sat- 
urdays, and  finally  for  every  day  in  the  week, 
w'ith  special  commemoration  of  saints  and  mar- 
tyrs. Euthalius  marked  in  the  Acts  16  of  these 
uvayvua/iaTa :  in  the  Catholic  Ejiistles,  10 ;  in  the 
Pauline  Epistles,  31 ;  in  all,  57.  Pie  was  not, 
probably,  as  m.any  have  supposed,  their  inventor. 
The  system  of  lessons  which  idlimateli/  prevailed 
in  the  Greek  Church  appears  in  our  Erangelista- 
ries  and  Lectinnaries  (more  properly  Praxapostoli), 
containing  the  lessons  from  the  Gospels  and  the 
Acts  and  Epistles  respectively.  The  ordinary 
manuscripts  of  the  Greek  Testament  were  often 
adapted  for  church  service  by  marking  the  begin- 
ning and  end  of  each  lesson,  with  a  note  in  the 
margin  of  the  time  or  occasion  for  reading  it, 
and  l-)y  prefixing  to  them  a  Sijnaxarion.  or  table  of 
the  lessons  in  their  order;  sometimes  also  a 
Menolor/ion,  or  calendar  of  the  immovable  festi- 
vals and  the  saints'  days,  with  their  appropriate 
lessons.  — E.  A.] 


BIBLE  TEXT  — New  Test. 


270 


BIBLE  TEXT— New  Test. 


Turning  to  tlie  inlernal  liistory  of  the  New- 
Testament  test,  it  is  evident  that  its  original 
perfect  purit}'  was  early  lost.  The  quotations  of 
the  latter  half  of  the  second  century  contain 
readings  which  agree  with  later  texts,  but  are 
not  apostolic.  Irenreus  alludes  (Adr.  hmr.  V.  30, 
§  1)  to  the  difference  between  the  copies;  and 
Origen,  early  in  the  third  century,  expressly  de- 
clares that  niattei's  were  growing  worse  {in  Malt. 
torn.  x\".  14),  as  is  proved  by  the  quotations 
of  the  Fathers  of  the  third  and  fourth  centu- 
ries. From  this  time  onward  we  have  the  manu- 
script text  of  each  century,  the  writings  of  the 
Fathers,  the  various  Oriental  and  Occidental 
versions,  all  testifying  to  varieties  of  reading  for 
almost  ever}'  verse,  which  undoubtedly  occasioned 
many  more  or  less  important  departures  from  the 
sense  of  the  original  text.  How  came  this?  The 
early  Church  did  not  know  any  thing  of  that 
anxious  clinging  to  the  letter  which  character- 
izes the  scientific  rigor  and  the  piety  of  modern 
times,  and  therefore  was  not  so  bent  upon  pre- 
serving the  exact  w  _;!'ds.  Moreover,  the  first 
copies  were  made  rather  for  private  than  for  pub- 
lic use :  copvists  were  careless,  often  wrote  from 
dictation,  and  were  liable  to  misunderstand 
Attempted  improvements  of  the  text  in  grammar 
and  style  ;  proposed  corrections  in  history  and 
geography  ;  efforts  to  harmonize  the  quotations  in 
the  Xew  Testament  with  the  Greek  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint.  but  especially  to  harmonize  the  Gospels ; 
the  writing-out  of  abbreviations;  incorporation 
of  margiiuil  notes  in  the  text;  the  embellishing 
of  the  Gospel  narratives  with  stories  drawn  from 
non-apostolic  though  trustworthy  sources,  e.g., 
John  vii.  53  to  viii.  11,  and  Mark  xvi.  9  to  end,  —  it 
is  to  these  causes  that  we  must  attribute  the  very 
numerous  '■  re.adings,"  or  textual  variations.  It 
is  true  that  the  copyists  were  sometimes  learned 
men ;  but  perhaps  their  zeal  in  making  correc- 
tions may  have  obscured  the  true  text  as  much  as 
the  ignorance  of  the  unlearned.  The  copies, 
indeed,  came  under  the  eye  of  an  official  reviser; 
but  he  maj'  have  sometimes  exceeded  his  func- 
tions, and  done  more  harm  than  good  by  his 
changes. 

Attempts  were  made  by  learned  Fathers  to  get 
the  pure  text;  and  three  men  of  the  third  cen- 
tury—  Origen,  the  Egyptian  Bishop  Ilesychius, 
and  the  Presbyter  Lucian  of  Antioch  —  deserve 
mention  for  their  devotion  to  this  object.  The 
two  last  undertook  a  sort  of  recension  of  the  New 
Testament  (see  Jerome,  lipisl.  ml  Damaxum)  ;  but 
we  do  not  know  exactly  what  they  did,  and  their 
influence  was  small.  In  regard  to  Origen,  while 
he  did  not  make  a  formal  recension  of  the  New- 
Testament  text,  his  critical  work  was  of  the 
highest  importance.  Notwithstanding  these  di- 
versities, there  were,  as  early  as  the  fonrtli  and 
fifth    centuries,    affinities    between    manuscripts 

Erepared  in  the  same  district,  which  seem  to 
etray  certain  tendencies,  as  is  proved  by  the 
Fathers,  the  versions,  and  the  (ireek  manuscripts 
themselves.  This  somewhat  justifies  us  in  speak- 
ing of  an  Oriental  and  Occidental,  or,  monr  cor- 
rectly, ail  Alexandrian  or  Egyptian,  and  a  Latin, 
as  also  of  an  Asiatic  or  Greek,  and  a  Byzantine 
or  C'on.stantiiiopolitan  text.  According  to  this 
theory,  the  Alcxaiiilriiin  was  used  l)y  those  Jewish 
Christians  of  the  East  who  already  used  the  bep- 


tuagint ;  particularlj-  was  this  text  preserved  and 
spread  by  the  learned  .-Alexandrian  school.  The 
Liilin  text  characterizes  not  only  the  manuscripts 
prepared  by  Latins,  but  the  Greek  manuscripts 
they  used.  The  A.sirilir  manuscripts  were  used 
chiefly  by  native  Greeks  in  Greece,  or  in  the  Asi- 
atic provinces  having  intercourse  with  Greece. 
The  B)/::anline  manuscripts  belonged  to  the 
Church  of  that  empire.  The  latter  alone  had  a 
certain  official  uniformity,  and  were,  in  the  latter 
centuries,  almost  the  only  manuscripts  circulated 
in  the  empire.  This  class  of  manuscripts  is 
also  the  only  one  perfectly  represented  in  exist- 
ing documents,  and  is  the  result  of  the  gradual 
mixture  of  older  recensions  under  the  predomi- 
nance of  the  .•Asiatic  or  Greek.  Each  of  these 
recensions  is  more  or  less  altered  and  corrupted ; 
so  that  it  is  often  more  difficult  to  assign  a  par- 
ticular reading  to  its  proper  class  than  to  find 
out  the  original.  Finally,  the  differences  and 
relationships  are  by  far  most  strongly  marked 
in  the  Gospels,  least  so  in  the  Apocalypse,  and 
again  are  more  distinct  in  the  Pauline  Epistles 
and  the  Acts  than  in  the  Catholic  Epistles.  (See 
TiscHE.NDOUK,  Xor.  TeM.  Greece.  Editiu  Aca- 
deiiiica  VIII.,  Lips.,  1875,  p.  xxiv.  seqq.) 

NOTICE  OF  THE  UNCIAL  MSS.  OF  THE  NEW  TESTA.MENT. 

X."  Codex  Sinaiticu-^,  /ound  by  TischeiidoTf  (1844  and 
ISfi'J)  in  tht  Conve-7it  of  St.  Catharine  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Sinai,  vow  preserved  271  iSt.  Peteraburg.  Foi'ty-three  haven  of 
the  Old-Testament  portion  of  the  7najlUficripi,  knowtt  as  the 
Codex  Friderieo-Aiigvatanus,  are  in  the  Library  of  the  Leipzig 
I'nicersity.  Beside>i  itcenty.sl.r  books  of  the  Old  Testament^ 
of  irhich  fire  form  the  Codex  Frideriro-Aiigustanus,  the  man. 
nsnipt  contains  the  utiTiRK  New  Testament  without  the 
LEAST  BREAK,  the  Epistle  of  Mamabas,  and  the  first  third  of 
the  .Shepherd  of  Llennas.  The  Alexandrian  copyist  has  fre- 
quently  shown  his  imperfect  knowledge  of  Greek,  and  his 
haste.  The  license  in  handling  the  text,  common  in  the  first 
thrt-e  centuries^  is  greater  than  in  Ji  A  C,  though  much  leas 
than  in  D.  Nereriheless,  the  superiority  of  the  Codex  Sinai- 
ticus  to  all  other  ^Vw-  Testament  ntanuscripts,  zcith  the  single 
excejition  of  B,  is  fully  jiroved  by  the  numerous  places  in 
lohich  its  reading  has  the  nupport  of  the  oldest  quotations, 
or  the  most  ancient  versions.  The  text  is  in  four  lolitmns, 
which  is  a  nuif/ue  arrangement.  The  Pauline  Epistles,  among 
which  is  Hebrews  after  2  Thessalonians,  come  directly  after 
the  Gospels;  the  Acts  and  the  Catholic  Epistles,  and  the 
Apocalypse,  follow.  The  date  of  the  Codex  is  the  .fourth  cen- 
tury. Jt  has  a  special  value  from  the  fact,  that,  owing  to  the 
corrections  it  received  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries  and 
later,  its  pages  represent,  a^fter  a  fashion,  the  history  <f  the 
changes  in  the  Xeic  Testament  text.  T/ie  Codex  was  published 
{2SG2)  in  facsi.mile  type  from  the  Leipzig  press,  in  four 
folio  volumes,  at  the  expense  (^^  the  Emperor  o.r  Bussia,  Alex. 
under  II.  The  edition  was  limited  to  three  hundred  copies. 
The  JCew-Testament  part  icas  published  separately  in  a  criti- 
cal edition  by  TiBchiiulorf,  N.  T.  Sinaiticum  cum  epistula 
BaRNAB.^  ET  PRAdMENTIS  Pastoris,  etc..  Lips.,  JS03,  4to, 
and  in  a  more  popular  fortn  in  li<tio,  N.  T.  <.U\.  E-\  tSlNAlT. 
ICO  CODICE  .  .  .  Vaticana  itemque  Klzeviriana  i.ectione 
NoTATA.  Sm.  Sep.  also  Scrivem-r,  A  Fui.i.  Collation  op 
THE  Codex  Sinaiticus  with  the  Received  Text  of  the 
N.  T.,  2d  cd.,  Cambriilge  and  London,  1S6T. 

A:  Codex  Alexandrinus,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  pre- 
sented in  Jli2S  by  Cyril  Luray,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
ifortnerly  of  .Ue.ran'dria)  to  Charles  I.  After  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, the  New  Testiiment  btgins  with  Matt,  xxv.  6,  and  con- 
tains the  whole,  excepting  John  vi.  SO-mii.  j72,  and  2  Cor.  I'u. 
i:s-xii.  0.  It  has  been  priidrd  in  facsimile  type  by  C.  G. 
Wokk'  in  17S6,  and  in  usual  type  by  H.  II.  Cowper  in  1S60, 
tvho  corrects  ti  few  mistakes  of  Woitle,  and  commits  a  few 
himself.  The  date,  arrordinq  to  Ti.'irhendorf,  is  about  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century.  [A  photograph  of  the  Codex  is 
i7i  course  of  piUilication  by  the  Trusties  of  the  Ilritish  .Museum, 
of  which  the  NeiD  Testament  and  Cle/nentine  Epistles  ap- 
peared i7l  2S79at  London.] 

B:  Codex  Vaticanus,  Xo.  1200,  in  the  Vatican  Library. 
The  i7ianuscript  contains,  besides  the  Old  Testament,  the  entire 
jiVfO  Testa7nent,  with  the  exception  of  Ileb.  ix..  X4  to  end,  1st 
and  2d  Ti7nothy,  Titus,  I'hile/non,  and  the  Apocalypse. 
Sepulveda  ll-l!>l-I/>72)  in  l,'>:i:i,  writing  to  Eras/nus,  men- 
lions  It ;  btit  it  is  likely  that  E7asmus  had  heard  eifit  in  1S21 
(fiitrivflKT,  Introi).  p.  !>:>).  The  first  real  collation  of  Vie 
/iianuacripl,  made  in  lOB'J  by  limioloccl,  then  librarian  of 


BIBLiE  TEXT  — New  Test. 


271 


BIBLE  TEXT  -   New  Test. 


4he  Vaticautfxi/itaonhj  in  vinnu script  in  thfi  Pnrin  Library. 
The  collation  made  ii>\' ll\c\\i\n\  Bontlcy^^«H,  Itnlinn  named 
Mico  wua  published  by  Ford  in  hia  Append,  ('on.  Ales,  in 
into.  Birch'rt  «/)/jff(/v(/  in  llSS-lSOi.  Ung  {1810)  fir xi 
<ippreciatedit.9  of/e  <uid  rnliif.  After  many  tittemptu  on  the 
part  of  P?vttfitani  scholars,  hic/ndirig  7'isrhfndor/'.s/ourteen 
(lays*  use  at  three  hourn  ilailij,  and  the  inliahle  inaccuracy  o/ 
the  lonff-awaited edition  l<i/  (Utrdntiil  }fiii  (IS/iT),  Vorct-llone 
and  Coi/.n  issued  an  ulitiim  <>/  the  entire  ( ddex,  of  lohich  the 
^VtW  Testament  is  vol.   y.{hs'fhs).     The   Codex  is  nHoldas^. 

B  {2) :  Codex  Vaiicanufi '2066  {eighth  eeiitiirii),/<>nnerly 
B'lsilian  Coder  106,  i7t  the  library  of  the  Basilian  monks  in 
Home.  First  imperfectly  edited  by  Ti^cheiMivrf  (MoN.  sack. 
INED.,  1 846) ,  und'carefullt/  in  i860,  after  a  fresh  collation 
made  in  1866  (Appendix  X.  T.  Vaticani,  Lips.,  I860,  4to, 
pp.  1-20) .     Tregelles  designates  thetnannacrijit  by  the  letter  Q. 

G:  Codex  Ephraenii  {fifth  century)  now  No.  0  in  the 
great  library  at  Paris;  in  thf  sixths  and  again  in  the  ninth 
century y  altered  in  many  places.  In  the  twelfth  century  the 
original  writing  ivan  aashedojf  to  make  room  for  the  Greek 
text  of  several  ascetic  trorks  of  Kphraem  Syrus  {d.  373). 
Pierre  Allix,at  about  the  close  of  the  .serenleenth  century, 
noticed  the  traces  of  the  old  irriting  under  the  later  charac- 
ters. Wetstein  in  1710  collated  the  Kew-Tentauient  part  so 
far  as  itivas  legible.  In  1834  and  183ii  the  lihrariun,  Carl 
Hase,  revivefl  the-  original  writing  by  the  appUratinn  of  the 
Giobertine  tincture  {prussiate  of  potash)  Tl^^^lu■^.iot  f,  after 
great  labor,  brought  out  in  1843  an  edition  of  the  New-Tes- 
tament part  of  the  manuscript,  and  in  1846,  of  the  Old-Tes- 
tament fragments,  representing  the  manuscript  line  for  line, 
but  171  ordinartf  type  {capitals).  The  Codex  contains  portions 
of  the  Ol't  Testament  071  sixty-four  leaves,  a7id five-eighths  of 
the  New  Testament. 

D  {!) :  Codex.  Bezcv  {about  A. D.  660),  now  in  th'j  Univer- 
sity Library  at  Cambridge,  a  present  in  1581  frotn  Theodore 
Beza.  It  contains,  tcithfew  lacunae,  the  Greek  a7id  Latin  text 
of  the  Gospels  and  the  Acts  sticho7uetrically  written,  perhaps 
in  Gaul.  Indited  bt/  Kipling  in  1 793,  but  in  afar  better  ma7i- 
ner  by  Scrivener  (Bez.b  <Jod.  Cantab.)  in  1864.  No  known 
manuscript  has  .so  many  and  so  remarkable  interpolations. 
It  has  a  special  affinity  with  the  Old  Latin  version  and  the 
Curetonian  Syriac. 

D  {2)  :  Codex  Claromontanus  of  the  Pauline  Epistles,  i7i- 
cluding  Hebrews  {second  half  of  sixth  century).  Beza  found 
it  i7>  the  Monastery  of  Clermont,  he7icethejianie  ;  noxo  in  the 
Paris  Library.  Contains  the  Greek  and  Latiii  text  xcritten 
stichomet?-ically.  It  leas  retouched  at  diffe7'€7it  times,  and 
exhibits  especially  two  jieriods  of  the  text.  The  Latin  text  rep- 
resents the  oldest  version,  — that  of  the  seco7id  century.  It 
was  collated  by  Tregelles  in  1849  and  1860,  and  edited  by 
Tiechendorf  in  1862. 

E  {!):  Codex  Basileensis  A.  N.  III.  IS  {A.D.  750),  in 
Basel,  a  nearly  complete  manuscript  of  the  Eo7ir  Gospels, 
collated  by  Tregelles  {1846\  also  by  Tischendotf  and  MiUler 
{1843] 

E  {2)  :  Codex  Laudianus  {end  of  sixth  century),  in  the 
■Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford,  a  present  fro7H  Archbishop  Laud 
in  1636;  was  brought  to  England  in  668;  Bede  {d.  735) 
*used  it  7chen  inriti7ig  his  Expositio  Retractata  of  the  Acts. 
It  contains  an  almost  complete  Greek-Latin  text  of  the  Acts. 
Edited  in  1716  by  Heurne,  and  in  1870  by  Tischendorf. 

E  {3)  :  Codex  Sangermaneyisis,  a  Graco- Latiii  ma7iuscript 
of  the  Pauline  Epistles  {e7id  of  ninth  century),  now  in  St. 
Petersburg ,  the  Greek,  text  bei7ig  a  cbansy  copy  of  the  Codex 
Claromont.     Of  no  critical  value  except  for  the  Latin  text. 

F  {1)  :  Codex  Boreeli  of  the  Four  Evangelists,  but  defec- 
tive {ninth  century) ,  noto  in  Utrecht  University.  See,  for  full 
description,  Jod.  Heringa:  Dispdtatio  de  Codice  Bore- 
BLIANO,  ed.  II.  E.  Vinke,  1843. 

F  {2) :  Codex  Augiensis  of  the  Pauline  Epistles  {close  of 
ninth  ce7itury) ,  Greek  and  Latin  text,  and  Hebrews  07ily  in 
Latin  ;  named  from  the  Monastery  of  lieichenau  (AugiaI^ives 
«r  Major)  in  Switzerland  ;  bought  by  Richard  Bentleyat  Hei- 
delberg, and  be</ueathed  by  his  nephew  {1787)  to  Ti'i7iity  Col- 
lege, Camb7Hdge.  The  Latin  is  not  a  ircuislation  of  the  Greek. 
Collated  by  Tischendotf  1842,  Tregelles  1845,  and  carefully 
edited  by  Scrivener  1S69.     [See  G  {3).'\ 

F^  :  Designates  those  passages  of  the  Gospels,  Acts,  and 
Pauline  Epistles,  which  were  written  in  the  margin  of  the 
Coislin  Octateuch  in  Paris,  dati7ig  from  the  beginning  of  the 
seventh  century.      Printed  by  Tiscbendorf  in  J846  (Mon. 

SACR.  INED.). 

G  (1)  :  Codex  Ilarleianus  of  the  Gospels  {tenth  century), 
withma7iy  breaks;  brought  by  A7idrew  Erasmus  Seidel  from 
the  East  in  the  aevetiteenth  century.  Now  in  the  British  Mu- 
.,seum.     Collated  by  ^Vetstein,  Tischendotf,  a7id  Tregelles. 

G  (2)  :  A  St.  Pe.tersb7irg  fragtnent  of  the  Acts  {ii.  46-iii. 
8)  {seve7ith  cejdury),  brought  by  Tischendorf  f7-om  the  East 
i7i  1860*  It  has  a  few  rare  and  valuable  readings.  \_See  L 
(2).l 

G^  :  Codex  Vaticanus  9671,  fort^ierly  Cryptoferraiensis 
{of  Grotta  Ferrata),  of  the  ninth  cetitury,  or  earlier,  contain- 
ing fragments  of  Arts  rm.,  xvH.,  xviii.  Edited  by  Cozza, 
Sacrorum  BiBLiOKuai  VETUST.  Fragmenta,  Pars  3,Ro7na:, 
1877. 

G  {3)  :  Codex  Boemerianus  of  the  Pauline  Epistles  {niiith 
century) ,  now  in  Royal  Library  of  Dresden,  with  Greek  and 
Latin  text :  Hebrewi  and  some  forty  verses  besides  are  wa7U' 


ing.  The  Greek  text  is  taken  from  the  name  original  from 
7chich  the  f.'OD.  AuoiENSis  wan  rnpied.  The  Latin  t>.rt  differ^ 
widely  from  the  Vulgate.  Ldited  by  Matthael  in  1791,  col- 
lated by  Iregelles  and  Tischendorf.     [See  u?ider  A.] 

If{l):  Codex  Seidelii  of  the  Gospels  {tenth  century),  be- 
ginning Matt.  XV.  30,  and  defective  in  all  the  Gospels.  Now 
in  the  Public  Library  of  Hamburg.  Collated  by  Tregelles, 
1850,  and  examined  in  1854  by  Tischendorf. 

//(2);  Codex  Mutine7}sin  of  Acts  {iiinth  century),  lucks 
about  seven  chapters.  Now  at  Modena.  Carefully  collated 
by   TiHchendorf{1843)  a7id  Tregelles  {1845). 

[/I  {3).  Coder.  Coistinianus  {sixth centurj/),  fragments  of 
the  Pauline  Ejnstle.s  iti  twenty-nine  leaves,  all  found  in  the 
BINDING  of  manuscripts  at  or  from  the  Monastery  of  St. 
Athanasius  at  Mount  Athos.  Twelve  of  thete  leaves  are  in  the 
National  Libi'ary  at  Paris  ;  aiid  two  formerly  there  are  Jiow  at 
St.  Petersburg.  These  fourteen  leaves,  containing  fragments 
of  1  Corinthians,  O'alatians,  1  Timothy,  Titus,  and  Hebrews, 
I'vere  published  by  Mnnlfaucori  in  1716,  in  his  Bibuotheca 
Coisliniana.  Two  more  leaves  at  Sloscow  {Bibl.  S.  Syn. 
61),  containing  parts  of  lie  b.  x.,  were  first  described  and  col- 
lated by  Maltluvi  {1784),  and  have  been  edited  in  facsimile 
by  Kabas  (Spiitasi.  PAL^EOfiR.,  Moscow,  1S63).  They  are 
desig/iaied as  N^  in  Tische/uiorf's  GheekTehtame^t, scverith 
edition  (1850).  Four -more  leaves,  belonging  io  Archbishop 
Porfiri  and  the  Archimandrite  Antony,  are  cited  Inj  Tiech- 
L'lidorf  in  his  last  critical  edition  07i  'S  Cor.  iv.  4-6  ;  Col.  Hi. 
6-8;  1  Thess.  ii.  0-13,  iv.  6-10.  Still  more  rtcently  7iine 
neio  leaves  have  been  discovered  at  Mou7it  Athos.  Their  text, 
contai7iing  jntrts  of  2  Corinthians  and  Oalatians,  has  been 
published  £•(/ Duchesne  171  the  Archives  des  missions  scient. 
ET  LIT.,  51-  «er.,  torn.  Hi.  p.  420  ff,  Paris,  1876. 

I:  Codex  Tischendorfianus  II.,  at  St.  Petersburg,  desig- 
nates a  manuscrij)t  in  which,  under  later  Geoi-yiamoriting, 
there  are  twe7ity.eight  palimpsest  leaves  of  seven  different  codi- 
ces, containi7i{f  f7rtgments  of  the  Neiv  Testament,  as  fol- 
lows,— I\of  John xi.,xii.,xv.,xiri., xix.  I^,of  1  Cor.xv.,xvi.; 
Tit.  i.;  Actsxxviii.  I^,of  Matt.  xiv.,xxiv.,  xxv.,  xxvi.;  Mark 
ix.,  xiv.  I*,  of  Matt,  xmi.-xix.  J^,  of  Acts  ii.,  xxvi.  /*,  of 
Acts  xiii.  P,  of  Luke  vH.,  xxiv.  P-^'^  are  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury ;  !*•'',  of  the  sixth;  I ^■*^,  of  the  seventh.  The  text  of 
/1.2.3.4.7  /,rt.5  a  close  affjiity  with  ^  A  B  C  B  L.  Published 
by  Tischendorf  zn  his  RTon.  sacr.  ined.  N.  C,  vol.  i.  {1856). 

/b  {formerly  N^,  begiJtning  of  fifth  ce7itury) ,  four  palirnp- 
sest  leaves  in  the  British  Musexnn,  containing,  u7idertieo  lay- 
e7-s  of  Syriac  writing ,  frag7ne7tts  of  sei'enteert  verses  of  John 
xiii.  andxvi.  Deciphered  by  Tischendenf  and  Tregelles,  a7id 
published  by  the  former  in  his  MoN.  sacr.  ined.  N.  C,  vol.  ii. 

{1867).  — i:.  A.] 

K{1):  Codex  Cyprius  of  the  Gospels,  co7nplete  {middle  or 
end  of  ninth  century)  ;  now  in  Paris.  Collated  by  Tischen- 
dorf {1842)  and  Tregelles  {1849and  1850). 

K  {2):  Codex  Mosquensis  of  the  Catholic  and  Paxdine 
Epistles  (7ii7ith  centw~y);  brought  from  Mount  Athos  to  Mos- 
cow. Lacks  apart  of  Roma7is  and  1  Corinthians.  Collated 
by  Maithiti. 

L  (7);  Codex  Regius  of  the  Gospels  {eighth  century),  noxo 
in  Paris,  almost  complete.  Closely  related  to  t<  and  B  rtnrf  the 
text  of  Origen,  Published  by  Tibchendorf  in  his  MoN.  sacr. 
ined..  1846. 

L  {2):  Codex  Angeliais  or  Passionet  of  the  Acts  and  Cath- 
olic Epistles  {formerly  G),  and  of  the  Pauline  {for^nerly  I) 
{ninth  century),  now  in  the  Angelica  Library  of  the  Augustin- 
ianmonks  at  Rome.  Contains  Acts  vii.  10  to  I/eb.  xiii.  10. 
Collatedby  Tischendorf  {1843)  and  Tregelles  {1845). 

M  {!):  Codex  Campianus  of  the  Gospels,  complete  {end  of 
ninth  ce7itury),  now  in  Paris.  Copied  and  used  by  Tischen- 
dorf {1849). 

M{2):  Codex  Ruber  of  the  Pauline  Epistles  {ninth  cen- 
tury).  Two  folio  leaves  at  Hamburg  {Htb.  i  1-iv.  3,xii.  20- 
xiii.  26),and  tico  at  Londo7i  {1  Cor.xv.  52-2  Cor.  i.  16;  2 
Cor.  X.  l3-xii.  6).  Wintten  in  red.  Edited  by  Tischendorf  m 
Anecdot.  sacr.  et  prof.,  1866,  and,  with  a  few  correctionst 
1861. 

N  {!):  Codex  Purpurexis  {endofthe  sixth  century), a  beau- 
tiful  Gospel  ma7iuscript  written  07i  the  ihuviest  vellu/ii,  dyed 
p7trple,  with  silver  letters  {the  abbreviations  <=>  C,  K  C,  etc,  in 
gold;  four  leaves  in  Lo7idon,tu^o  iti  Vie7i}ia,  si-r  in  the  Vati- 
can,  and  fhirti/-three  in  the  Mo7iastery  of  St.  John  in  Patmos. 
Tischendorf  used  in  his  eighth  edition  of  the  Neio  Testament 
the  readings  of  the  thirty-three  Patmos  leaves  transcribed  by 
John  Sakkelion,  containing  Murk  vi.  63-xv.  23,  xcith  some 
gaps.  These  have  si7ice  beenpjublished  by  Duchesne  J7i  Me  Ar- 
chives DES  MISSIONS  sciENTiFiQUES,5';ser.,iom.iii.  {1876). 

N{2):  Twoleaves  {7iinth ceitturt/) ,contai7iing  Gal.  v.  12-vi* 
4  a7id  Ileb.  v.  8-ui.  10.  Brought  by  Tischendorf  to  St.  Peters- 
burg. 

N^:   The  i7ianuscript  now  marked  by  Tischendorf  I^. 

0{1):  Eight  leaves  {ninth  century),  co7itaining  a  part  of 
John  i.  and  xx.,  with  scholia.  Now  in  Moscow  {S.  Syn.  120). 
Edited  by  M.uthfei  ( 1 785),  and,  after  him,  by  Tregelles,  CoD. 
Zactntuuis  {1801),  Appendix. 

O  (2):  Two  leaves  {sixth  century),  containing  2  Cor.  i.  20- 
ii.  12.  Brought  fro7n  the  East  to  St.  Petersburg  by  Tischen- 
dorf in  18.^9. 

On  oh  oc  Qd  Qq  Qt :  Psalters  or  other  77ianuscripts,  contain- 
ing some  or  all  of  the  hy7nns  of  Luke's  Gospel  (i.  46  ff.,  68 
ff.j  ii.  29  ff.).   C:i  is  at  Wolfenbiittel  {ed.  Tischendorf,  Anecd, 


BIBLE   TEXT  — New  Test. 


272 


BIBLE   TEXT  — New  Test. 


SACR.  ET  PROF.,  ISoo).  0^  at  Orfort!.  0<:  ill  Verona,  the 
Greek  tert  in  Roman  letters  {ed.  Biancliini,  7  7J0) .  OJ  at  Zu- 
rich, on  purple  vellum  in  silver  letters  (tcl.  Tiscbeiidorf,  MoN. 
SACK.  INED.  N.  C.  to;,  ill.).  C»e  and  C"  at  St.  Call  and  St. 
Petersburg  (collated  bv  Tischendorf).  (K  is  of  the  sixth,  cen- 
tury; Vi,  or'  the  seventh;  O^bei  ,  of  the  ninth. 

yl);  of  the  Pauline  Epistles,  a  leaf  (sJx(A  century),  which 
imperfectly  presents  Eph.  iv.  1-lS.  Collated  by  Tischendorf 
at  Moscow  in  ISGS. 

P{1):  Codex  Guelpherbytanus  I.  (sixth  century),  a  pal- 
impsest at  Wolfenbiitlel,  containing  portions  of  all  the  Gos- 
pels (.678  verses).  Edited  by  Tischendovf  (MoN.  SACK.  iNED. 
^.C.,vol.vi.,lSG9). 

P  (2):  Codex  Porfrianus  of  the  Acts,  Epistles,  and  Apoca- 
lypse (ninth  century) ,  a  palimpsest  with  few  hiatus;  the  text  is 
particularly  good  in  the  Apocalypse.  Belongs  to  Archbishop 
Porfiri  of  St.  Petersburg.    Edited  bv  Tischendorf,  vol.  vi. 

Q  (1);  Codex  Guelpherbytanus  II.  (fifth  century),  a  frag- 
mentary palimpsest  of  Luke  and  John  ;  now  at  Wolfenbiittel. 
Edited  by  Tischendorf,  vol.  Hi.,  1S60. 

Q  (2);  Porfrianus  (fifth  century)  papyrus  fragments  of 
1  Cor.  i.  n-20;  vi.  13-3S  ;  vii.  3,  4,  10-14.  Tisch.  collator. 
R:  Codex  NUriensis  (sixth  century),  a  fragmmtary  ]>al- 
impsest  of  Luke  from  a  monastery  in  the  Niti-ian  Desert;  note 
in  the  British  Museum.  Collated  by  Tregelles  (1854),  and  ed. 
by  Tischendorf  (Mon.  sack.  ined.  N.  C,  vol.  ii.,  1SS7). 

[B  (2) :  A  palimpsest  leaf  at  Grotta  Ferrata  (seventh  cent. !) , 
containing  2  Cor.  xi.  1-9;  publ.  by  Cozza,  Rome,  1867.] 

S:  Codex  Vaticanus  354  (A.D.  949),  a  complete  manu- 
script of  the  Gospels.  Collated  by  Tischendorf  for  the  eighth 
edition  of  his  Greek  Testament. 

T:  Codex  Borgianus  I.  (fifth  century),  now  m  the  College 
of  the  Propaganda  in  Rome,  fragments  of  Luke  xxii.,  xxiii., 
and  John  vi.-viii.,  the  Greek  text  accompanied  by  a  Sahidic 
version.  The  fragments  of  John  were  published  by  Giorgi  in 
1789.     Those  of  Luke  were  first  collated  by  B.  H.  Alford. 

ywoi;  fragments  of  Luke  xii.  15-xiii.  32,  John  viii.  23- 
32,  formerly  owned  by  Woide,  and  published  by  Fori  in  his 
Append.  Cod.  .\lex.  (1799).  Simitar  to  the  preceding,  but 
shown  bt/  Lightfoot  to  belong  to  a  different  manuscript. 

Tb:  Fragments  of  the  first  four  chapters  of  John  (sixth 
century),  nolo  at  St.  Petersburg. 

Tc;  A  fragment  of  Matthew  (xiv.  19-xv.  8) ,  resembling  the 
above. 

yj;  Fragments  of  a  Greek-Sahidic  Evangelistary  (seventh 
century)  found  by  Tischendorf  (1800)  among  the  Borgian 
manuscripts  at  Rome.  Contains  Matt.  xvi.  13-20;  Mark  i. 
3-8,  xii.  35-37;  John  xix.  23-27,  xx.  30-31. 

[T'c;  A  bitofan  Evangelistary,  of  about  the  sixth  century, 
from  Upper  Egypt,  now  in  the  Library  of  the  VniversUy  of 
Cambridqe,  England.  It  contains  Malt.  Hi.  13-10.  Read- 
ings given  in  the  I'ostscript  to  Tregelles's  Greek  Testament, 
».  7070.  — E.  A.]  . 

U:  Codex  Naniamis  (end  of  ninth  or  beginning  of  tenth 
century),  now  in  Library  of  St.  .Mark,  Venice.  Contains  the 
Gospels  complete.    Collatedby  Tischendorf  and  Tregelles. 

V:  Codex  Mosquensis  of  the  Gospels  to  John  vii.  S9  (ninth 
century),  almost  complete.  Written  at  Mount  Athos.  Mat- 
thiti  collated  and  describi  d  it  in  17 1 9. 

ira  and  W^  :  The  former  designates  two  leaves,  with  frag- 
ments of  Luke  ix.,  X.,  in  the  National  Library  at  Paris,  prob- 
ably of  the  eighth  century.  Edited  by  Tischendorf  in  his 
MoNHM.  SACK.  INED.,  1848.  The  latter  is  a  palimpsest  of 
fourteen  leaves  found  by  Tischendorf  at  Naples,  and  fully 
deciphered  by  him  in  ISOO. 

W":  Three  li lives  (ninth  cenluri/),  containing  Mark  ii.  6- 
le,  Luke  i.  20-32,  04-79;  -now  at  St.  Gall.  Edited  by  Tisch- 
endorf, Mon.  sack,  ined.,  N.  C,  vol.  Hi.  (1800). 

Il'il;  Fragments  of  Mark  vii.,  viii.,  ix.  (ninth  century), 
found  in  the  binding  of  a  volume  in  the  Library  »f  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.     The  readings  are  remarkable. 

II''-'/  A  fragment  containing  John  iv.  9-14,  discovered  in 
180S  in  the  Library  of  Christ  Church  College  at  Oxford. 
Closely  resembles  O,  and  is  perhaps  a  part  of  the  same  manu- 
script. Alford  callsit  Frag.  Ath.b;  and  his  Frag.  Alh.a,con- 
tainingJohn  ii.  17-iii.  8,  found  by  J'.  E.  Puseyin  the  cover 
of  a  manuscript  at  Mount  Athos,  probably  belongs  to  the 
same  Codex.  .  .    .  ,, 

Wt:  So  we  may  designate  a  palimpsest  leaf  (ninth  cen- 
tum), containing  Mark  V.  10-40,  found  by  Mr.  Vansittart 
in  'Cod.  102  of  the  Acts  (see  fcicrivuner,  Inthod.,  :;d  ed.  p. 
147). 

X:  Codex  Monacensis  of  the  Gospels,  fragmentary  (end  of 
ninth  or  beginning  of  tench  century).  Nowinthe  Munich  Uni- 
versity Library.     Collated  by  Tischendorf  and  Tregelles. 

Y:  Codex  BarOerini  of  the  Gos/iel  of  John,  franmentanj 
(eighthcenturi/).  Now  in  the  Library  of  the  Prince  JSiirberini 
at  Home.  'r\iic\\Q\iiuTi  published  it  in  MoN.  SACll.  ined., 
J  840. 

Z  .•  Codex  Dublinensis  rescriptun  (sixth  century) ,  one  of 
the  chief  palimpsests  extant ;  with  numerous  fragments  from 
Mal'h-  w.  Now  in  Trlnili/  College,  Ilublin.  Barreltpublished 
afauHxi  facsimile  (1801)  ;  Tregelles  supplemented  his  edi- 
tion in  'J'80:i  ;  and  it  has  lately  been  re-edited  with  yreat  care 
III  'J'.  K.  .\bbotl,  Tab  rALi-MPsEsrouuM  JJunuNiiNsiUM,  Lon- 
don, IN  HO. 

r:  Codex  Tischendorflanus  IV.,  brought  by  Tischendorf 
from  Iht  East,  and  bought  of  Mm  for  the  Ilodkian  Library, 


Oxford,  in  18,55.  In  1859  he  brought  from  the  same  monas- 
tery 7tinety-nine  more  leaves, -unfortunate 'y  in  St.  Petersburg, 
which,  with  those  at  Oxford,  make  a  nearly  complete  copy  of 
the  Gosj,els.  [T'le  subscription  at  the  end  of  the  Gospel  of 
Johngives  an  indielion  which  may  belong  to  the  year  844. 
889,  934,  or  979.  Tixchendorf favors  the  first ;  Gardthausen 
{rAL.EOGK.,p.  4(i4f,),  the  lastof  these  dates.] 

S;  Codex  Sangallensis  of  the  Gospels  (ninth  century), 
complete  (lacking  one  leaf),  with  a  Latin  inte.-linear  transla- 
tion, somewhat  conformedto  the  Vulgate.  Published  in  fac- 
simile by  Rettig  in  1836.  It  was  originally  a  part  of  the 
same  manuscript  as  O  (3),icritten,  probably,  by  Irish  monks 
in  the  Monastery  of  St.  Gall,  Switzerland. 

0a;  Codex  Tisch endorfianus  I.  (seventh  century),  now  in 
the  Leipzig  Vniversity  Library,  containing^  fragments  of 
Matt,  xiii.,  xiv.,  xv.  Found  by  Tischendorf  in  the  East  in 
1844,  and  published  in  his  MoN.  sack,  ined.,  1846.  A  few 
lines  of  Matt.  xii.  were  also  discovered  in  1853,  and  pub- 
lished in  his  Mon.  sack,  ined.,  N.  C,  vol.  ii.  (1857). 

@1>:  Six  leaves  (sixth  or  seventh  centiir;/),  fragments  of 
Matt,  xxii.,  xxlii.,_  and  Mark  iv.,  v  Brought  by  Tischendorf 
to  St.  Petersburg  in  1859. 

©c;  Two  folio  leaves  (sixthcentury),icith  Matl.xxi.  79-24, 
and  John  xviii.  20-35.  Tischendorf  brought  the  first,  and 
Archbishop  Purfri  tlie  second,  to  St.  Petersburg. 

O'l ;  A  fragment  (eighth  century)  of  Luke  xi.  37-45. 
Brought  to  St.  Petersburg  by  Tischendorf. 

0";  A  fragment  (slrth  century)  of  Malt.  xxvi.  2-7,  9. 
0f ;  Fragments  (sixth  century)  of  Matt,  xxvi.,  xxvii.,  and 
Marki.,  ii.  „  „,,      .    . 

eg;  A  fragment  (sixth  century)  of  John  (vi.  13-24),  simi- 
lar to  0(2).  ,      .    „  „ 
0h ;  Grceco-Arabic  fragments  (ninth  century)    of  Matt. 
xiv.  and  XXV.,  which,  toqet/iericith  &  e  I  e,  belong  to  the  collec- 
tion of  Archbis/iop  Porjiri,  in  St.  Petersburg. 

A;  Codex  Tischendorfianus  III.  (ninth  century),  Luke 
and  John  complete,  with  occasional  scholia  in  uncials  on  the 
margin,  partly  of  a  critical  kind.  Noio  in  the  Bodleian 
Library,  Oxford;  collated  by  Tischendorf  (who  broug/it  it 
from  the  East)  and  rregelks.  The  portion  of  this  manu- 
'script  containing  Matthew  and  Ifark  is  written  in  cdksive 
characters,  and  was  brought  by  Tischendorf  to  St.  Petersburg 
in  1850. 

H  •  Codex  Zacynthius  (eiqhth  century),  a  palimpsest  con- 
taining Luke  i.  l-.ri.33,  with  some  gaps  ;  brought  from  the 
Island  of  '/ante,  and  presented  in  1821  to  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  London;  deciphered  and  published  by 
Trege'lles  in  1801.  The  text,  which  is  very  valuable,  ts  sur- 
rounded by  a  commentary. 

II;  Codex  Petropolitanus  of  the  Gospels  (ninth  century) , 
complete,  excepting  seventy-seven  verses.  Brought  to  St. 
Petersburg  by  Tischendorf  from  Smyrna. 

[S;  Codex  Rossanensi^  (sixth  century),  containing  Matt, 
i.  1-Markxvi.  14,andbelonQinii  to  the  chapter  of  the  Cathe- 
dral Church  at  Rossaim,  is  written  on  very  Jine  purple  vellum 
in  silver  letters,  with  the  three  first  lines  in  both  columns,  at 
the  beginning  of  each  Gospel,  in  gold.  It  is  adorned  with 
eighteen  remarkable  pictures  in  water-colors,  representing 
scenes  in  the  gospel  history,  with  forty  figures  of  the  proph- 
ets of  the  Old  Testament.  Us  miniatures  bear  a  sinking 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  celebrated  Vienna  purple  manu- 
scrhit  of  Genesis.  It  numbers  a  hundred  and  etuhteen  leaves, 
some  ofwhhh  havebeen  much  injured  by  dampness.  It  ongi- 
nallii  contained  the  four  Gospels.  The  text,  as  well  as  the 
wriiina,  resembles  that  of  Codex  Nofthe  Gospels.  The  wnt- 
inqis'sHlljiioie  similar  to  that  of  the  Ziirich  Psalter  (seventh 
centum)  (published  l„i  Tisehrndorfin  his  MoN.  SACR.  INBD. 
N.  C'vol'iv.),  but  miiy  be  a  little  older.  This  precims  relic 
was  discoveredinthe  spring  of  1-179,  at  Rossano  in  Calabna 
(Southern  Itabi).hyDr.  GebhardtofGotliugen  and  Professor 
IJarnack  of  (i'iessen,  who  have  published  a  full  description 
of  it,  witli'tieii  facsimiles  of  the  writing  and  outline  sketches 
of  theminiatu'res.  in  an  eiegant  quarto  entitled,  KVANQELIO- 


RVn  CoiiE.K  Oii.Ecus  riiRi'URBUS  KossANENSis,  Leipzig, 
1880.  Its  text  seems  to  hold  a  position  about  midway  between 
t/tat  of  the  older  uncials  and  those  of  the  ninth  and  tenth 
centuries,  agreeing  most  remarkably  iclth  N,  often  with  A  ATI, 
orwith  D  and  the  Old  Latin,  against  the  mass  of  later  manu- 
scripts.—U.  A.]  ,       ,     , 

Besides  the  UNCIAL,  there  are  over  six  hnmlnd  cuKsnB 
manuscripts  of  the  Gospels,  rari/Ing  in  dalejmm  the  nirlli  to 
the  sixteenth  centuries;  above  three  hundred  Evangelistanes, 
of  wMch  about  sixtii  are  uncials,  the  majority  oj  these,  how- 
Iver,  written  betwee'n  tlie  tenth  and  I  we  If tb  """"'','^'<A  ."'°^' 
than  two  hundred  manuscripts  of  the  -Ms  and  CatMic 
Epistles;  nearly  three  hundred  manuscripts  «.'J'lf  J '''''''' 
Epistles;  over  a  hundred  cursive  manuscripts  oJ  the  .^poca■ 
l  pse,-and  eighty  Lectionaries  (Praxapostolt),wMi  read- 
Zgsfromthe'Actiand  the  Epistles,  but  none  older  than  lis 
tenth  century.     The  following  is  a  list  of  some  of  tlie  most 

""ifrhe'oZ'i^Codex  Basil.,  A.  N.  IV  2  (tenth  century), 
collated  bv  Wetslein.  recenth,  by  C.  L.  Roth  and     regfes. 

13:  the  Acts  and  Catholic  Einstles,  identical  with  Ao.  6« 
of  the  Gospels, 


BIBLE  TEXT  — New  Test. 


273 


BIBLE  TEXT  —  New  Test. 


77;  The  Pauline  Epistles,  identical  with  No.  33  of  the 
Gospels. 

31 :  The  Acts  and  Catholic  Epistles,  identical  with  No.  69 
of  the  Gospels. 

33:  The  Gospels  (^Acts  13,  Paul  17),  Cod.  Colbert.  2S44 
{eleventh  century).  Collated  by  Griesbach,  and  laboriously 
by  Tregelles  in  18o0. 

37 :  The  Pauline  Epistles,  identical  with  Ko.  GO  of  the 
Gospels. 

47:  The  Pauline  Epistles,  Cod.  Jlodl.  Roe  IG  {eleventh  or 
twelfth   century).       Collated   by    Tregelles. 

til  :  Acts  and  Catholic  Epistles,  Cod.  Tischendorf.  in  the 
British  MuKcuiii.  it, il,<l  April  2(1,1(144.  Collated  by  Tisch- 
endorf, u'iin  f/is<  nr<  i '  ■/  if,  Trcycltt's,  and  Scrivener.  Porinerly 
called  lo'^,  i.e..  bnt'liu'tisis  tischeiidorfiauus. 

0^1:  The  Gospels  {Acts  31,  Paul  37),  Cod.  Leicestrensis 
{eleventh  century),  collated  by  Treejelles  {1852)  and  Scriv- 
ener {1855).  This  inanuscripd,  together  with  13,  124,  346, 
of  the  Gospels,  are  regarded  as  derived  from  an  uncial  ar- 
chetyjie  resembHng  codex  D. 

05:  Apocalypse,  Cod.  Parham.  17  {twelfth  or  thirteenth 
century),  collated  by  Scrivener. 

[The  number  of  uncial  manuscript.'^  of  the  New 
Testanu'ut,  ranging  in  date  from  the  fourth  to 
the  tentli  century,  is  seventy-seven.  (In  this  reck- 
oning, six  Psaltei's,  containing  the  hymns,  Luke 
i.  46-55,  68-79,  ii.  29-32,  and  designated  by 
Tiscliendorf  as  O"'''^'"''',  are  not  counted;  nor  are 
the  Church  Lesson-Books  —  Evangelistaries  and 
Praxapostoli  —  included.)  About  half  of  these 
seventy-seven  manuscripts,  however,  are  mere  frag- 
ments, containing  but  a  few  verses,  or  at  most  a 
few  chapters.  They  may  be  arranged  as  follows, 
with  reference  to  their  probable  dale :  — 

Cent.  IV.,  2:  N  with  the  lohole  New  Testament ;  B, 
Gospels,  Acts,  Catholic  Epistles,  and  Pauline  Epistles 
(mutilated). 

Cent,  v.,  10:  New  Testament,  A  C;  Gosp.,  Q  |  H'S 
lb  X  T»'o' (or  T");  mere  fragments,  P;  P(ml,Q. 

Cent.  VI.,  20:  Gosj).  and  Arls,  D;  Gos/J.,  N  PRZ 
2  (perhaps  seventh  century)  I  IJ-7T'>T<:Te0<:0e©£ 
es;  Acts,  E;  Funl,  D  |  H  |  O  Ci. 

Cent.  VII.,  8  small  fragments:  Gosp-,  Acts,  Paul, 
F";  Gosp.,  T"!  0"  ei>;  Acts,  G  I^-S;  Paul,  R  (Tisch.: 
0  =,  Hort). 

Cent.  VIII.,  8:  Gosp.,  E  L  |  a  |  W»  W"  Y  e"; 
Apoc,  B. 

Cent.  IX., 25:  Gosp.,  KM|PVXrAAn|OW<^ 
W<1  We  Wf  el';  Acts,  Epp.,  Apoc,  P;  Acts,  Epp.,  L; 
Cath.  and  Paul.  Epp.,  K;  Acts,  CH;  Paul,  EFG 
I  MN. 

Cent.  X.,  4:  Gosp.,  S  U  |  G  H. 

The  mark  |  is  here  used  to  separate  complete 
from  imperfect  manuscripts,  or  the  larger  frag- 
ments from  those  containing  less  than  two  hun- 
dred verses. 

In  reference  to  the  contents  of  the  uncials,  we 
may  observe  that  only  one,  x,  comprises  the 
whole  New  Testament :  only  five  others  contain 
more  than  half  of  it;  viz.,  A  B  C  D  of  the  Gos- 
pels and  Acts,  and  P  of  the  Acts,  Epistles,  and 
Apocalypse.  They  are  distributed,  according  to 
the  principal  divisions  of  the  New  Testament,  as 
follows :  — 

Of  the  Gospels  there  are  55.  (o)  Complete,  or 
nearly  so,  10:  X  B  K  M  S  U  |  E  L  a  ri;  {b)  containing 
the  larger  part,  10:  A  C  D  r  |  F  G  H  V  X  a;  (p)  con- 
siderable portions,  but  less  than  half,  7:  N  P  Q  R  Z 
S  5  (Matt.,  Mark);  (d)  less  than  two  hundred  verses, 
28:  T  Ti*  W'  Y  |  F"  11.3.4.-  ibQ  T"'"'  T<^<ie  W^ef 
@abcclefgh^ 

Acts,  15.  (a)  Complete,  or  nearlv  so,  4:  X  A  B  | 
E;  (6)  larger  part,  5:  C  D  H  L  P;  (c)  small  frag- 
ments, G:  Fal'-S=-6GG'=. 

Catholic  Epistles,  7.  (o)  Complete,  5:  X  A  B  K  L; 
(h)  larger  part,  2:  C  P. 

Pauline  Epistles,  20.  (a)  Complete,  or  nearlv  so, 
3:  X  I  DL;  (6)  larger  part,  8:  ABCEFGKP;  (c) 
fragments,  'J:  H  M  |  F"  I^  N  O  O"  Q  R  (or  C:). 

Apocalypse,  5.  (a)  Complete,  3:  X  A  B;  (6)  larger 
part,  2:  P  I  C. 

19  —  1 


In  reference  to  the  character  of  their  text,  Tisch- 
endorf classifies  the  uncials  as  foUow.s :  in  the 
Go.spels  the  oldest  form  of  the  text,  predominantly 
Alexandrine  in  its  coloring,  is  found,  though  witli 
many  ditferenors,  in  x  A  B  C  D  I'  ■"  "  I''  L  P  Q 
K  'J''"'"-  X  Z  A  0'^  OK  E;  next  to  these  stand  F»  N 
O  \^\  W'"^  Y  0"'"''.  A  later  form  of  the  text,  in 
which  the  Asiatic  coloring  prevails,  is  presented 
by  ]•:  F  G  II  K  1\I  S  U  V  Y  A  11  Oi',  among  which 
E  K  M  r  A  n  01'  incline  most  toward  the  first 
class.  For  the  Acts  and  Catholic  Epistle-s, 
X  A  B  C  give  the  oldest  text,  to  which,  in  the 
Acts,  D  I  approach,  and,  less  closely,  E  G;  also, 
in  the  Catholic  EpLstles  (except  1  I'et.),  P; 
while  in  the  Acts,  II  L  P  [G*>],  and,  in  the  Catho- 
lic Epistles,  K  L,  come  nearest  to  the  later  form 
of  the  text.  In  the  Pauline  Epistles  the  oldest 
text  is  represented  by  x  A  B  C)  II  I-  O  Q  [R], 
with  the  Grajco-Latin  manuscripts,  D  F  G;  M  P 
approach  this ;  while  K  L  N  stand  nearest  to  the 
more  recent  text.  The  text  of  the  Apocalypse 
appears  in  its  oldest  form  in  x  A  C,  to  which  P 
comes  nearer  tluiu  B. 

Tregelles  exhibits  the  "genealogy  of  the  text" 
and  affinities  of  the  manuscripts  in  the  Gospels 
in  the  following  form  :  — 


WESTERN. 

ALEXANDRINE. 

BX  Z 

B\-ZANTINE. 

D 

C  L  H  1.33 

PQTRIN 

A 

XaCO 

KMH 

E  F  G  S  U,  etc 

Westcott  and  Hort  attach  a  superlative  value 
to  B.  —  The  same  manuscript  may  differ  in 
character  in  different  parts  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment :  thus,  A  is  not  so  excellent  in  the  Gospels 
as  elsewhere ;  A  is  specially  good  in  the  Gospel 
of  Mark ;  x  and  D  agree  most  closely  in  the  Gos- 
pel of  John  ;  the  cursive  1  is  remarkably  valuable 
in  the  Gospels,  but  not  so  in  the  rest  of  the  New 
Testament.  — E.  A.] 

[2.  History  of  the  Printed  Text.  —  For  more 
than  half  a  century  after  the  invention  of  print- 
ing, the  original  text  of  the  New  Testament  re- 
nuiined  unpublished.  The  credit  of  first  printing 
it  belongs  to  Cardinal  Ximenes  df,  Cisneros, 
Archbishop  of  Toledo,  who  made  it  tom.  V.  of 
his  great  Polyglot  Bible,  printed  at  Alcala,  in 
Spain  (Latin  Comjilutum,  hence  the  name  Coin- 
plutcnsian  Polyglot),  in  6  vols,  folio  (1514-17). 
The  manuscripts  depended  upon  were  compara- 
tively modern  and  of  inferior  value.  Though 
the  volume  is  dated  June  10,  1514,  the  New  Tes- 
tament was  not  puhlished  before  1521  or  1522, 
and  thus  was  preceded  by  the  Greek-Latin  New 
Testament  of  1516,  publi.shed  by  Froben  of  Basel, 
and  edited  by  Euasmu.s.  He  used  as  the  basis 
of  his  text  in  the  Gospels  an  inferior  Basel  manu- 
script of  the  fifteenth  century  (cod.  2),  and  one 
of  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century  in  the 
Acts  and  Epistles  (cod.  2).  With  the.se  he  col- 
lated more  or  less  carefully  one  other  manuscript 
of  the  Gospels  (cod.  1),  two  in  the  Acts  and 
Catholic  Epistles  (codd.  1  and  4),  and  three  in 
the  Pauline  Epistles  (codd.  1,  4,  7).  The  olde.st 
of  these  (cod.  1,  tenth  century)  lias  a  good  text 
in  the  Gospels ;  but  Erasmus  made  very  little  use 
of  it :  the  others  are  comparatively  modern,  and 
poor.     For  the  Revelation  he  had  only  a  single 


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■manuscript  of  the  twelfth  century,  wanting  the 
last  six  verses,  which  he  Iranxlaled  into  (ireek 
from  the  Latin  Vulgate.  In  v.arious  other  places 
in  the  Revelation  lie  followed  the  readings  of  the 
Vulgate  in  opposition  to  the  Greek,  as  he  did  in 
a  few  cases  elsewhere.  The  result  of  the  whole 
is,  that  in  more  than  twenty  places  the  Greek  of 
tlie  lexlus  receptus,  which  is"  derived  ultimately  in 
the  main  from  the  fourth  edition  of  Erasmus,  is 
supported  by  the  authority  of  tn)  known  Greek- 
manuKcript  tchatecer.  The  first  edition  of  Eras- 
mus was  sped  through  the  press  with  lieadlong 
haste  (•' [in^cipitatum  fuit  verius  quam  editum," 
as  Erasmus  liimself  says)  in  order  that  the  pub- 
lislier,  Frolien,  might  get  the  start  of  the  Coni- 
plutensian.  It  consequently  swarms  with  errors. 
A  more  correct  edition  was  issued  in  1519:  Mill 
observed  about  four  hundred  changes  in  the  text. 
For  this  and  later  editions,  one  additional  manu- 
script (cod.  3)  was  used  in  the  Gospels,  Acts,  and 
Epistles.  In  the  third  edition  (1522)  the  changes 
were  much  fewer ;  but  it  is  noted  for  the  intro- 
-duction  of  1  John  v.  7  from  the  Codex  Mont- 
fortianus  (sixteenth  century).  In  the  fourth 
•edition  (1527)  the  text  was  altered  and  improved 
in  many  places,  particularly  in  the  Revelation, 
from  the  Complutensian  Polyglot.  That  of  the 
fifth  (1535)  and  last  (Erasmus  died  in  1536) 
hardly  differs  fi'om  the  fourth.  —  The  next  edi- 
tions which  call  for  notice  are  those  of  the  great 
printer  and  scholar,  Robert  Stephe.xs  (Esti- 
«nne,  Stephanus),  published  at  Paris  in  1546, 1549 
(the  beautiful  "  0  mirijicam  "  editions,  in  16mo), 
15.50  (a  magnificent  folio,  edilio  regia),  and  Ge- 
neva, 1551  (16mo),  in  the  last  of  which  our 
present  division  into  verses  was  first  introduced 
into  the  Greek  text.  (The  first  edition  of  the 
■whole  Bible  which  contains  this  verse-division 
was  Robert  Stephens's  edition  of  the  Latin  Vul- 
gate in  1555,  not  1548  as  is  often  erroneously 
stated.)  His  Greek  Testament  of  1550,  notwith- 
standing its  array  of  various  readings  in  the 
margin  from  fifteen  manuscripts  and  the  Com- 
plutensian Polyglot,  is  mainly  founded  on  the 
fourth  or  fifth  edition  of  Erasmus :  Scrivener 
has  noted  a  hundred  and  nineteen  places  in 
which  he  dift'ers  from  all  of  his  manuscripts. 
The  text  of  the  edition  of  1551  varies  but 
slightly  from  that  of  1550. — The  four  folio  edi- 
tions of  TuEouoKE  Beza  (1519-160.5),  Geneva 
(1565-82-88  or  89,  and  1598),  as  well  as  his  five 
8vo  editions  (1565-67-80-90,  1604),  follow,  for 
the  most  part,  .Stephens's  editions  of  1.^50  or  1551, 
with  changes  here  and  there,  many  of  which  are 
not  improvements.  Stepliens's  edition  of  1.5.50  is 
commonly  spoken  of  in  England  as  the  lexlns 
receptus:  but  on  the  Continent  the  first  Elzkvii! 
edition,  printed  at  Lcydcn  in  1624,  has  generally 
received  that  designation.  The  expression  is 
borrowed  from  the  preface  to  the  second  ICl/.evir 
edition  (1633),  in  which  we  find  the  words, 
"  Textum  ergo  habes,  nunc  ab  omnibus  recc[> 
turn."  The  text  of  the  seven  Elzevir  editions 
(1024-33-41,  Leyden;  1056-62-70-78,  Amster- 
dam), among  which  tliere  are  a  few  slight  dif- 
ferences, is  made  up  almost  wholly  from  Reza's 
smaller  editions  of  1565  and  1580  (Rcuss)  ;  its 
editor  is  unknown.  The  texlus  receptus,  slavishly 
followed,  with  slight  diversities,  in  hundreds  of 
'editions,  and  substantially  represented  in  all  llie 


principal  modern  Pi-otestant  translations  prior  to 
the  present  century,  thus  resolves  itself  essentially 
into  that  of  the  last  edition  of  Erasmus,  framed 
from  a  few  modern  and  inferior  manuscripts  and 
the  Complutensian  Polyglot,  in  the  infancy  of 
biblical  criticism. 

The  editions  which  follow  from  1657  to  1830, 
with  the  exception  of  that  of  GRiESB.\cn,  are 
mainly  important,  as  regards  the  text,  for  their 
accumulation  of  critical  materials.  In  \V.\ltox's 
Polyglot  (London,  1057),  .Stephens's  Cireek  text 
of  1550  was  accompanied  by  the  Vulgate,  Peshito 
S\Tiac,  Ethiopic,  Arabic,  and  in  parts  of  the  New 
Testament,  other  ancient  versions,  with  a  critical 
apparatus  including  the  readings  of  Codex  A, 
U  (1),  D  (2),  Stephens's  margin,  and  eleven  cur- 
sive manuscripts  collated  by  or  for  Archbishop 
tlssher.  In  Bishop  Fell's  edition  (Oxford,  1675), 
who  reprinted  substantially  the  Elzevir  text,  other 
authorities,  including  readings  of  the  Coptic  and 
Gothic  versions,  are  given  in  the  notes,  though 
the  titlepage,  "ex  plus  100  MSS.  codicihus."  is 
verv  misleading.  —  The  edition  of  John  Mill 
(1645-1707),  Oxford,  1707,  fol.  (improved  and 
enlarged  by  Kiister,  Amsterdam  and  Leipzig,  also 
Rotterdam",  1710),  the  work  of  thirty  years,  marks 
an  epoch  in  the  history  of  textual  criticism  by 
its  vast  additions  to  the  store  of  critical  material 
through  the  collation  of  new  manuscripts,  the 
collection  of  readings  from  the  ancient  versions, 
and  e.specially  from  the  quotations  found  in  the 
writings  of  the  Christian  Fathers,  and  by  its  very 
learned  and  valuable  Prolegomena.  Mill  gave 
his  judgment  on  many  readings  in  his  notes  and 
Prolegomena,  but  did  not  venture  to  form  a  text 
of  his  own,  reprinting  .Stephens's  text  of  1550 
without  intentional  variation.  —  The  projected 
edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  and  Latin  Vul- 
gate in  parallel  columns,  by  the  illusti-ious  critic, 
Richard  Bentley,  deserves  a  brief  notice. 
Proposals  for  printing  -were  issued  in  1720,  and 
a  large  amoimt  of  materials  collected  at  great 
expense,  including  a  collation  of  Codex  B  (pub- 
lished by  Ford  in  1799)  ;  but  the  work  was  never 
completed.  It  was  to  have  been  founded  on  the 
oldest  tireek  and  Latin  manuscripts,  compared 
with  the  principal  ancient  versions  and  the  quota- 
tions in  the  Fathers  of  the  first  f  ve  centuries.  See 
A.  A.  Ellis,  Bentleii  Crilica  Sacra,  1802.  —  JouN 
Albert  Bengel's  (1687-17.52)  edition,  Tiibin- 
gen,  1734,  4to,  while  it  had  the  advantage  of  some 
new  manuscripts,  was  specially  valu.able  for  its 
discussions  and  illustrations  of  the  principles  of 
criticism,  and  its  classification  of  manuscripts ; 
but,  except  in  the  Apocalypse,  he  did  not  dare  to 
introduce  into  his  text  any  reading,  even  though 
he  believed  it  unquestionably  genuine,  which  had 
not  previously  appeared  in  .some  iirinted  edition. 
llis  judgment  of  the  value  of  different  readings 
w.as,  however,  given  in  the  margin.^ The  mag- 
nificent edition  of  John  James  Wetstein  (1693- 
1754),  2  vols,  fob,  Amsterdam,  1751-.52,  the  work 
of  forty  years,  greatly  enlarged  the  store  of  criti- 
cal material  by  extensive  collation  of  manuscripts 
and  researches  into  the  quotations  of  the  Fathers, 
and  l>y  his  description  of  this  material  in  V(>rv 
valuallle  and  copious  Prolegomena,  reprinted,  witli 
additions  by  Semler,  Ilalle,  1704.  lie  gives  also 
the  readings  of  the  chief  jirinted  editions  which 
prccedril  him,  and  describes  them  fully.     He  in- 


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BIBLE  TEXT  — New  Test. 


troducefl  the  presoiit  metliofl  of  rtenotiiif;-  the 
uncial  niainis(:ri|)ts  liy  Koiiiaii  cajiitals,  and  the 
cursives  and  lectionarios  liy  Arabic  tif^ures.  He- 
sides  the  critical  matter,  liis  oilition  is  a  thesaurus 
of  (imitations  from  ancient  (ireek  and  Latin  and 
ralil'inical  authors,  ilhistratini;  the  ]ihraseolo;4y  of 
th<!  N'cw  Testament,  or  containing  passages  more 
or  less  parallel  in  sentiment.  ]{ishop  Marsh  calls 
it  "the  invalualile  book."  His  publisher  insisted 
on  his  reprinting  the  textu.i  rncejitua  (substautially 
that  of  the  Elzevirs);  but  he  gives  his  critical 
judgment  in  tlie  margin  and  the  notes.  —  Other 
editions  to  be  bi'iefly  mentioned  are  those  of  F.  C. 
Altkr,  Vienna,  1780-87,  giving  the  readuigs  of 
twenty-two  Vienna  manuscripts  and  of  four 
mauusci'ipts  of  the  Slavonic  version  ;  of  Andrew 
Birch.  Qimtimr  Eviuu/clia  Greece,  Copenhagen, 
1788,  Jto.  and  VarUc  Leclio>in\  1798,  1800,  1801, 
exhibiting  the  readings  of  many  manuscripts 
collated  in  the  libraries  of  Italy,  .Spain,  and  Ger- 
many, by  himself  and  others;  and  of  ('.  F.  M.at- 
TH.Ei,  Nov.  Test.  Gr.  el  Latiiie  (Vulg.),  Riga, 
1782-88,  in  12  vols.  8vo,  also  Nor.  Text.  Grave, 
AVittenberg,  etc.,  180;5-07,  in  3  vols.  8vo,  for 
■whicli  over  a  hundred  manuscripts  wei'e  used, 
jnostly  from  the  Libi'ary  of  the  Holy  Synod  at 
Moscow,  ilatthasi  was  a  careful  collator,  but  a 
very  poor  critic;  and  his  manuscripts  generally 
were  of  inferior  quality. 

The  first  edition  of  John  Jajies  Griesbach 
(174.5-1812)  h.ad  been  published  in  1774-75  (the 
first  three  Gospels  in  synopsis)  ;  but  we  need  con- 
sider only  the  second,  Halle,  179(3-1800,  2  vols. 
8vo,  in  which,  though  not  wholly  freed  from  the 
fetters  of  the  lextus  recephix,  he  first  made  really 
good  use  of  the  materials  gathered  by  his  prede- 
cessors, and  augmented  by  his  own  collections.  A 
manual  edition  was  issued  at  Leipsic  in  1805[-00], 
the  text  of  which,  differing  somewhat  from  that 
of  the  larger  edition,  expresses  his  later  critical 
judgment.  Following  in  the  track  of  Bengel  and 
Semler,  Griesbach  sought  to  simplify  the  process 
of  criticism  by  cVissifying  his  manuscripts  and 
other  autliorities.  He  made  three  classes  or  re- 
censions,—  the  Alexandrian,  the  '\\'estern,  and  the 
Constautinopolitan  or  Byzantine,  —  to  the  latter  of 
which  the  mass  of  later  and  inferior  nutnuscripts 
belongs.  Though  his  system  is  not  now  accepted 
in  its  details,  nuich  truth  lay  at  the  bottom  of  it. 
His  principles  of  criticism  were  sound  ;  and  in  liis 
application  of  them  he  displayed  rare  skill  and 
tact.  In  1827  a  third  edition  of  the  first  volume 
of  his  Greek  Testament  was  published,  with  im- 
portant additions,  under  the  editorship  of  Dr. 
David  Schulz.  Griesbach'.s  Symholm  crilicce 
(Halle.  178.5-93),  and  Commentarius  criticus  (on 
Matthew  and  Mark),  part  i.,  ii.,  with  Melelemata 
critica  (prefixed  to  part  ii.),  .Jena,  1798-1811, 
are  still  valuable.  —  A  number  of  manual  editions 
founded  on  that  of  Griesbach,  but  inclining  more 
to  the  "  received  text,"  as  those  of  H.  .\.  Schott 
(Leipz.,  1805-13-2.o-:59),  with  a  good  Latin  trans- 
lation; G.  C.  Knapp  (Halle,  1797,  1813-24-29- 
40).  with  a  useful  Commcntatio  i.'sat/ogica,  or  Intro- 
duction, and  carefully  punctuated  and  divided; 
J.  A.  H.  TiTTMANN  (ster.  Leipz.,  1820,  1828, 
16mo;  1S24,  1831,  Svo).  Aug.  Hahn  (Leipz., 
1840,  1S41,  revised  ed.  1861),  reprinted  at  N.Y., 
1842,  by  Dr.  Edward  Robinson  ;  K.  G.  W.  Theile 
(ster.  Leipz.,  1844,  11th  ed.  1875,  by  O.  von  Geb- 


hardt),  with  the  variations  of  the  chief  modern 
editors,  ]iarallel  passages,  etc.;  also  .S.  T.  I'l.ooM- 
kiki.d's  Gr.  Te.'il.  wiih  EngUnli  Notes  (London, 
1832,  9th  ed.,  18.55,  2  vols.  Hvo),  mark  no  m-og- 
ress  in  criticism  beyond  (iriesbach,  Imt  ratlier  a 
retrograde  movement.  —  The  same  is  true  of  the 
large  edition  of  the  Catholic  scholar,  .1.  ^I.  A. 
Scnoi,/,  (Leijizig,  1830-30,  2  vols.  4to),  whose 
extensive  travels  ,and  researches  in  liliraries  en- 
abled him  to  adil  a  very  large  numlier  of  new 
manuscripts  (according  to  Scrivener,  010)  to  the 
list  of  those  previously  known.  But  of  these, 
only  thirteen  were  collated  entire  ;  a  few  others  in 
the  greater  part;  many  in  only  a  few  chajiters ; 
many  more  simply  inspected,  or  only  enrolled  in 
the  list.  He  was  a  poor  critic,  and  as  an  editor 
and  collator  incredibly  careless.  lie  divided  his 
manuscripts  into  two  classes  or  recensions,  —  the 
xVlexandrian  and  the  Constantinoiiolitan,  givhig 
the  preference  to  the  latter.  Hut  in  applying  his 
system  he  was  happily  inconsistent,  particularly 
in  his  second  volume,  and  at  a  later  period  of  his 
life  (1845)  abandoiu'd  it.  His  edition  met  with 
no  favor  from  intelligent  scholars;  but  in  Eng- 
land, where  liililical  criticism  was  at  its  lowest 
ebb,  it  was  welcomed  and  praised  by  many,  and 
its  text  reprinted. 

A  new  period  in  the  history  of  textual  criticism 
was  inaugurated  by  the  appearance  (Berlin,  1831) 
of  a  small  edition  of  the  (ireek  Testament  by  the 
distinguished  classical  schohar  Charles  Lach- 
MANN  (1793-1851),  followed  by  a  larger  edition 
in  which  the  authorities  for  the  Gi'eek  text  were 
supplied  by  Philip  Buttmaiin.  with  the  Latin  A'ul- 
gate  in  the  lower  margin  ciitically  edited  from 
Codd.  Fuldensis,  .\miatinus,and  other  manuscripts 
(Berlin,  1842—50,  2  vols.  8vo).  Lachmann's  aim 
in  these  editions  was  not  to  reproduce  the  original 
text  according  to  his  best  judgment  (for  this  he 
deemed  conjectural  criticism  to  be  necessary  in 
some  cases),  liut  to  present  as  far  as  possible  on 
purely  documentary  evidence  the  text  current 
in  the  Eastern  churches  in  the  fourth  century,  as 
a  basis  foi-  criticism.  He  paid  no  attention  to  the 
texlwt  receptti.-!,  and  used  no  cursive  manuscripts, 
but  founded  his  text  whollv  on  ancient  authori- 
ties, viz.,  Codd.  A  B  C  D  P  Q  T  and  Z  of  the 
(lospels,  A  B  C  D  E  (2)  in  the  Acts  and  Catho- 
lic Epistles,  A  BCD  (2)  G  H  in  the  Pauline 
Epistles,  and  ABC  in  the  .\pocalypse.  with  the 
Latin  Vidgate,  and  Codd.  a  (Vercellensis,  fourth 
century),  b  (Veronensis,  fifth  century),  and  c 
(Colbertinus,  eleventh  century)  of  the  Old  Latin, 
for  the  (jospels,  besides  the  Latin  versions  of 
the  GrfPco-Latin  manuscripts  in  the  above  list, 
viz.,  D,  D  (2),  E  (2),  G  (2),  also  of  E  (3)  :  of 
the  Fathers  he  used  Irenasus,  Origen,  Cyjirian, 
Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Lucifer  of  Cagliari,  and  in  the 
.Apocalypse,  Primasius.  His  attempted  task  was 
not  fully  accomplished,  partly  because  the  text  of 
some  of  the  most  important  manuscripts  which  he 
used  (B  C  P  Q,  and  the  Latin  Codex  .A.miatinus) 
had  been  but  very  imperfectly  collated  or  edited, 
partly  because  the  range  of  his  authorities  was 
too  narrow,  and  partly  because  he  was  sometimes, 
ajiparently  at  least,  inconsistent  in  the  application 
of  his  principles.  But  he  was  the  first  to  found 
a  text  wholly  on  ancient  evidence  (Griesbach  dis- 
regarded what  he  deemed  unimportant  variations 
from  the  received  text) ;  and  his  editions,  to  which 


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(6 


BIBLE  TEXT  -  New  Test. 


his  eminent  reputation  as  a  critic  gave  wide  cur- 
rency, especially  in  Germany,  did  nmch  toward 
breaking  down  the  superstitious  reverence  for  the 
texhui  receptus  which  had  long  prevailed.  —  AVe 
come  now  to  the  editions  of  I'ischexdokf  and 
Tkegelles,  of  whom  biographical  notices  will  be 
found  under  their  names.  Through  their  com- 
bined labors  we  have  a  solid  basis  for  a  completely 
critical  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  in  the 
accurate  knowledge,  not  possessed  before,  of  all 
our  manuscripts  of  the  oldest  class  (not  inchiding 
lectionaries),  comprising  many  newly  discovered, 
among  them  the  Sinaitic  of  the  fourth  century. 
Tischendorf  (1815-74)  .spent  about  eiglit  years  of 
his  life  in  travels  in  search  of  manuscripts,  for 
which  lie  visited  tlie  East  three  times  (in  18-14, 
18.5-3,  and  1859),  or  in  collating  with  extreme  care, 
or  transcribing  and  preparing  for  publication,  the 
most  important  of  those  in  the  various  libraries 
of  Eui'ope  which  were  before  known,  but  had  not 
been  publislied  or  thoroughly  examined.  The 
following  uncial  (ireek  manuscripts  (see  the  list 
above)  were  iliscorered  bj'  Tischeudoi'f :  N  G  (2) 
j:.2.3.4.5.6.-  X  (-2)  ()a  Q  (o)  T''  '^  T  6"  ''  =  d  A  O  = 
21; —  first  Hs«/ by  him  :  F"  I"- X  O^cdet  Qb  (O) 
P  (2)"t2  (2)  R  R  (2)  T»=  Wbcde  e'^fg''  =  2.3:  — 
puhlhhed:  S  B  B  (2)  C  1)  (2)  E  (2)  F"  11-2.3.4.5.6.7 
1"  L  M  (2)  X  in  part,  (J"  P  P  (2)  Q  R  W";  Y  e»  = 
21:  — transcribed:  H  (3)  M  O  Tl  =  ^  :  — collated : 
E  F  (2)  G  H  II  (2)  K  L  (2)  O"  (2)  S  U  X  r  A  =  1:5. 
(See  Dr.  C.  R.  Gregory's  Proler/omena  to  Tischen- 
dorf's  iV.  T.  Gr.  ed.  8va,  p.  31.)  His  editions  of  the 
texts  of  biblical  mauuscripts  (including  some  of 
the  Septuagiiit)  comprise  no  less  than  seventeen 
large  quarto  and  five  folio  volumes,  not  inchiding 
the  Anecdota  Sacra  et  Profana  (1855,  new  edition 
1861),  or  the  Nutilia  editionk  Cod.  Sinaitici  (ISUO), 
two  quarto  volumes  containing  descriptions  or 
collations  of  many  new  manuscripts;  and  many 
of  his  collations,  or  copies  of  nuinu.scripts,  remain 
unpublished.  The  titles  of  his  various  writings, 
most  of  them  relating  to  biblical  criticism,  fill 
twelve  octavo  pages  of  Gregory's  Prolegomena. 
His  pi'incipal  editions  of  the  Greek  Testament 
are  those  published  at  Leipzig  in  1841  [1840], 
promising  as  a  first  essay,  but  of  no  special  im- 
portance except  for  the  refutation,  in  the  Prolego- 
mena, of  Scholz's  theory  of  recensions ;  1849,  in 
which  the  critical  apparatus  was  much  enlarged, 
and  the  text  settled  on  the  basis  of  ancient  au- 
thority, generally  with  good  judgment ;  1859 
[1855-58],  2  vols.,  reckoned  as  "editio  .septima 
critica  inaior,"  in  which  very  large  additions  vcre 
made  to  the  critical  appai'atus,  not  only  from 
manuscripts,  Greek  and  J.alin,  but  from  the  (juo- 
tations  in  the  writings  of  the  Cliristian  Fathers  ; 
and  the  evidence  was  for  the  first  time  fully 
stated,  both  for  and  against  the  readings  adopted. 
In  the  first  volume,  Teschendorf,  influenced  per- 
haps by  Scrivener,  showed  a  tendency  to  allow 
greater  weight  to  the  latei-  uncials  and  cursives 
than  he  had  done  in  liis  edition  of  1849 ;  but  he 
soon  fouml  that  he  was  on  tlie  wrong  track : 
and  on  the  whole,  if  we  include  orthographical 
changes,  his  edition  of  18.50  dilfers  more  widely 
from  the  "  received  text  "  than  that  of  1849.  Its 
publication  was  immediately  followed  by  Tisclien- 
dorf's  third  journey  to  the  East,  and  the  discovery 
of  the  great  Sinai  iiianu.script,  together  with  the 
acqui.sition  of  much  other  new  critical  material. 


After  the  publication  of  the  Codex  Sinaiticus  in 
1862,  in  a  magnificent  edition  in  four  volumes 
folio,  in  facsimile  type,  with  twenty-one  plates  of 
actual  facsimiles,  at  the  expense  of  the  Russian 
Government,  the  edition  being  limited  to  three 
hundred  copies,  he  issued  in  1863,  in  4to,  his 
Nonim  Testamentum  Sinailicum,  m  ordinary  type, 
but  representing  the  manuscript  line  for  line, 
with  fidl  Prolegomena,  and  his  iY.  T.  Gr.  ex 
Sinaitico  Codice,  Vaticana  itemque  Elzeviriana  lec- 
tione  notata,  in  1865,  8vo,  with  a  supplement  of 
additions  and  corrections  in  1870.  .\fter  .some 
other  publications,  particularly  the  second  edition 
of  his  S;/no/)sis  erangelica  in  1864,  in  which  the 
.Sinai  manuscript  was  first  used,  he  undertook  his 
last  gi'eat  critical  edition  of  the  Greek  New  Tes- 
tament, which  was  issued  in  eleven  pai'ts  from 
October  1864  to  1872,  forming  two  large  volumes, 
8vo,  Nov.  Test.  Grave,  editio  octava  critica  maior, 
Lipsia?,  1869-72,  but  without  the  Prolegomena. 
This  edition  far  surpassed  all  that  had  preceded 
it  in  the  richness  of  its  critical  apparatus,  and,  as 
compared  with  that  of  1859,  rests  much  more  ou 
the  authority  of  the  oldest  mauuscripts,  particu- 
larly the  Sinaitic.  The  preparation  of  the  Pro- 
legomena was  prevented  by  a  stroke  of  apoplexy 
(Alay  5,  1873),  followed  by  paralysis,  which  ulti- 
mately caused  his  death  (Dec.  7, 1874).  After  long 
delays,  it  was  intrusted  to  an  American  scholar  re- 
siding in  Leipzig,  Dr.  C.  R.  Gregory;  and  the  vol- 
ume is  now  (July,  1881)  passing  through  the  press. 
Besides  those  mentioned  above,  the  most  impor- 
tant publications  of  Tischendorf  pertaining  to  the 
textual  criticism  of  the  New  Testament  are :  Co- 
dex Ephraemi  Si/n  rescriptus,  1843,  4to  (Old  Testa- 
ment part,  1845)  ;  Moiiumenta  sacra  iiiedita,  1846, 
4to  ;  Kcainjclium  Pahitinum  ineditum,  1847,  4to;  Co- 
ilex  Amiatinus  (Vulg.),  1S50,  new  ed.  1854;  Codex 
Claromontanus,  1852,  4to ;  Mon.  sacr.  inedit.  Nova 
Collecting  Vols.  I.-VL,  IX.,  1855-70  (Vols.  VIL 
and  \'1II.  will  probably  be  published  hereafter  by 
(iel)hardt  aiul  (iregory),  4to  ;  Novum  Testamentum 
Vaticaniim,  1867,  and  Appendix  N.  T.  Vat.,  con- 
taining B  (2),  1869,  4to;  compare  Responsa  ad 
calumnias  Romanas,  1870,  8vo,  also  Appendix  codi- 
cum  celeberrimorum  Sin.,  Vat.,  Alex.,  1867,  4to; 
Die  Sinaibihel,  ihre  Entdecktmg,- Herausgabe  und 
Ericei-buni/.  1871,  large  8vo.  His  Novum  Testamen- 
tum triglottum,  Greece,  Latine,  Germanice,  Lips., 
18.">4,  2d  ed.,  186.5,  is  a  convenient  book,  the  three 
jiarts  of  which  were  also  issued  separately,  and  in 
various  combinations.  The  Greek  is  his  own 
text,  with  the  variations  of  the  lextus  receptus: 
the  I^atin,  the  Vulgate,  critically  revised  from  the 
oldest  nuiuuscripts,  with  the  variations  of  the 
Clementine  edition  ;  the  German  the  genuine  text 
of  Luther,  though  in  modern  orthography.  Tesch- 
endorf al.so  issued  many  manual  editions  of  the 
Greek  Testament,  the  three  latest  in  his  lifetime 
being  ]uiblished  in  1873  by  Tauchnitz,  Brockhaus 
(to  match  his  edition  of  the  .Septuagiiit),  and  Men- 
delssohn  {Editio  acadeinica  stptima)  respectively. 
Hi."!  large  editions  of  1859  and  1869-72  were  issued 
with  the  critical  apparatus  greatly  abridged,  but 
giving  the  chief  authorities  for  all  the  important 
\arious  readings,  with  the  titles  Editio  septima  cri- 
tica 7ninnr(\S'A>),  and  Ed.nctara  critica  minor  {IS72- 
77).  The  first  part  of  Gregory's  Prolegomena  ap- 
peared, Leipzig,  1884.  For  the  more  important  of 
ills  numerous  other  works,  see  the  article  Tisciien- 


BIBLE  TEXT  — New  Test. 


277 


BIBLE  TEXT  —  New  Test. 


BORF.  —  Samuel  Pridkaux  Trkc.km.i-.s  (prnn. 
Tre-ghel'lfo),  h.  .Ian.  30,  1813;  d.  April  24,  187.i; 
ranks  next  to  Tisehendoii'  among'  soholai'S  of  the 
present  century  in  tlie  importance  of  his  critical 
labors,  and  in  single-hearted  devotion  to  his 
chosen  task.  His  first  essay  in  the  department 
of  textual  criticism  was  IVte  Hook  of  Ilcrc.latioii  in 
Greek,  edited  from  Ancienl  Atilltoriticn,  with  a  New 
English  Version  and  Various  Readings,  London, 
1844.  In  1848  he  issued  liis  Prospectus  for  a 
critical  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  the  text 
of  which  was  to  be  founded  solely  on  the  an-' 
thority  of  tiie  oldest  Greek  manuscripts,  the 
ancient  versions  down  to  the  seventh  century, 
and  the  citations  of  early  eccle.siastical  writers, 
including  Eusebins.  No  account  was  made  of 
the  "  received  text,"  or  of  the  great  mass  of  cur- 
sive manuscripts.  Completeness  and  accuracy  in 
the  exhibition  of  the  evidence  of  the  witnesses 
used  were  especially  aimed  at.  Like  Tischendorf, 
Tregelles  visited  (in  184.5-46,  1849-r)(),  and  1862) 
the  principal  libraries  in  Europe  for  the  purpose 
of  collating  manuscripts  the  text  of  which  had 
not  before  been  published.  For  the  (Jospels  he 
collated  twelve  uncials,  E  G  II  P  K  M  H  U  X  Z  r  A, 
and  the  cm'sives  1,  33,  69 ;  for  the  Acts  H  (2) 
L  (2)  and  13,  31,  61 ;  for  the  Pauline  Epistles 
D  (2)  F  (2)  L  (2)  M  (2),  17,  37,  47 ;  and  tiie  cur- 
sives 1  and  14  for  the  Apocalypse.  In  many 
cases  Tregelles  compared  his  collations  with  those 
of  Tischendorf,  and  settled  the  differences  by  a 
re-examination  of  the  manuscript.  In  1861  he 
edited  the  Codex  Zacynthivs  (5),  republishing  in 
an  Appendix  the  fragments  of  O.  His  edition 
of  The  Greek  New  Testament,  edited  from  Ancient 
Authorities,  with  their  Various  Readings  in  full,  and 
the  Latin  Version  of  Jerome,  was  issued  in  London 
in  seven  successive  Parts :  I.  INIatthew,  I\Iark, 
1857;  II.  Luke,  John,  1861 ;  III.  Acts  and  Catho- 
lic Epistles,  186.5 ;  IV.  Romans  to  2  Thessaloni- 
ans  [iii.  3],  1869  :  V.  Hebrew.?  [with  2  Thess.  iii. 
3-18]  to  Philemon,  1870 ;  VI.  Revelation,  1872. 
Part  VII.,  Prolegomena  and  Addenda  and  Corri- 
genda, appeared  in  1879,  four  years  after  his 
death,  edited  by  Dr.  Hort  and  A.  W.  Streane. 
A  stroke  of  paralysis  soon  after  Part  II.  was 
completed  long  delayed  the  publication  of  the 
Thii-d  Part.  A  severer  stroke,  when  he  was  revis- 
ing the  concluding  chapters  of  the  Book  of  Reve- 
lation, disabled  him  from  further  labor,  so  that  it 
was  necessary  for  friends  to  aid  him  in  the  issue 
of  this  portion  of  the  work.  His  text  of  Jerome 
was  founded  on  the  Codex  Amiatinus,  which  lie 
had  personally  collated,  the  variations  of  the 
Clementine  edition  being  given  in  the  margin. 
Though  Tregelles  added  far  less  than  Tischen- 
dorf to  our  store  of  critical  material,  he  did  more 
to  establish  correct  principles  of  criticism,  and 
his  various  writings  had  a  wide  and  most  benefi- 
cial influence  in  England.  Besides  many  articles 
in  Kitto's  Journal  of  Sacred  Literature,  he  pub- 
lished in  1854  An  Account  of  the  Printed  Text  of 
ike  Greek  New  Testament,  xoith  Remarks  on  its  Re- 
vision upon  Critical  Principles,  and  in  1856  Intro- 
duction to  the  Textual  Criticism  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, forming  part  of  Vol.  IV.  of  the  tenth  and 
later  editions  of  Home's  Introductioti,  etc.  Tliis 
volume  was  also  issued  separately,  and,  in  the 
eleventh  edition  of  Home's  Inlroduction  (1861), 
appeared  with  "  Additions "  and  a  "Postscript." 


Both  of  these  works  are  of  great  value.  — IIkxhv 
Ar.i-oiin  (1810-71),  Dean  of  Canterbury,  in  his 
Greek  Testament  (vol.  i.,  London,  1849,  0th  ed., 
1868;  vol.  iv.,  1861,  4th  ed.,  1871),  gave  a  criti- 
cally revised  text,  with  a  digest  of  variou.s  read- 
ings. The  work  was  greatly  improved  as  rtjgai'ds 
the  text  (especially  of  vol.  i.)  in  tlie  later  edi- 
tions, in  which  he  adojjted  substantially  the  prin- 
ciples of  Tischendorf  and  Tregelles,  giving  more 
weight,  liowever,  to  internal  considerations. — The 
first  volume  of  the  long-expected  edition  of  the 
Greek  Testament  by  Dr.  15.  F.  VVkstcott  anil  Dr. 
F.  J.  A.  HoitT  was  published  in  England, May. 
1881,  in  the  same  month  with  tlie  revLsed  New 
Testament,  and  reprinted  fi'om  duplicate  plates 
in  New  York  with  an  Introduction  by  Dr.  Schaff. 
The  second  volume,  containing  the  authors'  In- 
troduction and  Appendix,  followed  soon  after. 
This  edition  is  not  accompanied  with  any  critical 
apparatus :  it  has  rather  been  the  object  of  the 
authors,  by  a  careful  study  of  the  materials  fur- 
nished by  their  predecessors,  augmented  some- 
what, liowever,  by  their  own  researches,  to  trace 
the  history  of  the  text  as  far  as  possible,  to  dis- 
tinguisli  its  different  types,  and  determine  their 
relations  and  their  comparative  value,  to  investi- 
gate the  special  charactei-istics  of  the  most  impor- 
tant docmnents  and  groups  of  documents,  and, 
finally,  to  apply  the  principles  of  criticism  which 
result  from  these  studies  to  the  determination  of 
the  original  text.  They  have  been  more  or  less 
steadily  engaged  in  this  task  for  about  twentj- 
eight  years;  and  though  their  view  of  the  genea- 
logical relations  of  the  chief  ancient  texts  has 
not  failed  to  excite  strong  opposition  in  certain 
quarters,  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  their  work 
is  the  most  important  contribution  to  the  scien- 
tific criticism  of  the  New-Testament  text  whicli 
has  yet  been  made.  They  distinguish  four  princi- 
pal types  of  text :  the  Wrsli-rn.  characterized  by  a 
tendency  to  paraphrase  or  to  modify  the  form  of 
expression,  and  also  to  interpolate  from  parallel 
passages  or  from  extraneous  sources,  represented 
especially  by  D  and  the  Old  Latin  versions, 
also  in  part  by  the  Curetonian  Syriac ;  the  neu- 
tral, represented  by  B  and  largely  by  X,  preserv- 
ing best  the  original  form  ;  the  Alexandrian,  much 
purer  than  the  \Vestern,  l>ut  betraying  a  tendency 
to  polish  the  language ;  and  the  St/rian.  the  latest 
form,  a  mixed  text,  borrowing  from  all,  and  aim- 
ing to  be  easy,  smooth,  and  complete.  They  re- 
gard B  as  pre-eminent  above  all  other  manuscripts 
for  the  purity  of  its  text ;  the  readings  of  N  and 
B  combined  as  generally  deserving  acceptance  as 
genuine,  their  ancestries  having  "  diverged  from 
a  point  near  the  autographs ; "  and  they  attach 
great  weight  to  every  combination  of  B  with 
another  primary  Greek  manuscript,  as  L  C  T  D  H 
A  Z  33,  and  in  Mark  A. 

A  very  convenient  edition  for  representing  the 
variations  of  the  principal  modern  editors  from 
the  "  received  text  "  is  Scrivener's  Nov.  Test,  textfts 
Stephanici  A.D.  1550.  Accedunt  varia  lectiones 
editionum  Bezce,  Elzeviri,  Lachmanni,  Tregellesii. 
Ed.  auct.  et  emend.  Cantabr.  et  Loud.,  1877, 
16mo.  Dr.  Gregory's  Prolegomena  to  Tischen- 
dorf's  eighth  critical  edition  give  a  collation  of 
the  texts  of  Tischendorf,  TregeUes,  and  Westcott 
and  Hort.  Dr.  Scrivener  and  Archdeacon  Palmer 
of  Oxford  have  lately  published  (1881)  editions 


BIBLE  TEXT  —  New  Test. 


278 


BIBLE  TEXT  —  New  Test. 


of  the  Greek  Testament  indicating  in  different 
■ways  the  (ireek  text  followed  in  the  revised  ver- 
sion of  the  New  Testament. 

The  most  complete  worka  on  the  history  of 
printed  editions  of  the  Greek  Testament  are 
Le  Long's  Bibliotheca  sacra,  edited  by  Masch, 
vol.  i.  (Hal*.  1778,  4to),  pp.  187-424,  and  Reuss's 
Bihiiolheca  Aovi  Testamenii  Grceci,  Brunsvigae, 
1872.  Svo.  —  E.  A.] 

[3.  Principles:  of  Textual  Ci-iticixm.  —  Tt  is  im- 
possible, within  the  limits  here  allowed,  to  state 
and  illustrate  the  principles  of  criticism  applica- 
ble to  the  text  of  the  Greek  Testament.  A  few 
hints  may,  however,  be  given.  The  object,  of 
course,  is  to  ascertain  which,  among  two  or  more 
variations  of  the  text  presented  bj'  our  manu- 
scripts or  other  authorities,  is  the  original.  Xo 
kind  of  evidence,  external  or  internal,  is  to  be 
neglected.  The  problem  is  to  be  solved  by  a 
process  of  reasoning  upon  probabilities ;  and  we 
have  to  consider,  in  every  case,  what  hjiJothesis 
will  best  explain  all  the  phenomena.  This  fact  is 
sometimes  partially  stated  under  the  form  of  the 
rule  that  that  reailing  is  to  be  accepted  as  ffeniiine 
which  tcill  best  explain  the  origin  of  the  other  varia- 
tions. This  is  an  impoitant  rule ;  but  we  have  to 
consider,  not  merely  the  nature  of  the  variations, 
but  the  number,  independence,  and  character  of 
the  witnesses  that  support  them.  The  process  of 
criticism  is  not  a  mechanical  one.  Our  authori- 
ties mu.st  be  weighed,  not  counted.  One  good, 
very  early  manuscript  may  be  worth  more  than  a 
thousand  copies  derived  from  a  late  and  corrupted 
archetype.  Again  :  though  the  presumption  is  in 
favor  of  the  oldest  manuscripts,  mere  antiquity 
cannot  prove  the  excellence  of  a  copy. 

One  of  the  essential  prerequisites  to  intelligent 
criticism  is  a  thorough  study  of  the  occasions 
of  error  in  maimscripts.  This  involves  a  knowl- 
edge of  palaeography  and  of  the  history  of  pro- 
nunciation. 'I'he  similarity  of  certain  letters  or 
abbreviations  in  their  older  forms  gave  occasion 
to  errors  which  can  be  only  thus  explained ;  and 
in  the  corruption  of  the  (ireek  language,  vowels 
and  diphthongs  originally  distinct  in  soimd  (f ,  ai ; 
t,  fi,  n.  01,  V,  vL)  were  pronounced  alike  (itacism). 
It  involves  also  a  study  of  the  tendencies  and 
habits  of  transcribers.  Many  manuscripts,  in  the 
alterations  they  have  received  from  later  hands, 
illastrate  the  manner  in  which  the  text  was  cor- 
rupted. Among  the  maxims  resulting  from  such 
a  study,  in  connection  with  the  consideration  of 
external  testimony,  are  the.se:  (1)  The  more  diffi- 
cult reading  is  to  be  preferred ;  Bengel's  gi'eat  rule. 
This  applies  to  those  variations  which  are  to  be 
ascribed  to  design.  Transcribers  would  not  in- 
tentionallv  substitute  a  harsii,  ungrammatical, 
unusual,  Hebraistic  expression,  one  tiiat  caused  a 
ditliculty  of  any  kmd,  for  an  easier  one.  (2)  The 
shorter  reading  is  to  be  pre/erred ;  Porson's  "  surest 
canon  of  criticism."  The  tendency  of  .scrilies 
wa,s  almost  always  to  add,  rather  than  to  omit. 
They  did  not  like  to  have  tlieir  copies  regarded  as 
inconi])lete.  It  was  connnon  to  insert  in  the  mar- 
gin of  manu.scripts,  or  between  the  lines,  glosses, 
or  explanations  of  unusual  or  diflicult  expres- 
sions, also  words  or  clauses  which  served  to  sup- 
plement the  language  of  one  (iospel  from  the 
parallel  or  similar  passages  in  anotiier,  or  to  com- 
plete abridged  quotations  of  the  Old  Testament 


from  the  fuller  text  of  the  Septnagint.  Words 
accidentally  omitted  were  also  placed  in  the  mar- 
gin, or  interlined.  A  transcriber  might  thus  easily 
mistake  these  glo.sses,  or  supplements,  of  his 
predecessor  for  accidental  omissions,  and  transfer 
them  to  his  text.  This  i-ule  does  not  apply  to 
cases  where  an  omission  can  be  satisfactorily  ex- 
plained by  honiCEotetmton  (^bfioioTOiCi-ov') ;  that  is, 
cases  where  two  successive  sentences  or  parts  of 
sentences  have  a  like  ending.  The  scribe  copies  the 
first  of  these,  then  his  eye  glances  to  the  like  end- 
ing of  the  second,  and  he  thinks  tliat  tliat  is  what 
he  has  just  copied,  and  omits  unconsciously  the 
intervening  words.  —  Another  prerequisite  to  suc- 
cessful criticism  is  a  careful  study  of  the  principal 
documents,  and  groups  or  classes  of  documents, 
in  connection  with  the  history  of  the  text,  so  far 
as  it  can  be  traced,  in  order  to  determine  by  a 
process  of  "comparative  criticism  "  their  peculiar 
characteristics,  their  weak  points  and  their  strong 
points,  and  the  relative  anti(]uity  and  value  of 
their  texts.  This  process  includes  the  ancient 
versions,  and  the  quotations  in  the  writings  of 
the  principal  Christian  Fathers.  It  cannot  be 
here  detailed.  Griesbach  did  good  work  in  this 
direction,  and  it  has  been  the  special  study  of 
Westcott  and  Hort.  AVe  are  thus  enabled  to 
iceigh  tlie  external  evidence  in  particular  cases 
with  some  approach  to  accuracy.  —  E.  a.] 

[4.  liestdts  of'  the  Textual  Criticism  of  the  Neu? 
Testament.  —  The  host  of  "  various  readings  " 
which  an  examination  of  ancient  manuscripts, 
versions,  and  quotations,  has  brought  to  light, 
perhaps  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  in  uiun- 
ber,  alarms  some  sinqile-minded  people.  Analy- 
sis at  once  dispels  the  alarm.  It  is  seen  that  a 
very  large  proportion  of  these  readings,  say  nine- 
teen-twentieths,  are  of  no  authority,  no  one  can 
suppose  them  to  be  genuine ;  and  nineteen-twen- 
tieths  of  the  renuiinder  are  of  no  importance  as 
affecting  the  sense.  Of  how  much,  or  rather,  of 
how  little,  importance,  for  the  most  part,  the 
remainder  are,  can  readilj'  be  seen  by  comparing 
the  revised  version  of  the  New  Testament  (with 
its  marginal  notes)  with  the  text  of  the  conmion 
version,  or  by  an  exannnation  of  the  various  read- 
ings of  the  chief  modern  editors  in  Scrivener's 
Greek  Testament  referred  to  above.  The  great 
number  of  various  readings  is  simply  the  result 
of  the  extraordinary  richness  of  our  critical  re- 
sources. Westcott  and  Ilort  renuirk  with  entire 
truth,  that  "in  the  variety  and  fulness  of  the 
evidence  on  which  it  rests,  the  text  of  the  New 
Testament  stands  absolutely  and  unapproachably 
alone  among  ancient  jirosi'-writings."  (Greek 
Test.,  vol.  i.  p.  501).  —  K.  A.] 

[f.iT.  —  Besides  what  have  already  been  men- 
tioned, the  most  important  contributions  to  our 
knowledge  of  manuscri]its  of  the  New  Testament 
in  the  present  century  have  bet^n  made  by  V.  II. 
A.  ScHiVKNF.R,  in  his  Full  and  Exact  Collation  of 
about  Tu-cnti/  MS.S.  of  the  Gospels,  Cambridge, 
1853,  and  Full  Collation  of  almit  Fiftij  MSS.  of  the 
Greek  Testament,  tcith  a  Crit.  Introduction,  ajv 
peniled  to  his  edition  of  the  Coilex  Augiensis,  1859. 
Works  of  snuiller  importance  in  this  department 
have  been  jiublished  bv  Dermout.  Kinck  (I.urn- 
bratio  critica,  183(1),  l{eu;he,  \'<in  Muralt,  Dobbin 
{C„d.  Monl/ortiaiius,  1854),  Delitzsch,  Uaml.ic/iriji- 
liche  Fundi  (1861-C2),  on  Cod.   1  of  the  Apoca- 


BIBLB  VERSIONS. 


279 


BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


lypse,  the  long-lost  manuscript  of  Erasmus  ;  also 
by  the  Catholic  Cozza,  and  Ferrar  and  Abbott. 

On  the  textual  criticism  of  the  New  Testament 
generally,  besides  the  Introdiwlions  to  the  Xew 
Testament  by  Michaelis,  translated  with  valuable 
notes  by  ^Nlarsh  (3d  ed.,  1818),  Hug,  De  Wette, 
Bleek,  and  Keuss  (Geschichle  dcr  heiliyen  ScJirifl- 
en  N.  T.,  5te  Ausg.,  1874),  may  be  mentioned  the 
special  treatises  by  J.  Scott  Porter  (1848),  S.  Da- 
vidson (185''),  Tregelles  (185G),  and  Scrivener, 
Pliiin  Inlrod.  to  the  Criticism  of  the  N.  7'.,  Cam- 
bridge and  London,  1861,  2d  ed.,  1874.  .Scrivener 
represents  a  more  con.servative  school  of  criticism 
than  Tischendorf,  Tregelles,  and  Westcott  and 
Hort,  though  in  his  different  writings  he  has 
steadily  approached  them.  Smaller  works  are : 
William  Milligan  and  Alexander  Roberts,  The 
Words  of  the  N.  T.,  a.s  altered  by  Trnnsmission  and 
ascertained  hi/  Criticism,  Edinb.,  1873 ;  Scrivener's 
Six  Lectures'on  the  Text  of  the  N.  T.,  1875;  C.  E. 
Hanmiond,  Outlines  of  Textual  Criticism  applied  to 
the  N.  T.,  3d  ed.,  1880;  and  E.  C.  Mitchell,  The 
Critical  Handliook,  Andover,  also  London,  1880. 
—  For  applied  criticism,  the  notes  of  ]Meyer  and 
his  collaboi-ators  on  the  Xew  Testament,  those  of 
Wieseler  on  Galatians,  Volkmar  on  Mark,  and 
particularly  Weiss  on  j\latthew  and  ]Mark,  and 
Westcott  on  John,  also  Lightfoot  on  Galatians, 
Philippians,  and  especially  Colossians  and  Phile- 
mon, are  worthy  of  attention.  The  Kev.  T.  S. 
Green's  Course  of  Developed  Criticism  on  Passages 
of  the  N.  T.  affected  bij  Various  Headings,  London 
[1856],  displays  good  judgment.  Reiche's  Co7n- 
mentarius  criticus,  3  tom.,  Gottingen,  1853-62,  4to, 
is  heavy,  but  not  weighty.  —  Among  elaborate 
critical  monographs  on  important  passages,  the 
following  may  be  mentioned :  J.  W.  Burgon, 
The  last  Tioelve  Verses  of  the  Gospel  according  to 
S.  Mark  vindicated  .  .  .  and  established,  Oxford, 
1871  (comp.  an  art.  by  Dr.  J.  A.  Broadus  in  the 
Baptist  Quarterli/  for  July,  1869)  ;  Ezra  Abbot  on 
.John  i.  18,  in  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra  for  October, 
1861,  and  the  Unitarian  Review  for  June,  1875 ; 
Professor  James  I>rummond  on  the  same  passage, 
in  the  Theol.  Rev.  for  October,  1871  (comp.  April, 
1876);  F.  J.  A.  Hort,  Two  Dissertations,  1.  On 
jjovoyevtii  0eof  in  Scripture  and  Tradition,  etc., 
Cambr.  and  Loud.,  1876;  Ezra  Abbot  on  Acts 
XX.  28,  in  the  Bibl.  Sacra  for  April,  1876 ;  A.  W. 
Tyler  on  1  Cor.  xiii.,  in  the  Bibl.  Sacra  for  Janu- 
ary and  July,  1873 ;  William  Hayes  Ward  on 
1  Tim.  iii.  16,  in  the  Bibl.  Sacra  for  January, 
1865 ;  and  William  Orme's  Memoir  of  the  Contro- 
versy respecting  1  John  v.  7,  Lond.,  1830,  new  ed., 
with  notes  and  an  appendix  by  Ezra  Abbot,  New 
York,  1866.— E.  a.] 

TISCHENDORF  (d.) ;  O.  VON  GEBHAEDT 
(revised  jiiui  in  large  part  re-written  by  Ezra  Abbot). 

BIBLE  VERSIONS,  or  TRANSLATIONS  OF 

THE  BIBLE.  As  regards  the  Old  Testament, 
the  extinction  of  the  Hebrew  as  a  spoken  lan- 
guage, and,  as  regards  the  New  Testament,  the 
introduction  of  Christianity  among  non-Cireek- 
speaking  peoples  (for  in  the  earliest  day  Chris- 
tians read  the  entire  Bible  in  Greek),  rendered 
translations  necessities.  These  translations  are 
called  "versions."  Thej'  may  be  classified  as 
immediate,  i.e.,  directly  from  the  original  text, 
and  mediate,  or  derived  from  other  translations. 
The  oldest  of  the  first  class  are  older  than  the 


oldest  existing  manuscripts  of  the  Bilile,  and  are- 
therefore  of  great  value  to  the  Bible  critic  in 
determining  the  text,  and  to  the  exegete  in  tra- 
cing the  history  of  doctrine;  lor  translation  is 
more  or  less  commentary. 

Ancient  Versions.  A.  Versions  of  the  Old 
Tkstamknt.'  I.  GREEK.  —  (1)  The  first  in 
importance,  and  the  oldest  complete  version  in  any 
language,  is  the  Alexandrian,  known  as  the  Seji- 
tuagint  (commonly  designated  by  LXX.),  because, 
according  to  the  worthless  tradition  (cf.  KuRz: 
Aristae  epistnla  ad  Philocratem,  Bern,  1872),  the 
translation  of  the  Law  was  made  on  the  Island 
of  Pharos,  near  Alexandria,  Egypt,  by  70  (72) 
.lews,  who  brought  the  Hebrew  manuscript  from, 
Palestine  by  request  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
who  was  gathering  a  library.  (See  Aiusteas.) 
The  story  is  told  at  great  length  by  Josephus 
(Ant.  12,  2).  The  truth  about  its  origin  is, 
that  Alexandria  became,  after  the  Dispersion,  a 
centre  of  Jewish  population,  and  eventually  of 
religion ;  but,  as  time  went  on,  the  .Jews,  under 
Greek  influences,  lost  command  of  Hebrew,  and 
therefore  required  a  translation  of  their  sacred 
books  into  Greek.  The  men  who  met  this  want 
differed  very  much  in  knowledge  and  skill,  were 
of  an  indeterminate  number,  and  of  different 
periods,  beginning  with  the  time  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus  (B.C.  280),  and  continuing  until  B.C. 
150.  The  Pentateuch  was  first  translated.  Pre- 
viously there  had  been  Targums  (see  II.  Ch.\l- 
dee)  ;  and  it  is  likely,  that,  upon  the  margin  of 
the  Hebrew  manuscripts,  difficult  words  and  sen^ 
fences  were  translated,  and  that  these  were  used 
in  the  final  complete  work.  Tjie  translation  of 
the  remainder  of  the  canon  was  less  necessary, 
and  was  more  a  piece  of  literary  work.  The 
translators  were  chiefly  of  Egyptian,  and  par- 
ticularly Alexandrian,  birth  and  training,  and 
therefoi-e  strongly  Hellenistic.  It  must  be  con- 
fessed that  we  are  much  in  the  dark  in  regard  to 
the  comparative  value  of  the  parts  and  of  the 
texts  of  the  Septuagint ;  yet  certain  things  have 
been  clearly  made  out.  'The  most  attention  has 
been  given  to  the  version  of  the  Pentateuch. 
See  H.  G.  J.  Thiersch:  De  Pent.  Al.  libri  III., 
Erlang.,  1841,  and  Frankel  ;  Ueber  tlen  Einjluss 
der  paldslin.  Exegese  auf  die  alex.  Hermeneutik, 
Leipzig,  1851.  It  surely  is  not  the  work  of  one 
man,  nor  made  at  one  time.  On  the  whole,  it  is 
successful  (Numbers,  and  the  close  of  Exodus  from 
xxxvi.  9,  are  exceptions),  though  not  literal  (cf. 
P.  de  Lagarde's  edition  of  Cienesis,  Leipzig,  1868, 
which  contains  the  text  of  the  Roman  edition  of 
1586,  with  a  rich  critical  apparatus).  The  Septu- 
agint Pentateuch  in  more  than  a  thousand  places 
agrees  with  the  Samaritan  [see  Samaritan  Penta- 
teuch in  this  article  passim],  where  the  latter  differs 
from  the  JIassoretic  text;  but  again  it  agrees 
with  the  Hebrew  in  opposition  to  the  Samaritan, 
and  the  Hebrew  is  incontestably  the  original  text. 
In  regard  to  the  subsequent  books  see :  J.  HoL- 
LENBERG :    Der  Charakter  der  alexandr.  Ueberset- 


'  For  literature  see  :  Richard  Simon  :  nixioire  critique  du 
Vieux  Testament,  edit.  3.  Roterd..  I6S5.  ,Iac.  Le  Long:  Bib- 
liotli.  sacra,  ed.  Mascli.  Pare  II.,  Vol.  I.-III.,  Halle,  1778-90, 
6  vols.  Walton  :  Prolegomena  in  Biblia  I'olyijloUa  IX.  sq., 
ed.  J.  A.  Dathe,  Leipzig,  1777.  RosenmCller  .■  Ilandb.  f.  d. 
Lit.  d.  bibl.  Kritik  it.  Exegese,  Gottingen,  17'J7-18U0,  4  parts, 
and  the  Introductions  of  Jahn  (1802-03),  ElCHHORN  (182U-24), 
Bertholdt  (1812-19),  and  Db  Wbttb.Scbbadbr  (1869). 


BIBLE   VERSIONS. 


280 


BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


zu»(/  ile.i  Ij.  Joslnia  n.  ilir  kxth-rilitchcr  Werlh,  Mors, 
1S76 ;  Fritzsche's  editions  of  Judges  [^Rkhter], 
Zurich,  1867,  and  Ruth  (Zurich,  1SG4) ;  Well- 
HAUSEN :  Der  Text  il.  B.  Sa7n.  untersucht,  Gijttin- 
^en,  1871 ;  Thexu's,  in  the  "  Kurzgef .  Exeget. 
Handb.  zum  A.  T."  iiher  der  Biiclier  der  Konir/e, 
audFR.  C.  Movers:  Kritische  Untersuchunyen  iiher 
die  bibl.  Chroni/c.,  Bonn,  1884.  The  transhition  of 
the  Psalms  and  Prophets  is  least  successful,  for 
which  fact  their  difficulty  is  suiBcient  explana- 
tion. On  Isaiah,  see  Gesexius'  commentary, 
and  [Dr.  Axtox  Scholz  :  Die  alexa/ulrinische 
Uehersetzung  des  Bitches  lesaias,  AViirzhurg,  1880 
(47  pp.)]-  On  Jeremiah,  for  proof  that  the 
translator  must  have  used  a  text  differing  very 
much  from  our  present  text,  see  Movers  :  De 
uli-iumiue  recens.  ratlc.  Jer.  indole^  etc..  Ilanib., 
1834.  The  Church,  from  ancient  times,  used,  in 
place  of  the  Septuagiut  of  Daniel,  the  more  exact 
version  of  Theodotion.  The  long-lost  Septuagiut 
version  was  discovered  in  the  Chisian  Library 
at  Rome  by  Simon  de  INIagistris  (1772).  [See 
the  edition  of  J.  Cozz.A.,  Rom.,  1877.  On  the 
Minor  Prophets,  cf.  Vollers  :  Das  Dodekaproph- 
■elon  der  Alexaiulriner,  Berlin,  1880  sqq.]  ;  on  Amos, 
J.  S.  V.\TER,  Halle,  1810:  on  Xahum,  Studer, 
and  L.  Reixke  :  Zur  Krilik  der  alleren  Versionen 
des  Pr.  Nnkuin,  Miinster,  1867;  on  Jonah,  EiCH- 
HORX:  Allg.  Bibl.  d.  bibl.  Litter.;  on  Hosea,  the 
same.  The  translators  of  Proverbs  and  Job 
show  themselves  very  well  acquainted  with 
(ireek,  but  handle  the  original  in  a  very  free  and 
arbitrary  manner.  Proverbs  was  evidently  trans- 
lated from  a  text  which  varied  from  our  present 
Hebrew  text:  cf.  P.  de  L.\garde:  Amnerkung- 
en  zur  griesch.  U bersetzuri g .  tier  Prorerhien.  Leip- 
zig, 180:1  On  .loh,  G.  (i.  IL  Bickell  :  De  indole 
ac  ratione  vers.  Al.  in  inlerpretando  I.  Johi,  JIarb., 
1862.  On  Esther,  cf.  Fritzsche's  edition,  and 
his  excellent  Libri  apocri/phi  V.  T..  Lips.,  1871. 
But  in  the  Septuagint  were  not  alone  canonical 
books ;  for,  as  the  work  of  translating  continued, 
additions  were  made  from  other  sources,  Greek 
and  Hebrew,  either  lengthy  passages  or  whole 
books.  Such  additions  are  called  Apucrijpha,  and 
were  acknowledged  by  their  inserters  not  to  be- 
long to  the  canon,  which  comprised,  according  to 
the  Hebrew  notation  and  arrangement,  twenty- 
two  books.  See  Caxon,  Apocrypha.  These 
interpolations  were  allowable,  from  their  stand- 
point, because  the  Septuagint  was  regarded  as  a 
private  undertaking.  We  do  not  know  their 
date,  only  that  in  Theodotion's  time  (second  cen- 
tury A. D.)  they  were  all  added,  and  the  version 
passed  into  universal  use  in  the  Christian  Church, 
with  no  distinction  between  its  contents ;  apocry- 
phal and  canonical  books  being  held  in  equal 
esteem. 

'I'he  di.scovery  was  quickly  made  that  the  Sep- 
tuagint was  not  always  accurate ;  and  this  fact 
was  particularly  unpleasant  when  the  Jews  quoted 
from  the  Hebrew  against  the  Christian  dispu- 
tants, who,  through  ignorance,  were  obliged  to 
rely  upon  the  .Septuagint.  Moreover,  the  text 
itself  was  corrupt  and  degenerating,  since  there 
was  no  ecclesiastical  guard  about  it.  In  this 
«mergency,  Origen  prepared  his  great  llexajita 
(sixfold),  which  contained  a  corrected  text,  and 
thus  guided  the  Christian  apologist,  and  at  the 
same  time  showed  the  amount  of   the  Septua- 


gint's  inaccuracy.  His  work  was  this :  he  ar- 
ranged in  six  parallel  columns  the  Hebrew 
text  in  Hebrew,  the  same  in  Greek  characters, 
the  versions  of  Aquila,  Symmachus,  and  Theo- 
dotion, and  a  text  of  the  .Septuagint.  partly  cor- 
rected by  a  comparison  of  manuscripts,  partly 
emended  by  recourse  to  the  Hebrew.  The  varia- 
tions of  several  less  important  versions  were  also 
noted.  The  Hexapla  was  too  large  to  be  circu- 
lated as  a  whole;  but  the  revised  Septuagint  was 
published  in  separate  transcripts,  and,  known  as 
the  Hexaplar  text,  quite  displaced  the  older  text. 
But  by  their  omission  of  his  critical  signs  to  dis- 
tinguish his  improvements  from  the  original  Sep- 
tuagint. and  by  mixing  the  texts  in  juxtaposi- 
tion, the  scribes  increased  the  corruption  he  had 
hoped  to  prevent.  See  Frederick  Field  :  Ori- 
getiis  Hexaploriim  qum  stipersuiit,  Oxon.,  1867-74, 
2  T.  [P.  de  L.\garde  :  Ceteris  Testamenti  ah 
Origene  recensiti  fragmenia  apud  Syros  servata 
quinque.  Gottingen,  1880.] 

The  Printed  Text  of  the  Septuagint.  — There  are 
four  principal  texts:  (1)  that  of  the  Biblia  Poly- 
glolta  Coinplulensis  (1514-17).  a  poor  text;  several 
unknown  manuscripts  were  used ;  often  reprinted, 
e.g.,  Paris  Polyglot  (1629).  (2)  The  Aldine, 
Venice,  1518  ;  manuscripts  unknown  ;  resembles 
(1);  often  reprinted.  (3)  The  5/x/(He,  patronized 
by  Pope  Sixtus  V. ,  Rome,  1587 ;  follows  the  Codex 
Vaticanus,  but  not  exactly,  supplying  omissions 
from  other  manuscripts,  cost  much  labor,  and  is 
the  best  text;  reprinted  in  Walton's  Polyglot 
(1657),  and  with  various  readings  of  more  than 
three  hundred  manuscripts,  by  Kob.  Holmes  and 
Jac.  Parsons,  Ox.,  1798-1827,  5  vols,  fob;  lastly 
by  TiscHENDORF,  with  various  readings,  1850, 
[best  ed.  VL,  1880,  2  tomi,  with  Nestle's  colla- 
tion of  the  Vatican  and  Sinaitic  texts,  which  is 
of  great  value,  and  can  be  obtained  separately : 
Nestle  :  Veteris  Testamenti  Orceci  coilices  Vati- 
camts  el  Sinaiticus,  Lips.,  1S80].  (4)  That  of  the 
Codex  Alexandrinus,  published  by  J.  E.  Grabe, 
Oxon.,  1707-19,  in  facsimile  by  Baber,  1816-28, 
in  improved  form  by  Fr.  Field.  Oxon.,  1859. 
The  Codex  Sinaiticus  was  published  in  facsimile 
by  Tischendorf  in  1862,  but  not  in  a  generally 
accessible  form.  The  Codex  Vaticunus  was  pub- 
lished in  full  by  C.  Vercellone,  Gins.  Cozza,  and 
a.  Sergio,  Rome,  1868-72,  5  vols.  fol.  The 
Septuagint  has  not  been  studied  as  it  should  be, 
although  ample  materials  in  a  scattered  form 
exist.  There  is  only  the  clumsiest  attempt  at  a 
special  lexicon.  The  chief  works,  the  The.^aurns 
by  BiEL  (1779-80)  and  Schleus.ner  (1820), 
make  little  advance  upon  the  very  useful  concord- 
ances of  Kircher  (1607)  and  Trommius  (1718). 
But  Ch.  AiiR.  Wahl,  by  his  Claris  Librorum 
V.  T.  opncryph.,  Lips.,  18"53,  does  advance  in  a 
limited  sphere. 

(ireat  is  the  historical  significance  of  the  Septua- 
gint. It  was  the  first  attempt  at  a  translation 
upon  so  large  a  scale.  This  explains  and  ex- 
cuses its  errors.  Greek  and  Hebrew  are  very 
dissimilar;  and,  as  the  translators  knew  more 
about  the  former  than  the  latter,  they  failed  to 
present  the  deeper  and  truer  sense  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  therefore  misled  the  Christian  Church, 
which  used  their  labors.  But  the  Septuagint  is 
of  the  highest  importance  for  the  criticism  and 
history   of   Hebrew   text.     It  tells   us   the   her' 


BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


281 


BIBLE   VERSIONS. 


niPiiPutical  stiiiiflpoiiit  of  the  Ilcilenists.  Their 
translation  is  not  a  rfM<lering  of  the  present 
Massoretic  text  in  many  places  ;  prolialily  liecaiise 
their  Hebrew  text  was  ilitl'erently  punctuated,  or 
varied,  or  seemed  to  vary,  in  its  consonants,  and 
also  l>ecause  their  hernieneutical  piriuciples  were 
very  free.  Then  the  Septuagint  is  not  a  literal 
translation.  Finally,  the  influence  of  the  Septu- 
agint  upon  the  lant/uafje  of  the  Jews  was  very 
great.  As  it  was  the  finst  attempt  of  the  Hel- 
lenists to  transfer  their  hereditary  possessions 
(religion  and  history)  into  a  new  language  and 
mode  of  thought,  so  it  furnished  at  the  same  time 
a  model.  The  idiom  of  the  Septuagint  became 
the  idiom  of  the  New  Testament  in  more  fully 
developed  form,  and  thus  that  of  early  Christi- 
anity, whose  writers  cannot  lie  thoroughly  im- 
derstood  without  a  familiar  knowledge  of  the 
Septuagint,  which  they  so  largely  quote.  Most 
of  the  direct  quotations  of  the  Old  Testament 
are  apparently  from  it,  and  thus  its  study  is 
indispensable  to  an  exegete.      O.  F.  FRITZSCHE. 

[2.  Other  Greek  Versio)!!:.  —  (1)  Aquila,  a  Jewish 
proselyte  of  Pontus,  a  contemporary  of  Hadrian 
(about  A.D.  130),  prepared  a  literal  translation 
for  the  benefit  of  Jews  contending  with  Chris- 
tians, which  was  so  successful,  that  it  was  used 
by  Jews  and  Christians.  It  was  slavishly  literal ; 
and,  in  his  endeavor  to  present  a  word-for-word 
reudering  of  the  Hebrew  into  the  Greek,  he  goes 
to  the  extent  of  the  boldest  word-coining  and 
grBmmatical  absurdities.  The  Ebionites  proba- 
bly used  it;  although  IrenEeus,  ado.  Ii(er.,ed.  Migne, 
HI.  21,  ed.  Grabe,  III.  24,  does  not  necessarily 
prove  this.  Jerome  speaks  of  a  second  more  lit- 
eral version.  Only  fragments  of  it  now  remain 
in  Origen's  Hexapla.  Cf.  Hody  :  de  Biblionim 
texlihus  originalibus,  Versionibus  Greeds  el  Latina 
Vulyata,  libri  IV.,  Oxon.,  1705,  fob,  pp.  570-578. 

(2)  Tlieodolion,  a  Jewish  proselyte  of  Ephesus 
(Irenaaus,  adv.  hcer.  ed.  Migne,  HI.  21),  revised, 
before  A.D  160,  leather  than  translated,  the  Sep- 
tuagint, deriving  his  alterations  in  part  from 
Aquila,  and  partly  from  the  original  text;  which, 
however,  he  did  not  thoroughly  understand,  and 
so  occasionally  transliterated  the  Hebrew  he  could 
not  translate.  Origen  used  him  in  his  Hexapla; 
and  the  Church  substituted  his  version  of  the 
Book  of  Daniel  for  the  Seventy's.  Cf.  Hody,  as 
above,  pp.  579-585. 

(3)  Symmachus,  a  Samaritan  Ebionite  (fl.  A.D. 
19.3-211),  made  a  version  distinguished  for  clear- 
ness and  elegance,  but  paraphrastic  and  occa- 
sionally arbitrary.  Cf.  Hody,  as  above,  pp. 
585-589.  (4-6)  Besides  those  named,  three  others 
are  cited  by  Origen  in  his  Hexapla,  which  are 
called  the  Quinta,  Sexta,  and  Sepitima,  the  authors 
and  ages  being  unknown.  Probably  the  two 
first  extended  only  to  detached  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  and  the  last  only  to  the  Psalms. 
They  are  rather  paraphrases  than  translations. 
(7)  The  Versio  Veneta,  a  very  late  Greek  transla- 
tion of  several  Old- Testament  books,  now  in  the 
Library  of  St.  Mark's  in  Venice.  The  manuscript 
is  not  earlier  than  the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth 
century.  It  is  of  little  value,  except  as  a  literary 
curiosity.  It  follows  the  Massoretic  recension. 
See  O.  Gkbhakdt:  Grcecus  Venetus,  Lips.,  1875.] 

H.  CHALDEE.  —  These  versions  are  called 
"  Targums  "  (translation,  or  interpretation),  and 


were  ri^ideied  necessary  by  the  loss  of  Hebrew 
while  in  Babylonia  (cf.  Neh.  viii.  8).  They  were 
at  first,  and  for  many  years,  oral.  As  might  be 
expected,  they  are  usually  paraphrases,  in  which 
the  ideas  of  the  translator  are  more  followed 
than  those  of  the  original  writer.  No  one  of 
those  now  existing  extends  over  the  whole  Old 
Testament,  although  together  they  do,  with  the 
exception  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  The  two  old- 
est are  that  of  (1)  Onkelos,  on  the  Law,  and  that 
of  (2)  .Jonathan  ben  Uziel,  on  the  Earlier  and 
Later  Prophets.  (1)  Oidcelos  probably  lived 
about  A.D.  70,  as  he  was  the  friend  of  (Gamaliel. 
His  interpretation  is  generally  correct :  it  follows 
the  text  closely,  and  is  free  from  the  fabulous 
additions  which  mar  other  Targums.  His  Tar- 
gum  was  first  published  in  Bologna  (1482,  fob), 
with  Hebrew  text  and  Rashi's  commentary;  also 
in  Buxtorf's  Rabbinical  Bible  (1619).  A  recent 
and  much  emended  edition  dates  ^\''ilna,  1852. 
The  Targum  of  (2)  Jonathan  ben  Uziel,  who, 
according  to  tradition,  was  the  disciple  of  Ilillel ; 
but  the  Targum  is  younger  than  Onkelos',  and 
more  paraphrastic  and  less  simple.  The  first 
edition  dates  Leiria,  1494;  but  it  is  found  also  in 
the  great  Rabbinical  Bibles,  and  in  the  Antwerp, 
Paris,  and  London  Polyglots.  [The  Targums 
of  Onkelos  and  Pseudo-.Jonathan  on  the  Penta- 
teuch have  been  translated  into  English  by  J.  W. 
EriiKRiDGE,  Lond.,  1862-65,  2  vols  ] 

Besides  these  two,  which  date  from  before  the 
third  century,  there  were  other  Targums  of  im- 
portance, particularly  two  on  the  Pentateuch,  — 
one  compilete,  attributed,  but  falsely,  to  the  same 
(3)  Jonathan  mentioned  above;  the  other  only  in 
fragments,  called  the  (4)  Jerushalmi.  The  first 
is  based  upon  Onkelos,  but  departs  far  more  from 
the  Hebrew  into  the  region  of  pious  fiction.  It  is 
a  modern  work,  not  earlier  than  the  middle  of  the 
seventh  century.  The  Jerushalmi  is  earlier, 
dependent  upon  Onkelos',  which  it  corrects  in 
places,  but  was  never  designed  to  be  complete. 
Both  are  reprinted  in  Walton's  (the  London)  Poly- 
glot. [S.  Gronemann  :  Die  Joual/ian'sche  Pen- 
lateiick-Uebersetzung  in  ihrem  Verhiillnisse  zur  Hala- 
eha,  Leipzig,  1879.] 

(5)  Targums  of  "Joseph  the  Blind"  on  the 
Hagiographa.  Tradition,  wrongly  as  usual, 
assigns  these  Targums  to  a  person  so  named, 
who  lived  in  the  fourth  century ;  but  critical 
study  has  put  their  date  in  the  eleventh  century. 
The  work  separates  into  three  parts :  Targums  1. 
On  the  Psalms,  Job,  Proverbs  ;  2.  On  Song  of 
Solomon,  Ruth,  Lamentation,  Esther,  and  Eccle- 
siastes;  3.  Chronicles  and  Daniel.  The  (1)  are 
nearly  contemporaneous,  and  from  the  same 
land,  probably  Syria.  The  work  on  Proverbs  is 
the  best,  following  the  Hebrew  as  closely  as 
possible.  The  similarity  of  this  Targum  to  the 
Syriac  version  is  extraordinary.  Some  suppose 
it  was  in  truth  copied  from  it,  while  others,  with 
perhaps  greater  likelihood,  contend  for  its  inde- 
pendence. [Deutsch,  in  Smith's  Dictionari/  of  the 
Bible,  vol.  IV.  p.  3421,  maintains,  with  Frankel, 
that  the  true  explanation  is,  that  "the  Seventy  is 
the  common  source  of  both  versions,  but  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  Aramaic  (Chaldee)  has  also 
made  use  of  the  Hebrew  and  the  Greek;  of  the 
latter,  however,  through  the  Syriac  medium."] 
The  Targums  on  Psalms  aud  Job  are  mere  frag- 


BIBLE   VERSIONS. 


282 


BIBLE   VERSIONS. 


ments,  more  or  less  close  to  the  Hebrew.  2.  The 
Targums  on  this  class  are  uot  mentioned  before 
the  twelfth  century.  The  freedom  of  a  version 
can  go  no  farther  than  it  does  in  them.  They 
are,  in  fact,  mere  commentaries.  3.  No  Targum 
on  Daniel  was  for  a  long  time  believed  to  exist ; 
but  Munk  found  one  in  the  Imperial  (National) 
Library  at  Paris.  It  was  written  after  the  first 
crusade,  or  the  twelfth  century.  See  Notice  sur 
Sawlia.  Paris,  1S38.  The  Targum  on  Chronicles 
was  also  long  unknown.  The  first  edition  ap- 
peared under  the  title  PnrajJiratiis  Chalilaicu  liln: 
Chromcorum.  cura  IM.  F.  Bkckii,  2  torn.  Aug. 
Yind.  (Augsburg),  1680-83.  4to. 

There  is  also  extant  a  Targum  on  the  apocry- 
phal pieces  of  Esther.  See  J.  B.  De  Itossi : 
Specimen  variarum  lection  um  sacri  textus  et  ChaltUnca 
Estheris  additamenta,  Kom.,  1780;  ed.  2,  cura  J. 
F.  Schnnrrer,  Tiibingen.  1783.  VOLCK. 

III.  SYJUA  C  — 1.  The  olde.st  and  most  impor- 
tant version  is  the  Peshito  (the  correct  or  simple). 
because  confined  to  the  text,  in  contrast  to  the 
allegorical  and  mystical  paraphrases.  The  first 
reliable  historical  reference  to  the  version  is  its 
use  by  Ephraem  the  Syrian  (d.  373)  in  the  fourth 
century;  but  even  then  it  was  old,  for  Ephraem 
defines  in  his  commentaries  many  of  its  words 
which  were  no  longer  understood  by  his  country- 
men. Hence  it  is  no  improbable  conjecture 
which  assigns  the  version  to  the  second  century. 
It  is  made  from  the  Hebrew,  probably  by  Jew- 
ish Christians,  and  includes  the  Old-Testament 
canon,  without  the  apocryphal  additions,  which 
were  translated  later;  is  accurate  and  close. 
The  version  of  the  Xew  Testament  seems  to  have 
been  made  afterwards.  The  Old  Testament  was 
published  fir.st  in  the  Paris  Polyglot  (1(345),  and 
then  in  Walton's  (16.57),  and.  in  critical  and  im- 
proved edition,  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  (in  1823).  under  care  of  Samuel  Lee,  Pro- 
fessor of  Arabic  at  Cambridge.  There  is  wanting 
a  truly  critical  complete  edition.  ARNOLD. 

In  the  sixth  century  the  Peshito  was  univer- 
sally received  by  Syrian  Christians,  even  while 
the  controversy  raged  between  the  Monophysites 
and  Nestorians,  and  so  is  at  the  present  day.  2. 
The  version  of  Bishop  Paul  of  Telia  (a  city  of  Meso- 
potamia), made  in  616  sq.,  at  the  suggestion  of 
the  Alonophysite  patriarch  Athanasius,  was  based 
upon  the  HexaplarGreek  text.  It  isclosely  literal, 
and  thus  is  important  in  the  critical  study  of  Ori- 
gen's  work.  Dr.  Antonio  M.-vria  Ckuiani  of 
the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan  has  published  Co- 
dex syro-hexaplaris  Anihrosianus,  1874  sqq.  The 
so-called  Versio  Kar),:ap!tensis,  or  Montana,  is 
neither  an  independent  version  nor  a  recension 
of  the  Peshito,  but  a  Massoretic  work  upon  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  >ipon  the  chiefest 
Orthodox  Greek  Fathers  whose  works  had  been 
translated  into  Syriac.  Cf.  Paulin  Mautin  : 
Tradition  Karkaphienne,  ou  la  Alassorc  chez  les 
Syriens,  Paris,  1870.  The  so-called  Figurata  owes 
its  origin  to  a  writing  or  printing  error,  and  the 
ensuing  false  interpretation.  Abulfaraj  (Bar  Ile- 
brajns)  in  the  thirteenth  century  says  {A  hul-l'hara- 
gii/iist.  dynastiariwijdii.  Ed.  Pocock,Ox()n.,1663,p. 
i(K)),  according  to  Pocock's  translation. "  The  Syr- 
ians have  two  versions,  —  Simplex,  which  was 
translatfid  from  the  Hebrew  into  Syriac  in  the  time 
of  Addai  the  Ajxistle,  or,  as  some  say,  in  the  time 


of  Solomon,  the  son  of  David,  and  Hiram,  and  the 
Figurata,  according  to  the  Sepluagint  text,  translated 
from  Greek  into  Syriac."  The  words  underscored 
should  read,  and  of  Hiram,  King  of  Ti/re.  and 
the  Septuagint.  By  "  the  Septuagint "  is  meant  the 
version  of  Paul  of  Telia.  Several  others  are  re- 
ported. Jacob,  Bishop  of  Edessa  (d.  712),  made  a 
recension  of  the  Peshito,  according  to  the  Syro- 
Hexaplar  text.  Fragments  have  been  published; 
e.g.,  in  Ceriani"s  Monumenta  sacra  et  prof.  V.  1, 
1868.  The  Nestorian  patriarch  Mar  Ahhas  (d. 
552)  is  said  to  have  made  a  translation  from  the 
Greek.  Simeon,  Abbot  of  the  Convent  of  St. 
Licinius,  and  Polycarp,  the  author  of  the  Philoxe- 
nian  New  Testament,  are  said  each  to  have  made 
a  version  of  the  Psalms  from  the  Greek. 

IV.  SAM.iRfTAy.  —  Besides  a  recension, 
the  Samaritans  had  a  translation  of  the  Penta- 
teuch in  their  peculiar  dialect.  Ad.  Brull  : 
Das  Samaritan.  Targnm  zum  Pentateuch,  Frank- 
fort-a-M.,  187.5,  issued  the  first  complete  edition 
of  it.  It  is  not  earlier  than  the  second  century 
B.C.,  although  the  date  and  author  are  uncer- 
tain. It  follows  closely  the  Samaritan  text,  but 
occasionally  contains  apparent  interpolations  from 
the  Targum  of  Onkelos.  Cf.  Samuel  Kohn  : 
Zur  Sprache,  Literatur  und  Dogmatik  der  Samari- 
taner,  Leipzig,  1876. 

V.  EGYPTIAN  versions  sprang  into  being 
in  the  third  century,  or  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth,  in  answer  to  the  demand  of  the  growing 
African  Church.  They  were  of  all  the  various 
dialects,  founded  upon  the  Septuagint  (except 
Daniel,  which  was  from  Theodotion's),  and  are 
of  indeterminate  age  and  seniority.  Portions  of 
these  versions  have  been  published,  especially  the 
Pentateuch  and  the  Psalms.     O.  F.  fritzsche. 

VI.  LATIN.  Cf.  Petrus  Sabatier:  Biblio- 
rum  sdcrorum  latino;  versioncs  antiquce,  seu  retus 
ital.,  etc.,  Rheims,  1743-49.  Also  the  Specidum 
Augustini  in  the  Spicilegium  Romanum,  torn. 
IX.  1.  Vetus  Latina,  or  Old  Latin,  was  made 
from  the  Septuagint  in  North  Africa  some  time 
in  the  second  century;  for  it  is  quoted  by  the 
earliest  of  the  Latin  Fathers,  and  was  widely 
circulated.  It  is  throughout  a  verbal  version, 
made  simultaneously  by  several  men,  in  the  de- 
teriorated Latin  of  the  period,  with  its  mixture 
of  colloquial  and  provincial  words  and  phrases, 
i.e.,  in  the  .siieech  of  the  common  people.  AVlien 
introduced  into  Italy,  where  (ireek  was  under- 
stood, and  a  higher  culture  common,  its  provincial 
rudeness  gave  offence,  and  so  a  revision  was 
demanded.  Thus  arose  the  Itala,  or  the  Italian 
version  of  the  Old  Testament.  We  have  Augus- 
tine's testimony  that  a  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  was  undertaken  by  any  one  who 
knew  sufficient  Greek.  There  existed  then 
more  than  one  Latin  version  of  the  Bible;  and 
perhaps  Britain,  (Jaul,  and  Spain  had  each  a 
national  version.  But  in  Africa  the  Old  Latin 
was  the  only  one  current.  It  was  there  jealously 
guarded  and  kept  in  use  after  Jerome's  version 
was  elsewhere  received.  See  Zieolkr  :  Die  lot. 
liiheliibersetzungen  vor  Ilierongmus  und  die  Itala  des 
ylHyu.s7i»!«,  Miinchen,  1870;'U.  RomcRT  :  Penla- 
leuchi  e  coilire  Lugdunensi  versio  Latina  antiquissima 
("  anterieure  ii  saint  Jerome  "),  Paris,  1881. 

2.  The  Vulgate.  —  Cf.  Lkanber  van  Ess: 
Pragmatisch-kritische      Geschichte     dtr      Vulgata, 


BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


283 


BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


Tiiliiiigen,  18'J4;  Kavlkn:  (Safi-kichlp  der  Vul- 
quta,  Mainz,  ISfiS;  Riixscii :  JtnUi  u.  Vuhjatn, 
Marbura:  ('-'d  ed.),  1875;  Zieglkk:  ludafrdij- 
nienle,  Miinclieii,  1870. 

The  tfirm  "  Vulj^ate,"  that  is  "  Vulfjata  editio," 
the  cunriil  text  of  the  Bible,  was  ongiiially  ap- 
plied in  tlie  Church  to  the  Septuagint.  In  this 
sense  the  word  is  used  by  .Teronie,  who,  however, 
also  applied  it  to  the  Old  Latin  version,  whicli 
was  made  from  the  Sejituagint.  But  there  does 
not  appear  to  be  any  instance  in  the  age  of 
Jerome  of  the  application  of  the  term  to  the 
Latin  version  of  the  Old  Testament  without 
regard  to  its  derivation  from  the  Septuagint,  or 
to  that  of  the  New  Testament.  "  Vulgata  edi- 
tio,"  meaning  a  corrupt  text,  also  stands  in  con- 
trast to  the  true  Hexaplar  text  of  the  Septuagint. 
The  Latin  Fathers  habitually  refer  to  Jerome's 
version  as  "our  version."  Hut  the  Council  of 
Trent  (151.5-63)  described  it  .as  "  vetus  et  vulgata 
editio,"  and  hence  the  term  "Vulgate"  is  used 
to-day  exclusively  of  it. 

The  Latin  texts  in  current  use  had  been  cor- 
rupted by  frequent  copying.  There  was  urgent 
need  of  a  thorough  revision.  At  this  crisis  God 
raised  up  a  man  to  do  the  work.  Sopiiroxius 
Eusehius  Hierony.^ics,  commonly  called  Je- 
KOME  (331-420),  the  most  learned  scholar,  not 
only  of  his  day,  but  of  many  centuries,  amply 
prepared,  linguistically  through  his  acquaintance 
with  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew,  and  morally  and 
spiritually  by  his  earnestness  and  piety,  was 
requested  in  383  by  Damasus,  Bishop  of  Rome 
(3fi6  to  384),  to  do  this  almost  imperative  work. 
Nothing  more  at  first  was  contemplated  than  a 
revision  of  the  cuiTent  Latin  New  Testament  by 
means  of  the  Greek  original.  The  Gospels  were 
taken  up,  all  interpolations  removed,  and  gross 
errors  corrected.  We  do  not  know  whether  he 
went  through  the  New  Testament  in  this  way ; 
but  it  is  probable.  Bishop  Damasus  asked  him 
to  revise  the  Psalms.  He  made  two  revisions : 
the  first  (383)  by  the  use  of  the  common  text  of 
the  Septuagint  (this  is  the  Roman  Psalter,  be- 
cause introduced  by  Damasus  into  ecclesiastical 
use  in  Rome) ;  the  second  (387)  liy  the  use  of 
the  Hexaplar  text  (this  is  the  Gallican  Psalter, 
because  introduced  primarily  into  Gaul  by  Greg- 
ory of  Tours,  then  into  Germany,  England,  and 
Spain,  and  eventually  made  by  Pius  V.,  in  1.566, 
the  succussor  of  the  Roman).  He  then  designed 
and  carried  out  a  revision  of  the  entire  Old  Tes- 
tament according  to  the  Hexaplar  text,  of  which, 
.  however,  there  has  come  down  to  us  only  the 
Book  of  Job.  But  the  more  he  compared  the 
Greek  texts  with  the  Hebrew  original,  for  Jew- 
ish friends  secretly  supplied  him  with  manu- 
scripts from  a  synagogue  (he  had  meanwhile 
taken  up  his  abode  in  Bethlehem),  the  more 
desirable  did  a  new  version  from  the  Hebrew 
appear.  He  knew  full  well  how  prejudice  and 
fanaticism  would  put  obstacles  in  the  way ;  but 
solicited  by  friends,  although  without  any  eccle- 
siastical sanction,  he  made  a  begimiing  with 
Samuel  and  Kings  in  392  (prefixed  by  the  famous 
Prologus  (jalealns,  giving  an  account  of  the  He- 
brew Canon),  and  completed  his  translation  in  404. 
Portions  of  it,  such  as  the  writings  of  Solomon,  Es- 
ther, Judith,  and  Tohit,  were  done  in  great  haste,  and 
there  are  errors,  which,  with  more  care,  he  would 


not  have  made  ;  but,  "  as  a  monument  of  ancient 
linguistic  power,  this  translation  of  the  Old  Test- 
ament stands  imrivalled  and  unique." 

Although  Jerome's  version  was  used  by  .some 
as  soon  as  finished,  it  spread  very  gradually, 
was,  indeed,  "  received  with  a  loud  outcry  of  re- 
proach;  "  and  it  took  centuries  for  it  to  become 
the  ecclesiastical  translation  of  the  Occident.  No 
ecclesiastic  as  such,  no  church  court,  befriended 
it :  it  won  its  way  upon  its  merits,  and  in  the 
ninth  century  its  victory  was  complete.  As 
time  went  on,  its  text  deteriorated.  Owing  to 
his  eyes  and  general  health,  Jerome  had  origi- 
nally employed  scribes  to  write  it:  therefore  the 
first  copy  was  probably  not  free  from  errors;  and 
each  successive  copy  increased  the  evil.  The  old 
and  the  new  version  being  in  use  side  by  side  led 
to  a  mixture  of  both  texts.  Cassiodorus.  in 
the  sixth  century,  was  the  first  to  attempt  a 
revision ;  but  this  private  work  could  not  stem 
the  tide  of  corruption.  So  evidently  bad  was 
the  case,  that  Charlemagne  ordei-ed  Alcuin 
(735-804),  the  most  learned  man  of  his  day,  and 
his  trusted  friend,  in  the  year  802,  to  revise  the 
Latin  text.  This  Alcuin  did,  not  by  reference 
to  the  Hebrew  and  Greek,  but  to  older  and  more 
correct  Latin  manuscripts,  and  presented  a  very 
good  text,  which,  under  Charlemagne's  patron- 
age, obtained  wide  currency,  and  long  resisted 
decay.  But  in  the  lapse  of  years,  other  revisions 
were  reqixired,  and  were  made  by  Lanfranc  of 
Canterbury  (1089),  Stephanus  II.,  Abbot  of 
Citeaux  (about  1109),  and  Cardinal  Nicolaus 
(about  11.50).  In  the  thirteenth  century  so-called 
"  Correctoria  biblica  "  were  drawn  up,  in  which 
varieties  of  reading  were  discussed.  But,  al- 
though in  the  monasteries  the  older  and  more 
reliable  texts  were  preserved,  they  were  not  used 
in  the  preparation  of  a  pure  text.  [See  Di  un 
corlice  critico  delta  BihJiia  Vulgata,  transcritto  nel 
secolo  XIL,  Palermo,  1880.] 

But  a  better  day  awaited  the  Vulgate.  Print- 
ing was  invented,  and  the  first  book  sent  out  by 
the  press  was  the  Latin  Bible.  No  book  was 
more  frequently  printed.  The  text  was  the  ordi- 
nary. Cardinal  Ximenez  (1437-1517),  in  his 
Complutensian  Polyglot  (1502-17),  made  the  first 
serious  attempt  to  revise  the  text.  Robert  Ste- 
phens (1503-59)  in  1528  and  1540  made  impor- 
tant corrections  by  collation  of  manuscripts.  But 
there  was  felt  a  necessity  for  an  authorized  edition. 
This  the  Council  of  Trent  demanded  (1546),  and 
it  was  undertaken  by  Pope  Si.xTus  V.  (1521-90), 
and  issued  1590.  The  text  was  declared  by  the 
Papal  Constitution  ^Etermis  ille,  tohe  "true,  law- 
ful, authentic,  and  unquestioned  in  all  public  and 
private  discussion,  reading,  preaching,  and  expla- 
nation." The  printing  of  any  other  text  was 
forbidden,  under  penalty  of  excommunication. 
But  many  changes  had  been  made;  and  many 
typographical  errors,  though  none  serious,  had 
passed  uncorrected.  Besides  the  usual  preju- 
dice against  any  change,  personal  feeling  was 
aroused.  At  the  head  of  the  movement  against 
the  revision  stood  Bellarmine  (1542-1621),  the 
famous  Jesuit.  Sixtus  V.  had  put  his  Controver- 
sice  upon  the  index,  and  therefore  his  hatred  was 
excited.  Here  was  also  an  opportunity  to  link 
his  name  with  the  great  Catholic  work,  the  Au- 
thentic Vulgata.     Swayed  by  hate  and  ambition, 


BIBLE   VERSIONS. 


284 


BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


he  labored  to  undo  the  work  of  Sixtus.  lie 
lyingly  told  (iregory  XIV.  th.it  Sixtus  had  him- 
'self  ordered  the  edition  to  be  recalled.  He  pro- 
posed that  its  errors  should  be  at  once  corrected, 
and  in  the  preface  the  lyina;  statement  made  that 
they  came  about  through  the  airelexsnexs  of  prinl- 
Ts.'  Gregory  died  in  1591.  and  his  successoi-.  Inno- 
cent IX.,  in  the  same  year.  It  was  not,  therefore, 
until  the  beginning  of  1592  that  Bellarmine 
realized  his  hopes.  The  new  pope,  Clement 
VIII.  (d.  1605).  issued  a  decree  (Feb.  13),  inter- 
dicting the  Sixtine,  and  ordei-ing  the  purchase,  at 
the  expense  of  the  papal  treasury,  of  all  copies. 
lu  consequence,  copies  of  this  edition  are  ver}' 
rare.  The  new  or  Clementine  edition  appeared 
in  1592,  with  a  temperate  and  modest  pi'eface  by 
Bellarmine,  who  candidly  allowed  that  the  text 
was  not  perfect,  but  claimed  it  was  more  correct 
than  any  yet  given.  The  two  editions  were  simi- 
lar in  external  appearance,  and  the  second  bore 
tho  name  of  .Sixtus  upon  thf  titlepage.  On  the 
history  of  the  Authentic  Vulg.ite,  of.  Thom.-\s 
J.-iMES  :  BeUum  papnle  s.  roncordia  diacors  Sixti  V. 
et  Clemfntis  VIII.  circa  Ilieroni/miaiwm  edit.,  Lon- 
don, 1600;  several  reprints,  latest,  1841. 

Even  while  the  Clementine  edition  was  fresli 
from  the  press,  thei'e  was  talk  of  revising  it,  and 
several  revisions  have,  indeed,  V)een  made ;  but 
the  presence  of  an  official  text  has  cheeked  the 
study  of  the  manuscripts,  and  hindered  the  print- 
ing of  various  readings.  Tlie  '•  epoch-making 
work  in  the  study  of  the  Vulgate"  is  C.  Vek- 
CELLOXE :  Varife  Lectiones  Vulr/.  Lat  Bihliorum. 
Rome,  tom.  i.  (1860),  tom.  ii.  (unfinished),  part  1, 
(1862),  part  2,  (1864).  The  oldest  and  best  manu- 
script of  the  Latin  Bible  is  the  Codex  Amiali- 
nus,  now  in  the  Bibl.  Laurentiana  at  Florence. 
which  dates  from  541,  and  contains  the  entire 
Bible,  except  Barucli.  The  New  Testament  part 
ha,s  been  eciited  by  Tischendorf,  1850,  1854.  The 
Clementine  text  of  the  A'ulgate  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament was  published  at  Leipzig,  1873,  large  8vo, 
with  tlie  various  readings  of  the  Codex  Amiatinus 
throughout.  The  edition  was  begun  by  Th. 
Heyse,  and  completed  by  Tischendorf.  The  best 
edition  of  the  simple  Clementine  Vulgate  is  that 
of  Carlo  Vercellone,  Rome,  1861,  4to. 

[Tlie  present  Vulgate,  Canon  ^V'estcott  reminds 
us,  contains  elements  whicii  belong  to  every  pe- 
riod and  form  of  the  Latin  version,  —  (1)  I'nre- 
rised  Old  Latin  (Wisdom,  Kcclesiasticus,  1  and  2 
Maccabees,  I'.aruch),  (2)  Old  I^atin  revised  from 
the  Septuagint  (Psaltei').  (3)  ./erome.'.i  free  trans- 
lation from  tlie  ori(/iriat  text  (Judith,  Tobit).  (4) 
Jerome's  translation  from  the  oiiginal  (Old  Tes- 
tament, except  Psalter).  (5)  Old  Latin  revised 
from  Greek  manuscripts  (Gospels).  (6)  Old 
Latin  cursorily  revised  (the  remainder  of  the 
New  Testament).  See  art.  Vulgate  in  Smith's 
Dirt,  of  the  liihte,  Amer.  ed.,  vol.IV.  p.  3466.] 

3.  Modern  Latin  Versions.  —  For  convenience  we 
here  group  a  few  modern  translations  of  the  Old 
Testament  into  Latin  from  the  Hebrew.  Tlie 
Reformers  worked  in  lliis  line,  piirticnlarly  (Kco- 
jampadius,  the  Icarui'd  Kcfnrmer  of  Basel,  who 
translated  the  prophetical  l)ooks.  But  a  Koman- 
Catholic  scholar,  the  learned  Dominican  Sanctes 
Pag.ni.nus  (147(1-1511),  was  the  first  to  publish 
(in  1528)  a  complete  Latin  Bible,  wliich  won 
him  great  applause.     A  corrected  edition  of  the 


Old  Tf^stament  of  this  translation,  along  with 
Beza's  Latin  New  Testament,  was  issued  by  Rob- 
ert Stephens  in  1557.  In  1572  appeared,  as  an 
appendix  to  the  Antirerp  Poh/i/lot,  a  Latin  iuter- 
line.ar  to  the  Bible,  which,  in  the  Old  Testament, 
was  substantially  the  Paguinus  version,  corrected 
Ijy  Arias  Montanus,  and,  in  the  New  Testament, 
the  Vulgate.  Under  the  direction  of  Cardinal 
Thomas  de  Vio  Cajeta.v  (1469-1534).  another 
interlinear  of  the  greater  part  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  all  the  New  Testament  save  the  .Apoca- 
lypse, was  prepared  by  Jewish  and  Christian 
scholars;  but  the  Old-Testament  parts  were  not 
issued  in  collected  edition  until  1639.  The  New 
Testament  appeared  1530.  The  version  was 
verbal,  and  in  rather  barbarous  Latin.  Sebas- 
tian Mi'xsTER  (1489-1552)  issued  (in  1534-;i5, 
2d  ed.  1546)  a  literal,  faithful  version  of  the  Old 
Testament,  with  explanatory  remarks,  Leo 
JuDE  (1482-1542)  had  almost  finished  a  Latin 
version  of  the  Old  Testament,  upon  which  he 
had  been  engaged  may  yeai's.  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  At  his  request  some  friends  continued  it; 
and  it  was  issued  in  splendid  form  by  Froschower, 
Ziirich,  1543,  folio,  Sebastian  Castellio 
(1515-63),  in  1551,  1555,  and  1556,  sent  forth  an 
elegant  and  accurate  Latin  version  of  the  Old 
Testament,  The  version  made  by  Immasuel 
Tremei.lius  (1510-80),  a  born  Jew.  assisted  by 
his  son-in-law  Franciscus  Junius  (1645-1602), 
which  appeared  in  2  tom.,  1579,  received  great 
praise.  The  New  Testament  appeared  in  reprint 
in  England  by  Middleton,  1580.  The  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament  published  by  J.  Pisc.\tor 
(1546-1625)  was  in  the  main  only  a  revision  of 
Tremellius*.  Seb.\stian  Sciimid  (1617-96),  a 
very  useful  exegete.  spent  forty  years  upon  a 
Latin  translation  of  the  entire  Bible,  and  did 
not  live  to  see  it  out  of  the  press  (1696,  2d  ed. 
1708),  Johannes  Coccejus  (1603-69),  the 
Dutch  theologian,  issued  an  almost  entire  trans- 
lation in  connection  with  his  commentaries:  and 
Jean  le  Clerc  (1657-1736),  the  versatile  Gene- 
van, an  independent  able  one,  in  parts,  with  a 
commentary  (1693-1731).  From  the  learned  and 
acute  priest  of  the  oratory,  Charles  Fran(;ois 
HoUBiGANT  (1686-1783),  appeared,  Paris,  1753, 
the  Bililia  Hebraica  cum  notis  cril.  el  vers.  lat.  ad 
notas  crit.  facia.  4  torn.,  the  Hebrew  text  unpointed 
(since  he  held  the  points  to  be,  not  only  useless, 
but  dangerous),  and  tlie  translation  very  careful, 
J.  A.  Dathe  (1731-91)  made  a  conservative  trans- 
lation (if  the  Old  Testament,  which  appeared  at  in- 
tervals, 1773-89.  Besides,  there  have  been  versions 
of  separate  books,  of  greater  or  less  excellence. 

Turning  to  the  .separate  Latin  versions  of  the 
New  Testament,  the  earliest,  nio.st  succe.ssful.  and 
influential,  is  that  by  Erasmus  (141)7-1536), 
made  in  five  months,  hut  though  hastily  made, 
as  was  his  custom,  so  excellent,  that  it  has  been 
reprinted  more  than  two  luuulred  times.  Five 
editions  a))pearod  in  his  lifetiino  (1516,  1519, 
1522,  1527,  1535).  Theodore  Beza  (1519- 
1605)  followed.  His  first  edition  appeared  15.50 
(1557);  the  other  per.sonally  conducted  editions 
were  1.06.5,1588  (1589),  1,598;  but  the  work  has 
been  jmblished  more  than  a  hun<lred  times.  The 
best  edition  is  Cantabrig.,  1042.  Three  new 
translations  are  yet  to  be  mentioned,  —  those  of 
II.  A.   SciiOTT,  very  handy,  much  used,  Lips., 


BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


285 


BIBLE    VERSIONS. 


1805,  1811,  1825,  18:?0:  F.  A.  An.  NXiiK,  Lips., 
IHIJI;  and  An.  (iii.'^ciiEN,  Lips.,  1832.  But  thn 
time  for  such  work  is  past. :  it,  is  an  anachronism. 
The  duty  of  tlie  hour  is  to  spread  tlie  living; 
Word  in  living  languages.        (>.  F.  FllITZSCHE. 

yn.E7'I/I0PlC.  —  In  the  ancient  language  of 
the  Axumite  kingdom,  commonly  called,  since 
the  sixteenth  century,  the  Ethiopic,  but  liy  tlie 
natives  the  Geez,  there  exists  a  version  of  the 
Bible,  whicli  has  always  been  the  only  authorized 
one  among  all  the  tribes  of  Abyssini.an  Christians, 
as  well  as  among  the  .Tcwish  Falashas,  .and  which 
yet  maintains  its  .ancient  authority,  and  is  read 
in  the  service,  although  the  Ethiopic  long  ago 
ceased  to  be  spoken.  We  have,  however,  no 
reliable  information  in  <"cgard  to  the  exact  time 
or  manner  of  its  origin  ;  but  it  is  certain  that  it 
was  made  from  the  Alexandrian  recension  of  the 
Greek  Bible  in  tlie  early  days  of  Christianity  in 
Abyssinia,  or  from  the  fourth  to  the  sixth  century, 
and  it  is  not  only  the  oldest  monument,  but  also 
the  foundation,  of  the  whole  Ethiopic  literature. 
It  is  very  faithful ;  being,  for  the  most  part,  a  ver- 
bal rendering  of  the  Greek,  and  yet  readable  and 
fluent,  and  in  the  Old  Testament  often  hits  the 
ideas  and  the  words  of  the  Hebrew  in  a  surprising 
manner.  But  this  varies,  of  course ;'  and  the 
translators  were  not  learned  men,  nor  even  per- 
fectly at  home  in  Greek,  as  is  evident  when  rare 
words  and  technical  terms  had  to  be  translated, 
so  that  upon  their  shoulders  lies  a  burden  of 
error  which  cannot  be  laid  to  defective  manu- 
scripts, nor  to  the  poverty  of  Ethiopic.  Copying 
had  the  inevitable  deteriorating  effect  upon  their 
work ;  althougli  it  appears  that  errors  from  this 
source  were  comparatively  few  before  the  last 
three  or  four  centuries,  and  that  the  majority  of 
the  variations  are  intentional,  the  result  of  an 
effort  to  remove  archaisms,  and  render  the  diction 
more  idiomatic.  Thus,  in  many  manuscripts, 
the  four  Gospels,  the  portion  most  read,  have 
undergone  such  a  change,  that  they  i-ead  like  a 
paraphrase  rather  than  a  translation,  or  like  a 
new  translation  instead  of  the  old.  Those  por- 
tions less  read  are  in  purer  condition.  The  tra- 
dition which  ascribes  the  version  to  Frumentius 
is  of  little  value. 

The  uncertainty  of  the  text  led  to  early 
attempts  at  revision ;  the  easier  to  effect  because 
the  Abyssinian  pilgrims  brouglit  home  with  them 
Bibles  in  other  languages,  so  there  could  be  com- 
parison of  texts.  In  the  books  of  the  Etliiopic 
version  already  published  [see  Literature  at  end 
of  this  section]  three  texts  can  be  distinguished: 
(1)  The  original  translation,  more  or  less  cor- 
rupted, very  rare  in  the  manuscripts  ;  (2)  A  text 
enlarged  and  altered  from  the  Greek,  the  com- 
monest in  the  manuscripts;  (3)  A  text  corrected  by 
the  Hebrew  original,  found  in  later  manuscripts. 
Critical  care  and  caution  are  therefore  requisite 
to  restore  the  original  Ethiopic  text.  Since  this 
Bible  is  one  of  the  oldest  daughters  of  the 
LXX.,  it  has  great  critical  importance,  and  has 
preserved  peculiarities  and  originalities.  Thus 
it  had  at  first  a  different,  peculiar,  and  partly 
original  division  of  the  separate  books.  The 
Occidental  "chapters"  were  introduced  at  a  later 
day  into  Abyssinia,  under  European  influences. 
It  included  the  .\pocrypha,  except  the  IMaccabees, 
■\Thich  were  either  not  translated,  or  very  quickly 


lost,  and  several  pseudographs  (see  title),  and  put 
them  upon  perfect  equality  with  the  canonical 
writings;  and  in  this  way  the  number  of  books 
is  given  as  eighty-one,  —  forty-six  for  the  Old 
Testament,  thirty-five  for  the  New;  but  in  par- 
ticulars the  counting  varies  very  much. 

Lit.  —  Ludolk:  JFIist.  irlli.,  HI.  1,  and  Cmnni., 
pp.  295-298;  the  Prolegomena  to  Walton's 
Polyglot,  No.  15;  Lk  Long:  JiihUolh.  sacra,  ed. 
A.  G.  Masch,  1778,  tom.  11.  pp.  110-1.57.  Of 
Ethiopic  texts,  Laukkxck  i.ssued  in  1819  tho 
Asn iisio  Jesatw,  and  the  A/mcn/i/pm'  of  Ezra  in 
1820,  at  Oxford.  Dillmann  has  edited  the 
Orlaleuch,  1853 ;  the  four  books  of  the  Kinr/s, 
180I-71;  Henoch,  1851;  Lihcr  Juliilaonnn,  18.59. 
The  first  portions  of  the  Ethiopic  Scriptures  that 
appeared  in  print  wei-e  the  Psalms  and  the  Song 
of  Solomon,  edited  by  John  Potken,  Kome,  1513. 
Tiie  New  Testament  was  first  printed  in  Rome, 
1548-49,  reprinted  in  Walton's  Polyglot,  1657, 
and  a  Latin  translation  of  the  version  made  by 
Professor  Bode,  published  at  Brunswick,  1752-5.5, 
2  vols.  4to.  Jlr.  Thomas  Pell  Piatt  edited  for 
the  Britisli  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  an  I>thiopic 
New  Testament,  London,  1830.  This  edition,  it 
is  true,  is  better  printed  than  the  Roman,  but  is 
equally  marred  by  many  errors,  and  the  absence 
of  an  old  nuvnuscript  text,  so  that  it  is  critically 
worthless.  A.  DlIXMAX>f. 

VIII.  GOTHIC.  —  This  version  was  the  work 
of  Ulpiiilas  or  Vulkila  (311-381),  Bishop  of 
the  West  Goths,  a  "holy  and  spotless  priest  of 
the  Lord,"  written  in  an  .alphabet  he  constructed 
for  this  piu'pose  out  of  Greek,  Latin,  and  Runic 
characters,  and  embr.aced  the  entire  Bible,  with 
the  exception  of  the  four  books  of  the  Kinr/s, 
omitted  because  of  their  warlike,  .and,  as  he 
thought,  dangerous  spirit  against  idols.  Jfuch 
of  the  New  Testament,  but  very  little  of  the  Old 
Testament,  has  come  down  to  us.  Uli>hilas  was 
an  Arian  ;  but  there  is  no  trace  of  iiis  heresy  in 
the  version,  which  is  faitliful,  and  so  skilful,  th.at 
even  the  finer  sliades  of  the  original  .are  h.appily 
brought  out.  The  version  is  from  tlie  Greek 
text,  and  has,  therefore,  critical  weight.  As  it 
now  exists,  there  are  traces  of  Latin-text  influ- 
ences; but  these  were  probably  of  later  origin, 
when  the  manuscripts  were  copied  in  Italy  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  the  Goths.  The  recently  debated 
question,  whether  Ulphilas  was  tlie  author  of 
the  entire  translation,  must  be  answered  affir- 
matively in  regard  to  the  New  Testament,  but 
left  unanswered  in  the  Old;  for  we  know  too 
little  about  it.  Cf.  E.  BERNHARnr:  Krit.  Un- 
tcrs.  iiber  die  r/olh.  Bibeldbersetzun(j,  Elberfeld, 
1864-69,  2  vols;  O.  Ohrloff:  Die  BruchstUcke 
vom  A.T.  der  ynih.  Biheliibers.  h-itisch  unlersucht, 
ILalle  1876.  And  on  Ulphilas  cf.  G.  Waitz: 
Uebcr  das  Lehen  imd  die  Lehre  des  Ulf.,  Hannover, 
1840 ;  W.  Bessell  :  Uebcr  das  Lehen  des  Uljilas 
und  die  Bekehrunr)  der  Gothen  zum  Christcnthum, 
Gottingen,  1860.  Cf.  also  W.  Krafft,  Kirchen- 
(jescliichle  der  rjerm.  Volkcr,  Berlin,  1S54. 

[In  the  fifth  century  the  East  Goths  governed 
Italy,  and  the  West,  Spain,  where  they  ruled  until 
the  eighth  century.  In  this  w.ay  the  version  was 
very  widely  spread.  Tregelles,  indeed,  says  it 
must  have  been  the  vernacular  translation  of  a, 
large  portion  of  Europe.]  But  eventually  it  was 
entirely  lost  sight  of  for  centui-ies,  until,  in  the 


BIBLE   VERSIONS. 


286 


BIBLE   VERSIONS. 


latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Ant.  Moril- 
lon  repoi'ted  havinsf  seen  at  AVerden  in  West- 
phalia a  Gothic  codex,  from  which  he  copied  the 
Lord's  Prayer.  This  was  probably  the  Codex 
Argeuteus,  taken  by  the  Swedes  at  the  siege  of 
Prague  (1648),  and  wliich  now  is  ttie  most  pre- 
cious treasure  of  the  University  of  Upsala.  It  is 
a  superb  manuscript,  containing  fragments  of 
the  Gospels,  and  dates  from  the  fifth  century, 
first  edited  by  Fr.  Junius,  Dortr.,  166.5,  2  vols,  j 
'i'he  best  editions  of  all  the  fi-agments  [for  the 
exact  list,  see  Davidson's  Art.  Gothic  Version,  in 
Kitto's  Cyc.  of  Bill.  Lit.,  3d  ed.,  ii.  873  sq.]  are  by 
n.  C.  V.  der  Gabelentz  and  J.  Loebe,  Lips., 
1836(4.3)-46  :  by  Fr.  Ludw.  Stamm,  7th  ed.,  re- 
vised by  Moritz  Heyne.  Paderborn.  1878;  and  by 
K  Bernhardt,  Halle,  1875.  The  Gospel  of  Mark 
has  recently  lieen  edited  with  a  grammatical  appa- 
ratus by  K.  IMiiller  and  H.  Hoeppe  :  U/Jilas  Eian- 
(jdiuni  Marci,  Herlin,  1881.      O.  F.  FRITZSCHE. 

I X.  j4  RMENIA  N.  —  It  was  made  from  manu- 
scripts brought  from  the  Council  of  Ephesus 
(431)  by  Mesrob  (d.  441:  his  name  is  spelled  in 
six  different  ways),  the  inventor  of  the  national 
alphabet,  with  the  assistance  of  several  of  his 
pupils.  See  Mesrob.  The  Old  Testament  was 
from  the  Septuagint  (Daniel,  as  usual,  from 
1'heodotion),  word  for  word;  the  New  Testament 
from  the  Greek.  The  first  printed  edition  of 
the  Armenian  Bible  is  that  of  Bishop  Uscan 
(lioth  tlie  bishopric  and  the  name  are  doubted), 
Amsterdam,  1666 ;  but  it  is  untrustworthy,  the 
text  having  been  in  many  instances  conformed  to 
tlie  Vulgate  against  all  known  manuscripts.  The 
best  edition  founded  on  manuscripts  is  by  Zohrab, 
New  Testament,  1789,  Bil/lia.  1805.  Cf.  Neu- 
Ji.v.vx'.  (•isch.  der  arm.  Lit..  1836. 

X.  GEOJlG/AN.  —  'Mdde  from  the  Septua- 
gint, in  the  sixth  century,  in  the  literary  lan- 
guage and  ecclesiastical  alphabet  (Kuzuri) ;  of 
little  present  critical  value,  because  of  its  corrupt 
state.  First  printed  in  Moscow,  1743,  fob,  since 
widely  circulated  by  the  St.  Petersburg  Bible  So- 
ciety in  both  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  character. 

XL  OLD  SLAVONIC.  —Ma.de  in  the  ninth 
century  from  the  Septuagint,  by  Methodius  and 
Cyril  of  Thessalonica.  The  oldest  manuscript 
of  the  whole  Bible  dates  1499,  tlie  first  printed 
Bible  1581 ;  but  of  the  New  Testament  there  is 
an  Evangelistary  dated  1056,  and  the  Gospels  of 
the  same  period  at  Kheims,  on  which  the  kings 
of  France  used  to  take  their  coronation  oath  ;  also 
Glagolitic  manuscript  of  the  Go.spels,  of  about  the 
same  date,  now  at  St.  Petersburg;  see  V.Jagii?, 
Qiialuor  Erv.  Codex  Glae/olitieus,  Berlin,  1879. 

XII.  ARABIC. — There  are  many  manuscripts 
containing  translations  of  portions  of  the  Old 
Testament  now  stored  away  in  libraries.  We 
consider  only  those  which  are  printed  or  are 
reliably  described.  They  may  be  classified  into 
the  immediale,  direct  from  the  original  text,  and 
the  mediate,  from  other  versions.  1 .  Immediate. 
(a)  The  version,  often  a  paraphrase,  of  llabbi 
Saadia  ha-Gaon  (d.  042),  more  renowned  as 
giammarian.  The  Pentateuch  was  iiublished  at 
Constantinople,  1546.  Lately  P.  de  Lagarde,  in 
his  Materialieo  zur  Kritilc  »/.  Gesehiihte  </«  Peiita- 
leiichs,  i,ei|izig,  1807,  published  Genesis  and 
Kxodus  from  a  l.,eyden  manuscript.  Saadia's 
Isaiah,  llaiea,  Joli,  and  Psalms  hav«  also  appeared. 


(/<)  Joshua  and  a  fragment  of  Kinr/s  are  in  the 
Paris  and  Walton's  Polyglot,  made  by  a  .Tew  of 
the  tenth  or  eleventh  century,  (c)  Arab.i  Erpenii, 
a  manuscri]it  of  the  Pentateuch  (in  Hebrew  let- 
ters), literally  translated,  made  by  an  African 
Jew  in  the  thirteenth  century.  (</)  Genesis,  the 
Psalms,  and  Daniel,  by  Saadia  ben  Levi  Asnekoth, 
a  .Jew  of  Morocco,  from  the  ISIassoretic  text: 
manuscript  now  in  British  ISIuseum.  (e)  A 
translation  of  Hosea  and  Joel.  (/)  The  Penta- 
teuch of  Abu  Sa'id,  a  Samaritan  of  the  eleventh 
or  twelfth  century,  from  tlie  Samaritan  text  of 
the  Pentateuch,  influenced  by  the  Hebrew  and 
the  Saadia  and  the  Samaritan  version.  Samuel 
Kolin  (Zur  Sprache.  Litcralur,  u.  Doymatik  der 
Samaritancr,  Leipz.,  1876,  ]ip.  134  sq.)  maintains 
just  the  opposite,  that  the  version  of  Abu  Sa'id 
gave  Arabisms  to  the  Samaritan.  2.  Mediate. 
(1)  Those  which  are  made  from  the  Peshito. 
(a)  A  version  of  Judges,  Ruth,  .Samuel,  Kings, 
and  Nehemiah,  found  in  the  London  and  Paris 
Polyglots.  The  version  of  Job  was  published 
by  P.  de  Lagarde,  in  1876,  in  his  Psalterium  Job 
Prorerhia  A  rabice.  (Ii)  Translations  of  the  Psalms. 
((■)  Fragments  of  the  Pentateuch.  (2)  Those 
from  the  Hexaplar  Sijriac  text.  Cf.  AV.  G.  Fr. 
Comes  d£  Baudissin  :  Translationis  atttiquce  ar. 
lib.  Jobi  rjuce  siipersunt  ex  apoyrupho  cod.  j\lus.  Brit, 
nunc pr.  ed.  atque  ill..  Lips.,  1870,  and  the  Leviti- 
cus, Nuvtbers,  and  Deuteronomy  published  by 
Lagarde  in  his  Materialien  I.  (3)  Those  from 
the  Septuagint.  (a)  The  versions  in  the  Poly- 
glots of  the  books  not  specified  above.  (/*)  Sev- 
eral Psalters  described  by  Ddderlein  (Reperlor.  II. 
176-178,  IV.  57-96).  (c)  .Specimens  of  a  Penta- 
teuch from  the  Alexandrian  recension  of  the 
Septuagint.  (4)  Those  from  the  Coptic  are  very 
numerous,  generally  are  side  by  side  with  the 
Coptic  text;  of  no  importance  except  for  the 
Coptic.  (5)  Those  made  or  interpolated  from 
the  Vult/ate  are  also  of  no  account. 

XIII."  PERSIAN. —  In  the  fourth  volume  of 
the  London  Polyglot,  there  is  a  Persian  transla- 
tion of  the  Pentateuch,  which  was  made  in  the 
first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  in  Constanti- 
nople by  the  Rabbi  Jacob  Ben  Joseph,  surnamed 
Tawosi,  or  Tusi,  i.e.,  according  to  the  usual 
interpretation,  from  Tus,  a  city  of  Persia,  which 
possessed  a  celebrated  Jewish  academy  ;  but,  ac- 
cording to  Koliut,  it  is  a  proper  name,  meaning 
peacock.  Cf.  Alex.  Koiiut;  Krit.  Deleuchlung 
der  pers.  Pentateuch- Uebcr.^ctzuny,  Lei\y/.ig  u.  Hei- 
delberg, 1871.  The  version  is  very  literal,  after 
the  manner  of  Aquila;  euphemistic,  avoids  an- 
thr()|H)nu)riihic  aiKl  anthropopathic  terms,  and  is 
intluenced  by  older  versions,  especially  by  Oiikelos 
and  Saadia. 

B.  Versions  OF  the  New  Testament.  This 
section  is  supplementary,  and  refers  only  to  the 
New  Testament:  for  tlie  Old  Testament  and 
entire  Bible,  see  A.  In  addition  to  the  literature 
already  given  in  the  note  at  tiie  beginning  of  this 
article,  two  works  deserve  mention,  —  Reuss: 
Geschichte  der  heil.  Schriflen  N.T.,  5th  ed.,  Braun- 
schweig, 1874;  and  Scrivener:  A  Plain  Intro- 
duction to  the  Criticism  of  the  N.  T.,  2d  ed.,  Cam- 
bridge, 1874. 

I.  SYRIAC-Ci.  Andr.  MiJLLEU  :  De  Syria- 
cis  lihl).  ss.  verss.,  und  Symbolce  Syrr.,  Berol,  1073; 
also  in   O/mscc.   Orientl.,  Franco!.,  1695;  Gloc. 


BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


287 


BIBLE  VERSIONb. 


Kidi.ey:  De  Syrr.  N.  T.  versionimi  iiulnle  alq'ir 
usu,  1701 ;  G.  C.  Storr  :  Ohxfrrr.  suprr  N.  T. 
I'crsionibus  Sytr.,  Tiib.  1772;  Fr.  Uhlkmann  : 
De  versinnum  N.  T.  Syrr.  crilim  tixu,  Kcrliii, 
1850  (Schul-prowranim  des  Fripilrich  Wilh.  Gym- 
iKisium).  1.  Tlie  Ppshito.  Seo  /(  III.  [Tho 
New  Testament  omits  the  Apocalypse  aiul  four 
Catholic  Epistles  (L'd  Peter,  2d  and  3d  John, 
and  .lude).  See  J.  AV.  Ivihicridgk  :  T/if  A/ms- 
tolk-al  /Ic/.s  <inil  Epistles  from  the  Ancient  Syrinr, 
London,  18-19 ;  J.  Murdock:  Syri((r  N'ew  Testa- 
ment, N.Y.,  1851.]  2.  The  Thiioxenian  or  Ilar- 
clean  was  made  by  Polycavp,  Rural  Bishop  for 
Mar  Philoxenns,  Monop'hysite  ISishop  of  Mabug 
(Hierapolis),  directly  from  the  Greek:  the  Gos- 
pels were  finished  A.D.  508.  In  61G  Thomas  of 
Harkel  (Heraclea)  corrected  the  translation  by 
the  help  of  three  approved  and  accurate  (ireek 
manuscripts  in  the  Monastery  of  the  Antonians 
at  Alexandria,  and  added  a  critical  apparatus, 
and,  after  the  manner  of  Origen,  also  asterisks 
and  obeli.  This  revision  is  the  one  now  generally 
found  in  manuscripts.  It  is  so  close  to  the  Greek 
that  it  is  probably  the  most  servile  version  of 
Scripture  ever  made ;  indeed,  so  close  as  to  be  in 
places  quite  miintelligible  without  the  Greek. 
It  includes  the  portions  of  the  New  Testament 
omitted  from  the  Peshito ;  although  it  is  a  ques- 
tion whether  the  Apocalypse,  edited  by  L.  de 
iJieu,  Leyden,  1G27,  and  often  considered  a  part 
of  the  Philoxenian,  although  usually  nsed  to 
complete  the  Peshito,  really  belongs  to  it.  But 
at  all  events  the  Catholic  Epistles  and  Apoca- 
lypse are  not  the  work  of  Thomas  of  llarkel ;  cf. 
BicKELL :  Conspectus  rei  Syrorum  literariw,  Monast. 
Ih71.  The  whole  Havclean  version  was  edited  by 
J.  White,  Gospels,  2  vols.,  1778,  Acts  and  Epis- 
tles, 2  vols.,  1799,  1803;  and  John,  by  Bkrnstkin: 
Das  heil.  Evatif/.  des  Johannes  Syr.  in  Jiari.iens. 
Uber.'i.,  Leipzig,"  1853;  see  Bernstein's  essay,  De 
Charklensi  N.  T.  Irnnslatione  si/riaca,  Vratisl.,  1837, 
2d  ed.,  18.54.  3.  The  Curetonian  Syriac.  Wil- 
liam Cureton,  U.D.,  Canon  of  Westminster  dis- 
covered iu  1847,  printed  in  1848,  and  published 
in  London,  1858,  Jiemains  of  a  very  ancient  recen- 
sion of  the  Four  Gospels  in  Syriac,  which  manu- 
script was  brought  (1842)  from  a  monastery  in 
the  Nitrian  Desert,  near  Cairo,  Egypt,  and  is  now 
in  the  British  jNluseum.  The  manuscript  is  from 
the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  ;  but  whether  the 
version  itself  is  older  than  the  Peshito  is  a  ques- 
tion. Cf .  IIermansen  :  Disp.  de  cod.  evv.  syr.  a 
Caretono  typis  descr.,  Haun.,  1859.  Dr.  Cureton 
entertained  the  idea  that  he  liad  discovered  in 
these  Syriac  fragments  a  text  of  Matthew's  Gos- 
pel, which,  to  a  great  extent,  preserves  exactly 
the  genuine  words  of  our  Lord  as  they  had  been 
written  by  the  apostle  iu  his  original  Hebrew 
Gospel ;  but  this  view  was  accepted  only  by  its 
author.  Upon  this  point  cf .  Gildemeister  :  Dc 
eranqeliis  in  arabicum  e  simplici  syriaca  translatis, 
Bonn,  1865.  4.  The  Jerusalem  Syriac,  so  called 
because  the  language  of  the  principal  manu.script 
known,  an  Evangelistary,  which  was  discovered  in 
the  Vatican  by  Adler,  and  described  in  his  N.  T. 
Versiones  Syriacce,  Copenhagen,  1789,  is  less  Syriac 
than  Chaldee,  much  like  that  of  the  Jerusalem 
Targum.  It  is  made  directly  from  the  Greek ; 
dates  from  the  sixth  century;  and  was  proba- 
bly used  but  in  a  few  remote  churches  of  Leba- 


non or  Galilee,  as  it  is  not  mentioned  by  any 
Syriac  author.  Count  Francis  Miuiscalchi  Erizzo 
liiis  given  us  a  complete  and  scholarly  edition 
of  iit  in  two  quarto  volumes :  Erati;/)Harium 
Hieriisohpnilannm,  ex  ('odicc  Valicano  J'aUcttiuo 
(lejironijisit,  ediilit,  L<tlinh  rerlil,  /'rolC(/tnnenis  nc 
G/ossario  adm-narit,  Verona,  18(il-(J4.  Recently 
discovered  fragments  of  this  version  are  con- 
tained in  Land:  Anecdola  Si/riacaT.  IV.  Lugd. 
B.,  187.5,  p.  103  sq. 

II.  EGYPTIAN,  or  COPTIC.  —  [The  section 
contributed  by  Canon  (now  Bishop)  Lightfoot 
to  Scrivener's  Introduction  to  the  Criticism  of  tlie 
New  Testament,  2d  ed.,  1874,  pp.  319-3,57,  is  here 
presented  in  a  very  brief  form.  The  New  Testa- 
ment, or  parts  of  it,  appeared  in  the  two  prin- 
cipal dialects  of  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  the 
Thebaic  and  Memphitic  respectively,  probably 
before  the  close  of  the  second  century.  This  is 
the  more  likely  since  it  was  the  exception  to  find 
a  native  Egyptian  bishop  or  monk  in  the  early 
centuries  who  could  speak  Greek.  Surely  before 
270  the  Scriptures  had  been  translated  into  Egyp- 
tian ;  for  Anthony  (251-3.56),  who  could  only 
.speak  his  native  tongue,  was  in  liis  youth  power- 
fully affected  by  the  Gospels  which  he  heard  read 
in  church.  The  Memphitic  or  Bahiric  version 
was  not  included  in  the  Polyglots,  but  was  first 
published  by  David  Wilkins,  in  Oxford.  1716, 
from  manuscripts  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  with  a 
Latin  translation,  N.  T.  jEgyptium  vulyo  Copticum, 
etc.  But  although  great  praise  is  due  to  this 
pioneer,  two  defects  seriously  impair  the  work. 
(1)  The  text  is  not  constructed  on  any  consist- 
ent or  trustworthy  principles.  (2)  The  trans- 
lation is  often  inaccurate.  Schwartze,  in  Berlin 
(1846. 1847),  issued  the  Gospels,  and  P.  Boetticher 
[(dias  P.  de  Lagarde],  in  Halle  (18.52),  the  Acts  and 
Ejiistles;  but  the  first  editor  had  much  too  scanty 
materials,  and  the  second  gives  no  translation  or 
collation  with  the  Greek,  rendering  his  book  abso- 
lutely useless  to  any  other  than  Egyptian  scholars. 
The  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge 
published  (1847-.52)  a  magnificent  edition  of  the 
whole  New  Testament  in  Memphitic,  under  the 
editorship  of  Henry  Tattam ;  but,  as  the  edition 
contains  no  various  re.adings,  it  is  quite  use- 
less for  critical  purposes.  The  Memphitic  New 
Testament  did  not  contain  the  Apocalypse :  this 
gives  a  hint  as  to  its  date.  The  earlier  Alexan- 
drian w-riters,  Clement  and  Origen,  in  the  first 
part  of  the  third  century,  and  the  later  Alexan- 
drian Church  from  the  close  of  the  third  century 
onward,  quote  the  Apocalypse  without  hesitation 
as  the  work  of  John ;  but  about  the  middle  of 
that  century  doubts  were  widely  expressed,  as  by 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria  (d.  26.5),  and  the  diffi- 
culty may  have  been  powerful  enough  to  cause  its 
exclusion  from  the  Egyptian  canon.  The  order 
of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  is  (1^  Gos- 
pels, (2)  Pauline  Epistles,  (o)  Catholic  Epistles, 
(4)  Acts.  The  version  is  for  the  most  part  faith- 
ful ;  and  Egyptian  is  so  largely  Greek  in  vocabu- 
lary that  it  "is  fairly  adequate  for  the  purpose. 
The  version  may,  therefore,  generally  be  consult- 
ed, even  for  minute  variations  iu  the  text :  iu  this 
respect  it  is  perhaps  the  most  important  of  all 
the  versions  for  the  textual  critic.  It  preserves 
the  best  text  as  current  among  the  Alexaudrian 
Fathers,  free  from  the  corruptions  which   pre- 


BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


288 


BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


vailed  so  widely  in  the  copies  of  the  second 
century. 

The  Sahidic  or  Thebaic  version  has  not  attract- 
ed attention  until  comparatively  recent  times. 
The  pioneer  scholar  was  C.  G.  Woide,  who  in 
1778  announced  his  intention  to  publish  from 
Oxford  manuscripts  the  fragments  of  the  Thebaic 
\ew  Testament;  but  he  did  not  live  to  finish  his 
work  (d.  Jlay,  1790),  and  H.  Ford,  professor  of 
Arabic  at  Oxford,  completed  and  issued  it :  Ap- 
pendix ad  Editionem  N-  T.  Grceci  e  Coilice  MS. 
Alexandrino  a  C.  G.  Woide  descripli,  ?»  ryim  conli- 
nenliir  Fragmenta  N.  T.  jnxta  inlerpretatioucm  Dia- 
lecli  Superioris  jEgijpti  </uce  T/iebaidica  vel  Saliiilica 
appellatur,  etc.,  Oxoniae,  1799.  This  work  lays 
biblical  scholars  under  heavy  obligations  ;  but, 
although  some  additions  have  been  published 
since,  there  is  greath'  needed  a  complete  collec- 
tion of  all  the  fragments  of  the  Thebaic  New 
Testament  The  version  is  rougher  and  less  faith- 
ful than  the  !Memphitic,  like  it  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  books  and  in  the  omission  of  the 
Apocalypse,  but  entirely  independent  of  it  in  text 
and  interpretation,  and  stands  second  in  textual 
value. 

The  Bashmuric  or  Elearchian  version,  without 
independent  value,  a  mere  adaptation  of  the  The- 
baic, and  only  useful  where  the  Thebaic  is  want- 
ing, was  made  not  later  than  the  end  of  the  third 
or  beginning  of  the  fourth  century.  The  word 
"Bashniur"  means  the  "girdled  (by  the  Nile) 
country,"  and  was  applied  to  Elearchia,  the  coun- 
try of  the  Bucoli,  a  fierce  and  turbulent  race  of 
horsemen  who  lived  in  the  Delta.  They  were 
almost  exterminated  in  839,  the  remnant  of  the 
race  being  transported  to  Bagdad.  They  must 
have  had  a  complete  version  of  the  Bible;  but 
only  the  merest  fragments  have  come  down  to 
us.  They  are  published  by  Engelbreth  :  Frag- 
menta  Baxmurico-Coplica  Veleris  el  Novi  Testamenli, 
Ilavnise  (Copenhagen),  1811.] 

III.  PERSIAN.  —  The  Christians  of  Western 
Persia  belonging  to  the  Syrian  Church  used  the 
Peshito  in  early  times;  yet  there  are  known  two 
translations  of  the  four  (iospels  into  Persic,  — 
one  from  the  Peshito.  in  Walton's  Polyglot,  with  a 
J.,atin  translation  by  Samuel  Clarke,  afterwards 
reprinted  with  corrections  and  a  learned  preface 
by  Bode,  Helmstadt,  17.50-.ol  :  the  other  is  made 
from  the  Greek,  published,  London,  16.57;  edited 
by  Abraham  Wheelocke.  There  are  older  Per- 
sian versions  (parts  of  both  Testaments)  still 
unpublished. 

IV.  ARABIC. — There  is  no  version  earlier 
than  719,  nor  is  any  of  critical  value.  1.  Imme- 
diate., (n)  The  (iospels  most  commonly  printed, 
first  in  Rome,  1590,  found  in  the  London  and 
Paris  Polyglots ;  latest  edition  by  P.  de  La- 
garde,  Leipzig,  18G4.  (4)  By  another  translator 
the  remainder  of  the  New  Testament  ii"!  the  Paris 
and  London  Polyglots,  (c)  The  New  Testament 
ed.  by  Krpenius,  Leyden,  IGIG;  re)iriuteil  Lou- 
don, 1829.  2.  Mediate.  From  the  Peshito,  as  in 
"Cod.  Teschendorf;"  of  the  Acts,  the  Pauline 
and  Catholic  Epistles,  exci'])t  the  four  ,\nlilc- 
gomeiia  of  the  latter.  3.  Tlie  Arabic  translation 
of  the  New  Testament  in  the  Koinan  Bible  of 
the  Propaganda,  Home,  1(171,  altered  from  the 
Vulgate,  and  that  of  the  Society  for  Promoting 
Christian  Knowledge,  LondoD,  1727,  altered  from 


the  Greek,  were  both  designed  forcirculation  in  the 
East,  and  are  of  no  critical  value.  See  P.  df.  La- 
GARDK:  Die  i-ier  Evanq.arah.     O.  F.  FKITZf^CHE. 

[V.  A  NGLO-SAXON.  —  There  was  apparent- 
ly no  version  of  the  Scriptures  in  this  language 
before  706,  when  Adhelm,  the  first  Bishop  of  Sher- 
borne, translated  the  Psalms,  followed  by  Egbert 
or  Eadfiid,  Bishop  of  Lindisfarne,  with  parts 
of  the  Gospels,  and  by  Bede  (d.  73.5),  with  the 
Gospel  of  John.  Other  Saxon  translations  are : 
in  ninth  century  by  King  Alfred  (d.  900),  the 
Psalms;  in  tenth  century  by  -Elfric,  the  Penta- 
teuch, Joshua.  Joli,  Judith,  part  of  Kings,  Esther, 
and  Maccabees.  The  version  was  made  from  the 
Vulgate.  The  entire  Anglo-Saxon  version  has 
never  been  published ;  but  Spelman  edited  the 
Psalms,  London,  1640  ;  and  Benjamin  Thorpe  in 
1835  issued  Libri  Psalinorxtm  Ver.'iio  aniiqna  Latina 
cum  Paraphrasi  Anglo-Saxonica  (probably  Ad- 
helm's),  and  in  1842  The  Anglo-Saxon  Version  of 
the  Holy  Gospels,  reprinted  in  New  York,  1846. 
Joseph  Bosworth  edited  The  Gothic  and  Anglo- 
Saxon  Gospel.''  in  Parallel  Columns  irith  the  Ver- 
sions of  Wycliffe  and  Tyndale,  arranged  with  pref- 
ace and  notes.  London.  1865.  The  fact  that  such 
a  small  part  of  the  Bible  has  been  published  is 
the  stranger  because  manuscripts  are  so  numer- 
ous. Before  the  prose  translation  of  any  part, 
Caedmon.  a  monk  in  the  Abbey  of  Streoneshalh 
in  Northumbria,  composed  a  poetical  version  of 
parts  of  the  Bible,  664.  See  Tfiokpk;  Caedmon's 
Melricfd  Parajihrase  of  Parts  of  the  Holy  Scriptwe, 
.\nglo-Saxon  with  English  translation,  notes,  and 
a  verbal  index,  London,  1832.] 

[Modern  Versions.  —  For  account  of  the  im- 
portant German  and  English  versions  see  special 
articles  :  our  space  admits  of  only  the  briefest 
mention  of  the  principal  others. 

1.  FRENCH.  —  Lefevre  d'Etaples  made  the 
first  Protestant  version  published.  Antwerp,  1530; 
but  that  of  Pierre-Robert  Olivetan,  founded 
upon  his,  published  1535  at  Serrieres,  near  Neuf- 
chatel,  at  the  expense  of  the  Waldenses,  as 
corrected  by  Calvin  his  cousin,  is  the  nearest 
approach  to  a  national  version.  Calvin  recog- 
nized Olivetan 's  imperfections,  and,  in  the  pref- 
ace to  the  edition  of  1561,  expre.ssed  the  wish 
that  some  competent  scholar  would  devote  half 
a  dozen  years  to  the  translation  of  the  Bible.  It 
is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that  Calvin  did  not  do 
this  work  himself.  His  wish,  however,  was  essen- 
tially met  when  La  Compagnie  ties  Paslews  de 
Genkve  deputed  the  task  to  certain  of  their  mem- 
bers, among  whom  was  Beza,  and  in  1588  issued 
the  anxiously  awaited  version.  Put  forth  under 
such  authority,  and  a  manifest  improvement 
upon  its  predeces.sor,  it  has  kept  the  field  unto 
this  day,  although  it  is  only  a  revision  of  Olive- 
tan. The  Bibles  of  Martin  (Amsterdam,  1707) 
and  Ostervald  (Amsterdam,  1724)  are  substan- 
tially the  1588  version,  and  only  valuable  for 
their  notes.  The  attempts  hitherto  made  to 
supersede  the  sadly  defective  Olivetan  have  been 
unsuccessful;  but  in  1874  Rev.  Dr.  Louis  Segond 
iniblished  at  (Jeneva  (2d  ed.,  1877,  at  Nancy;  3d 
ed.,  1879,  at  (Jeneva)  a  new  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  from  the  Hebrew  text,  and  in  1879  a 
new  translation  of  the  New  Testament  from  the 
Greek.  His  work  has  been  accepted  by  the  Uni- 
versity press,  Oxford,  England,  and,  as  a  note  on 


BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


289 


BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


thp  fly-leaf  states,  been  prititod  in  a  first  pflition 
of  fifty  tliousaiul  copies.  Tliis  version  is  regarded 
as  a  decided  iniprovenient  upon  all  others,  and  as 
worthy  of  national  official  use.  The  0.\ford  edi- 
tion is  beautifully  printed,  —  the  prose  portions 
in  ]iaragraphs,  with  marginal  numbers  to  indicate 
the  verses;  the  poetical  in  verse  form.  There  are 
also  occasional  brief  notes,  mostly  geographical 
and  philological,  interesting  prefaces,  retiKirijuci, 
an  abridged  history  of  the  .Jews  to  connect  the 
Testaments,  and  maps,  indexes  of  quotations  in  the- 
New  Testament  and  to  the  notes.  For  the  early 
history  of  the  French  Bible  see  Samuel  Bkhgek: 
La  Bible  Franfaise  tin  iiwi/en  lujc,  I'ai'is,  1884. 

2.  DUTCH.  — Portions  of  the  Bible  appeared 
in  the  opening  years  of  the  century ;  but  the  first 
complete  edition  of  the  Scriptures  was  issued  at 
Antwerp  in  1520,  by  .Jacob  van  Liesveldt,  in  two 
folio  volumes.  The  subsequent  edition  having 
cost  the  printer  his  head,  the  work  was  the  more 
valued,  and  held  its  own  until  1556,  when  Van 
Uteuhove's  version  began  to  supplant  it,  and  is 
to-day  still  sold,  being  highly  esteemed  by  the 
Lutherans.  Neither  of  these  versions  was  imme- 
diate. The  first  was  founded  upon  Luther's 
Bible,  so  far  as  it  had  then  appeared,  and  a 
Cologne  Bible  of  the  previous  century ;  tlie 
second,  upon  the  complete  Luther's  Bible,  com- 
pared with  Olivetan's  (French)  ;  and  both  failed 
to  present  the.  best  Dutch.  A  version  which 
should  be  immediate,  accurate,  scholarly,  yet 
po]iular  in  the  best  sense,  was  therefore  loudly 
demanded ;  but,  ov.dng  to  the  troubles  in  Hol- 
land,—  although  in  1571  the  Provincial  Synod 
at  Embden  ordered  it,  —  it  was  1637  when  the 
version  appeared.  The  steps  which  led  to  the 
happy  issue  may  thus  be  described.  Discussion 
and  synodical  action,  1571-92.  Philippe  van 
Marnix  de  St.  Aldegonde,  who  had  long  been 
occupied  with  a  version  of  his  own,  .appointed 
(1593)  to  superintend  the  work.  With  him  were 
to  be  associated  five  ministers,  appointed  by  the 
different  provincial  synods.  They  were  to  meet 
at  Leyden,  and  have  their  expienses  paid  by  the 
State  ;  but  the  death  of  the  brilliant  and  beloved 
St.  Aldegonde,  in  December,  1598,  ended  their 
meetings.  lu  1599  work  re-begun.  Owing,  how- 
ever, to  the  small  amount  of  time  the  revisers 
could  give  to  it,  and  also  to  the  doctrinal  differ- 
ences developed  with  Gomar  and  Armiuius  and 
their  adherents,  it  went  very  slowly ;  and  at  the 
death  of  Helmichius,  in  1608,  the  work  stopped. 
Forty  years  had  thus  passed  away  :  nothing  was 
done;  but  the  ground  was  cleared  for  action, 
inasmuch  as  the  principles  of  the  proposed  trans- 
lation were  decided.  'The  famous  Synod  of  Dort 
(1618)  elected  three  translators  and  fourteen 
revisers,  two  from  each  of  the  seven  provinces; 
instructed  the  translators  to  begin  within  three 
months  after  the  rising  of  the  synod,  send  their 
work  to  the  States-General,  and  then  to  each  of 
the  revisers ;  and,  when  the  revision  was  finished, 
to  hold  a  joint  meeting  to  determine  the  final 
form  of  the  version.  The  Apocrypha  was  to  be 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  New  Testament,  with  a 
distinct  title  and  pagination.  This  action  of  the 
synod  had  to  be  brought  before  the  States-(ien- 
eral  for  ajiproval,  in  order  that  the  necessary  mon- 
eys might  be  allowed,  and  the  ministers  chosen 
released  from  parochial  service.  It  was  1624 
20  —  1 


before  this  petition  coulil  be  presented,  and  1626- 
before  the  company  got  fairly  at  work.  They 
met  in  Leyden.  It  was  at  the  outset  believed 
th.at  four  years  would  suffice;  but,  owing  to  real 
ilifficulties  and  unexpected  hindrances,  the  trans- 
lation took  eleven  years.  At  last,  in  1637,  the 
Bible  appeared  in  two  editions,  oni>  with,  one 
without,  references  and  marginal  readings.  So 
hearty  was  its  rece])tion,  that  in  fifteen  years  it 
had  won  unanimous  popular  an<l  ecclesiastical 
sanction.  It  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  best  of  exist- 
ing versions ;  perhaps,  in  points,  it  excels  them 
all.  It  is  immediate,  although  quite  evidently 
our  authorized  version  influenced  the  translators 
more  or  less.  In  many  cases  its  felicity  is  re- 
markable. In  Holland  it  is  called  the  Stales' 
Bible,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Si/nud's  Bible. 
This  latter  Bilile.  which,  up  to  the  present  time, 
has  only  appeared  in  the  New  Testament,  is  thfr 
result  of  the  criticism  of  the  century,  and  the  im- 
mense growth  of  knowledge.  In  1854  the  Gen- 
eral Synod  appointed  a  committee  of  fourteen  to- 
revise  the  old  translation,  and  at  length,  in  1867, 
the  revision  appeared.  Its  reception  has  been 
far  from  enthusiastic.  This  has  led  to  an  indefi- 
nite postponement  of  the  Old-Testament  part.] 

3.  /7'yl/,//liV.  — There  were  Bible  translations- 
into  Italian  before  the  invention  of  printing; 
but  the  earliest  printed  Italian  Bible  is  that  of 
Nicol6  di  Malherbi  (or  Malermi).  published  in 
Venice,  1471.  In  the  same  year  another  Bible 
appeared  ;  but  it  is  known  only  by  title.  Nicol6- 
was  a  Venetian  abbot  of  the  order  of  Camaldoli. 
He  speaks  in  his  preface  about  former  Italian 
translations,  criticises  their  freeilom,  and  declares 
his  fidelity  to  the  Vulgate.  Nicolfi's  Italian  is 
not  the  choice  speech  which  had  then  been 
developed.  The  next  version  was  that  of  the 
Florentine  Antonio  Bruccioli,  made  from  the 
original  texts;  New  Testament,  1530;  Psalms, 
1531;  Bible,  1532,  Venice.  In  the  preface  the 
translator  waxes  indignant  at  all  prohibitions  of 
the  Bible,  and  every  hindrance  to  its  widest 
spread  among  the  people.  His  work,  however, 
seems  to  have  been  scarcely  circulated  in  Italy 
outside  of  Venice,  and  was  indeed  put  in  the  first 
class  of  prohibited  books;  still,  many  editions 
.appeared.  With  Bruccioli  the  Ronum-Catholic 
.activity  in  the  field  of  Bible  versions  practically 
ceased  ;  although  translations  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment were  issued  by  the  Dominican  Zaccaria  in 
1532,  .and  by  Giglio  in  1551,  both  .at  Venice. 
These  books  are  extremely  rare. 

With  the  expulsion  of  Bruccioli's  version  a 
new  era  of  Bible  study  began.  The  liberty  to 
read  the  Scriptures,  denied  by  Romanistic  Italy, 
was  enjoyed  in  Geneva;  and  there  this  version 
of  the  Old  Testtiment,  slightly  revised,  was  re- 
printed in  connection  with  the  New  Testament 
of  the  Florentine  Miissimo  Teofilo  (first  printed 
Lyons,  1551),  revised  by  Gallars  and  Beza;  and 
so  the  first  complete  Italian  Protestant  Bible 
.appeared  in  Geneva,  1562,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
congregation  of  Itali.an  fugitives.  But  this  Bible 
was  put  into  speedv  disuse  by  the  appearance  of 
the  Bible  of  Giov.anni  Diodati,  (ieueva,  1607, 
made  directly  from  the  original  texts,  in  the 
Lucchese  dialect,  and  therefore  adapted  for  circu- 
lation among  the  peasiints.  This  is  the  version 
commonly  taken  up  by  Bible  societies,  and  used 


BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


200 


BIBLICAL. 


ill  Italy  to-day.  In  1776  the  Archbishop  of 
I  loreuce,  Anton  Martini,  issued  in  Turin  a  trans- 
];.tion  of  the  whole  Bible  from  the  Vulgate, 
which  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Socieiy 
adopted,  published  the  Kew  Testament,  1813, 
Bible,  1821,  and  now  circulate  in  Italy.  For  the 
famous  story  of  the  persecution  of  the  Madiai  in 
Florence,  because  they  used  the  Bible,  see  title. 
Southern  and  Eastern  Italy,  up  to  this  time, 
appear  to  stand  outside  of  Bible  influences. 

4.  SPANISH.  —  The  first  printed  New  Testa- 
ment is  by  Francisco  de  Enzinas  (Dryander,  see 
title):  appeared  in  Antwerp,  1543;  now  circu- 
lated by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 
Another  New  Testament  was  that  of  Juan  Perez, 
A'enice,  1556.  The  first  Bible  was  from  Cassio- 
doro  Reyna,  Basel,  1569 ;  revised  by  Cypr.  de 
Yalera,  Amsterdam.  1602 ;  New  Testament, 
separately,  1625.  The  Old  Testament  was 
repeatedly  rendered  into  Spanish  during  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  by  Jews  in 
the  Netherlands  and  in  Ferrara.  But  of  all 
tliese  translations  the  fact  is  that  they  did  not 
circulate  in  Spain.  In  1794  Phil.  Scio  de  S. 
Jliguel,  a  Spanish  ecclesiastic,  issued  at  IMadrid 
a  translation  with  a  commentary.  The  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society  have,  since  1828,  cir- 
culated the  Spanish  text.  It  is  made,  of  course, 
from  the  Vulgate.  See  Borrow's  "  The  Bible  in 
Spain." 

5.  PORTUGUESE.  — The  version  of  J.  Fer- 
reira  d' Almeida,  a  convert  from  Rome  (New 
Testament,  Amsterdam,  1712;  Pentateuch  and 
historical  books,  1719),  is  that  now  printed  by 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society;  although 
there  was  printed  at  Lisbon,  1784,  a  version 
made  by  Anton  Pereira  de  Figueiredo,  the  first 
upon  native  soil.  RECSS. 

6.  SCANDINAVIAN.  — Some  parts  of  the 
Old  Testament  were  translated  into  Danish  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  and  published  by  jNIolbech, 
Copenhagen  (1828);  but  the  Danish  translation 
of  the  Bible  is  the  work  of  the  Ileforniation. 
Prepared  by  several  scholars,  it  bore  the  name  of 
Christiern  Pedersen,  and  was  published  in  1550. 
It  w-as  afterwards  often  revised.  The  edition 
now  used  is  the  work  of  a  coiiiniittee  of  revision, 
appointed  in  1815:  it  appeared  in  1824.  There 
are  two  independent  translations:  one  by  I.  C. 
Lindberg,  much  used  in  the  (Irundtvigian  cir- 
cles; and  one  by  Chr.  Kalkar,  of  missionary 
reputation.  The  Danish  Bible  was  used  in  Nor- 
way up  to  the  .separation  of  the  two  kingdoms 
in  1814.  After  that  time,  minor  iiiiprovenients, 
mostly  of  purely  linguistic  iiu]iort,  have  been 
made  in  the  Norwegian  Bible,  and  in  1871  a  com- 
mittee was  appointed  to  make  a  thorough 
revision. 

A  Swedish  translation  from  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury is  spoken  of  as  lu'ning  been  undertaken  at 
the  instance  of  St.  Birgitta,  but  has  not  come 
down  to  us.  In  Sweden,  as  in  Denmark,  it  wa.s 
the  Ucforination  which  translated  the  Bible. 
The  complete  Swedish  version  appeared  in  1541, 
the  New  Testament  by  Jjaui'entius  Andreie 
(152G),  tlie  Old  Testament  by  Laurentius  and 
Olaus  Petri  (1534).  Often  revised,  the  edition 
now  in  general  n.se  dates  back  to  the  beginning 
of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  Icelandic  translatiuu  was  made  by  Oddur 


Gotshalkson  :  the  New  Testament  appeared  at 
Copenhagen  in  1540,  the  whole  Bible  at  Holum 
in  1584.  The  edition  now-  in  use  is  a  revision  by 
Thorlak  Skuleson  (1644).  Clemens  Petersen. 

Misdonarij  Translations.  —  The  Bible  has  been 
translated  by  Protestant  missionaries  into  all  the 
literary  languages  of  the  world,  and  into  many 
which  had  never  previously  been  written ;  but 
these  translations  are  evidently  of  no  critical 
value  whatever,  although  made,  in  mcst  cases, 
from  the  original  tongues.  Probably  the  most 
faithful  and  finished  of  all  these  versions  is  that 
into  Arabic.  It  was  begun  by  Eli  Smith,  D.D., 
in  1847.  aided  by  Cornelius  V.  A.  Van  Dyck, 
M.D.  D.l).,  who  continued  the  work  after  Dr. 
Smith's  death,  and  brought  the  labors  of  sixteen 
years  to  a  happy  conclusion. 

The  printing  and  electrotyping  of  this  Bible  is 
regarded  as  the  gTeatest  tj'pographical  perform- 
ance of  the  American  Bible  Society,  and  the 
book  itself  opens  the  truth  to  the  jMohanimedaii 
world.  The  first  plate  was  electrotyped  March 
15,  1866.  The  types  perfectly  transcribe  the  best 
Arabic  caligraphy,  according  to  a  mode  designed 
by  Dr.  Eli  Smith,  and  executed  by  Mr'.  Homan 
liallock  of  the  Svrian  Mission. 

BIBLICAL  ARCH/EOLOGY.  See  Arch.eol- 
OGY,  Bihlk  AL. 

BIBLICAL  CANON.  See  Canox  Old  and 
New  Tkstamknt. 

BIBLICAL  HERMENEUTICS.      See    Hermk- 

NEUTICS. 

BIBLICAL  HISTORr.     See  Ishaki.. 

BIBLIANDER  (Buchmnnn),  Theodore,  b.  at 
Bischofzell,  Thurgau,  about  l.")07 ;  d.  of  the  plague, 
at  Zurich,  Nov.  26,  1564 ;  was  a  teacher  in  the 
school  of  jNIyconius,  and  professor  of  theology 
and  Oriental  philology  in  the  University  of  Zii- 
rich  after  the  death  of  Zwingli,but  was  dismis.sed 
in  1500  on  account  of  his  open  opposition  to  the 
Cah'inistic  doctrine  of  predestination,  propagated 
with  great  success  in  the  city  since  1556  by  Peter 
Martyr  Vermilius.  lie  gave  a  Latin  translation 
of  the  Koran,  and  many  valuable  contributions 
to  the  history  of  MohainiiuMlanism.  Most  of  his 
wrllhigs,  howovi'r,  have  never  been  printed. 

BIBLIA  PAUPERUM  {the  r>ilAe  of  the  Poor)  is 
the  name  given  to  one  of  the  earliest  "  block 
books  "  printed  before  the  use  of  movable  type. 
It  consists  of  a  series  of  forty  leaves,  printed  on 
one  side,  so  as  to  make  twenty  when  pasted  to- 
gether, on  which  forty  sciMics  from  the  history  of 
our  Lord  are  depicted :  uiulerncath  are  inscrij> 
tions  in  the  abbreviated  l>atin  of  the  period. 
The  title  given  aliove  is  )>iob,ably  misleading. 
It  was  not  intended  for  the  jioor  people  so  much 
as  for  the  poor  friars  who  went  about,  preaching, 
and  would,  no  doubt,  di-rive  help  in  the  composi- 
tion of  their  .sermons  from  the  pictures.  Besides, 
tiiey  could  be  shown  with  ailvantage  to  their 
auclienres. 

BIBLICAL  PHILOLOGY  ((mcerns  itself  with 
the  original  text  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
and  the  old  versions,  the  stmly  of  Hebrew  and 
the  cognate  languages  and  dialects,  of  the  (!reek 
of  the  Septuagint,  the  -Viiocryiiha,  and  New  Tes- 
taiiient.      .See   lIicHUKW  Language;    Hellenic 

DiAI.KCT. 

BIBLICAL  THEOLOGY,  in  the  .sense  of  a  .study 
of  the  woril  of  (iod,  in  contrast  to  dogmatics,  or 


BIBLICAL. 


291 


BIBLICAL. 


the  deductions  and  speculations  of  men,  and 
tlierel'ore  witliout  refere.nce  to  ecelesiastrical  for- 
nuike  and  creeds,  manifestly  is  of  conijiaratively 
recent  development;  for,  so  long  as  tlie  Clinrch 
and  the  Bible  were  believed  to  be  in  unison,  there 
was  no  demand  for  it.  The  Fathers  were  pre- 
.sumed  for  many  centuries  to  have  conserved  and 
<leveloped  the  apostolic  teaching.  The.  mediaival 
theologians  went  upon  the  assumption  that  tlie 
Fathers  were  infallible,  and  studied  them,  and 
therefore  accepted  the  traditional  patristic  scrip- 
tural proofs  upon  all  points,  instead  of  working 
up  the  subjects  for  themselves.  It  was  not,  there- 
fore, until  the  Reformation  called  attention  to 
the  discrepancy  between  the  Bible  in  tradition 
and  the  Bible  itself,  that  biblical  theology  began. 
[Unfortunately  in  the  seventeenth  century  a  new 
scholasticism  replaced  the  old,  and  individual 
Bible-writers,  and  even  some  who  were  not,  were 
minutelv  studied.  Thus  the  theology  of  Job 
(1087), 'of  Jeremiah  (1G96).  even  that  of  Eliza- 
beth (1706),  was  treated  with  minute  care.]  The 
beginnings  of  the  science  were  naturally  unsys- 
tematic and  wavering.  Seb.  Schmidt,  in  his 
Colkf/ium  liil/lic.  in  rjun  dicla  V.  et  N.  T.  iuxla 
seriem  loconim  comm.  Theol.  (xpJicnntnr,  Strassburg, 
1071,  led  the  way,  and  he  had  many  followers. 
But  these  works  were  little  more  than  collections 
of  proof-texts  conveniently  arranged  for  tlie  theo- 
logical lecturer.  The  first  one  to  bring  the  term 
"  Bible  theology "  into  use  was  Ilaymann,  who 
introduced  it  in  its  present  sense  in  his  work, 
Versuch  einerhibl.  T/ieol.  in  Tahellen  (1708),  which 
ran  through  four  editions,  the  last  being  printed 
1758.  Pietism  loosened  tlie  connection  between 
the  Bible  and  dogmatics,  because  it  emphasized 
the  importance  of  the  former  as  a  means  of  grace, 
and  infallible  source  of  knowledge.  The  i-esult 
is  seen  in  Busching's  Disa.  crhibens  cpitomen  Theol. 
e  siilia  lit.  Dacr.  concinnatce  (1756)  and  Gedanken 
von  der  Beschaffenheit  und  d'jni  Vorzuge  der  hihl. 
ilwpti.  Theologie  cor  der  scholaslixchen,  Berlin,  1758. 
Then  came  Bengel,  the  acute  verbal  critic,  and 
his  school,  who  worked  upon  the  principle  that 
the  Bible  does  not  contradict  the  Church,  but 
accompanies  it,  and  has  superior  authority. 

Sender,  in  1764,  in  his  HiM.  u.  kril.  Sammlunrien 
iiherdiesoff.  Beweisslellen  in  der  Dotjtu.,  Ilalle,  1764- 
68,  2  parts,  and  more  particularly  his  followers, 
showed  the  great  difference  between  the  cut-and- 
dried  theology  of  the  schools  and  the  teaching 
of  the  New  Testament.  This  led  the  defenders 
of  the  former  to  show  their  substantial  agree- 
ment by  an  unprejudiced  study  of  the  Bible.  So 
did  Zachariii,  Biblische  Theoloyie,  oder  Untersuch- 
ung  d.  hibl.  Grundes  d.  vornehmsicn  thcol.  Lehren, 
Gdttingen,  1772,  and  Storr,  Doclr.  clirist.  pars 
theor.  e  sacr.  libris  repetiln,  Stuttgart,  1793.  The 
Neologians,  on  the  other  hand,  prejudiced  against 
every  doctrine  not  part  of  natural  religion,  began 
to  press  for  a  purely  historical  treatment  of  the 
Bible  (so  Gabler,  De  iusto  discrimine  Theologim  bihl. 
et  doqm.  rcgutidisque  recte  utriusque  Jinibus,  Altorf, 
1787),  and  thus  prepared  the  way  for  a  rational- 
istic history  of  religion,  written  by  such  men  as 
Amnion,  Kntwickel.  einer  reinen  bibl.  Theol.,  Er- 
langen,  1792.  The  increased  attention  given  to 
Oriental  studies,  and  the  rise  of  the  study  of  com- 
parative religion,  yielded  fruit  in  the  subsequent 
works  upon  biblical  theology,  as  Kaiser's,  which 


attempted  to  educe  a  jmrely  "rational"  religion 
out  of  the  Bible.  With  Sclileiermaclier  a  new 
direction  was  given  to  tlie  study,  and  in  .some 
r(^spects  an  nnfortiniate  one.  'J"he  Old  Testa- 
ment was  sundered  from  the  Xew,  and  attention 
directed  to  the  latter.  Tlien  came  up  the  study 
of  individual  authors,  particularly  of  Paul  and 
John.  Neandei-  led  the  way  in  a  new  departure, 
—  the  unity  of  the  Gospels  in  spib!  of  their  dif- 
ferences. Cf.  C.  F.  Schmid,  1st  ed.  Stuttgart, 
1853,  excelled  by  Weiss,  Lchrh.,  Berlin,  1868, 
4th  ed.,  1884.  Then  came  Ferdinand  Cliristian 
Baur,  tlie  head  of  the  Tubingen  school  (see  title), 
and  his  followers,  who  have  attempted  in  their 
works  to  split  the  Primitive  Church  into  parties, 
e.g.,  Paulus,  Stuttgart,  1846,  Das  Cliristentlium  u. 
d.  Kirche  d.  erst.  .Jahrhunderts,  TUbiiigen,  1853; 
Schwegier,  Nachaposl.  Zeittdler,  Tiibingen,  1846 ; 
Pfleiderer,  Pautinismus,  Leipzig,  1873 ;  and  Kost- 
liii,  Lehrheyriff  d.  Ev.  u.  d.  Brie/e  Johannis,  Ber- 
lin, 1843.  The  life  of  Jesus  was  also  studied 
as  never  before,  and  very  valuable  i-esults  ob- 
tained. In  fact,  the  persons  and  the  events 
of  the  New  Testament  have  had  an  amount  of 
patient  study  and  a  wealth  of  learning  bestowed 
upon  tjiem,  which  makes  them  the  most  thor- 
oughly known  phenomena  in  history.  Under 
such  influences  sprang  up  the  study  of  the  New- 
Testament  times  as  such  (Hausrath),  and  of  the 
immediate  surroundings  of  our  Lord's  life 
(.SchUrer),  and  thus  the  way  was  prepared  for 
the  history  of  primitive  Cliristian  literature  and 
theology  as  the  first  .step  in  the  study  of  church 
history. 

But  the  claims  of  the  Old  Teslamenl  have  not 
been  completely  ignored.  Indeed,  the  ajiliorism 
is  gaining  ground,  that,  in  order  to  understand 
the  New,  it  is  necessary  to  study  the  Old.  So  has 
A.  Ritschl,  in  his  Entstehung  d.  cdtkath.  Kirche,  2te 
Aufl.  Bonn,  1857,  maintained,  as  a  rebuke  to  the 
Tiibingen  school.  Hengstenberg,  in  his  Christolo- 
(jie  (1829),  advocated  the  necessarily  close  connec- 
tion between  the  two  Testaments,  and  repudiated, 
upon  the  ground  of  his  conception  of  revelation, 
a  biblical  theology  that  made  too  much  account 
of  strict  historical  sequence,  or,  in  other  words, 
that  refused  to  see  the  Old  Testament  in  the 
New,  and  the  New  in  the  Old.  Oehler  developed 
the  same  idea,  maintaining  that  nothing  was 
ended  in  the  Old  Testament,  nothing  was  quite 
new  in  the  New  Testament.  See  his  Prolegomena 
z.  bibl.  Theol.  d.  A.T.,  Stuttgart,  1845,  and  Theol. 
d.  A.  T.,  Tubingen,  1873.  Hermann  Schultz 
likewise  advocates  this  view  in  his  Alltestument- 
liche  Theologie,  new  edition,  Frankfurt,  1878. 

And  it  is  manifestly  the  correct  view.  In  this 
way  a  lack  in  Protestant  theology  is  tilled ;  for  tlie 
Bible  studied  in  this  thorough-going  fashion  be- 
comes in  the  most  comprehensive  sense  the  source 
and  test  of  theology.  But  let  it  not  be  supposed 
that  it  is  easy  thus  to  handle  the  Scriptures, 
although  it  appear  to  be  so.  jNIany  preliminary 
questions  have  to  be  answered.  Is  Judaism  a 
preparation  for,  or  a  mere  predecessor  of,  Chris- 
tianity ?  What  is  the  primitive  religion  ?  Is  the 
Bible  literature,  or  revelation  ?  What  is  the  con- 
nection between  the  Bible  and  the  aftertime? 
How  much  is  comprehended  in  Bible  theology? 
Does  it  include,  for  instance,  Bible  history? 
When   these   points   are   settled,  and   the   study 


BIBLICISTS. 


292 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


begun  in  earnest,  other  questions  arise.  The 
order,  subjects,  and  methods  of  work,  must  be 
determined.  The  books  themselves  are  to  be 
examined,  and  in  this  way  important  contribu- 
tions will  be  made  to  the  discussion  of  canonicity. 

The  relation  of  biblical  to  dogmatic  theology, 
and  to  the  other  branches  of  Christian  learning, 
is  an  interesting  point.  It  would  seem  to  be 
necessary  to  restrict  biblical  theology  to  the  sub- 
ject immediately  in  hand.  Hence,  while  a  study 
of  the  people  among  whom  the  doctrines  arose 
is  necessary  in  order  to  determine  the  need  and 
condition  of  revelation,  it  can  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  long  struggles  in  the  Christian  Church 
over  doctrinal  points.  The  Bible  must  be  made 
the  source.  All  that  throws  light  upon  it  shoiUd 
be  used.  The  more  the  theologian  knows  about 
outside  matters,  of  course  the  better  for  him ;  but 
it  shoidd  be  his  endeavor  to  master  the  text,  and 
whatever  explains  the  text  of  the  sacred  volume 
whose  contents  he  desires  to  formulate,  and  whose 
truths  he  desires  to  defend.  Compare  the  Ijooks 
quoted  in  this  article,  and  also  Ewald  :  Lckre 
der  Bibel  von  Gott,  Leipzig,  1870-75,  4  vols.  ; 
Weiss:  Lehrhuch  derhiblischen  Theolor/ie  <les  Nrui'n 
Testaments  [Sd  ed.,  Berlin,  1880];  HiTzyr, :  Vor- 
lesunrjen  iiber  hihlische  Tlieulogie  it.  Mexakinixche 
WeixsfK/unqen,  Karlsruhe,  1880.        M.  K.'iHLER. 

BIBLICISTS,  BIBLICAL  DOCTORS,  those 
were  called,  who,  during  the  thirteenth  and  four- 
teenth centuries,  demonstrated  religious  truths  by 
the  Scriptures  and  by  the  authority  of  the  Fa- 
thers, in  contrast  to  the  scholastics,  who  aban- 
doned Scripture  and  tradition  in  order  to  give 
full  rein  to  their  fancy  and  philosophy;  and  in 
this  way  the  famous,  interminable  hair-splitting 
subtleties  arose.  The  most  of  these  latter  sort 
of  doctors  were  Dominican  and  Franciscan  monks, 
•who  in  as  much  as  their  orders  held  no  property, 
had  no  libraries,  and  were,  moreover,  required  to 
lead  unsettled  and  vagrant  lives,  had  little  oppor- 
tunity for  the  study  of  the  books,  and  therefore 
naturally  taught  out  of  their  own  heads.  Some 
of  the  biblical  doctors  were  scholars,  and  pro- 
duced valuable  works  ;  but  the  majority  of  them 
were  servile  imitators  of  their  predecessors,  and 
by  their  method  tended  to  bring  the  Scriptures 
into  disrepute. 

See  Mosheim's  Eccl.  History,  translated  by 
Murdock,  bk.  iii.  cent.  xiii.  pt.  ii.  chap.  iii.  §§  7,  8, 
and  cent   xiv.  pt.  ii.  chap.  iii.  §§2,3,4. 

BIBLIOGRAPHr,  Theological.  I.  Theology 
in  General.  1.  SYSTEMATIC  BIBLIOdliA- 
PlIY.  —  C.  M.  Pfakfii:s:  Intmrlnclio  in  liistoritini 
theologice  litlerariam,  2d  ed.,  Tiibingen,  172l-2<i, 
3  vols  ;  J.  F.  BuDDKi's:  Isa;i()<je  historim-tlicoUi- 
i/ica  ad  theoloijiam  nnirerstim,  2d  ed.,  Lips.,  1730; 
G.  Stoi.le  :  Anleitunr/  zur  Ilistorie  d.  theol.  Gchihrt- 
Aei(,  Jena,  1730 ;  (i.  .1.  Planck:  Einleitun;;  in  d. 
theologischcn  Wissenschaften,  Leip.,  1704-!)."),  2  vols.; 
K.  F.  StaUDLIN:  G'eschichte  d.  theol.  Wi.i.ien.trhiif- 
ten,  Gott.,  1810-11,  2  vols.;  the  same:  Lelirhucli 
d.  theol.  Enctjklopiidie  u.  Methodotofjie,  Han.,  1821  ; 
and  among  the  ino.st  recent  works  particularly 
K.  R.  Hagenbacii  :  Enrijllopudie  n.  Metliodn- 
lo(/ie  d.  theol.  Wisscnsclififlen,  9th  ed.,  Leipzig, 
1874  ;  J.  M'Clintock  :  'J'/ieoloi/iral  Enciirliijurdia 
and  Methndolof/y,  Cincinnati,  1873;  .).  1.  Dokdks: 
Encyclopedie  der  Chrislelijke  Tlteoloijie,  Utrecht, 
187G;  i.   P.   Lanoe:   Grundri.^s  der  theoloyischen 


EncyHopddie  mil  Einschluss  der  Methodologie,  Hei- 
delberg, 1877;  R.  Rothe:  Theologische  Encyclo- 
pddie,  Wittenberg,  1880.  More  especially  biblio- 
graphical. Two  works  of  great  value  are,  J.  G. 
Walch  ;  Bihtiotheca  Iheoloijica  selecta,  Jena,  17.57- 
6.5,  4  vols.;  G.  B.  Winer:  Handbuch  der  thenl. 
Literatur.  3d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1838-40,  2  vols,  (sup- 
plementary vol.,  1842);  F.  Perenxes:  Diction- 
naire  de  bibliographie  catholique,  Jlontrouge,  1858- 
60,  4  vols.,  part  of  Migne's  "  Encyclopedie  theol." 
Journals  devoted  to  the  record  and  criticism 
of  current  theological  literature  are,  Zeil.^chri/l 
fur  die  yesammte  lutherische  Theologie  u.  Ki^che, 
Leipzig;  Theologische  Literalurzeittmg  (edited  by 
Harnack  and  Schiirer),  Leipzig;  Theologische  Lil- 
eralnrhlatt  (Roman-Catholic,  edited  by  Rensch), 
Bonn;  in  French,  Bibliognyjhie  catholicjue,  Paris. 
Twice  a  year  Vandenhock  and  Ruprecht  of 
Gbttingen  have,  since  1848,  published  Bibliothera 
Theologica  (edited  by  W.  Miildener).  In  1870, 
1875,  and  1880,  Hiurichs  of  Leipzig  publish''d 
catalogues  (edited  by  Baldamus)  of  German  theo- 
logical works,  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic 
separately,  for  the  five  years  1865-60,  1870-74, 
and  1875-79.  These  bibliographical  works  are 
alphabetical  according  to  the  author's  name. 
Works  arranged  according  to  subjects  are,  >L 
LiPENius:  Bibliotheca  realis  Theologica.  Francof., 
1685,  2  vols,  (voluminous,  but  inexact);  Danz: 
Universal-Worterbnch  der  theologischen.  I'irchen-  u. 
religionsyeschichllichen  Literatur,  Leipzig,  1837-4.3, 
supplement,  1843  (it  unfortunately  lacks  a  table 
of  authors). 

2.  BIBLIOGRAPHY  IN  THE  ORDER  OF 
A  UTHORS.  —  The  Fathers  and  ecclesiastical 
authors  of  the  past  have  been  catalogued  in  the 
elaborate  works  of  Possevin,  Cave,  I)u  Pin  and 
his  continuator  Goujet,  Ceillier,  Oudin,  and  in 
the  less  voluminous  works  of  Tritheme,  Mineus, 
Bellarmin  (continued  by  Labbe  and  Du  Saussjiy), 
and  Ole.arius.  These  volumes  contain  a  great 
deal  of  information  of  a  literary  character.  The 
bibliographies  of  modern  writers  are  those  of 
Enslix  :  Bibliotheca  theologica,  2d  ed.,  Stuttgart, 
1833,  carrying  the  list  down  to  1831 ;  continued 
down  to  1862  by  Zuchold  :  Bibliotheca  theologica, 
Giittingen,  1864,  2  vols.;  for  Roman-Catholic 
literature,  M.  .Schmalhofer,  publisher:  Biicher- 
kunde  der  kath.  theol.  Literatur  bis  1S36,  Augsb., 
1837,  supplement  entitled  Handhilchlcin  d.  neuesten 
Literatur  des  Katholizisrinis,  Schaffhauseii,  1840-44. 
The  Thesaurus  librorum  rei  calholicrr,  Wiirzburg, 
1848-.50,  2  vols,  with  supplement,  embraces  all 
tlie  Roman-Catholic  authors  arranged  topically 
and  alphabetically.  Daiu.ing:  Cyclo/ncdia  bib- 
liotheca, London,  1854,  2  vols.,  is  for  the  most 
part  the  catalogue  of  a  simple  libr.ary,  —  that 
collected  by  i\Ir.  Darling,  consisting  of  thirty 
thousand  volumes.  (The  catalogue  is  extremely 
valuable  for  English  theological  authors,  but 
much  less  ,so  for  those  of  other  countries,  except 
the  old  and  stand.ard  writers.  One  feature  of  it 
is  its  detailed  list  of  the  contents  of  all  the 
great  collections,  like  Migne,  of  collected  writers, 
e.g.,  Orme's  edition  of  Baxter,  and  of  lecture 
courses.) 

3.  CATALOGUES  OF  PARTICULAR  LI- 
BRARIES.—  Jo.  Fahuicius:  Ilistoria  liiblio- 
theciK  Fabriciame,  Wolfenbiittei,  1717-24,  6  vols. 
(Fabricius   having   died  ere  it  was   finished,  it 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


293 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


lacks  a  general  table  of  contents)  ;  J.  F.  Reim- 
MANN  ;  ('alaliii/iif:  hihliotlicca'  tlituloi/icw  sijslt'inalicu- 
tn((fu.N,  IJildesia;,  17:51,  supplement.  1747;  Micn. 
Lii.iENTiiAL  :  Bihlifch-Exciiislisclie  Bihliollick,  Kd- 
iiigsberg,  1740:  Theolor/ische  Bihliottick^  1741; 
Furl</es);lzli:  TheohHiische  Bibliolhck.,  1744  (in  all  15 
vols.);  S.  J.  Baumgartex  :  Nachrkhlcn  con  I'inir 
huUlsche.n  Bihl'mthck.,  Halle,  1748-51,  8  vols.;  Narh- 
richlen  iwu  merktmirdigen  Biichcrn,  1752-58,  12  vols, 
(these  two  works  of  Baunigarten,  remarkable 
especially  for  the  precious  collection  of  Bibles 
which  is  described,  and  for  the  exactitude  of  the 
bibliographical  information  they  contain,  are 
grouped  together  by  a  very  convenient  table, 
which  refers  to  all  the  twenty  volumes) ;  J.  M. 
Franke:  Catalor;us  Bihliolhecce  Bunaviunw,  Li]is., 
1750-5G,  7  vols,  (unhappily  unfinished,  valuable 
for  its  detailed  information  and  systematic  classi- 
fication of  the  valuable  library,  now  at  Dresden, 
which  is  particularly  rich  in  ecclesiastical  history 
and  biography);  C.  G.  G.,  Theilk  ;  T/icsanrus 
lileralara:  theoloijiccE  academiccB,  Lips.,  1840  (un- 
finislu'd)  ;  O.  Fiehig  :  Corpus  disyertalionum  tlieo- 
luyicarum,  Lips.,  1847  (catalogues  of  large  and 
excellent  collections  of  theological  theses  and  dis- 
sertations). 

II.  Exegetical  Theology.  1.  EXEGESIS  IN 
GENERAL. — J.  Lelong  :  Bihliotheca  sacra, 
nov.  ed.,  Paris,  1723,  2  vols,  (a  vast  repertory  of 
biblical  works:  the  first  volume  contains  a  cata- 
logue of  editions  of  the  Bible  in  different  lan- 
guages ;  the  second  an  alphabetical  list  of  authors 
who  have  written  upon  the  Bible,  with  their 
works,  followed  by  a  systematic  table  of  the  last: 
in  spite  of  errors  and  omissions,  the  book  is  still 
useful);  E.  F.  K.  RosenmUller  :  Ilandbuch  fur 
die  Lilevatur  der  biblischen  Kritik  u.  Excyese,  Got- 
tiugen,  1797-1800,  4  vols,  (this  excellent  work, 
unhappily  unfinished,  embraces  only  the  intro- 
duction and  criticism,  the  indispensable  editions 
of  the  original  text,  hermeneutics,  the  ancient 
versions,  and,  among  the  modern,  those  in  the 
Romance  languages);  G.  W.  Meyer:  Geschichle 
der  Schriflerkliirung  seit  der  Wiederherstellung  der 
Wissensc'haflen,  Gottingen,  1802-1800,  5  vols,  (a 
useful  work  from  the  number  of  its  bibliographi- 
cal references).  Besides  these  one  may  profitably 
consult  Calmet  :  La  BibUolhlque  sacrc'e,  prefixed 
to  liis  "  Dictionnaire  de  la  Bible,"  Paris,  1722 
(often  repi-inted  and  translated,  e.g.,  as  revised 
by  Rev.  Dr.  Edward  Robinson,  Boston,  1852)  ; 
and  W.  Orme  :  Bibliotheca  Biblica  (a  select  list 
of  books  on  sacred  literature,  with  notices,  etc.), 
Edinburgh,  1824;  T.  H.  Horne  :  Manual  of 
Biblical  Bibliography,  London,  1839 ;  also  in  the 
second  and  fourth  volumes  of  his  Inlroduction  as 
edited  by  Ayre  and  Tregelles,  14th  ed.,  London, 
1877,  4  vols.;  Diestel:  Geschichle  d.  All.  Test, 
in  der  chrisllichen  Kirche,  Jena,  1869.  Ewald, 
in  his  Jahrbiicher  der  bibl.  Wissenschaflen,  Gottin- 
gen, 1848-65,  12  vols.,  took  notice  of  almost  all 
the  works  relating  even  remotely  to  biblical  exe- 
gesis which  were  published  within  this  time. 

2.  EDITIONS  OF  THE  BIBLE.  — X.  G. 
Masch  :  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  Halle,  1778-90,  two 
parts  in  six  volumes  (a  reprint  and  continuation 
of  J.  Lelong's  work  mentioned  above,  but  not 
carried  out  further  than  the  record  of  the  edi- 
tions of  the  original  text  and  versions  in  the 
Oriental,    Greek,   and   Latin   languages).      The 


record  of  Hebrew  Bibles  was  completed  by  G.  B. 
DE  Rossi  :  De  ignotis  nonnuUis  anlifjuissimis  hebr. 
texlus  editionibus  ac  critico  earwn  nsu,  Erlangen, 
1782.  There  are  elaborate  catalogues  of  differ- 
ent collections  of  Bibles,  as  that  of  .S.  .J.  Baum- 
GAUTEN  cited  above;  that  of  the  Duki;  of  Bruns- 
wick, made  by  G.  L.  O.  K.noch  :  Bibliotheca  biblica, 
Brunsw.,  1752;  that  of  Gue/.e:  Verzeichniss  seiner 
Sammlung  merkwiirdiyer  Bibeln,  Halle,  1777,  Port- 
sclzung,  Hamb.,  1778  ;  at  Stuttgart,  by  J.  Lokck  : 
Die  Bibelgeschichte,  Copenhagen  u.  Leipzig,  1770- 
83,  2  vols. ;  at  Parma,  by  G.  B.  de  Rossi,  in 
the  first  and  fifth  volumes  of  his  Varim  Lecliones 
V.  T.,  Parma,  1784-98,  5  vols. ;  of  the  Duke  of 
Su.ssex,  by  T.  J.  Pettigrew:  Bibliotheca  Sus- 
sexiana,  London,  1827-39,  3  vols.  For  the  edi- 
tions of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  see  the  monographs 
of  DE  Rossi  ;  for  tliose  of  the  Greek  New  Testa- 
ment, the  best  work  is  Reuss:  Bibliotheca  Novi 
Test.  GrcEci,  Braunschweig,  1872 ;  for  the  Ger- 
man versions,  J.  G.  Palm  :  Historic  d.  deulsch. 
BibelUbers.  LutJier's,  hcrausgeg.  mil  Anmerkk.  v. 
.1.  M.  Goeze,  Halle,  1772,  and  De  codicibus  V.  el 
N.  T.  quibus  b.  Luther,  in  conficienda  inlepretalione 
girm.  usus  est,  liber  hist.,  Hamb.,  1735;  II.  E. 
Bindseil:  Verzeichniss  der  Original-Ausgaben  der 
lutherischen  Uebersetzung,  Halle,  1841  ;  for  the 
Dutch  version  Is.  Le  Long  :  Boek-zaal  der  neder 
duijtsche  bybels,  yeopent,  in  een  histor.  Verhandel. 
van  de  overzettinge  der  h.  Schr.  in  de  nederdugtsche 
taale,  Amsterdam,  1732,  new  title,  Hoorn,  1764 ; 
for  the  Swedish,  J.  A.  Schinmeykr  :  Vers.  e.  vollst. 
Gesch.  d.  sckiced.  Bibcliibersetzimgen,  Flensb., 
1777 ;  for  the  English,  J.  Lewis  :  A  Complete 
History  of  the  Several  Trandalions  of  the  Bible  and 
the  New  Testament  into  English,  both  in  manuscript 
and  in  print,  and  the  most  remarkable  editions  of 
them  since  the  invention  of  printing,  3d  ed.,  London, 
1818  (originally  printed  with  the  author's  edi- 
tion of  Wiclif's  New  Testament,  1731,  and  sepa- 
rately, 1739) ;  H.Cotton:  A  list  if  editions  of  the 
Bible  and  parts  thereof  in  English,  from  the  year 
1505  to  1820,  Oxford,  1821,  2d  ed.,  enlarged, 
1852;  Christopher  Anderson:  The  Annals  of 
the  English  Bible,  London,  1845,  2  vols.,  new  ed. 
1862,  abridged  and  continued  by  S.  Irenseus 
Prime,  N.Y.,  1856;  B.  F.  Westcott:  History  of 
the  English  Bible,  London,  1868;  J.  H.  Blunt: 
A  Plain  Account  of  the  English  Bible  from  the  ear- 
liest times  of  its  translation  to  the  present  day,  N.Y., 
1870;  J.  Eadie:  The  English  Bible,  London,  1S7(>, 
2  vols. ;  W.  T.  Moulton  :  Hittory  of  the  English 
Bible,  London,  Paris,  and  New  York,  n.d.  (1878); 
J.  Stoughton  :  Our  English  Bible,  London,  1878. 
For  Bibles  published  in  America,  E.  B.  O'Calla- 
GHAN  :  A  List  of  Editions  if  the  Holy  Scripture 
and.  Parts  thereof  jirinled  in  America  p?-evious  to 
1860,  ti'ith  Introduction  and  Bibliographical  Notes, 
Albany,  1861.  Finally,  for  Bibles  in  the  Ro- 
mance languages,  and  especially  the  French  Bible, 
see  the  profound  researches  of  Reuss  in  Iler- 
zog's  Real-Encyklopadie,  art.  Romanische  Bibeliiber- 
setzungen. 

3.  COMMENTARIES.— J.  F.  Mayer:  Bib- 
liolheca  biblica,  Frankf.,  1709,  continued  by  C. 
Arnd,  Rostock,  1713,  and  L.  Muller  under  the 
pseudonyme  of  Theoph.  Alethaus:  Ausfiihrlicher 
Berichl  von  den  Commenlariis,  Leipzig,  1710-44, 
8  vols.,  form  a  series  which  carries  the  informa- 
tion down  to  1744.    M.  Lilienthal:  Biblischer 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


29-4 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


.\rc/i!fniiiis  ile.<  A.  T..  Kbidgsburg,  1746,  N.  T., 
1745  (indicates  uuder  each  chapter  and  verse  the 
authors  who  have  exegetically  or  honiiletically 
explained  it)  ;  J.  F.  'Wildksiiausf.x  :  Bibliolliera 
(lisputalio)nim  in  V.  el  X.  T.,  Hamburg,  1710, 
and  C.  H.  Schetelig  under  similar  title,  Ilanib., 
1736,  1737,  3  vols.,  have  followed  the  same  plan 
in  respect  of  the  isolated  exegetical  disserta- 
tions; J.  Darling:  Cj/clopaiiJia  Biblior/rapliica. 
Subjects;  Holy  Scriptures,  London,  1859  (indi- 
cates the  dissertations  and  sermons  founded  upon 
tlie  different  verses  of  the  Bible,  especially  of 
English  divines)  ;  finally  Spukgeon  :  Comment- 
in/;  and  conunentarie.t,  London  and  New  York, 
1S76  (a  catalogue  of  commentaries  in  the  Eng- 
lish language,  with  spicy  remarks;  an  excellent 
and  useful  comjiilation).  Touching  the  depart- 
ment of  exegesis,  W.  F.  Hezel  :  Versuch  einer 
Geschichte  der  bibl.  Kritik  des  Alt.  Test.,  Halle, 
1780;  J.  C.  Wolf:  Hisloria  Lexicorum  hehraico- 
rum,  "Wittemb.,  1705;  AV.  Gesenius:  Geschichte 
der  /lebrdi.^chen  Sprache  u.  Schrift.,  Leipzig,  1815; 
M.  Steinschxeider  :  Biblioyraphisches  Hand- 
buch  iiber  die  theorelische  u.  praktische  Lileratur  fur 
hebrcilsche  Sprachkunde,  Leipzig,  1859 ;  T.  To- 
BLER :  BUiVwyraphia  geographica  Palestinoe,  Leip- 
zig, 1867  ;  H.  E.  Bindseil  :  Concordantiariim  Ho- 
mericarum  fpecimen,  cum  Prolegomenis  in  qtdbus 
prmsertim  concordantice  biUiccc  recensentur,  Halle, 
1867,  complemented  by  his  article  in  the  "  Theo- 
logische  Studien  und  Kritiken,"  1870,  pp.  673- 
720  (a   condensed   translation   is   given   in   art. 

CoXCORriAXCE). 

III.  Historical  Theology. —  K.  Sagittarius 
and  his  continuator  J.  A.  Schmid:  Intrnductio 
in  historiam  eccle.':iasticam,  Jena,  1694-1718,  2 
vols. ;  C.  W.  F.  Walch  :  Grundsdize  der  zur  Kir- 
chenhistorie  d.  N.  T.  niilhigen  Vorbercitung.':leJiren  u. 
Biwherkenntnis,  Gbttingen,  1773;  C.  W.  Fli'igge: 
Einleitung  in  das  Sindium  ».  die  Literatur  der  Reli- 
gions u.  Kircheugeschiclile,  (Jottingen,  1801  ;  K.  F. 
Staudlin'  :  Geschichte  ii.  Literatur  der  Kirchen- 
geschichle,  Hannover,  1827 ;  J.  I.  Ritter  :  Hand- 
buch  der  Kirchengeschichte,  6th  ed.,  Bonn,  18G2, 
2  vols.  The  above-mentioned  furnish  ample 
bibliographical  information  about  church  history 
in  general.  Upon  certain  special  points  consult 
J.  A.  BoSE :  Introductio  in  notitiam  scriptorum 
ecclesiasticorum,  Jena,  1673  (last  ed.  1733);  Tii. 
Ittig  :  Schediasma  de  auctorihus  <pii  de  scrijitoribu.s 
ecclesiasticis  egeruni,  Lips.,  1711;  G.  F.  Gude  : 
BibliolhecCE  disputationum  de  selectis  hi.ilorice  eccles. 
capitibus,  Lips.,  1743;  J.  E.  Volheding:  Index 
dissertalionum  quibus  singuli  historite  N.  T.  et  anti- 
quilatum  ecclesiasticorum.  loci  illustrantur,  Lips., 
1849;  P.  Wackernagel:  Bibliographic  zur  Ge- 
schichte d.  deutschen  Kirchenliedes  im  XVI.  Jahrh., 
Frankfort,  1855;  F.  Bovet:  Hist,  du  psautier  des 
Egl.  ref.  de  France,  Neuchatel,  1872;  J.  C. 
KiicHER :  Bihliotheca  theologiw  sijmbolicie  et  cate- 
chetica:,  ilemque  liturgiciv.,  Wolfenb.,  1751-69;  J.  W. 
Feuerlin  :  Bibliotheca  si/ndmlica  erangelica  luther- 
ann,  new  ed.,  by  J.  B.  Hiederer,  Norimb.,  1768, 
2  vols.;  F.  A.  Zaccaria  :  BiUioihuca  ritiudis, 
Romse,  1770-78,  2  vols.;  H.  K.  Kii.vic  :  Biblio- 
theca agendorum,  Zelle,  1726.  For  patristics,  see 
F.  W.  GoLDWiT/.KR  :  Bibliographic  der  Kirchen- 
viiter  u.  Kirchenlehrer,  Landshut,  1828,  I'litrnlogie 
rerbunden  mit  I'atristik,  Nurnberg,  1834,  2  vols. ; 
J.  G.  Walch:  Bibliotheca  patristica,  new  ed.,  by 


Dai>2,  Jena,  1834.  For  the  study  of  the  middle 
age,  the  indispensable  work  is,'  A.  Potthast, 
Bibliotheca  historica  medii  mvi,  Berlin,  1862,  sup- 
plement, 1868.  Very  valuable  is  Chevahei!, 
Repertoire  des  .■iources  hittor.  du  moyen  aqe  (now 
in  course  of  publication).  There  is  lackinsr  a 
general  bibliographical  manual  upon  the  Ref- 
ormation; but  the  catalogues  of  different  collec- 
tions offer  al)undant  materials.  —  H.  vox  i>er 
H.-vrdt:  Antiqua  liternrum  monumenta  Reforma- 
tionis  atatem  illustrantia,  Brunsw.,  1690-93,  3  vols. ; 
J.  A.  F.\bricius:  Centifoliumlutheranum,lla.mh., 
1728-30,2  vols.;  G.  Schwetschke  :  Ausstellunff 
meist  origineller  Druckschriften  zur  Erluuter.  d.  Re- 
formationsgeschichte,  Halle.  1841;  A.  Kuczynski: 
Thesaurus  libellorum  historiam  Refomiationis  illus- 
(raii^'ifw,  Leipzig,  1870-74.  For  "the  reformation 
in  Spain,  see  Ed.  Bohmer  :  Bibliotheca  Wiffen- 
iana,  Strasb.,  1874.  For  a  very  serviceable  list 
of  the  sources  and  moi-e  important  works  on  the 
Reformation,  see  George  P.  Fisher:  Hi.'tlori/  of 
the  Reformation,  Kew  York,  1873,  Appendix  H. 
Bibliographies  of  different  religious  orders  have 
been  prepared.  The  more  important  are:  upon 
the  Benedictines,  by  Ziegelbauer  and  Fran9ois, 
and,  specially  for  the  congregation  of  St.  Maur, 
Pez,  Lecerf ,  and  Tassin ;  for  the  Dominicans, 
by  (Juetif  and  Echard;  for  the  Fi-anciscans,  by 
Wadding,  his  continuator  Sbaralea,  and  J.  a  .S. 
Antonio;  for  the  Jesuits,  besides  the  old  works  of 
Kibadeneira,  Alegainbe,  and  Southwell,  consult 
A.  C.\rayon:  Bibliographic  historique  de  la  Comp. 
de  Je'sus,  Paris,  1864 ;  and  the  remarkable  work 
of  the  brothers  de  Backer  :  Bibliotheque  des  e'cri- 
rains  de  la  Comp.  de  Je'sus,  new  edition,  Li^ge  et 
Louvain,  1869-76,  3  vols.  fol.  Certain  religious 
sects  have  furnished  good  bibliogi'aphical  mono- 
graphs :  thus,  for  the  Socinians,  C.  Sand  :  Biblio- 
theca Anti-Trinitariorum,  Freistad,  1684 ;  for  the 
Arminians,  A.  van  Cattenburgh  :  Bibliotheca 
scriptorum  Remonstrantium,  Amsterdam,  1728 ; 
and,  most  recent,  H.  C.  Rogge  :  Catalogus  der 
Pamfletten  -  Verzameling  van  de  Boekerij  der  Re- 
mon.^trantsche  Kerk  te  Amsterdam,  Amst.,  1861-65, 
in  3  parts  (an  excellent  work,  and  much  more 
complete  lli;xn  its  title  would  indicate).  Jan- 
senism was  verj'  fertile  in  publications;  but  there 
is  lacking  a  complete  catalogue.  See  Catalogue 
lies  lirres  impr.  de  la  Biblioth.  der  roi ,  The'ologie, 
Paris,  1739-43,  3  vols,  (fulfils  its  object  admi- 
ralily,  but  its  scope  is  narrow).  It  is  to  be 
regretted  that  Abbe  Guettee,  Histoire  litte- 
raire  de  Port  Roi/<d,  Paris,  1S68,  was  not  pub- 
lished beyond  the  first  volume.  The  first  vol- 
ume of  .1.  Lelong,  Bibliotheque  hist,  de  la  Fiance 
(new  ed.,  by  Fevret  de  Fontette,  Paris,  1768-78, 
5  vols.),  and  vol.  V.  of  the  Catalogue  de  I'hi.it.  de 
France  de  la  Bibliolhhpie  imperiale  (Paris,  1855- 
70,  10  vols,  in  quarto),  are  taken  up  with  ecclesi- 
astical history.  For  the  Swiss  religious  affairs, 
see  vol.  HI.  of  G.  E.  vox  Haller  ;  Bibliothek  der 
Schweizer-Geschichte,  Bern,  1785-88,  7  vols.;  and 
the  Archie  Jiir  die  .ichn:  Reformations- Geschichte 
herausgeg.  con  dem  Pius-]^crein,  vol.  I.,  Soloth., 
1868,  and  vol.  HI.,  Freib.,  1875. 

IV.  For  catalogues  of  Oriental,  especially 
Hebrew,  literature,  J.  T.  Zenker:  Bibliotheca 
oricntalis,  Leipzig,  1846-61,  2  vols. ;  C.  H.  Herr- 
mann: Bibliotheca  orienlalis  et  linguislica,  Halle, 
1870  (contains  (ierman  works  published  between 


BIBLIOMANCY. 


295 


BIDDLB, 


1850  and  1808)  ;  Die  Z,'ilsclir!fl  der  Drul^rhni 
morijettklndixcken  Gcselhchafi,  Leipiiig,  1817  sqq. ; 
GOSCHK. :  Wissi;ti!»'li(iflHcher  JalircshcrichI  iiher  ilh' 
morgenldndischen  Studien,  1850-01,  Lfipziff,  1808, 
and  1862-07,  Heft  1,  Leipzig,  1871 ;  C.  Fkikuk- 
RICI  :  Bihliothcca  Orientalis,  London,  1877  sqq. 
(a  yearly  full  list  of  books,  papei-s,  serials,  and 
essays  published  during  the  preceding  year  in 
England  and  the  Colonies,  Germany,  and  France, 
on  the  history,  languages,  religions,  antiquities, 
and  literature  of  the  East;  an  excellent  pub- 
lication). Concerning  the  Jews  there  is  an 
inexhaustible  mine  of  bibliographical  informa- 
tion of  all  sorts,  J.  C.  Wolf  :  BUiUotheca  hebrma, 
Hamb.,  1715-33,  4  vols.  4to;  the  supplement,  by 
H  F.  KocHER,  Nova  bibliotheca  hebra'ica  (Jena, 
1783-84,  2  vols.),  is  far  from  having  the  same 
value  ;  M.  Steinschneider  :  Cataloipis  librorum 
hebi-fforum  in  Bibliotheca  Bodleina,  Berlin,  1852-60, 

2  vols.  4to  (a  very  superior  work,  and,  in  spite 
of  its  title,  a  complete  Hebrew  bibliography); 
G.  B.  DE  Kossi :  Annates  hfibrao-typoffraphici, 
Parma,  1795-99,  2  vols.  4to  ;  Bibliotheca  Judaica 
anli-christiana,  Parma,  1800.  For  more  complete 
directions  where  to  find  works  in  the  different 
branches  of  theology,  see  Walch  :  Bibliotheca  then- 
logica,  Jena,  17.57-65;  Stuuve:  Bibliotheca  his- 
torite  litterai-i(E,  new  ed.  by  Jugler,  Jena,  1754-63  ; 
Namur  :  Bibliographie  paleoyraphico-diplomatico- 
bibliographique,  Liege,  1838;  especially  Petz- 
HOLDT  :  Bibliotheca  bibliographica,  Leipzig,  1860  ; 
DE  Smedt  :  Introd.  gener.  ad  histor.  eccl.,  Gand, 
1876 ;  Brunet  :  Manuel  du  Libraire,  Paris,  1860- 
65,  8  vols. ;  Allibone  :  Dictionary  of  Authors, 
Phila.,  1863-70,  3  vols.;  Malcom  :  Theological 
/nrfex,  Phila.,  1870;  O.  Zockler  :  Handlmch  der 
theologischen  Wissenschaften,  Nordlingen,  1882-83, 

3  vols.  ;  Hurst:  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  N.Y.,  1S8-'. 
BIBLIOMANCY,  or  sortes  biblicoe,  is  the  term 

used  to  describe  a  superstitious  use  of  the  Bible, 
which  consists  in  opening  it  haphazard,  and  con- 
sidering the  first  verse  the  eye  rests  upon,  or 
entering  a  church,  and  marking  the  first  words  of 
Scripture  read,  as  a  divine  indication  of  duty,  or 
prophecy  of  future  good  or  ill.  JMany  are  the 
stories  told  of  wonderful  answers  to  prayers,  and 
warnings  and  encouragements  thus  given.  Some 
eminent  Christians,  such  as  John  Bunyan  and 
John  M'esley,  have  fallen  victims  to  this  delusion. 
It  cannot  be  denied  that  it  may  please  God  to 
make  use  of  his  own  Word  to  comfort  saints  or 
startle  sinners,  by  such  chance  readings ;  but  it 
can  be  denied  most  emphatically  that  he  intended 
his  book  to  be  so  used.  He  would  have  us  free 
from  all  reliance  upon  the  printed  or  wi-itten  let- 
ters, but,  instead,  to  trust  to  the  Spirit,  who  will 
direct  us  just  as  carefully  as  he  did  the  writers 
of  the  Bible. 

Bibliomancy,  it  is  to  be  feared,  is  not  dead. 
Too  much  respect  is  paid  to  the  mere  ijjsissiyna 
verba  of  the  authorized  version,  which  is  quoted 
as  settling  every  thing,  even  when  it  is  notori- 
ously inaccurate.  It  seems  such  an  easy  and 
natural  thing  that  God  should  direct  us  by  caus- 
ing us  to  read  one  of  the  many  precious  promises 
of  his  Word,  that  it  is  no  wonder  simple-minded 
folk,  and  many  deeply  pious,  nay,  and  sinful  per- 
sons, should  go  to  the  Bible  for  supernatm-al 
guidance.  The  innnortal  story  of  Augustine's 
conversion,  and  the  familiar  story  of  the  remarka- 


ble conversion  of  William  Cowper,  not  to  speak 
(if  other  religious  anecdotes,  contniu  mention  of 
such  a  use  of  the  Bible  as  probably  has  encour- 
aged bililiomancy,  far  as  it  was  from  tlie  practice 
or  conniK^ndation  of  these  persons.  The  inveter- 
acy of  llu!  folly  is  shown  by  its  continuance  in 
the  Church,  both  East  and  West,  notwithstand- 
ing tlie  decrees  of  councils.  It  came  dii-ect  from 
Paganism ;  for  in  liki?  manner  had  the  Pagans 
used  Homer  and  Virgil.  In  the  middle  ages  a 
new  use  was  found  for  it  in  the  detection  of  here- 
tics :  the  opened  Bible  woidd,  they  thought,  give 
an  answer  either  for  or  against  the  accused.  A 
similar  mode  was  at  one  time  employed  in  Great 
Britain  to  root  out  witchc^raft.  Tlie  suspected 
old  woman  was  taken  to  the  village  church,  and 
weighed  against  the  big  church  Bible.  If  she 
weighed  more  than  it,  she  was  declared  innocent; 
but  alas  for  her  whom  the  Bible  outweighed! 

BICKELL,  Johann  Wilhelm,  b.  at  Marburg, 
Nov.  2,  1799;  d.  at  Cassel,  Jan.  23, 1848;  studied 
law  at  Marburg  and  Gottingen ;  was  appointed 
professor  of  jurisprudence  at  Marburg  in  1824; 
and  became  president  of  the  supreme  court  of 
Ilesse-Ca.ssel  in  1841,  and  minister  of  state  in 
1846.  He  wrote  Uber  die  Entstehung  dcs  Corpus 
Jm-is  Canoni'ci,  1825;  Uber  die  Reform  der  Protest. 
Kirchenverfassung,  1831 ;  and  tjber  die  Verpflich- 
tung  der  evangel.  Geistlichen  auf  d.  symbolischen 
Schriften,  Cassel,  1831,  2d  ed.  1840;  Geschichte 
des  Kircheurechts,  Giessen,  1843,  1849. 

BICKERSTETH,  Edward,  b.  at  Kirkby  Lons- 
dale, Westmoreland,  Eng.,  IMarch  19,  1780;  d. 
at  Watton,  Hertfordshire,  Feb.  28,  1850;  studied 
law,  and  began  to  practise  at  Norwich,  but  felt 
himself  strongly  drawn  to  theology;  received  full 
orders  in  1815,  and  was  in  the  same  year  appointed 
secretary  to  the  Missionary  Society,  and  in  1830 
rector  of  Watton.  A  collected  edition  of  his 
works,  of  which  the  most  prominent  are,  A  Help 
to  the  Study  of  the  Scriptin-es,  Guide  to  the  Prophe- 
cies, etc.,  appeared  in  1853,  in  London,  in  16  vols. 
He  edited  the  Christian  Family  Library,  50  vols. 
He  was  a  leader  of  the  "  Evangelicals,"  and  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Evangelical  AUiance.  See 
Memoir  by  Rev.  T.  II.  Birks,  London,  1851,  in 
2  vols. 

BIDDING-PRAYERS  (corruption  of  "Bidding 
of  Prayers")  are  formal  "biddings,"  or  exhorta- 
tions, to  pray,  —  a  very  early  custom.  A  form 
yet  in  use  in  the  Chiu'ch  of  England  before  ser- 
mons which  are  not  preceded  by  divine  service, 
such  as  university  sermons,  and  also  before  the 
morning  sermon  in  cathedral  churches,  dates  sub- 
stantially from  medifeval  times.  Before  the 
Reformation,  the  prayer  before  sermon  was  called 
the  bidding  of  the  beads;  beads  meaning  both 
"things  comited"  and  "prayers."  The  preacher 
successively  named  the  subjects  of  their  devotion. 
After  the  Reformation  the  practice  continued, 
but  the  subjects  were  changed.  The  text  of  the 
bidding-prayer  mentioned  above  is  given  in  full 
in  Procter  :  A  History  of  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  11th  ed.,  London,  1874,  p.  172. 

BIDDLE,  John,  b.  in  1615  at  Wotton-under 
Edge,  Gloucestershire ;  d.  in  a  London  jail,  Sept. 
22,  1662 ;  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  appointed 
master  of  the  free  school  of  Gloucester  in  1641. 
Suspected  of  heresy,  he  was  called  before  the 
Parliament,  and  committed  to  custody,  December, 


BIEL. 


296 


BINNBY. 


1645,  in  whicli  lie  remained  for  five  years,  -nhile 
the  assembly  of  divines  at  Westminster  discussed 
his  views.  The  book  -nhieh  he  published  in  de- 
fence of  himself,  Twelve  Arguments,  etc.  (1647), 
was  btmit  by  the  hangman ;  and  the  two  tracts. 
Confession  of  Faith  and  Testimonies,  etc.  (1048), 
were  suppressed  by  the  govenmient.  The  Act 
of  Oblivion  (1654)  gave  him  full  freedom  once 
more ;  and  his  adherents,  called  Biddelians,  or 
Socinians,  or  Unitarians,  began  to  form  a  con- 
gi'egation.  But  his  translation  of  the  Life  of 
Soctnus,  and  various  Socinian  books,  again  exas- 
perated his  adversaries.  He  was  put  on  trial  a 
second  time  (1655),  and  only  rescued  from  death 
by  Cromwell's  sending  him  away  in  banishment 
to  the  Scilly  Islands.  After  the  lapse  of  three 
years  he  was  quietly  released ;  but  after  the  Res- 
toration he  was  again  imprisoned,  and  fined,  and 
died  in  the  jail.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  Unitarianisra,  and  a  man  of  learning,  blame- 
less life,  and  great  piety.  SeeTouLMiN:  Life  and 
Character  of  Biildle,  London,  1789. 

BIEL,  Gabriel,  b.  at  Speyer;  d.  at  Tubingen, 
1495;  studied  at  Heidelberg;  preached  in  the 
Church  of  St.  Marten  in  Mayeuce ;  Provost  of 
Uracil  in  Wiirttemberg ;  and  since  1484  professor 
of  theology  and  philosophy  in  the  newly  founded 
University  of  Tiiljingen.  He  is  often  styled  the 
'•last  of  the  schoolmen;"  and  he  is,  indeed,  one 
of  the  last  noticeable  representatives  of  the  eccle- 
siastical science  of  the  middle  ages.  He  was  a 
nominalist;  denied  the  infallibility  of  the  Pope, 
defined  the  absolution  as  declaratory  and  not  ju- 
dicial, and  occupied  generally  the  same  ground  as 
the  Councils  of  Constance  and  Basel.  He  wrote 
Epitome  et  Collectorium  ex  Occamo,  Tiibingen, 
1495;  E.rjwsitio  Canonis,  Basel,  1499;  a  number 
of  sermons,  etc.  See  G.  Plitt  :  Gabriel  Bid  als 
Prediyer,  Eriangen,  1879. 

BILLICAN,  theobald  (Diepold  Gerlacher),  b. 
at  Billigheini,  in  the  Palatinate,  towards  the  end 
of  the  fifteenth  century;  d.  at  Marburg,  Aug.  8, 
1554;  studied  theology  at  Heidelberg,  and  began 
to  lecture  there,  but  was  so  deeply  impressed  by 
Luther  that  he  aroused  suspicion,  and  in  1522 
he  left,  and  accepted  an  appointment  as  preacher 
at  Nordlingen.  Here  he  opened  a  way  for  the 
Reformation  ;  but,  while  the  congregation  gradu- 
ally became  thoroughly  Protestant,  it  seems  as  if 
its  pastor  gradually  sank  back  into  Romanism. 
In  the  controversy  about  the  Lord's  Supper  he 
first  held  with  Zwiiigli,  Von  der  Mess,  1524; 
tlien  drew  nearer  to  Luther,  Renovatio  Ecclesiee, 
1525,  and  Epistola  de  verbis  Ca:n(e ;  and  finally,  in 
1528,  made  a  completely  Roman-Catholic  confes- 
sion before  the  faculty  of  Heidelberg.  He  never 
left  the  Roman  Church;  and  in  the  years  be- 
tween 1528  and  15.36  it  appears  that  Dr.  Eck 
exercised  considerable  influence  on  him.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  he  never  came  to  rest  in  the 
Roman  Church,  and  in  this  indecision  his  life 
was  wasted.  In  1535  he  left  Nordlingen,  and  lec- 
tured, first  at  Heidelberg,  and  then  at  Marburg, 
on  law  and  rhetoric.  There  is  no  biography  of 
him.  See  Cllit.  JIayku  :  Die  Sladl  Nordlinyen, 
1877,  pp.  217-245.      uEitN'nAun  RiGOENDACn. 

BILNEY,  Thomas,  b.  in  Norfolk,  Eng.,  1.500; 
was  educated  at  Cambridge;  embraced  the  Ref- 
ormation, and  jireaclied  with  great  success,  but 
■was   arrested    Nov.  25,  1527,  aud  persuaded   to 


recant  Dec.  7,  1527.  He  soon  repented  the 
recantation ;  and  in  1531  he  again  began  to 
preach,  but  was  immediately  arrested ;  and,  as 
he  absolutely  refused  to  recant  a  second  time,  he 
was  condemned  for  heresy,  and  burnt  at  Nor- 
wich, Aug.  19,  1531. 

BILSON,  Thomas,  b.  at  Winchester,  1546;  d. 
there  June  IS,  1016 ;  was  educated  at  Oxford ; 
and  became  Bishop  of  Worcester  in  1596,  and  of 
Winchester  in  1597.  He  was  in  the  Hampton 
Court  Conference  (1604),  at  which  the  new  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  was  proposed.  He  wrote 
True  Difference  between  Christian  Subjection  and 
unck)-istian  Rebellion,  1585 ;  Perpetual  Government 
of  Christ  his  Church,  1593,  new  ed.,  Oxford,  1842; 
Survey  of  the  Sufferings  of  Christ  for  the  Redemp- 
tion of  Man,  1604. 

BINGHAM,  Joseph,  b.  in  1668  at  Wakefield, 
Yorkshire ;  d.  Aug.  17,  1723,  at  Ilavant,  near 
Portsmouth  ;  studied  at  Oxford,  and  became  a 
fellow  of  University  College,  but  left  on  account 
of  a  disagreeable  sensation  he  made  by  a  sermon 
on  the  Trinity,  and  was  appointed  rector,  first  of 
Ileadbourn-Worthy,  near  ^\'inchester,  and  then, 
in  1712,  at  Ilavant.  His  great  archa;ological 
work,  Oriyines  Ecclesiasticce,  or  the  Antiquities  of 
the  Christian  Church,  which  has  not  yet  been 
superseded  by  any  of  its  successors,  first  ap- 
peared in  English,  London,  1708-22,  in  8  vols., 
and  was  afterwards  often  reprinted :  best  edition 
is  that  by  Pitman,  revised  by  Rev.  Richard  Bing- 
ham, great-great-grandson  of  the  author,  Oxford, 
1855,  10  vols.,  giving  the  quotations  in  full,  a  life 
of  the  author,  and  other  of  his  works.  A  cheap 
edition  for  the  use  of  students  was  published  in 
London  in  2  vols.,  1852.  By  J.  II.  Grischow 
(Grischovius)  the  work  was  translated  into  Latin, 
and  published  in  Halle,  1724—38,  in  10  vols.  A 
German  translation,  made  in  the  interest  of  the 
Roman  Church,  was  published  at  Augsburg, 
1788-96,  in  4  vols. 

BINNEY,  Thomas,  one  of  the  leading  noncon- 
formist ministers  of  England ;  b.  at  Newcastle- 
on-Tyne,  April,  1798;  d.  at  Clapton,  Feb.  24, 
1874.  He  spent  seven  years  in  a  bookseller's  em- 
p'oy  in  his  native  town,  where  he  first  attracted 
attention  by  a  poem  published  in  one  of  the 
local  papers.  He  first  received  private  and  aca- 
demic training  in  the  north  of  England,  and  then 
entered  the  theological  college  at  Wymondley, 
Herts.  After  a  brief  ministry  at  Bedford,  he  w'as 
settled,  in  1824,  over  the  Congregational  Church 
called  St.  James's  Chapel,  Newpoit,  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight.  Here  he  wrote  his  well-known  hymn, 
"Eternal  Light  I  Eternal  Light !  "  and  ]>nblished 
the  Life  of  Stephen  Morell,  and  a  volume  entitled 
The  Practical  Power  of  Faith,  London  (n.d.), 
being  an  exposition  of  a  portion  of  the  eleventh 
chapter  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  In  1829 
he  was  called  to  the  King's  Weigh-IIouse  Chapel 
in  Eastcheap,  an  independent  church,  which  dated 
back  to  1662,  the  period  of  the  ejection  of  the 
nonconformists.  In  1833  the  foundation  of  the 
new  cliapel  on  Fish-street  hill  was  laid  by  Mr. 
Binney;  and  the  address  delivered  by  him  upon 
that  occasion  led  to  a  bitter  and  prolonged  con- 
troversy with  State  churchmen,  in  the  course  of 
which  he  published  the  once  famous  ])amphlets, 
"  What  and  Who  Says  it  f  "  "  Strike,  Out  Hear," 
"  Two    Letters   by    Fiat    Justitia."      For   a   long 


BIRCH. 


297 


BISHOP. 


while  Mr.  Hiiincy  wiis  cn-oiieously  thoiiglit  by 
members  of  tlie  Estalilishment  to  be  a  flissenter 
of  peculiarly  narrow  and  bigoted  views;  but  be- 
fore his  death  he  not  oidy  gained  the  foremost 
position  among  the  nonconformists,  but  obtained 
for  his  broad  and  catholic  sjiirit  an  affectionate 
and  appreciative;  regard  from  many  of  f  Ik;  most 
distinguished  dignitaries  of  the  Cliurch  of  Kng- 
laiid.  His  jireacliing  rapidly  secured  a  wide 
popuhirity,  which  continued  during  his  long 
ministry.  He  chielly  attracted  young  men  and 
the  business  men  of  the  city  of  London.  He 
was  also  closely  connected  with  the  most  im- 
IJortant  philanthropic  and  religious  movements 
of  his  time,  especially  in  connection  with  mis- 
sionary labors  in  the  colonies,  of  the  society  for 
which  he  was  one  of  the  founders.  He  visited 
America  in  1845  (when  he  received  the  degree  of 
D.D.),  and  Australia  in  1857-59.  The  degree  of 
LL.D  was  also  conferred  upon  him  by  the  Uni- 
versity of  Aberdeen.  He  j^ublislied  many  of 
his  sermons  and  lectiu'es.  His  best-known  works 
are  The  Service  of  Soiii/  in  the  House  of  the  Lonl, 
which  exercised  a  great  influence  in  the  develop- 
ment of  a  richer  and  more  nuisical  service  in 
nonconformist  churches  ;  Dissent  not  Schi-ini ;  The 
Christian  Ministry  not  a  Priesthood ;  The  Life  of 
Sir  Thomas  Kowell  Buxton;  Lir/hls  and  Shailows  of 
Church  Life  in  Australia ;  From  Seventeen  to 
Thirty,  a  book  for  young  men ;  St.  Paul,  His 
Life  and  Ministry ;  Money,  a  Popular  Exposition 
(li.d.);  il//ca/(,  the  Bread  Maker  (1867);  First 
Series  of  Sermons  (1800)  ;  his  most  widely  sold 
work  is,  Is  it  possiide  to  make  the  best  of  both  worlds  ? 
He  retired  from  the  pastorate  in  1869,  and  occu- 
pied the  chair  of  homiletic  and  pastoral  theology 
at  New  College,  London,  until  his  death.  ]\lr. 
Binney's  magnificent  presence,  vigorous  intellect, 
ardent  affections,  direct  style,  and  highly  effective 
manner,  combined  with  large-hearted  sympathies, 
sufficiently  explain  the  wide  and  long-continued 
influence  which  he  exerted  upon  his  generation. 
See  A  Memorial  of  the  late  Rev.  Thomas  Binney, 
LL.D.,  edited  by  the  Rev.  John  Stougiiton, 
D.D.,  London,  187i ;  Second  Series  of  his  Ser- 
mons, edited  witli  sketch  by  Rev.  Dr.  Allon, 
London,  1875 ;  Pulpit  Memorials  by  Edward 
"\VlHTK.  T.LEWELYN  D.   BEVAN. 

BIRCH,  Thomas,  b.  in  London,  Nov.  23,  1705; 
d.  there  Jan.  9,  1766 ;  was  ordained  j>riest  in 
1731,  though  he  had  enjoyed  no  university  educa- 
tion ;  and  became  Vicar  of  Ulting,  Essex,  in  1734, 
rector  of  St.  Margaret's,  London,  in  1746,  and 
rector  of  Depden,  Essex,  1761.  He  de\'eloped  a 
very  great  literary  activity,  especially  historical 
and  biographical ;  edited  the  General  Dictionary, 
Historical  and  Critical,  10  vols,  fob,  1734-41 ; 
Thurloe's  Stale  Papers,  7  vols.,  1742,  etc. ;  wrote 
biographies  of  Tillotson,  Boyle,  etc. ;  and  was  one 
of  the  secretaries  of  the  Royal  Society  since  1752. 

BIRGITTA  (Briffitta,  Bridyet),  St.,  b.  at  Fin- 
stad  in  Upland,  Sweden,  in  1302  or  1303;  d.  in 
Rome,  Jidy  23,  1373 ;  was,  both  on  her  father's 
and  mother's  side,  related  to  the  royal  family  of 
Sweden,  and  was  very  early  married  to  Ulf  Gud- 
mar.son,  a  wealthy  nobleman  in  a  high  social 
position,  to  whom  she  bore  eight  children.  She 
was  of  a  poetical  and  enthusiastic  nature.  In 
the  home  she  grew  up  among  very  strong  reli- 
gious  impressions.     Her  husband  was   a   pious 


man;  and  twice  the  couple  made  pilgrimages 
together,  to  St.  Olaf  in  Throuhjem,  Norway,  and 
to  St.  .lacob  in  Compostella,  Spain.  Neverthele.s.s, 
in  spite  of  the  exalted  state  of  her  mind,  produ- 
cing visions  in  which  she  believed  as  in  divine  ( 
revelations,  both  as  a  housciwifc  and  in  her  office 
at  the  court  .she  distinguished  herself  by  the 
nolilo  c.onnnon  sense  of  her  judgiuent  and  the 
calm  re]iose  of  her  will.  After  the  death  of  her 
husband  (1344)  she  retired  into  a  monastery, 
devoting  herself  to  ascetic  practices  and  religious 
studies ;  but  from  her  cell  she;  continued  to  exer- 
cise a  great  influence,  considered  by  many  as  ,a 
true  prophetess,  by  others  as  a  witch.  It  was  her 
wi.sh  to  found  an  order;  and  this  idea  fell  in  with 
the  plan  of  the  King  to  build  a  monastery  at 
Wadstena,  on  the  border  of  Lake  Wettern.  In 
1349  she  went  to  Rome  to  oljtain  the  Pope's  con- 
firmation of  a  set  of  rules,  Uerjulm  Sancti  Salva- 
torift,  which  slie  declared  that  the  Lord  had  re- 
vealed to  her.  In  Rome  sluj  lived  as  she  had 
lived  in  Sweden ;  her  authority  increasing,  like 
lier  fame,  year  by  year.  She  addressed  the  kings 
and  princes  on  the  most  important  affairs,  and 
she  was  listened  to.  The  clergy,  even  the  popes 
at  Avignon,  whom  she  was  not  sparing  in  de- 
nouncing, treated  her  with  the  greatest  regard. 
In  1307  Urban  V.  confirmed  the  rules;  and  in 
1370  the  order  of  the  Birgittines,  or  Brigittines, 
was  established.  In  the  same  year  Birgitta  made 
a  pilgrimage  to  .lerusalem,  and  shortly  after  her 
return  to  Rome  she  died.  Her  remains  were 
brought  back  to  Sweden,  and  deposited  at  Wad- 
stena. By  Boniface  IX.  she  was  canonized  Oct. 
7,  1391,  and  the  bull  was  confirmed  by  John 
XXIII.  (1409)  and  by  Martin  V.  (141.5).  Un- 
der her  name  there  exists  a  work,  Rerelationes^  \ 
originally  written  in  Swedish,  but  translated  into 
Latin  under  her  own  superintendence,  and  of- 
ten printed  in  Rome;  best  edition,  Liibeck,  1492. 
The  original  was  publLshed  at  Stockholm.  18.57-61 . 

Lit.  —  Fkkd.  II.\MMf:RiCH  :  Die  heUige  Bir- 
gitta, Copenhagen,  1863.  .\L.  micukl^ex. 

BIRGITTINES,  or  BRIGITTINES,  The  Order 
of  the,  was  founded  on  the  rules  of  St.  Birgitta 
in  1370,  and  comprised  both  monks  and  nuns,  liv- 
ing together  in  the  same  monastery,  though  in 
absolute  separation.  The  monastery  of  '\^'■ad- 
stena,  on  the  border  of  Lake  Wettern,  Sweden, 
the  first  establishment  of  the  order,  was  designed 
to  hold  sixty  nims  and  seventeen  monks,  beside.s 
a  number  ')f  lay  sisters  and  brethren.  Accord- 
ing to  the  rules,  the  hours  of  the  day  were  divided 
between  manual  lalior,  studies,  especially  transla- 
tion of  good  books  into  Sw-edish,  and  devotional 
exercises.  The  rules  of  silence  were  very  severe, 
but  the  rules  of  fasting  were  mild.  From  AV^ad- 
stena  the  order  spread  to  all  Eiu'opean  countries : 
at  one  time  it  numbered  seventy-four  establish- 
ments. But  in  the  fifteenth  century  it  fell  into 
decay,  and  with  the  Reformation  it  almost  dis- 
appeared. 

BISHOP,  1.  Ix  THE  Bible  .VND  Tin:  Fatiieus. 
As  usually  employed,  bishop  is  the  designation  of 
the  spiritual  head  of  a  diocese  {speculator,  super- 
intendens)  ;  but  in  the  Septuagint  emaKOjroc,  of, 
which  "bishop"  is  the  translation,  is  used  of| 
public  officers  civil  and  religious  (cf.  Nimi.  iv. 
16,  xxxi.  14),  and  in  the  latter  sense  in  the  Greek 
New  Testament  and   later  ecclesiastical  writers 


BISHOP. 


298 


BISHOP. 


•  (cf.  Acts  i.  20  ;  Ps.  cix.  8).  In  the  same  way  the 
iible  writers  employ  ■^psoSvTepoc,  "elder"  (Num. 
xi.  16;  Jer.  xix.  1  f  JIatt.  xxviii.  11,  12;  Mark 
Tiii.  31,  etc.).  Xo  distinction  is  made  between  tlie 
words,  for  they  both  have  the  same  meaning  (cf. 
Acts  XX.  17,  28;  Tit.  i.  5  sq.)  :  a  "  presbuteros  " 
occupied  ]irecisely  the  same  ]iosition  as  an  "  epis- 
copos"  (Phil.  i.  1  ;  1  Tim.  iii.  1-8);  hence  the 
apostles  John  and  Peter  call  themselves  "presbu- 
teroi,"  and  "  surapresbuteroi  "  (2  Jolm  1;  3  John 
1;  1  Pet.  V.  1).  The  identity  of  the  two  offices 
•comes  out  in  the  First  Epistle  of  Clement  to  the 
Corinthians,  in  which  he  uses  the  two  words  in- 
discriminately. In  chapter  forty-two  he  exhorts 
the  Corinthians  to  submit  themselves  to  the  p7-es- 
hyters  (ii-oriiyi]Te -olg-npeafimlpoiQ^,  for  the  apostles 
had  made  their  earliest  converts  bishops  and  dea- 
cons (f/f  eTTtoKO-ovi  KoX  6iaK6vov(;  nadiaravov^  ;  in  one 
section  he  calls  the  same  persons  "  presbyters " 
and  "bishops."  In  chapter  forty-four  he  says  it 
would  be  a  sin  to  depose  from  the  episcopate  (tu 
dupa  7//f  i-i(iKo~7ic)  those  who  have  done  well,  and 
in  the  next  sentence  eulogizes  faithful  presbyters 
(jrpea^vTepoi) .  In  chapter  forty-seven  he  speaks 
of  the  dignity  of  presbytersliip.  Ko  demonstra- 
tion could  be  plainer.  Otlier  titles  for  the  hold- 
ers of  the  office  of  oversight  in  the  church  were, 
in  a)iostolic  days,  -Kpoen-CneQ  or  -TTpoioTa/ievoi  (those 
standing  before,  representatives,  1  Thess.  v.  12 ; 
1  Tim.  V.  17  ;  Rom.  xii.  8),  iiyavficvoi  (leaders, 
Ileb.  xiii.  7,  17,  24  ;  Clemens,  First  Epistle  to 
the  Corinthians  i.  21),  and  iroi^ve^  (shepherds, 
Eph.  iv.  11;  Acts  xx.  28;  1  Pet.  v.  1,  etc.). 
It  is  indubitable  that  very  early  a  distinction 
was  made  between  presbyter  and  bisliop,  but 
it  is  by  no  means  clear  when  or  how  this  change 
came  in.  [Tlie  Epistles  of  Ignatius  are  full  of 
Episcopacy  as  the  embodiment  of  Christ's  pres- 
ence in  the  Cliurch.]  Koman-Catholic  writers  are 
bound  by  the  decision  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
(Sess.  XXIII.  cap.  IV.,  et  can.  VII.  de  sucramento 
ordinis:  "Bishops,  being  the  successors  of  the 
apostles,  are  placed  by  the  Holy  Spirit  to  govern 
the  Church  of  God,  and  to  be  superior  to  their 
presbyters  [priests]  ;  "  "  If  any  one  affirms  that 
bisliops  are  not  superior  to  presbyters  [priests], 
let  him  be  anathema"),  and  accordingly  have  en- 
deavored to  explain  away  the  evident  identity. 
Anglican  writers  of  the  Iligli-Cliurch  school 
approach  the  Roman  idea.  See  literature  in 
H.\SE  :  Kirchenfiexchichte ;  Rothe  :  Die  AnfUnge 
der  christlichen  Kirche  u.  ihrer  Verfassung,  Witten- 
berg, 1837;  Bauk  :  Ueber  den  Ursprung  des  Epis- 
kojMts  in  der  christlichen  Kirche,  Tubingen,  1838; 
BuxsKX :  Ignatius  von  Antiochien  u.  seine  Zeit, 
Hamburg,  1847  ;  Ritsciil  :  Die  Kntstehtmq  der 
altkathoUsthen  Kirche.  Bonn,  18.50,  2d  ed.,  1857. 

The  Roman-Catholic  view  is.  that  the  distinction 
between  the  offices  is  primitive,  althougli  at  first 
the  names  were  not  so  sharply  defined  :  the  apos- 
tles had  a  general  episcopal  supervision  of  the 
congregations,  while  the  elders  whom  they  had 
ordained  had  the  local  oversight.  But,  as  the  num- 
ber of  the  congregations  greatly  increased,  the  apos- 
tles could  no  longer  pretend  to  supervise  districts, 
80  they  ordained  certain  chosen  assistants,  whom 
they  at  the  same  time  named  their  successors, 
to  be  overseers  of  each  large  gathering  of  Chris- 
tians, as  that  in  a  city  and  noigliborhood.  Such 
pre-eminently  were  the  angi'ls  of  the  seven  church- 


es mentioned  in  the  Apocalypse  (i.  20,  ii.  1  sqq.). 
But  the  New  Testament  has  not  a  word  to  say 
about  any  apostolic  appointment  of  successors 
with  full  powers  ;  nor  does  it  contain  a  trace  of 
any  distinction  between  the  office  of  bi.shop  and 
elder  ;  nor  is  the  interpretation  given  above  sup- 
ported or  supportable :  but,  on  the  eontrarv,  after 
the  canon  closed,  tlie  episcopoi  and  the  presby- 
teroi  remained  identical.  Clemens  Romanus  (d. 
100)  is  not  the  only  witness  to  this  state  of 
things.  The  "Pastor of  Hennas"  (IV.s-.  3,  5,  circa 
140),  and  the  Epistle  of  Polycarp  (d.  circa  1G4)  to 
the  Philippians,  indicate  the  same.  [The  "  Pas- 
tor" is  not  decisive.  The  passage  quoted  reads, 
"  Hear  now  about  the  stones  which  are  in  the 
building  .  .  .  they  are  the  apostles  (iotoctt-oAoi) 
and  bishops  (imoKo-noi)  and  doctors  {hianKaXoi^ 
teaching  elders)  and  ministers  (iiuKovoi^  deacons)  : 
these  walked  in  the  grace  of  (xod,  and  oversaw, 
and  taught  and  ministered  holily  and  humbly 
to  the  Church."  Hefele,  Patrum  Apostolicorum 
Opera,  p.  334,  appends  the  note:  "These  are 
distinct  hierarchical  orders,"  and  that  seems  to 
be  the  only  inference.  Nor  can  Polycarp  in  his 
Epistle,  c.  v.,  be  emphatically  quoted;  for  al- 
though it  is  true  that  he  exhorts  the  young  men 
to  be  "  subject  to  the  presbi/lers  and  deacons  as 
unto  God  and  Christ,"  and  omits  mention  of  bish- 
ops, yet  from  his  silence  little  can  be  made.] 
The  first  distinct  separation  we  find  in  Ig- 
natius of  Antioch  (d.  107  or  116),  whose  epis- 
tles, however,  are,  just  in  these  ecclesiastical 
mattei-s,  strongly  interjiolated.  [The  sliorter 
Greek  recension  is  considered  genuine  by  the 
best  critics.]  On  the  other  hand,  Irena;ns  (d. 
202),  Adv.  Ha:r.  III.  2.  3,  unmistakably  rec- 
ognizes the  original  identity  of  the  two  offices. 
Particularly  noticeable  are  the  expressions  of 
Ambrosiaster  (Hilary  the  deacon,  about  380),  in 
commenting  on  1  Tim.  iii.  10,  Eph.  iv.  11;  and 
Jerome  (d.  420),  Epist.c.  I.,  ad  Evaiigeluni;  of 
Gratian's  decree,  c.  24,  dist.  XCHl.,  conim.  ad 
Tit.  i.  7,  and  Decree  c.  5,  dist.  XCV.  ("  The 
apostle  clearly  teaches  that  presbyters  are  the 
same  persons  as  bishops :  moreover,  as  to  the 
fact  that  one  was  afterwards  elected  to  be  placed 
over  the  rest,  this  was  done  as  a  remedy  for 
.schism,  lest  any  one,  bj'  attracting  to  himself 
adherents,  should  break  the  unity  of  the  Church 
of  Christ."  "  A  piresbyter  is  the  same  person  as  a 
bishop.  And  before  party-passions  arose  in  reli- 
gion, from  tlie  instigation  of  the  devil,  the  churches 
were  governed  by  a  board  of  presbyters.  But 
when  some  began  to  think  tliat  those  wlioin  they 
had  baptized  belonged  to  them,  and  not  to  Christ, 
it  was  decreed  in  the  wliole  world  that  one  of  the 
presbyters  elected  to  the  office  should  be  placed 
over  the  rest.  .  .  .  Tlierefore  as  the  presbyters 
know  tliat  they  are  subject  to  liini  wlio  may  have 
been  placed  over  them  from  ecclesiastical  usage, 
so  let  the  bisliops  know  that  they  are  higher  in 
rank  than  the  jiresl)yters,  more  from  usage  tlian 
from  a  iirinciple  of  the  Lord's  a]ipointnu'nt,  and 
that  tliey  ought  to  rule  the  Church  in  common.") 
The  defenders  of  de  jure  divino  episcopacy  claim 
for  this  early  period  tlie  later  distinction  of  ordo 
and  juri.fdictio.  So  IJenzinger,  Kritik  it.  Vorl. 
d.  Prof.  Thiersch  ilhcr  Kalholizismus  u.  I'mtestan- 
tismus.  Wih-zburg,  1847 ;  and  Hergenrblher,  De 
Cdtholicce   ICcclesicB    primordiis  reretiliornin  Prnle-- 


BISHOP. 


299 


BISHOP. 


■  tantium  Sijstemalci  expenduntiir,  Ratisboiia^,  1851. 
The  iioii-episcoiial  writers  of  tlio  Kvautifelical 
C'hurch  (e.ef.,  Ziegler,  Geschicktc  der  kiixhiichen 
Vcrfa.^suri//sfonneii,  Leipzig,  1798,  p.  7  sq. ;  Neau- 
der.  Church  Hhlori/,  vol.  i.  pp.  190-20(1)  assume 
that  the  college  of  jiresbyters  must  necessarily 
liave  had  a  director,  a  primus  inter  pares,  who  ahiie 
bore  the  previously  common  name  of  "bishops" 
\\\u'.n  his  office  was  made  permanent.  At  fir.st 
tiie  position  would  be  given  to  the  oldest,  then  to 
tlie  ablest,  who  was  specially  ordained  thereto. 
Substantially  the  same  explanation  is  given  by 
those  writers  who  emphasize  the  divided  condi- 
tion of  the  Christian  communities,  particularly 
in  large  cities  where  the  Christians  formed  sev- 
eral congregations  QiiKXriaiai  Kar'  ofKour),  and  main- 
tain that  union  would  be  naturally  promoted  by 
electing  one  of  the  presbyters  to  tlie  headship. 
Rothe  started  the  improvable  theory,  that  the 
episcopacy  was  of  apostolic  origin,  the  result  of 
the  deliberations  of  the  survivors  some  time  after 
A.D.  70,  and  therefore  part  of  the  original  con- 
stitution of  the  Church,  but  a  merely  human  and 
tPm[)orary  design.  Bunsen  gave  to  episcopacy  a 
Johannean  origin, —  a  date  after  the  death  of  Paul 
(about  70),  and  a  gradual  spread.  See  his  IIlppo- 
li/lu.i  and  his  Aqe,  London,  18.52  ;  Christianil ij  and 
Mankind,  London,  1852.  [So  Rothe  (AnJUmje 
der  chrisll.  Kirche)  and  Thiersoli  {Gesch.  des  apost. 
Zeitahers),'\ 

[The  Church  of  England  tolerates  several  op- 
posing views  of  the  origin  of  the  episcopate, 
which  will  be  found  stated  under  Episcopacy. 
The  High-Anglican  or  Anglo-Catliolic  view  is  cor- 
rectly given  by  the  late  Rev.  Arthur  West  Ilad- 
dan,  iu  Smith  and  Cheetham's  DicCwnarij  of 
Christian  Antiquities,  vol.  1,  art.  "Bishop:" 
"  Bishop,  first  an  appellative,  and  then  an  in- 
terchangeable, title  of  the  Trpeai^vrepoi.  (presby- 
ters), who  ministered  to  the  several  churches 
under  the  apostles ;  but  from  the  earliest  years 
of  the  second  century,  and  from  St.  Ignatius  on- 
wards, the  distinctive  name,  adopted  as  such  in 
every  language  used  by  Christians,  Eastern  as 
well  as  Western,  of  the  single  president  of  a 
diocese,  who  came  in  the  room  of  the  apostles, 
having  presbyters,  deacons,  and  laity  under  him, 
and  possessing  exclusive  power  of  ordination, 
and  primarily  of  confirmation,  with  primary  au- 
thority in  the  administration  of  the  sacraments 
and  of  discipline."  Mr.  Haddan  enumerates 
fully  the  titles  by  which  the  "  bishops  "  have  been 
called,  grants  that  some  of  them  were  applied 
-  also  to  presbyters,  but  finds  the  actual  insti- 
tution implied  and  i-ecorded  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment :  1.  In  the  position  of  James  in  Jerusalem 
(Acts  xii.  7,  XV.  13,  xxi.  18;  Gal.  ii.  9),  "  affirmed 
also  by  all  antiquity  to  have  been  bishop  of  Jeru- 
salem;  "  2.  In  Paul's  appointment  of  Timothy 
at  Ephesus,  and  Titus  in  Crete,  to  be  "bishops," 
i.e.,  to  ordain  (1  Tim.  iii.  13;  Tit.  i.  5)  and  rule 
both  in  church  worship  (I  Tim.  ii.  1-12)  and 
over  all  church-members,  including  presbyters 
(1  Tim.  V.  1-22 ;  Tit.  i.  5,  ii. ),  and  probably  to 
confirm  (1  Tim.  v.  22)  in  the  apostle's  stead 
(1  Tim.  i.  3  ;  Tit.  i.  5)  ;  3.  In  the  angels  of  the 
churches,  who  were  real  individual  persons  (see 
Aniiel  of  the  Church  sub  voce  Angel).  lie  further 
finds  confirmation  to  the  hypothesis  in  Clemens 
Romauus,  ad.  Cor.  i.  44  (already  quoted  on  the 


other  side),  in  St.  Jerome's  Cnlal.  Scripti.  Keel. 
ix.  ("  Last  of  all  John,  at  the  request  of  Ine 
bishops  of  Asia,  wrote  his  (lospel  "),  and  other 
Fathers;  in  the  fact  that  "bishops  in  the  later 
sense  are  actually  found  in  every  church  whatso- 
ever from  the  moment  that  any  evidence  exists 
at  all,  and  that  such  evidence  exists,  either 
simply  to  an  actual  bishop  at  the  time,  or  more 
commonly  to  such  a  bishop  as  in  succession  to  a 
line  of  predecessors  traced  up  to  apostles,  and 
with  no  intimation  of  such  episcopate  being  any 
thing  else  but  the  original,  appointed,  and  unbroken 
order."]  The  establishment  of  the  ciiiscopatc  can- 
not be  attributed  to  a  general  movement:  some 
churches  early,  others  later,  ]iut  their  government 
in  a  board  of  elders  (^iresbytei's)  ;  it  di-jiended  upon 
how  soon  they  fell  into  the  line  of  develo))ment 
from  separate  congregations  to  the  one  Church. 
That  out  of  the  elders  one  would  be  choscui  to 
preside,  was  natui-al,  and  is  proven  by  the 
Fathers  to  have  taken  place  before  the  middle  of 
the  second  century.  Hence  in  the  largest  com- 
munions, as  in  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  Rome,  the 
institution  would  first  be  established.  In  Asia 
Jlinor  and  SjTia  the  general  name  "episcopus" 
was  applied  in  these  early  times  to  this  representa- 
tive. Very  early,  to  some  of  these  episcopi  were 
assigned  the  appointment  and  ordination  of  the 
new  elders:  but  there  seems  to  have  been  no  rule 
about  it;  e.g.,  in  Egypt,  up  to  the  first  quarter 
of  the  third  century,  the  presbyteries  ordained 
without  episcopal  supervision.  But  with  the 
development  of  the  Church  in  doctrine  and  con- 
stitution, the  separation  of  presbyter  and  bishoi) 
was  established.  The  process  was  hastened  by 
the  opposition  of  Gnosticism  and  other  heresies  : 
the  bishops  became  the  centres  of  authority,  the 
representatives  of  apostolic  teaching.  By  the 
fourth  century  the  present  order  was  firmly  set- 
tled. The  bishops  themselves  were  originally 
elected  by  the  neighboring  bishops,  and  the 
clergy  and  laity  of  the  diocese,  but  later  on  by 
the  chapter  of  the  cathedral,  with  the  assent  of  the 
sovereign.  [See  the  arts.  "  Bisho])  "  and  "  Priest," 
in  Smith  and  Cheetham  :  Diet.  Chri.il.  Antiq.,  and. 
the  books  therein  mentioned.  Also  the  impor- 
tant works,  G.  A.  Jacoii  :  The  Eeelesiastieal 
Polity  of  the  New  Testament,  London  and  N.  Y., 
1872,  6"th  Amer.  ed.,  1879;  E.  Hatch:  The 
Organization  of  the  Early  Cliristian  Churches, 
London,  1881.] 

2.  In  the  Roman-Catholic  Church.  The 
bishop  must  be  of  legitimate  birth,  thirty  years 
old,  recognized  for  learning  and  morality.  The 
choice  is  nomiiuxlly  made  by  the  Pope,_  through 
the  curia,  although  practically  through  the 
chapter  {electio  canonica)  ;  or,  when  the  person 
is  to  be  transferred  from  one  bishopric  to  an- 
other, through  their  postulation,  or  by  the 
nomination  of  the  tempora  Iruler.  Then-follow 
the  papal  examination  through  the  papal  legate ; 
if  favorable,  a  second  (formal)  examination  by 
the  college  of  cardinals  upon  the  receipt  of  the 
report ;  the  investitm-e  witli  full  rights  ;  the  con- 
secration, within  three  months,  by  a  bishop  com- 
missioned by  the  Pope,  and  two  other  bishops  or 
prelates,  in  "the  cathedral  of  the  new  bishoj). 
Tlie  candidate  takes  the  old  oath  of  allegiance  to 
the  Pope  (essentially  that  prescribed  by  Hilde- 
brand),  subscribes  the  professio  Jidei,  is  anointed, 


BISHOP. 


300 


BISHOP. 


solemnly  enthroned,  and  dismisses  the  congrega- 
tion with  his  blessing.  Conseci-ation  precedes 
the  oatli  of  civil  allegiance.  The  episcopal  ritjiils 
and  powers  are  derived  partly  from  his  consecra- 
tion, partly  from  his  jurisdiction,  partly  from  his 
dignity.  1.  Jura  orjinis.  He  shares  all  the  rights 
of  the  presbjters,  but,  besides,  has  as  jura  reser- 
r-ata,  propria,  ponlijicalia  (1)  ordination,  (2)  con- 
firmation, (3)  chrism,  (4)  consecration  of  res 
sacrw,  (5)  benediction  of  abbots  and  abbesses, 
(6)  anointing  of  kings.  2.  Jura  jurisdictionis. 
In  the  broad  sense  these  emlirace  the  entire 
ecclesiastical  authority  of  the  liishop:  in  the  nar- 
row, the  lex  jurisiliclionis  (as  the  oversight,  rule, 
and  executive  power)  is  distinguished  from  the 
lex  (lioecesana,  the  right  to  the  various  church- 
taxes.  As  the  bishop  exercises  all  these  rights 
jure  propria,  he  is  called  "judex  ordinarius ; '' 
but  many  others  has  he  in  consequence  of  papal 
bestowment.  See  F.\culties.  3.  Jura  status  et 
dignitatis.  The  bishop  takes  precedence  of  all  the 
clergy,  directly  after  the  cardinals  of  the  Roman 
Curia,  and  is  addressed,  as  they  are,  "  Reverend- 
issimus,"  "  sanctissimus,"  "  beatissimus,"  "  right 
reverend,"  "your  episcopal  Grace."  His  tem- 
poral rank  is  settled  by  special  enactment,  with 
his  particular  insignia  and  robes.  To  these  rights 
correspond  duties ,  in  chief,  the  cure  of  souls, 
and  oversight  of  the  diocese.  Each  bishop,  by  his 
consecration  oath,  is  bound  at  regular  intervals 
to  give  a  personal  report  in  Rome  of  his  dio- 
cese, which  reiiort  must  be  repeated  in  writing.  — 
Assistants  of  Ike  biskops.  Such  are  the  archdeacons, 
archpre.sbyters,  chapters,  consistories,  general- 
vicars,  etc.  (See  separate  titles.)  Cf.  Thomas- 
six  :  Vetus  ac  nova  ecclesice  disciplina,  P.  I.  lib.  I. 
c.  1.  2.  50-60;  Barbosa  :  De  officio  et  potestate 
episcopi,  Lugdun.  1698 ;  Jon.  IIelfert  :  Von  den 
liechten  u.  PJiirhten  der  Bischijfe  u.  Pfarrer,  dann 
dcrcn  bciderseitijjen  Geliilfen  ti.  Stcllverlreter,  Prag., 
1832.  For  later  literature,  HiNSCHlus  :  Kircken- 
recht. 

3.  Ix  THE  Churches  of  the  Reformatiox. 
The  churches  of  the  Reformation  have  no  bishops 
in  the  Koman  sense,  although  the  question  at  that 
time  was  rather  the  reform  of  the  office  than  its 
abolition.  The  Lutheran  Church  in  Germany  is 
not  governed  by  bishops,  although  the  general 
superintendents  are  .sometimes  so  called,  but  by 
consistories.  In  some  parts  of  Germany  the  title 
"bishop"  is  given  to  a  civil  officer.  [In  Sweden 
and  Denmark  the  episcopal  office  was  retained, 
but  without  the  jure  divinn  theory.  The  Church 
of  England  admits  different  theories  of  the  origin 
and  authority  of  the  ejiiscopate  and  episcopal 
succession.  The  i\Iethodist  and  Moravian  epis- 
copate is  merely  a  matter  of  convenience,  and 
lia.s  a  missionary  character.] 

4.  Aiu'Huismoi'  {Archiepiscopus,  MetropoUtanus') 
is  the  s]iiritual  chief  of  a  church  province  (arch- 
bishopric, metropolitan  diocese).  The  office  fol- 
lowed naturally  from  the  bishopric;  and  the 
dependence  of  the  city  bishops,  who  exercised 
authority  over  the  adjiicent  country  congrega- 
tions, upon  the  inetro)iolitans  (see  titles),  was 
recognize<l  by  the  Covmcil  of  Nicica,  325.  Among 
the  metropolitans,  again,  some  were  preeminent, 
and  were  called  arrliiepislnpos,  and,  after  450, 
patriarclics ;  but  snbse(|uently  every  bisiio])  having 
metropolitans  under  him  \va.s  called  an  archbishop. 


The  office  is  one  of  varying  jx)wer :  much  depends 
upon  the  under-bishops,  wlio  are  styled  sujinit/ans. 
The  archbishop  calls  synods,  presides  at  them, 
and  publishes  their  acts.  In  addition  to  his  own 
diocese,  he  visits  those  of  his  bishops,  and  requires 
reports  from  them.  He  receives  the  pallium 
directly  from  the  Pope.  The  archiepiscopal  dig- 
nity is  retained  with  similar  powers  in  the  Epis- 
copal Church  of  Great  Britain,  but  not  in  the 
United  States.  MEJER  (.JACOBSON). 

BISHOPRIC,  the  jurisdiction  of  a  bishop.  It 
was  formed  out  of  the  congregations  which  clus- 
tered aroimd  the  parent  cliiuch  in  those  early 
days  of  a  growing  yet  persecuted  Christianity. 
Each  congregation  was  a  parish :  the  associated 
parishes  formed  the  bishopric.  These  terms  are 
still  in  use  in  the  Oriental  Church.  In  the  Occi- 
dental Chmch,  in  the  ninth  century,  the  term 
dicecesis  was  applied  to  bishopric,  and  parochia  to- 
the  individual  churches.  In  Frankish  Gaul  the 
diocese  often  corresponded  with  the  pat/us  viajor; 
and  the  phrases  terminus,  territorium  ciritatis, 
patjus,  were  used  of  the  bishop's  jurisdiction. 
The  bishops  resided  in  the  larger  cities,  as  was 
ordered.  In  Germany  the  dioceses,  comprising 
several  provinces,  were  larger  than  those  in  Gaul, 
which  took  in  only  one.  The  setting  vip  and 
alteration  of  bishoprics  have  been,  since  the  fourth 
century,  the  affair  of  the  metropolitans  and  the 
provincial  synods.  Every  year  the  Annuario- 
Pontitico  contains  an  official  review  of  the  bish- 
oprics of  the  Romish  Church. 

BISHOPS'  BOOK,  THE,  or  The  Institution  of 
a  Christian  Man,  contains  an  exposition  of  the 
Apostles'  Creed,  the  Seven  Sacraments,  the  Ten 
Commandments,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  the  Doc- 
trine of  Justification,  and  was  compiled  ir.  1537 
by  a  commission  of  ministers  and  bishops  of  the 
Church  of  England. 

BISHOP,  Nathan,  an  eminent  Christian  phi- 
lanthropist, b.  Aug.  12,  1808,  at  Vernon,  Oneida 
County,  N.Y.;  d.  at  Saratoga,  Aug.  7,  1880.  His 
parents  were  New-England  people,  who  moved 
from  Connecticut  to  Central  Jvew  York  when  that 
was  called  the  "Far  West."  His  father,  Elna- 
tlian  Bisliop,  was  a  farmer,  a  justice  of  the  peace, 
and  at  one  time  represented  his  neighborhood  in 
the  New- York  Legislature.  His  mother  was  a 
woman  of  rare  excellence,  of  a  strong  mind,  and 
great  executive  ability.  Tlie  family  was  large. 
His  home  was  the  abo<le  of  l>iety,  intelligence,  and 
industry.  He  was  an  anilntious  boy,  caring  little 
for  annisements,  and  choosing  to  give  all  his  spare 
time  to  study. 

At  eigliteen  years  of  age  he  entered  the  acade- 
my at  Hamilton,  Madison  County,  N.Y.  During 
his  course  there,  antl  suliseqnently  in  Brown  I'ni- 
versity.  Providence,  It.].,  lie  supported  him.self. 
He  was  graduated  at  twenty-nine  years  of  age  (in 
1837),  .so  mature  a  .scholar  that  he  was  inuuedi- 
atel)'  elected  a  tutor  in  tlie  university.  At  the 
close  of  his  first  year  in  this  position  lie  was 
chosen  superintendent  of  public  schools  in  Provi- 
dence. "Previous  to  this,"  says  Dr.  II.  I..  Way- 
land,  "  the  common  schools  were  of  very  low 
order,  and  it  is  due  very  largely  to  the  labors  of 
Mr.  Bisho)!  that  the  .schools  of  that  city  now  rank 
with  (he  first  of  (he  country."  In  tliis  position 
he  .spent  thirteen  years.  .Mr.  Bishoji  was  elected 
a   trustee  of   Brown  University  in  1812,  and  in 


BITHYNIA. 


301 


BLANDRATA, 


1S54  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Fellows.  His 
iiiai'ked  success  in  the  Providence  schools  led 
U)  his  being  called  to  the  position  of  siiperintend- 
■<'ut  of  public  schools  in  Boston  in  1851.  In  tliis 
ollice  he  .spent  six  years  with  .siynal  success: 
(luring  these  years  he  aided  largely  in  plan- 
ning several  of  those  model  schoolhouses  for 
which  Boston  is  celebrated. 

While  in  Boston  he  received  from  Harvard  the 
degree  of  LL.D.  When  nearly  fifty  years  of  age, 
Mr.  Bishop  removed  to  Kew-York  City ;  soon 
after  he  became  a  member  of  the  Sabbath  Com- 
mittee, and  an  active  manager  of  the  American 
Bible  Society.  He  identified  himself  witli  the 
work  of  the  chiu'ch  and  sabbath  school,  teaching 
a  large  Bible-class  of  young  men.  He  took  great 
interest  in  the  work  of  city  missions.  When  the 
war  of  the  Rebellion  burst  upon  the  country, 
there  came  a  cry  from  the  army  for  help,  reli- 
gious consolation,  nursing  and  comforts  for  the 
sick ;  and  the  Christian  Commission  was  formed. 
Mr.  Bishop  gladly  gave  to  the  work  of  the  New- 
York  Branch  his  whole  time  and  energy  till  the 
close  of  the  war.  He  was  appointed  by  President 
Grant  one  of  the  ten  Indian  commissioners;  and 
it  was  in  pursuance  of  the  work  of  visiting  the 
wild  tribes  in  1869  that  lie  contracted  the  malari- 
al disease  which  eleven  years  afterwards  caused 
his  death.  He  was  for  several  years  a  member  of 
the  State  Board  of  Charities,  a  member  and  a 
delegate  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  to  the  Czar 
of  Russia  in  behalf  of  religious  liberty  in  the  Bal- 
tic Provinces,  a  member  of  the  advisory  boards  of 
the  New-York  Orphan  Asylum,  the  Ladies'  Chris- 
tian Union,  and  the  Baptist  Home  for  the  Aged. 
He  was  one  of  the  original  board  of  trustees  of 
A'assar  College,  and  for  the  first  seven  years 
chairman  of  the  executive  committee.  lie  was 
an  earnest  worker  for  foreign  and  home  mis- 
sions, and  served  the  American  Baptist  Home- 
Mission  Society  as  its  secretary  for  two  years 
gratuitously  during  a  time  of  financial  depres- 
sion. 

He  delighted  to  give  and  work  for  the  educa- 
tion and  elevation  of  the  ignorant  and  degraded. 
The  eight  schools  established  in  the  Southern 
States  by  the  American  Baptist  Home-Mission 
Society,  for  the  education  of  preachers  and  teach- 
ers among  the  freedmen,  elicited  his  warmest 
sympathy.  To  them  he  gave  the  benefit  of  his 
long  experience  in  the  management  of  schools, 
and  biulding  of  schoolhouses.  He  was  chairman 
of  the  finance  committee  of  the  American  Bible 
Revision  Committee  till  his  death,  and  contributed 
largely  to  its  expenses.  He  was  a  man  of  catho- 
lic spirit,  of  large  benevolence,  calm  judgment,  a 
■wise  adviser,  a  consistent  Christian,  in  active 
sympathy  with  every  good  cause.       P.  SCHAFF. 

BITHYNIA;  a  north-west  province  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor, conquered  by  the  Romans  B.C.  75.  After 
different  administrative  changes,  Augustus  raised 
it  into  a  proconsularship  B.C.  27.  Trajan  com- 
bined it  with  Pontus  under  the  younger  Pliny 
A.I).  103-105.  Under  the  Bizantine  emperors  it 
was  again  divided.  Niconiedia  and  Nica?a  were 
its  chief  cities.  It  is  mountainous,  tliickly  wood- 
ed, and  fertile.  Paul  was  not  suffered  to  enter  it 
(Acts  xvi.  7) ;  but  1  Pet.  i.  1  testifies  to  the  pres- 
ence of  Ghristians  there  in  Paul's  day,  and  Pliuy 
was  embarrassed  by  their  number. 


BLACKFRIARS,  a  name  given  to  tlie  monks  of 
the  Dominican  orders  on  account  of  the  oolor  of 

their  gai'niciit. 

BLAIR,  Hugh,  b.  at  Edinburgh,  April  7, 1718; 
d.  there,  ik'c.  27,  1800;  studied  theology  in  the 
university  of  his  native  city,  and  was  ajipointed 
minister  of  Colessie,  in  Fifeshire,  in  1742,  and  of 
the  High  Church  of  Edinburgh  in  1758.  The 
first  volume  of  his  Scrmuns  was  published  in 
1777  :  four  others  followed.  The  moral  bearing 
of  these  sermons,  hajipily  contrasting  with  the 
nielaphy.sical  tone  of  the  preaching  of  that  time, 
])rocured  for  them  a  great  success  (they  were 
translated  into  German,  French,  Slavonian,  etc.)  ; 
but  in  true  evangelical  spirit  our  time  finds  them 
wanting.  As  professor  of  rhetoric  at  the  univer- 
sity, which  position  he  held  from  1702  to  1783,  he 
published  lectures  on  Ulietoric  and  Belles-Lettres, 
1783,  3  vols.,  of  which  lectures,  twenty-nine  treat 
of  the  eloquence  of  the  pulpit.  IIERZOG. 

BLAIR,  James,  1>.  iu  Scotland  about  1660;  d. 
at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  Aug.  1,  1743;  came  to 
Virginia  as  a  missionary  in  1685;  was  appointed 
commissary  in  1689 ;  founded  the  William  and 
Mary  College  in  1G92,  and  was  its  first  president. 
From  1711  to  his  death  he  was  rector  of  Wil- 
liamsburg. In  1722  he  published  Sermons  and 
Discourses,  4  vols. 

BLAIR,  Robert,  b.  at  Edin'ourgh,  1699;  ai> 
jiointed  minister  of  Athelstaneford,  Jan.  5,  1731, 
and  d.  there  Feb.  4,  1746.  He  is  known  as  the 
author  of  The  Grace,  a  solemn  religious  poem, 
published  1743,  beautifidly  and  strikingly  illus- 
trated by  William  Blake,  1808,  and  still  read. 
The  poem  is  very  melancholy,  defective  in  rhythm, 
yet  vigorous  and  interesting. 

BLAIR,  Samuel,  b.  in  Ireland,  June  14,  1712; 
d.  at  Londonderry,  Penn.,  July  5,  1751 ;  came 
early  to  America ;  was  educated  at  Tennent's 
Academy  at  Neshaniiny,  and  was  ordained  pas- 
tor in  Shrewsbury,  N.J.,  1734;  removed  to  Penii- 
.sylvania  in  1740,  and  established  a  theological 
seminary  at  Fogg's  Manor,  Chester  County.  In 
1744  he  published  A  Narralice  of  a  Revival  of 
Religion  in  Several  Parts  of  Pennsijlrania.  A  vol- 
ume of  his  writuigs  was  published  in  Philadel- 
phia in  1754. 

BLANDRATA,  Georg,  b.  at  Saluzzo,  1515; 
studied  medicine,  and  lived  for  several  years  in 
Poland  and  Transylvania,  as  body-physician  to 
the  queen  of  Sigismuiid  I.  and  the  widow  of 
John  Zapolya,  but  returned  afterwards  to  Italy, 
and  practised  at  Pavia.  The  influence,  however, 
of  the  Reformation  had  reached  liim,  and  some 
incautious  utterances  made  him  suspected  by  the 
Jesuits.  He  fled,  and  settled  in  Geneva.  There 
his  anti-Roman  tendencies  rapidly  developed,  but 
also  his  anti-trinitarian  ideas.  Calvin's  Respon- 
sum  ad  Questiones  G.  BlandraUe  (1559)  did  not 
satisfy  him ;  and  Calvin  turned  against  him  with 
great  bitterness.  He  went  to  Poland,  and  lived 
at  the  court  of  Prince  Radziwil ;  but  Calvin  pur- 
sued him  thither,  and  ill  1563  he  went  to  Tran- 
sylvania, where  he  enjoyed  great  honors  luider 
John  Sigismund  and  Stephen  Bathori.  In  1566 
he  defended  his  anti-truiitarian  views  against  the 
Reformed  theologians  in  a  great  disputation,  in 
the  presence  of  the  court,  and  came  out  victori- 
ous. The  latter  part  of  his  life  is  very  obscure. 
He  died  after  1585,  killed,  it  is  said,  by  his  owa 


BLASPHEMY. 


302 


BLBMMYDBS. 


nephew.  See  M.vl.\cai;ni' :  Cnmmentario  (Idle 
Opere  di  G.  B.,  Padua,  ISU.  c.  SCHMIDT. 

BLASPHEMY,  technicallv  the  .speakhig  evil 
of  God ;  but  etymologicallj-  it  may  mean  any 
specie.s  of  cahniiay  and  detraction.  Tlie  iMosaic 
law  punished  with  de.T,th  by  stoning  any  one, 
Israelite  or  stranger,  wlio  took  the  sacred  name 
in  vain  (Lev.  xxiv.  10)  ;  but  those  who  spoke 
against  forcifjn  divmities  were  not  punished  (verse 
Ti);  Exod.  xxii.  28).  The  Jews  fell  into  two 
]>eculiar  and  absurd  errors  of  interpretation  of  the 
law  upon  this  subject.  From  Exod.  xxiii.  13, 
'•^lake  no  mention  of  the  name  of  other  gods, 
neitlier  let  it  be  heard  out  of  thy  mouth,"  they 
supposed  they  were  bound  to  nickname  the 
heatlien  gods  :  hence  their  use  of  "  Bosheth  "  for 
Baal,  ■'  Beth-aven  "  for  Bethel,  "  Beelzebul "  for 
Beelzebul).  From  Lev.  xxiv.  16  they  deduced 
the  notion  that  the  ]nere  utterance  of  the  word 
'■Jehovah  "  was  proliibited :  so  the  true  jironuncia- 
tion  has  been  lost.  TJie  Jews  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment regarded  as  blasphemy  the  attribution  to 
man  of  any  divine  quality  (Matt.  ix.  3,  xxvi.  65 ; 
John  X.  30).  The  Christian  'wi'iters  consider  as 
lilaspliemy  the  refusal  to  honor  Christ  (^Slatt. 
xxvii.  39;  Mark  xv.  29;  Acts  xviii.  6,  xxvi.  11) 
or  God  (Kom.  ii.  21r). 

The  bhisphemij  against  t/ie  Holy  Ghost  (Matt, 
xii.  31 ;  jMark  iii.  29 ;  Luke  xii.  10)  is  the  unpar- 
donalile  sin.  It  implies  a  state  of  final  and  hope- 
less impenitence,  and  is  committed  by  those  who 
have  again  and  again  wilfully  resisted  the  infln- 
euces  and  warnings  of  tlie  Holy  Ghost,  and  have 
made  themselves  incapable  of  repentance,  and 
consequently  of  pardon. 

The  Ancient  Church  called  tho.se  llaspJiematici 
who  fell  away  during  persecution,  those  who 
taught  heresies,  those  who,  in  the  heat  of  pas- 
.sion,  .spoke  irreverently  of  God  and  Christ :  in- 
<leed,  at  last  tlie  term  was  applied  to  those  who 
spoke  against  the  Virgin  Mary.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  the  punishment  was  severe.  The  guilty  one 
must  stantl  for  seven  consecutive  Sundays  at  the 
porch  of  tlie  church,  without  cloak  or  slices,  fast- 
ing, aiul  might  besides  be  fined  and  imprisoned. 
.Sometimes  the  tongues  of  blasphemers  were  cut 
out,  or  jiicrced  by  hot  irons.  Sometimes  the  pun- 
ishment was  death.  In  modern  times  the  penalty 
has  been  very  much  ligliter.  In  the  interests 
of  morality  and  religion,  it  W(M-e  surely  desirable 
if  all  those  who  take  God's  name  impiously  uj)on 
their  lips  wen-  made  to  feel  the  heavy  hand  of 
llie  Slalr.         •  (FKOXMiJLLER)   C.  BKCK. 

BLASTARES,  Matthaus,  a  monk  of  the  order 
of  St.  Basil,  wrote  in  1335  a  compilation  of  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  laws:  Si/nlatpiia  Alpliahelicum 
Rerum  Omnium  qnie  in  Sacris  Canonil)ii.i  Compre- 
henilunlur,  based  on  .Instinian  and  Photius,  and 
in  }he  form  of  a  juridical  dictionary.  The  work, 
wliich  was  inudi  used  liy  tlie  clergy  of  the  Eastern 
Church,  is  found  in  Hi'.VKUKiai's :  Si/nodicon, 
T.  II.  P.  II. 

BLAURER  (or  lllnrer,  IVaarcr),  Ambrosius,  b. 
.at  Constance,  Ajiril  12,  1192;  d.  at  'Winlrrlllur, 
Dec.  0,  l.')01;  studicMl  theology  in  TubingiMi  to- 
gether with  Mejanchthon ;  entered  in  1515  th(^ 
Benedictine  .Monastery  of  .\l))irsbach,  and  was 
afterwards  chosen  its  abbot  ;  l)ut,  having  ein- 
liraced  tlie  Keformation,  lie  left  the  monastery  in 
1521,  began  to  preach  the  new  doctrines  in  Con- 


stance in  1525,  and  married  in  1533.  From  1531 
to  1538  he  was  active  in  introducing  the  Reforma- 
tion in  Wiirttemberg,  after  which  he  again  retireil 
to  Constance ;  but  when,  in  1548,  the  Interim 
was  introduced  in  that  city,  he  left  for  "Winter- 
thur.  Ilis  stand-point  was  one  between  Lutlur 
and  Zwingli.  His  character  was  mild  and  con- 
ciliatory. The  works  he  left  are  mostly  pamphlets 
and  letters,  both  in  Latin  and  German.  Ilis  life 
has  been  written  by  Theodor  Keim,  Stuttgart, 
1800,  and  by  Tiieodok  Pressel,  Stuttgart,  1861. 

BLAYNEY,  Benjamin,  d.  at  Polsliot,"Wiltshire, 
Eng.,  Sept.  20,  1801;  studied  at  Oxford;  be- 
came professor  of  Hebrew  in  1787,  afterwards 
canon  of  Christ  Church,  and  rector  of  Potshot, 
and  published  A  Dissertalion  on  Daniel's  Seventy 
Weeks;  TJie  Sign  given  to  Aliaz,  new  translations 
of  Jeremiah  and  Lamentations,  and  Zechariah.  He 
edited  the  Oxford  Bible,  1709 ;  greatly  improved 
the  text  by  applying  with  more  consistency  the 
principle  of  denoting  additions  to  the  original 
text  by  Italics,  and  by  substituting  for  obsolete 
words  those  in  common  use  ;  he  added  seventy-six 
marginal  references,  and  sixty-six  annotations  ;. 
but  unhappily  the  misprints  of  his  edition  were 
many. 

BLEEK,  Friedrlch,  b.  at  Ahrensbok,  Holstein, 
July  1,  17!I3;  d.  at  Bonn,  Feb.  27.  1859;  studied 
theology  at  Kiel  and  Berlin  ;  began  to  lecture  on 
biblical  exegesis  in  the  latter  place  in  1818,  and 
was  appointed  professor  there  in  1823,  and  at 
Bonn  in  1829.  His  principal  works  are  his  yinV/" 
an  die  Ilebriier,  published  in  three  parts  (1828, 
1830,  and  1840),  and  his  Beitrdge  zur  Erangelien- 
Krilik,  Berlin,  1840,  containing  the  ablest  and 
most  decisive  defence  of  the  genuineness  of  the 
Gospel  of  John.  After  his  death  his  lectures 
were  published,  among  which  are.  Introduction  to 
the  Old  Testament,  edited  by  I.  Bleek  and  Ad. 
Kamphausen,  Berlin,  1860,  and  translated  into 
English  by  Venables ;  and  Introduction  to  the  New 
Testament,  edited  by  I.  Bleek,  Berlin,  1802,  and 
translated  into  English  by  Urwick.  [The  fourth 
German  edition  of  the  former  appeared  in  Berlin, 
1878,  edited  by  J.  Wellhansen,  and  the  third  of 
the  latter  in  1875,  edited  by  "\V.  Mangold.  In 
each  case  the  editors  have  taken  unwarrantable 
liberties  with  tlie  text,  luakiiig  Bleek  the  advocate 
of  the  editors'  ".advanced"  views.]  His  stand- 
]ioint  as  a  biblical  critic  is,  at  least  with  respect 
to  the  New  Testament,  very  conservative;  but  his 
method  is  severe,  and  liis  impartiality  impregna- 
ble. AV'itli  an  immense  erudition  he  connected 
great  talent  for  arrangement,  and  jierfect  clearness 
of  expression.  His  Lectures  upon  the  Apocalypse 
(1802,  Eng.  trans.,  1874),  the  Colo.ssians,  Ephe- 
sian.s,  and  Philemon  (1805),  and  Hebrews  (1808), 
jiulilished  in  Berlin,  carefully  edited,  and  his  Sgn- 
oplisctie  Krkldrung  d<r drei erstin  Krangclii n, edited 
by  Holtzmann  in  Leipzig,  1862,  2  vols,  are  as  yet 
untranslated.  '         ad.  Iv.xmi'II.MISKN. 

BLEMMYDES,  <>r  BLEMMIDA,  a  Greek  monk 
from  a  ;\Iacrdoiiian  iiioiiasiery,  who,  with  great 
learning  and  alnlity,  defended  the  Komaii  doc- 
trine on  the  ]irocessioii  of  the  Holy  Spiriti  from 
the  Fatlu'r  and  the  Son  in  a  disputation  arranged 
at  Nica'a  by  the  l^inperor  Ducas  Vatazes  (1222- 
55.)  On  the  same  subject  lie  afterwards  conijiosed 
two  essays,  which  aie  found  in  Leo  Allalius' 
Gra;ciie  Orlhodoxa  Scriptorcs,  pp.  1-00.     Theodore  • 


BLOMPIELD. 


303 


BLOUNT. 


Lascaris  made   hiin  patriarch  of  Constantinople 

(m  jHirlihiis,  as  tlie  Latin  Knipire  was  established 
in  Constantinople,  and  the  Greek  emperor  resided 
at  \ica>a) ;  but  he  refused  tlie  honor,  and  re- 
inaine<l  in  his  monastery.  HERZOci. 

BLOMFIELD,  Charles  James,  1>.  at  Bury  St. 
Kilniuiids,  Suirolk,  Kwj;.,  May  '2'.),  178^;  d.  in 
Fulhani  I'alaco,  Aug.  .5,  1857 ;  was  educated  at 
Canibiid^e,  and  became  Bishop  of  Chester  in 
lS2i,  and  of  Loiiddu  in  1828,  from  which  oflice 
he  retired  in  185IJ,  al't^'r  a  vTyorous  and  effective 
administration.  He  was  an  excellent  Greek 
scholar;  wrote  a  Greek  graimnar  (1828);  edited 
jEschylus,  Callimachus,  etc.;  and  contributed  nu- 
mci-ons  critical  papers  on  classical  subjects  to  the 
periodicals.  His  theological  writings  comprise 
FU-e  Lectures  on  John's  Gospel  (1823),  Tivelce  Lec- 
Itires  on  the  Acts  (1828),  several  collections  of 
sermons,  and  a  Manuel  of  Private  and  FamUij 
Prai/ers.  See  Bihkr  :  Bishop  BlomfieUl  and  his 
Times,  1857  ;  and  tlie  excellent  .Alemoir  by  his 
son,  18G3. 

BLONDEL,  David,  b.  at  Chalons-sur-Marne, 
1591 ;  d.  at  Amsterdam,  April  0,  1G55  ;  was  early 
appointed  nnnister  of  the  Reformed  congregation 
of  Houdan,  near  Paris,  but  received  in  1645  a  pen- 
sion from  the  synod  of  Chai'enton,  which  enabled 
him  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to  literature, 
and  moved  in  10.30  to  Amsterdam  as  Vossius' 
successor  in  the  chair  of  history.  !Most  of  his 
writings,  of  which  a  complete  account  is  given  by 
Xiceron  (vol.  viii.  p.  48),  are  theologico-iiolemi- 
cal,  directed  against  Ivomanism,  and  are  distin- 
guished by  immense  learning,  great  acuteness, 
and  a  decided  talent  for  combination.  The  most 
remarkable  are :  Pseudo-Isidorus  et  Tarrian  us  Vapu- 
lanles,  Geneva,  1028;  De  la  primaute  de  I'Efjlise, 
Geneva,  1041  ;  Apolor/ia  pro  Sententia  Ilieronijmi 
de  Kpiscopis  et  Preshi/lcris,  Amsterdam,  1G40 ;  l-'a- 
milier Eclaircisement  (concerning  Papess  Johanna), 
.-i.ii.-,L^....ii.a,  loi/  ;  Dc  jure  pUlns  in  rerjiniine  eccle- 
siastico,  1048. 

BLOOD,  Revenger  of.  There  is  a  sense  in 
man  which  declares  that  whoever  intentionally 
takes  another's  life  deserves  to  forfeit  liis  own ; 
and  in  all  nations,  ancient  and  modern,  outside 
of  civilization,  the  next  of  kin  has  felt  called 
upon  to  avenge  the  death  upon  the  murderer. 
The  Mosaic  law  found  this  custom  and  adopted 
it,  but  restricted  it,  and  put  it  upon  religious 
grounds.  In  its  conception  such  a  nun'der  was 
not  a  crime  against  society,  but  against  God ;  and 
therefore  the  shed  blood  was  a  defilement,  and 
the  land  could  not  be  cleansed  of  the  blood  shed 
therein,  but  by  the  blood  of  him  that  shed  it 
(Num.  XXXV.  33).  The  failure  to  avenge  was 
criminal.  If  the  natural  goh-el  had-dahm,  the 
revenger  of  blood,  did  not,  some  one  else  must 
take  his  place.  God  himself  is  the  great  Avenger 
of  blood  (Ps.  ix.   12). 

But  the  law  (Exod.  xxi.  12-14;  Niun.  xxxv. 
9-34;  Dent.  xix.  1-13)  put  blood  revenge  under 
the  following  restrictions:  1.  The  blood  revenge 
was  only  allowed  for  intentional  killing.  For 
those  wlio  accidentally  caused  the  loss  of  life, 
there  was  appointed  six  Levitioal  cities,  three  on 
each  side  of  the  .Jordan,  called  cities  of  refuge. 
Thither  all  slayers  fled,  and  there  the  cases  were 
investigated.  If  tlie  man  was  a  murderer,  then 
the  elders  of  'his  own  city  demanded  his  death ; 


and  the  revenger  of  blood  killed  him,  even  though 
he  sought  the  protection  of  the  altar  (Exod.  xxi. 
14).  But,  if  the  elders  of  his  city  decided  the 
man  was  not  a  murderer,  th(Mi  he  remaini'd  in 
the  city  of  refuge  until  the  death  of  the  high 
priest  under  whom  the  deadly  stroke  was  given. 
But,  if  the  man  left  tlie  city  before,  he  was  liable 
to  be  killed  by  the  r/oh-cl.  The  rabbins  said  ''the 
deatli  of  the  high  priest  was  exi)iatory."  But 
howV  Because  liis  dealli  set  a  limit  to  the  im- 
pris(jnnient  and  risk  of  life  on  the  part  of  the 
dwc^ller  in  the  city,  and,  so  to  say,  .sealed  his 
repentance  as  suflicient.  The  true  connection 
between  the  deatli  of  the  higli  priest  and  the 
release  of  the  involuntary  man-slayers  lies  in  the 
fact,  that,  with  the  incoming  of  a  new  high 
priest,  a  new  period  began. 

2.  There  was  no  other  expiation  for  the  inten- 
tional killing  than  the  blood  of  the  nnu-derer. 
No  amount  of  money  could  buy  exemption.  The 
forgiveness  of  the  murdered  man  liefore  his  death 
availed  nought.  The  lex  laliunis  was  held  to  in 
the  strongest  fashion.  Flight  to  a  city  of  refuge 
was  vain. 

It  is  not  possible  to  determine  how  long  the 
blood-revenge  in  the  Mosaic  mode  was  observed. 
The  parable  of  the  wise  woman  of  Tekoah  alludes 
to  it  (2  Sam.  xiv.  7)  ;  but  ver.  8  seems  to  indi- 
cate that  the  king  (David)  had  influence  in 
restraining  the  operation  of  the  law.  .Jeho.slia- 
pliat  established  a  court  in  .Jerusalem  to  take 
cognizance  of  such  cases  (2  C'liron.  xix.  10)  ;  and, 
as  the  state  increased  in  civilization,  the  primitive 
I'evenge  would  gradually  give  place  to  orderly 
proceedings  in  courts  of  law,  and  executions  by 
the  .state."  (DELlTzscri)  ceiilkr. 

BLOODY-MARRIAGE.     See  Coligny. 

BLOODY-SWEAT.  Luke  say.s,  that,  during 
Christ's  agony  in  the  garden,  "his  .sweat  was  as 
it  were  great  drops  of  blood  falling  down  to  the 
ground"  (xxii.  44).  This  abnormal  physical 
state  is  not  unique.  Wliat  is  called  diopcdesis, 
sweating  of  blood,  is  ii  recognized,  well-authenti- 
cated phenomenon.  The  power  of  passion  to 
force  the  blood  to  the  skin  is  seen  in  the  blush  of 
shame  or  anger.  If  the  emotion  be  very  great,  a, 
copious  per.spiration  follows,  and,  in  extreme 
cases,  with  the  water  there  is  blood.  A  well- 
attested  case  is  that  of  Charles  IX.  of  France. 
De  Mezeray  says,  "  During  the  last  two  weeks  of 
his  life  (iMay,  1574)  his  constitution  made  strange 
efforts.  lie  tossed  and  agitated  himself  continu- 
ally, and  his  blood  gushed  from  all  the  outlets  of 
his  body,  even  from  the  pores  of  his  skin  ;  so 
that  on  one  occasion  he  was  found  bathed  in  a 
bloody  sweat."  See,  for  abundant  proof.  The 
Phi/siral  Cause  of  the  Death  of  Christ,  by  ■\\'illiaiu 
Stroud,  M.D.,  London,  1847, 'pp.  85-88,  Note  III. 
pp.  370-389. 

BLOUNT,  Charles,  b.  at  Upper  IloUoway, 
Middlesex,  Eng.,  April  27,  ltJ.54;  committed  .sui- 
cide, August,  1G93;  produced  in  1079  a  scandal- 
ous sensation  by  his  Anima  Mnndi,  whose  vulgar 
scepticism  gave  general  offence.  In  1680  hi.s 
translation  of  Pliilostrat's  Life  of  Apollonius  of' 
Ti/ana,  \\\ih  its  indirect  attacIvS  on  Christianity, 
was  suiiiiressed.  The  most  characteristic  repre- 
.sentation  of  his  deistical  stand-point  is  found  in 
his  Oracles  of  Reason,  which,  however,  was  not 
publishcil  until  after  his  death.     A  collected  edi- 


BLUMHARDT. 


304 


BODY. 


tiou  of  his  works,  together  with  a  life  of  him, 
was  published  by  Gildon,  Loudon,  1695.  See 
Dkism. 

BLUMHARDT,  Christian  Gottlieb,  b.  in  Stutt- 
gart. April  -20.  171'J:  d.  in  Basel.  Dec.  19,  1838; 
studied  theology  at  Tubingen,  and  was  in  1801 
appointed  secretary  of  the  German  IMissionary 
Society  in  Basel,  and  in  1809  minister  at  Biirg, 
but  returned  in  1816  to  Basel  as  director  of  the 
missionary  school ;  in  which  position  he  remained 
till  Iris  death.  Since  1816  he  edited  the  Missionf- 
wagazin,  and  since  1828  also  the  Heidenhute. 
From  1828  to  1837  he  published  five  volumes  of 
his  Versudi  einer  allgemeinen  Missionsgeschichle  tie?- 
Kirche  Clirisli,  reaching  down  to  the  time  of  the 
lieforniation. 

BLUNT,  John  James  b.  at  Newcastle-under- 
Lyme,  Staffordshire.  1791;  d.  at  Cambridge,  June 
17,  1855  ;  was  educated  at  Cambridge  ;  travelled 
in  Italy  and  Sicily ;  became  curate  of  Hodnet, 
Shropshire,  1821,  rector  of  Great  Oaldey,  Essex, 
in  1834,  and  professor  of  divinity  at  Cambridge 
in  1839.  His  Sketch  uf  Ihe  Reformation  in  Eng- 
land, and  Undersigned  Coincidences  in  the  Writ- 
ings of  the  Old  and  Neic  Testaynents,  have  run 
through  many  editions :  the  latter  work,  in  the 
vein  of  Paley's  HortB  Paulince,  is  of  nuicli  value, 
and  has  been  extensively  used.  This  indirect 
sort  of  proof  has  to  thoughtful  minds  oftentimes 
more  convincing  force  than  the  direct.  He  also 
published  sermons,  Lectures  on  the  Early  Fathers, 
etc.,  and  cdutriluited  largely  to  periodicals. 

BOARDMAN,  Henry  Augustus,  D.D.,  a  promi- 
nent Presbyterian  minister  and  author,  b.  at 
Troy,  Jan.  9,  1808 ;  d.  at  Philadelphia,  June  15, 
1880.  He  was  gi-aduated  with  highest  honors  at 
Yale  College  in  1829 ;  entered  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary  in  1830 ;  graduated  in  1833 ; 
installed,  Nov.  8,  1833,  pastor  of  the  Tenth  Pres- 
b\i;eriau  Church  of  Philadelphia,  and  retained  the 
position  till  his  death,  though  in  later  years  he 
had  a  colleague.  He  was  moderator  of  the  O.S. 
(Jeneral  Assembly  in  1854.  His  publications 
were  numerous :  the  chief  are.  The  Scri/jltval 
Doctrine  of  Original  Sin  (1839),  The  Bible  in  the 
Counting-ilouse  (1853),  and  The  Higher-Life  Doc- 
trine of  Sanctification  tried  hg  the  Wurd  of  God,  all 
published  in  I'hiladelphia. 

BOCHART,  Samuel,  b.  at  Bouen,  1599:  d.  at 
Caen.  .May  Hi,  l(i(i7 ;  studied  at  Sedan  and  Sau- 
inur,  also  at  Oxford  and  Leyden,  and  was  ajipoint- 
€d  minister  at  Caen,  where  his  conferences  with 
the  Jesuit  Verou,  in  l(i28,  attracted  much  atten- 
tion. In  1046  he  published  his  Geogruphia  Sacra, 
wliich  procured  for  him  an  invitation  from  Queen 
Christina  to  come  to  Sweden,  where,  however,  he 
did  not  stay  long.  In  1G63  he  |iul)lished  his 
other  gre.1t  work,  Ilierozoicon  sioe  de  Animalihus 
S.  ScripturcK,  2  vols,  fob, — -a  biblical  luitural  his- 
tory which  has  still  its  worth,  and  wliich  was 
repiiblislied,  with  notes  by  Kosenmiiller,  Leipzig, 
1793.  His  collected  works  have  been  several 
times  publishe<l  (1675.  1692,  1712.  etc.)  at  Leydim. 

BOCKHOLD,  Johann,  the  Prophet  and  King 
of  liii-  .\ualiaplist  Kingdom  at  Munster  (called 
also  Bockelsohn,  or  Ueuclcelszoun,  and  John  of  Leg- 
den),  b.  at  MUnster  about  1509;  (mt  to  death 
there  Jan.  23  (?),  1536.  He  was  the  illegitimate 
BOM  of  a  magistrate  in  tlie  iieigliborliood  liy  a 
servant.     The  onlv  facts  kiujwu   of  his  early  life 


are  that  he  was  educated  at  Leyden  by  relatives, 
learned  the  tailor's  trade,  travelled  to  England, 
and  then  to  Portugal,  and  at  last  returned  to 
Leyden,  married,  practised  his  trade,  but  at  the 
same  time  kept  an  inn  in  the  suburbs.  From 
this  time  on  his  course  is  known.  He  was  a 
favorite  as  an  innkeeper  by  reason  of  his  lively 
conversation ;  was  a  member  of  the  Singer's 
Guild,  a  poet  and  an  actor.  Little  by  little  he 
was  drawn  into  the  current  setting  against  the 
Church.  He  imbibed  heretical  opinions,  but  was 
not  confirmed  in  his  views  until  his  visit  to  Jliin- 
ster  for  the  express  piu-pose  of  hearing  the 
"brave  preachers."  In  autumn  of  the  same 
year  (1533)  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Johan- 
nes ]\latthiesen,  the  Anabaptist,  and  as  the  re- 
sult he  came  to  Miinster  in  January,  1534,  as  an 
"  ajjostle  "  in  the  sect ;  but  when,  on  his  request, 
Matthiesen  came  thither,  he  retired  to  a  subordi- 
nate position.  At  Easter  (1534),  ^latthieseii 
was  killed.  Bockliold  then  again  came  to  the 
front,  and,  on  the  strength  of  a  pretended  revela- 
tion, took  not  only  Matthiesen's  position,  but  his 
wife.  He  soon  showed  his  extraordinary  power 
He  revolutionized  the  city,  set  uy)  the  '•  kingdom 
of  Zion,"  of  which  he  was  king,  ["appointed 
ministers,  coined  money,  introduced  polygamy, 
married  fifteen  wives,  lived  in  royal  sjilendor  and 
luxury ;  and  for  more  than  a  year  the  city  was  the 
stage  for  the  most  frightful  scenes  of  fanatical 
cruelty  and  sensual  dissipation.  In  1535  it  was 
conquered  by  the  neighboring  princes,  and  again 
reduced  to  order.  John  was  tortured  to  death 
by  hot  pincers;  and  his  body  was  hung  in  a  cage 
on  the  tower  of  St.  Lambert's  Church  "].  With- 
out education,  intellectual  or  moral,  Bockhold 
owed  his  influence  to  his  dignified,  pleasing  per- 
son, and  to  the  reckless  daring  which  made  him 
attempt  any  enterprise,  however  great.  It  is  how- 
ever true  that  he  was  unfitted  to  keep  the  control 
he  seized.  His  character  is  a  study :  in  it  fan.iti- 
cism  and  lust,  conviction  and  hypocrisy,  were 
ndxed.  In  the  hour  of  trial  he  showed  no  hero- 
ism, only  the  rage  of  a  disappointed  spirit.  [He 
is  the  historical  subject  of  Meyerbeer's  opera.  Le 
Prophete.]  See  An.\bai"TISTS.  Hask  :  Reich  tier 
Wiiderlau/er,  Leipzig.  1860.       O.   WEIZSACKKR. 

BODENSTEIN.     See  CAULSTAnT. 

BODY,  Natural,  Spiritual,  and  Mystical.  The 
(iriM'k  wui'd  oij/<a  (body)  is  used  in  these  three 
relations.  The  ditt'erence  between  the  first  two 
is  well  brought  out  by  Bev.  Dr.  Kling:  "'J'he 
expression  '  natural  [or  rather,  jisgchicaf}  body ' 
(oCi/ia  ilwxiKov)  denotes,  in  general,  an  organiza- 
tion that  corres]ionds  to  the  soul  (i/'TO)  i  <i"'l  the 
•spiritual  body'  (aufia  m-tvunnum),  one  that  cor- 
responds to  the  spirit  (nrtfyio).  The  soul  is  that 
by  means  of  which  oiu' spiritual  part  is  linked  to 
a'pliysical  life,  —  a  life  of  impul.se  and  .sen.sation, 
dejiendent  for  its  nourishment  upon  a  world  of 
sense.  The  corpioreity  coi'res]ionding  to  this,  and 
determined  by  it,  is,  jirecisely  on  tliis  account, 
made  dependent  ujion  this  outward  world,  and  is 
alTected  by  it,  and  by  reason  of  it,  it  is  exposed  to 
all  that  is  expressed  by  the  words  'corruption,' 
'dishonor.'  and  '  weakness,'  of  wliich  <leath  is  the 
catastio|)he.  The  nature  of  the  spirit  is,  on  the 
contrary,  a  free,  supermundane  life  of  light  and 
love  in  God ;  and  the  spiritual  body  is  an  organi- 
zation suited  to  itts  character,  being  lifted  abova 


BOEHME. 


305 


BOETHIUS. 


all  dependence  on  the  outward  world,  and  tin- 
consequences  following-  from  it,  and  display.s 
itself  in  incorrnjition,  glory,  and  power"  (Lauge's 
('i)iiiin.  1  Cor.  XV.  11,  Amer.  ed.  p.  3-'58). 

'J'lie  Mijslical,  lioilij  is  a  phrase  indicative  of  the 
Christian  Churcli ;  for  the  union  which  subsists 
liftweeu  Christ  and  his  Church  is  as  intinuite  as 
tliat  between  the  members  of  our  bodies,  and  at 
the  same  time  is  mystical,  —  to  be  believed  rather 
than  understood.  We  owe  to  Paul  the  origin  of 
this  significant  designatiou.  Cf .  1  Cor.  xii.  27 ; 
Eph.  i.  23,  ii.  16,  iv.  4,  12,  16,  v.  23,  30;  Col.  i. 
18,  2-1,  ii.  19,  iii.  15.  He  draws  certain  practical 
conclusions  from  the  existence  of  this  relatiou- 
.ship,  as  that  ditferent  members  have  different 
functions,  and  that  there  should  be  no  schism  in 
the  body.  The  imjiortant  questions,  however, 
relate  to  the  way  in  which  admittance  is  obtained, 
and  the  means  of  growth  with  the  body.  It  is 
evident  tliat  the  terms  of  admittance  into  tlie 
external  Church  are  easy ;  but  to  be  really  joined 
to  him  is  a  different  matter.  For  this,  living 
laith  is  requisite,  and  then  from  the  Lord  liinrself 
will  come  the  means  of  growth. 

BOEHME  (often  written  in  English  Behmeri), 
Jacob,  b.  at  Alt-Seidenberg,  in  Upper-Lusatia, 
1575 ;  d.  at  Gorlitz,  in  Silesia,  Nov.  17,  1624 ; 
descended  from  a  well-to-do  peasant  family  ;  was 
apprenticed  when  fourteen  years  old  to  a  shoe- 
maker, and  settled,  after  the  usual  wanderings, 
in  1599,  as  master  of  his  profession,  in  Gorlitz, 
where  he  married,  and  bought  a  house.  Mean- 
while the  religious  and  philosophical  instincts  of 
his  nature  developed  rapidly,  without  any  influ- 
ence from  without;  and  in  time  this  develop- 
ment ripened  into  a  mystico-theosophical  view  of 
God  and  the  world,  which  called  for  utterance. 
I  He  began  to  put  down  his  ideas  in  a  desultory 
'  and  unsystematic  way ;  and  the  unfinished  manu- 
script. Die  Morgenriithe  im  Aufgang,  began  to  cir- 
culate among  his  friends.  It  happened  to  fall 
under  the  notice  of  the  official  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority of  the  place,  Gregorins  Richter,  and 
greatly  scandalized  him.  He  was  a  full-blooded 
representative  of  the  Orth.odoxy  of  that  time, 
with  its  hair-spliting  barren  subtleties,  fit  only  for 
strife  and  condemnation,  and  utterly  incapable 
of  fostering  a  genuine  religious  life.  A  layman 
writing  on  religion  was  to  ^lim  an  impertinence 
■which  deserved  rebuke ;  and  when  he  wrote,  as 
Boehme  did,  with  the  enthusiasm  and  authority  of 
inspiration,  it  was  a  crime  which  deserved  pun- 
ishment. He  put  both  the  magistrates  and  the 
mob  of  the  city  against  Boehme,  and  compelled 
him  to  stop  writing,  1612.  For  five  years  Boehme 
kept  his  word,  and  wrote  nothing ;  but  then  he 
began  again,  and  in  his  remaining  years  he  wrote 
about  thirty  works,  smaller  and  greater.  In  1623 
two  of  these,  Vom  iiliersinnticken  Leben,  and  Von 
wahrer  Busse,  were  published  by  one  of  his  friends, 
and  immediately  the  persecutions  were  renewed, 
Gregorius  Richter  at  the  head.  The  magistrates 
advised  Boehme  to  leave  the  city.  He  went 
first  to  Dresden,  but  foimd  no  rest  there,  then  to 
Silesia,  but  was  there  overtaken  by  a  severe  ill- 
ness, and  hastened  home  only  to  die.  His  works 
were  then  collected  and  published  by  his  friends ; 
most  of  them  by  Heinrich  Betke,  or  Beets,  a 
wealthy  merchant  of  Amsterdam.  By  Abraham 
van  Beyerland  they  were  translated  into  Low 
21  —  1 


German.  In  England  they  attracted  much  at- 
tention. A  complete  English  translation  was 
maile  by  John  Ellistonc,  John  Sparrow,  Ilum- 
l)hrey  Hlundcu,  Charles  and  Durand  Ilotham, 
iuid  "E<lward  Taylor,  London,  1(144-03.  The 
first  complete  edition  of  the  original  was  by  J.  G. 
(iichtel  in  1682,  the  last  l)y  Schicdilcr,  Leipzig, 
1831-47,  7  vols.  Indeed,  ISoehmc's  fame  may  be 
said  to  have  grown  wdth  every  new  generation ; 
and  thnmgh  Franz  von  Baader,  Oettinger,  Clau- 
dius, Schelling,  etc.,  he  has  exercised  considerable 
influence  on  the  theology  of  our  own  time. 

Lit. — CiiAKLKS  Hotiiam  :  Ad  Philosopkiam 
Teulonicain.  London,  1648;  Dukanm)  Hotiiam: 
Mi/xla-ium  Magnum,  etc.,  ]>ondon,  1654;  Eijward 
Taylou:  Jacob  Boe/ime's  Theosophic  Pkiloxophy. 
London,  1691  ;  J.  Pordage  :  Ahtaphyska  vera  et 
dit'ina,  London,  1698 ;  J.  HAMnKitGEi't :  Die  Lehre 
des  deutschen  Philosop/ien  J.  Boehme,  Munich,  1844; 
[H.  Martknsen  :  Jacob  Biikme,  Cojienhagen,  1882 ; 
Eng.  t^rans.,  London,  1885.]        J.  llAMliEHGER. 

BOETHIUS,  Anicius  Manlius  Severinus,  b.  in 
Rome,  480 ;  beheaded  at  Pavia,  525 ;  descended 
from  a  wealthy  and  influential  Roman  family ; 
studied  in  Athens,  and  occupied  for  several  years 
a  very  prominent  position  in  the  Roman  world, 
equally  revered  by  the  people,  and  esteemed  by 
the  Ostrogothic  king,  Theodoric,  the  ruler  of 
Italy.  The  decree  of  the  Emperor  Justin  against 
the  Arians  was  the  first  event  which  made  Boe- 
thius  suspected ;  but  .Theodoric  now  banished 
liim  to  Pavia,  where  he  afterwards  had  him  con- 
fined in  a  dungeon,  and  finally  beheaded.  By 
his  translations  of  Aristotle's  Anabjtica,  Topica, 
Soph.  Elench.,  and  of  the  hagoye  of  Porphyi-y, 
by  his  elaborate  connnentaries  on  these  works, 
and  by  his  own  independent  writings,  Inlrnduc- 
tio  ad  Categoricas  Si/llogisnws,  De  Sijllogisnio  Cate- 
gorico,  De  Syllogismo  Hijpoihetico,  iJe  Divisione,  De 
Dejinitioiie,  etc.,  Boethius  became  the  connect- 
ing link  between  the  logical  and  metaphysical 
science  of  anticjuity  and  the  scientific  attempts 
of  the  middle  ages ;  and  a  still  greater  influence 
he  came  to  exercise  on  mediaeval  thought  by  his 
De  Consolatione  Philosophice  and  the  various  theo- 
logical writings  which  were  ascribed  to  him.  The 
Consolalio  Philosophice  was  written  during  the  im- 
prisonment of  the  author  at  Pavia;  but  though 
it  is  certain  that  Boethius  was  a  Cliristian,  at 
least  nominally,  it  never  touches  Christian  ground  : 
all  the  comfort  it  contains  it  owes  to  the  optim- 
ism of  the  neo-platonic  school  and  to  tlie  stoicism 
of  Seneca.  Nevertheless,  during  the  middle  ages 
this  book  was  read  with  the  greatest  reverence  by 
all  Christendom.  King  Alfred  translated  it  into 
Anglo-Saxon,  which  tran.slation  was  edited  by 
Rawlinson,  Oxford,  1698;  and  Thomas  Aquinas 
wrote  a  commentary  on  it.  Having  thus  advanced 
from  the  position  of  a  mere  logician  to  that  of  a 
moralist,  he  finally  reached  that  of  a  theologian. 
It  is  not  probable  that  he  has  written  any  of  the 
theological  works  ascribed  to  him  ;  but  the  tradi- 
tion is  very  old.  He  is  mentioned  by  Alcuin  as 
author  of  De  Sancta  Trinitate ;  by  ilincmar  of 
Rheims,  as  author  of  Ulriim  Paler  et  FiUus  el 
Splritus  Sanctus  de  Divini/afe  instant ialiter  prcedi- 
cenlur,  etc.  Collected  editions  of  the  works  of 
Boethius  appeared  at  Venice,  1492;  Basle,  1546 
and  1.570  ;  and  in  Migne  :  Patrol.,  tom.  63  and  64. 
The  theological  works  were  published  at  Louvain, 


BOGATZKY. 


306 


BOHEMIA. 


1633.  The  Coitfohitio  Philosophic  was  translated 
into  English  by  Preston,  lOPo. 

Lit. — F.  Nitzscii:  Das  System  iles  Boclhins,  Ber- 
lin, 1S60:  Ch.  JouRDAl>f :  De  I'orir/ine  des  Iraililions 
stir  le  Christianisme  de  Boece,  Paris,  1861 ;  Paul  :  B. 
u.d.qreich.  Harmonil;  Leipzig,  1872;  Hildebraxd: 
B.  Stellunr)  zum  Chrisfenlume,  Regensburg,  1885. 

BOGATZKY,  Karl  Heinrich  von,  b.'at  Jan- 
kowe,  in  Lowfr  SiK'sia,  Sept.  7,  1000 ;  d.  at 
Halle,  June  1.3,  1774;  was  educated  as  page  at 
the  ducal  court  of  Weissenfels,  but  left  it  dis- 
satisfied, and  began  in  his  twentieth  year  to 
study,  first  law  at  Jena,  then,  since  1715,  the- 
ology at  Halle.  Among  the  pietists  he  found 
what  lie  sought ;  and,  after  finishing  his  theologi- 
cal studies,  he  lived  for  several  j-ears  among  the 
nobility  of  Silesia,  afterward,  from  1710  to 
1716,  at  the  ducal  court  of  Saalfeld,  and  finally 
at  Halle,  engaged  in  literary  work  of  a  devotional 
character.  His  Golden  Treasury  of  tlie  Children  of 
God,  translated  into  Englisli,  York,  1821.  was  first 
published  at  Breslau,  1718 :  the  fifty-fifth  edition 
was  published  in  1878.  Also  his  Tdgliches  Haus- 
huch  der  Kinder  Goltes,  2  vols.,  1748,  ran  through 
many  editions.  Of  his  four  hundred  and  eleven 
hynms,  several  obtained  a  place  in  the  common 
hymn-books  of  the,  (ierman  people:  they  ap- 
peared collected  in  Ulmiig  der  Gollselif/i-eil,  Halle, 
1749.  His  autobiography  was  edited  by  G.  C. 
Knapp,  Halle,  1801,  and  is  very  interesting  for 
the  study  of  the  piietism  of  his  days.  See  also 
Ledderhose  :  Das  Leben  K.  H.  von  Boejalzky, 
Ilpidelberg,  1846. 

BOGERMANN,  Jan,  b.  at  Oplewert,  Friesland, 
1570  ;  d.  Sept.  11,  1037.  at  Franeker,  where  he  was 
made  professor  of  divinity  (1633) ;  took  a  very 
active  part  in  the  Arminian  controversy;  wrote 
Annotationes  cimira  H.  Grotium,  and  presided  at 
the  synod  of  Hort  (1618).  The  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament  still  in  use  in  the  Dutch 
churches,  is,  for  the  greatest  part,  his  work.  He 
translated  Beza's  tract  on  the  punishment  of 
Heretics,  Van  hel  Keller  Stralfen.  1601. 

BOGOMILES,  a  branch  of  the  Calliari  which 
devi'li)pi'd  in  Thrace.  Their  name  was  formerly 
derived  from  JJof/  MUui,  "  God  have  mercy,"  or 
Bogmnil,  "Beloved  by  God;"  but  Schaffarik,  the 
great  authority  on  Slavic  anticpiities,  has  found 
in  some  old  Slavic  record  a  Bulgarian  bishop  of 
the  name  Bogomil,  who,  in  the  middle  of  the 
t<?nth  century,  was  the  representative  of  the  pecu- 
liar heresies  of  the  sect,  and  this  .seems  to  give 
a  l)etter  clew  to  the  name.  The  mythology  which 
the  sect  developed  was  very  fantastic,  —  a  mixture 
of  Manicheism,  Docetism,  and  wild  fancy.  But 
their  views  of  morality  and  polity  were  exactly 
those  of  the  other  Cathari.  Tlu^y'were  decidedly 
anti-clei-ical.  The  Church,  with  its  liierarchy,  its 
worship  of  relics,  images,  and  saints,  etc.,  they 
considered  tlie  work  of  Satan.  In  tlie  twelfth 
century  they  were  veiy  numerous  in  I'hilijipopel 
and  Constantinople.  One  of  their  leaders,  Basil, 
was  burnt  in  tlie  latter  city  in  1118.  'i'hey  were 
repeatedly  condenuicd,  and  at  times  severely  per- 
secuted; but  they,  nevertheless,  lived  on  through 
the  whole  ]ieriod  of  the  middle  ages.  Tlieir  sys- 
tem of  doctrines  is  completely  expounded  in 
EUTIIYMIUS  ZiOAHAXfS:  I'ano/ilia.  edited  by 
Gia.seler,  Gottingeii,  1852.  See  Kazki:  Buyomili 
i  Calareni,  Agrani,  1869. 


BOHEMIA.  Christianity  was  introduced  in 
Bohemia  from  ^loravia  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
niuth  century.  A  generation  previously  (845) 
some  Czech  noblemen  were  baptized  at  the  court 
of  Lewis  the  German,  and  Bohemia  was  put  down 
as  a  Chriiitian  country  belonging  to  the  dioce.se  of 
Katisbon;  but  it  was  not  until  the  baptism  of  the 
Bohemian  duke,  Borziway,  and  his  wife  Ludinilla. 
at  the  court  of  Swatophik  of  iSIoravia,  and  th^" 
arrival  of  Methodius  in  Bohemia,  that  Chris- 
tianity became  firmly  established  in  the  country. 
A  strong  re-action  took  place  nnder  Borziuay's 
son,  Wratislaw,  whose  heathen  .spouse,  Uralioniira, 
had  Ludmilla  and  other  Christian  members  of  the 
reigning  family  murdered.  But  when,  under 
Boleslas  XL,  the  German  inflnence  became  prevail- 
ing in  the  country,  Christianity  was  again  in  the 
ascendency,  and  a  bishopric  was  founded  in  Prague 
(973).  A  century  later  on,  all  traces  of  Paganism 
disappeared.  In  1092  the  last  sacred  forests  were 
felled,  and  the  last  heathen  priests  exiled. 

Methodius,  who  was  born  and  bred  in  the 
Greek  Church,  placed  the  Bohemian  Church  on 
an  exclusively  national  ba.sis.  The  native  lan- 
guage was  used  in  divine  service;  the  Bible  was 
read  in  the  Slavic  translation  ;  the  Lord's  .Supper 
was  administered  in  both  kinds ;  the  Koinan 
demand  of  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy  was  disre- 
garded, etc.  This  original  independence  of  Koine 
determined  tlie  whole  character  of  the  history  of 
the  Bohemian  Church,  which,  indeed,  is  one  con- 
tinuous contest  between  a  spontaneous  develop- 
ment, national  and  independent,  on  the  one  side, 
and  plots  for  centralization  and  absorption  on 
the  other.  In  Adalbert  the  Ronian  designs  were 
completely  foiled:  in  other  cases  they  succeeded. 
The  tragical  fate  which  pursued  .Vdalbert  through- 
out life  was  his  connection  with  Rome.  IVii<ler 
Gregory  VII.,  however  (1073-85),  the  Roman  lit- 
urgy and  the  Roman  language  became  prevalent 
in  the  Bohemian  Church. 

During  the  fourteenth  century  the  contest  grew 
hotter  and  liotter,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the 
fifteenth  the  battle  began.  In  134(i  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Prague  was  founded,  and  the  metro- 
politan connection  between  Bohemia  and  the  see 
of  Mayenco  was  dissolved ;  but  thereby  the 
(iernian  influence,  which  in  this  ca.se  was  identical 
with  the  Roman  influence,  lost  its  firm  liold  on 
the  country.  In  1348  the  I'niversity  of  Prague 
was  f<nmded,  and  in  very  short  time  it  became 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  centres  of  learning  in 
Europe.  But  its  most  celebrated  teachers,  Con- 
rad of  AValdhaiisen,  John  Milic,  Matthi;is  of 
Janow,  were  fh(^  teachers  of  Hus.  As  the  uni- 
versity consisted  of  four  nations,  —  the  Bohemian, 
Polish,  Bavarian,  and  Saxon,  —  and  each  nation 
had  a  vote,  the  foreigners  exercLsed  a  considerable 
influence  on  the  direction  of  its  affairs.  But  in 
140S  the  original  statutes  were  altered,  and  the 
Bohemian  nation  obtained  three  votes.  Irritated 
by  this  .slight,  tlie  Bavarijin  and  Saxon  nations 
left,  and  founded  the  University  of  Leipzig;  but 
thereby  the  national  movement  in  Bohemia  be- 
came only  stronger.  In  1412  the  first  ]xiilisans 
of  Hus  were  burnt  in  Prague.  In  1115  Hus 
himself  was  burnt  at  Constauee.  In  1120  the 
(•rusades  against  the  Hussites  began.  I'>ut  under 
Zi.ska  and  Procopius  the  Ilu.ssites  beat  the  Ger- 
mans time  after  time,  and  the  Romanists  came  to 


BOHEMIA. 


307 


BOHEMIA. 


mulerstaiKl  that  by  force  nothing  oould  lie  done, 
intrigue  was  tlien  adopted,  and  it  succeeded 
better.  Tlie  Hussites  theniseh-es  were  divided 
into  two  jiarties,  — •  tlie  radicals  and  the  moderates, 
the  Taborites  and  the  Calixtines.  ]iy  nranting 
(lie  use  of  tlie  cup  in  tlie  Lord's  Supper,  tlie  I'ead- 
ing  of  the  Bil)le  in  the  Slavic  translation,  etc., 
the  Council  of  Basel  succeeded  (MUT)  in  elfect- 
ing  a  reconciliation  with  the  Calixtines,  and  thus 
the  split  lietween  the  Roman  and  the  Bohemian 
Chui'ch  was  healed  externally. 

Internally,  however,  below  the  surface,  the 
movement  which  had  produced  IIus  continued 
its  course.  The  Taborites  disappeared;  the  Calix- 
tines lost  their  individual  stamp;  but  from  the 
national  depths  arose  the  Bohemian  Brethren, — 
a  sect  which  I^uther  always  treated  with  regard, 
and  spoke  of  with  respect,  though  at  one  time  he 
called  them  a  new  order  of  monks  only.  At  the 
time  of  the  Reformation  this  sect  formed  the 
most  prominent  feature  in  the  religious  life  of 
Bohemia ;  and  through  the  Bohemian  Brethren  a 
lively  interconnnunication  even  sprang  up  be- 
tween the  Czechs  and  the  Protestant  leaders, 
both  Luther  and  Calvin.  But  in  L526,  by  the 
extinction  of  the  house  of  the  Jagellons,  Bohemia 
fell  to  the  house  of  Austria,  and  the  effects  of 
this  change  were  not  slow  in  making  themselves 
felt.  Lnmediately  after  the  battle  of  INIiihlberg 
(April  2-1,  1547)  Ferdinand  I.  sent  the  Jesuits  into 
Bohemia  to  re-romanize  the  country.  All  evan- 
gelical parties  —  Lutherans,  Calvinists,  and  Bohe- 
mian Brethren  —  were  persecuted ;  and  numbers 
of  families  were  driven  out  of  the  country. 
Under  Maximilian  II.  (1564-76)  circumstances 
bettered :  he  was  tolerant.  But  under  Rudolph 
II.  (1570-1612)  the  Jesuits  again  began  the  game. 
This  time  they  lost,  however.  The  Bohemian 
Brethren  compelled  Rudolph  II.  to  sign  a  com- 
pact (July  9,  1609)  by  which  their  .social  position 
l)eeame  legalized,  and  complete  liberty  of  worship 
Avas  granted  to  them.  Under  Matthias  (1612- 
19)  this  compact  was  broken  by  the  government, 
not  openly  and  by  force,  but,  as  it  behooved  a 
tool  of  the  Jesuits,  on  the  sly,  and  by  chicanery. 
The  Brethren  complained ;  the  government  pre- 
varicated :  in  the  course  of  the  debate  the  Breth- 
ren threw  the  representatives  of  the  government, 
Martinitz  and  Slawata,  out  of  the  window  in 
Hradschin,  May  2.3,  1618,  and  on  the  next  day 
the  Thirty- Years'  War  began. 

The  battle  of  the  White  Mountain  (Nov.  8, 
1620)  made  Ferdinand  II.  master  of  the  country; 
and  with  a  high  hand  he  now  carried  through 
what  his  ancestor,  Ferdinand  I.,  had  only  at- 
tempted,— .the  re-romanization  of  Bohemia.  By 
a  series  of  decrees,  beginning  from  June  20,  1021, 
were  expelled,  first  the  Calvinist  ministers,  then 
the  preachers  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren,  and 
finally  the  Lutheran  ministers,  Czech  and  Ger- 
man ;  and,  the  evangelical  party  having  thus 
Ijeen  deprived  of  their  teachers  and  leaders,  the 
conversion  commenced.  Of  the  Protestant  no- 
l)ility,  tliose  who  had  taken  active  part  in  the 
rebellion  lost  their  estates,  and  were  banished 
from  the  country,  while  the  rest  were  forbidden 
to  marry.  Tliis  last  measiu'e,  however,  not  being 
considered  sutiiciently  effective,  a  decree  of  Jidy 
•Jl,  1627,  gave  them  the  choice  between  abjuration 
or  exile.     They  were  allowed  to  sell  theii*  estates, 


but  only  to  Roman  Catholics.  Moi-e  than  two 
hundred  noble  families  left  the  country,  destitute 
of  every  thing.  As  for  tlii^  Protestant  part  of 
the  city  ]iopulation,  they  were  forbidden. to  engage 
in  anykind  of  trade;  tliey  were  fined  when  they 
abstaineil  from  any  of  the  rites  of  the  Koniau 
Church ;  their  nuirriages  wen;  considered  and 
treated  liy  the  law  as  concubinagi' ;  (heir  children 
were  taken  from  them,  and  (■ducaled  by  the 
Roman  priests;  their  poor  and  sick  were  expelled 
from  the  hospitals  and  asylums.  Thirty  thousand 
burgher  families  left  the  country.  With  respect 
to  the  peasantry,  the  case  was  rather  delicate. 
\Vhat  good  would  the  country  be  to  the  Emperor 
or  the  Pope,  if  there  were  no  peasants  to  till  the 
soilV  They  could  not  be  banished.  But  in  this 
emergency  Lichtenstein's  dragoons  proved  of  good 
use.  The  peasants  were  driven  together  in  large 
crowds,  and  kept  starving  till  they  submitted. 
Sometimes  mothers  were  tied  to  the  door-post, 
and  compelled  to  see  their  babies  starving  before 
their  eyes.  Sometimes  all  the  inmates  of  a 
household  were  shut  up  in  one  room,  and  the 
cattle  left  starving,  until  the  frantic  howling  of 
the  animals  drove  the  men  crazy.  Thus  Protes- 
tant Bohemia  was  converted  to  the  Roman 
Church.  The  treaty  of  Westphalia  (1048)  does, 
not  even  mention  the  Protestants  in  Bohemia,  for 
officially  there  were  none.  They  had  almost  all 
gone  (more  than  one-third  of  tlie  whole  popula- 
tion), and  in  their  stead  had  come  1,13(1  .Jesuits, 
who  enjoyed  a  yearly  revenue  of  thirty  millions. 

Protestantism  was,  nevertheless,  not  completely 
eradicated  in  Bohemia,  as  may  be  seen  fi'om  the 
very  severe  measures  of  repression  which  from 
time  to  time  were  employed.  As  late  as  1760, 
some  men  were  condemned  to  death  for  having 
peddled  Protestant  tracts  and  pamphlets  among 
the  peasants;  and,  when  Joseph  II.  issued  his 
edict  of  toleration  (Oct.  13,  1781),  Protestani 
congregations  were  immediately  foi'med  in  vari- 
ous places  of  the  country.  Generally  sjieaking, 
however,  Bohemia  is  stUl  a  Roman-Catholic  coun- 
try. While  in  the  seventeenth  century  four-fifths 
of  its  population  were  evangelical,  and  one-fifth 
Roman-Catholic,  only  two  per  cent  of  its  present 
population  are  evangelical :  the  rest  is  Koman- 
Catholic.  The  Roman  Church  comprises  the 
archbishopric  of  Prague  and  the  bishoprics  of 
Leitnieritz,  Koniggi'atz,  and  Budweis,  with  5,226 
churches  and  chapels,  and  8,538  priests.  The 
evangelical  chui-ches  were  organized  l.iy  the  law 
of  Jan.  23,  1866.  Tliey  are  divided  between  the 
adherents  of  the  Lutheran  or  Augsburg  Confes- 
sion, and  those  of  the  Reformed  or  Helvetic  Con- 
fession. Both,  however,  are  ruled  by  the  Church 
Council  in  Vienna.  At  the  Basel  Conference  of 
the  Evangelical  Alliance  (Sept.  6,  1879),  the  case 
of  some  Boliemian  Baptists,  a  sect  not  recognized 
by  Austria,  who  had  been  distm'bed  particularly 
in  their  family  worship,  was  presented,  whereupon 
it  was  resolved  that  a  conunittee  be  appointecl  to 
present  the  case  to  the  emperor.  This  was  don© 
upon  Xov.  6,  1879,  and  the  persecution  was 
.stopped.  See  The  RelirjinuK  Condition  of  Chrhten- 
dom  (report  of  Basel  Conference),  London,  188(), 
pp.  398,  399;  also  Verhondfuni/en  der  eoant/eli- 
schen  Allianz  in  Basel,  1S79,  Basel,  1879,  pp.  902- 
904. 

Lit.  —  Fk.     Palacky  :     Gescldchte    Bbhmens^ 


BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN. 


308 


BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN. 


Prague,  1S45-67,  vols.  III.-V. ;  C.  Peschek: 
Oe.wkichte  d.  Geyenreformatinn  in  Bo/inieii,  Leipzig, 
1850,  2  vols. ;  Rod.  Reuss  :  DeMruclion  du  Prules- 
(antisme  en  Bohe'me,  Paris,  186S ;  Czerwenka  : 
Oe.tchichte  d.  evanyetkchen  Kirche  in  Bohmen, 
Bielefeld.  1S69-7U. 

BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN,  a  .sect  which  arose 
in  Bohemia  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
liiry,  spread  rapidly,  and  comprised  one-fourth  of 
the  pojuilation  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  but  was  suppi-essed  or  banished  by  the 
atrocious  measures  of  Ferdinand  II.,  and  lived 
latent  and  in  exile,  until,  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, it  was  revived  in  Saxony  by  Count  Zinzen- 
dort,  and  became  known  once  more  under  the 
name  of  the  jMorarian  Brethren.  The  general  out- 
Jine  of  the  history  of  the  sect  is  perfectly  clear,  — 
its  period  of  rise  and  organization  under  Gregor 
(11.57-94),  its  period  of  expansion  and  consolida- 
tion imder  Lukas  of  Prague  (1494-1528),  the 
diversion  towards  Lutheranism  under  Augusta 
(1.528-46),  the  diversion  towards  Calvinism  (1546- 
80),  and,  finally,  the  period  of  the  highest  social 
success  and  the  greatest  literary  achievements, 
iiot  altogether  unaccompanied  by  traces  of  inner 
-dissolution.  Its  birth,  however,  its  relation  to 
Rokyczana  and  the  Utraquists  on  the  one  side, 
and  to  the  AValdenses  on  the  other,  is  still  some- 
what obscure,  though  of  late  Bohemian  scholars 
Lave  thrown  considerable  light  on  these  compli- 
-cated  questions. 

The  nucleus  from  which  the  sect  developed 
formed  the  so-called  Chelczicky  Brethren,  —  a 
group  of  pious  men  in  the  county  of  Praehin,  who 
gathered  around  Peter  Chelczicky  as  their  spirits 
ual  leader.  Peter  was  a  layman  belonging  to  the 
lower  nobility,  but  not  without  education ;  and 
his  pamphlets  against  the  Roman  Church  and 
clergy  were  sharp  and  stirring  Rokyczana,  the 
leader  of  tlie  Utraquists,  and  a  man  who  had 
deeper  and  more  radical  ideas  of  reform  than  he 
was  able  to  reconcile  with  his  personal  ambition, 
sent  Gregor  to  the  Chelczicky  Brethren ;  and,  when 
persecutions  were  raised  against  them,  he  procured 
them  a  place  of  refuge  (1457)  at  Kunwald,  near 
Senftenberg,  whence,  however,  they  soon  were 
driven  into  the  forests,  and  up  among  the  moun- 
tains. The  Chelczicky  Brethren  rejected  the  oath, 
the  profe.ssion  of  the  soldier,  all  rank  and  honor 
connected  with  an  ollice,  the  right  of  any  secular 
autliority  to  punish,  etc.  They  stood  in  absolute 
opposition  to  any  kind  of  hierarchy.  The  doc- 
trine of  community  of  jjroperty  they  did  not 
adopt;  but  they  taught  that  the  rich  only  admin- 
istered his  ]iroperty  for  the  good  of  the  poor,  and 
their  ]iositive  goal  was  an  approach  to  the  congre- 
gational life  of  the  primitive  Church,  and  a  reali- 
zation in  practical  life  of  the  words  and  example 
of  Christ.  At  the  Convention  of  Lhotka  (14()7) 
these  tenets  were  solemnly  adopted ;  and  they 
continue!'  to  be  the  life-givnig  soid  in  the  social 
and  political  body  which  gradually  develojied  from 
tlie  Chelczicky  Brethren  into  the  Unitas  Fralrum, 
or  the  Bohemian  Brethren. 

The  first  seed  of  discord  was  sown  in  this  field 
of  general  harmony  by  I'rocojiius  of  Xeuhaus ; 
but  it  became  a  mere  element  of  jirogross.  I'ro- 
cojiius was  a  scholar,  and  the  other  liicthren  were 
plain  country-jieople.  The  first  bisho]),  Matthias 
I  'Of  Kunwald,  ordained  by  a  Waldensian  bishop, 


was  a  jieasant;  and  on  his  death-bed  (1474)  Gre- 
gor solenndy  warned  the  Brethren  against  "pro- 
fessors and  magisters."  As  a  scholar,  Procopius 
held  milder  and  broader  views ;  and  a  conflict 
soon  arose.  The  method  adopted  for  the  settling 
of  the  question  was  very  characteristic.  Lukas 
of  Prague  and  some  other  Brethren  went  on  a 
great  journey  through  Greece  and  the  Orient, 
with  the  purpose  of  discovering  some  model  con- 
gregation whose  organization  could  be  innnedi- 
ately  imitated.  They  found  noiie:  but  they 
returned  with  their  ideas  so  much  enlarged,  and 
their  experience  so  much  enriched,  that  on  the 
synod  of  Reichenau  (1494),  where  the  questions 
of  the  difference  of  estates,  the  authority  of  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  powers,  etc.,  w-ere  debated,  the 
milder  vie\^■s  became  victorious.  Thus  Lukas 
stands  as  the  second  founder  of  the  Unitas  Fra- 
trum.  Once  more  he  visited  foreign  countries, 
and  for  the  same  purpose;  and  this  his  journey 
to  Italy  and  France  was  the  cause  and  the  occa- 
sion of  that  intimate  literarj'  intercourse  which 
existed  between  the  Bohemian  Brethren  and  the 
Waldenses,  and  which  has  given  rise  to  much 
misunderstanding.  It  is  now  proved  beyond 
doubt  that  the  famous  'Waldensian  woi-k,  Ayczo 
es  la  causa  del  departiment  de  la  (/lei/sa  Homatia,  is 
a  translation  of  a  Bohemian  work  on  the  Reasons 
fur  Secession  from  the  Roman  Church;  and  again 
that  the  equally  famous  Waldensian  work,  ^4)i(i- 
christ  is  foimded  on  Ai/c:o  es  la  causa. 

The  appearance  of  Luther  caused,  as  might 
have  been  foretold,  a  great  commotion  in  the 
Unitas  Fralrum,  and  attempts  of  connniuiication 
and  connection  were  immediately  made.  They 
led  to  nothing,  however.  There  was  between  the 
Bohemian  Brethren  and  the  German  Reformers  a 
radical  difference,  which  could  not  be  got  over. 
By  Speratus  and  Optatus,  Luther  was  requested 
to  give  his  opinion  of  the  Brethren's  doctrine  of 
the  Lord's  Supper.  Before  answering,  Luther 
asked  for  means  of  a  closer  examination ;  and 
Lukas  sent  him  the  tract  on  The  Truth  Victorious. 
In  1523  Luther  answered  by  his  Vom  Anbeten  des 
Sakraments  des  heilie/en  Leichnams  Jesu  Christi,  and 
the  answer  was  both  friendly  and  cautious ;  but 
the  rejoinder  which  Lukas  gave  was  simply  an 
elaborate  exposition  of  the  difference  which  sepa- 
rated them :  essentially  this  difference  was  not 
doctrinal.  AVhat  the  Unitas  Fralrum  has  con- 
tributed to  the  doctrinal  development  of  Chris- 
tianity is  not  of  great  interest ;  but  with  respect 
to  the  practical  application  of  the  Christian  doc- 
trines to  tlie  individual  realization  of  the  Chris- 
tian ideal  in  actual  life,  to  the  congregational 
organization  imder  the  guidance  of  the  ChrLstiaii 
spirit,  the  Bohemian  Brethren  have  hardly  been 
excelled  in  the  history  of  the  Christian  Cluuch 
but  by  the  apostolic  age.  Hence,  while  the 
purely  doctrinal  differences  might  have  been 
smoothed  over,  the  Lutheran  justification  by  faith 
alone  looked  to  the  eyes  of  the  Unitas  Fratrum 
like  an  attack  on  tlieir  very  princijiles.  Somewhat 
easier  to  effect  seemed  a  union  with  the  Calvin- 
i.sts.  The  negotiations  with  AVittenberg  were 
stojiped  just  as  the  last  trace  of  Cryiito-Calvinism 
w;is  wi|>ed  out  there;  ,'Uid  in  aftertijue,  when  the 
Hohcmiau  lircthrcn  were  griidually  absorbed  by 
other  Reformed  denominations,  it  was  with  thtt 
Calvinists  they  easiest  amalgamated. 


BOLIVIA. 


309 


BOLZANO. 


These  freiiueiit  iiiterconiiminications  with  other 
parties  and  toreion  nations  led  to  a  very  lively  lit- 
erary activity  in  the  UniUis  Fralruiii.  Young  men 
were  sent  to  foreign  universities,  especially  to  Tu- 
bingen, to  study;  collections  of  literary  materials 
were  made  ;  libraries  were  founded,  etc.;  and  soon 
the  results  of  these  exertions  were  felt,  not  only 
in  tlie  devotional  and  controversional  writings  of 
the  day,  but  also  in  the  fields  of  history,  granunar, 
etc.  The  great  monument  of  this  activity  is  the 
Bohemian  translation  of  the  Bible,  —  the"J!ible 
of  Kralicz,"  thus  called  after  its  place  of  printing. 
There  were  earlier  Bohemian  translations,  but 
they  were  made  from  the  Vulgate.  The  Bible  of 
Kralicz  is  the  first  made  from  the  original,  and 
it  is  a  masterpiece.  The  New  Testament,  trans- 
lated by  Blahoslaw,  appeared  in  1564 ;  the  Old, 
translated  by  a  number  of  scholars,  from  1579  to 
1593.  It  cannot  be  denied,  however,  that  this 
extraordinary  literary  activity  was  accompanied 
by  a  relaxation  of  discipline  and  by  a  gradual 
transformation  of  the  very  spirit.  The  old  Unitas 
Fralrum  kept  aloof  from  all  secular  affairs  which 
had  no  direct  religious  bearing.  The  Bohenuan 
Brethren  of  the  seventeenth  century  became  a 
political  party ;  and  it  was  not  the  religious  con- 
flict alone  which  brought  Ferdinand  II.  down  upon 
the  country,  and  opened  the  Thirty- Years'  A\'ar. 

Lit. — GiNDELY  :  Geschichte  d.  hohmisch.  Bin- 
der, Prague,  1868,  2  vols.;  Goll  :  Quellen  und  Stu- 
dien  zur  Geschichte  der  Brikler,  Prague,  1880.  (See 
also  art.  Bohemia.)  G.  von  zezschwitz. 

BOLIVlAi  a  republic  of  South  America,  com- 
prising an  area  of  about  536,200  square  miles, 
with  1,987,352  inhabitants  (in  1858),  of  whom 
245,000  are  independent  Indians,  the  rest  a  mixed 
race  of  Indians  and  whites.  The  Roman-Catholic 
Church  is  the  Established  Church  of  the  country, 
with  an  exclusive  privilege  of  public  worship. 
There  are  no  evangelical  congregations  in  Bolivia. 
The  Church  comprises  an  archbishopric.  La  Plata, 
with  residence  at  Chuquisaca,  and  three  bishop- 
rics. La  Paz,  Santa  Cruz,  and  Cochabainba :  the 
number  of  priests  amounted  in  1846  to  1,517. 
There  are  four  seminaries  at  the  episcopal  resi- 
dences. In  1826  the  State  confiscated  and  sold 
the  estates  of  the  Church,  and  assumed  the  obli- 
gation to  maintain  the  church  officers ;  but  the 
State  is  bankrupt.  G.  PLITT. 

BOLLANDISTS  is  the  name  given  to  those 
Jesuits  who  carried  on  the  Acta  Sanctorum,  —  a 
vast  collection  of  hagiology  and  martyrology  but 
lately  finished,  intended  to  embrace  the  life  of 
every  saint  in  the  Calendar.  Heribert  Rosweyd, 
professor  in  the  Jesuit  College  of  Douay  (b.  at 
Utrecht,  Jan.  22,  1569 ;  d.  at  Antwerp,  Oct.  15, 
1629),  conceived  in  1599  the  plan  of  uniting  all 
the  legends  of  saints  and  martyrs  in  one  work  of 
eighteen  folio  volumes ;  but  he  lived  to  print 
only  the  beginning  of  his  series,  Vkce  Patrum 
(1615).  By  command  of  the  order  the  continua- 
tion of  the  work  was  intrusted  to  Johanii  BoUand 
(b.  at  Tirlemont  in  Brabant,  Aug.  13,  1596 ;  d.  at 
Antwerp,  Sept.  12,  1665).  Antwerp  was  made 
the  headquarters  of  the  enterprise,  and,  assisted 
by  his  emment  pupil  Gottfried  Ilenschen  (1600- 
81),  a  vast  correspondence  was  carried  on  with 
all  Europe.  Libraries  and  monasteries  were  ran- 
sacked for  information  about  saints,  and  the 
;  esult  was  an  unparalleled  coUectiou  of  such  mate- 


rial. The  editors  worked  with  fiery  zeal.  In  1631 
l)iinting  was  begun,  and  in  1643  two  thick  folios 
a])peared,  which  containr'il  (he  Calendar  for  Janu- 
an/ ;  in  1658  two  otlu^rs,  with  that  for  Fehruan/. 
In"  1060  the  Jesuit  I)ani(d  Papebroeek  (1628- 
1714)  was  add(!d  to  the  editorial  staff.  He  con- 
.secrated  his  fortune  to  the  prosecution  of  this 
work,  and  lived  to  see  twenty-si.x  volumes  appear. 
On  the  suggestion  of  Pope  Alexander  VII.,  Ilen- 
schen ami  Papebroeek  nuide  a  journey  through 
(iermany,  Italy,  and  France  in  search  of  mate- 
rials. So  well  drilled  was  the  staff,  that  the 
great  undertaking  went  on,  whoever  died.  The 
Bollandists,  as  tliis  stalf  was  calliMl,  suffered  with 
the  rest  of  their  brethren  in  the  di.spersion  of 
the  order  (1773).  One  of  them  was  impris- 
oned for  two  years.  However,  they  persevered 
in  spite  of  many  difficulties  and  removals.  The 
fifty-third  folio  volume  appeared  in  1794,  contain- 
ing Oct.  12  to  15  inclusive.  Th  j  collection  they 
made  with  such  care  was  happily,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, preserved,  —  the  printed  works  at  the  Hague, 
and  the  manuscript  at  Brussels.  From  1837  the 
Belgian  Government  contributed  six  thousand 
francs  annually,  and  so  the  work  is  at  la.st  finished 
in  sixty-one  volumes  folio,  with  a  supplement, 
Paris,  1875.  Le  Blant  :  Acta  Martijrum  et  leur 
sources,  Paris,  1880. 

BOLSEC,  Jerome  Hermes,  author  of  two  noto- 
rious biographies;  a  Parisian  Carmelite  monk  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  who,  compelled  to  flee  the 
city  because  of  a  sermon  he  preached,  left  his 
order,  betook  himself  to  Ferrara,  studied  medi- 
cine, and  married.  Converted  to  Protestantism, 
he  went  to  Geneva,  but  soon  after  was  impris- 
oned for  publicly  opposing  Calvin's  cardinal  doc- 
trine of  predestination.  He  was  released  only  to 
be  bani.shed,  Dec.  23,  1551.  Incautiously  he  con- 
tinued his  attacks  in  Bern,  and  therefore  found 
a  change  of  residence  desirable.  Went  to  Paris  ; 
but  his  opinions  were  condemned  by  a  synod 
at  Orleans  (1563),  and  a  recantation  required. 
He  refused ;  went  to  Lausanne  as  a  physician ; 
but,  as  the  condition  of  residence  there  was  his 
signing  the  Confession  of  Bern,  he  chose  rather 
to  leave,  and  return  to  France.  Probably  to  no 
one's  surprise,  he  went  back  shortly  thereafter  to 
the  fold  of  the  Roman-Catholic  Church.  He 
died  at  Lyons,  1585.  He  gave  expression  to  his 
bitterness  in  his  slanderous  Histoire  de  la  vie, 
moeurs,  actes,  doctrine,  Constance  et  mort  de  Jean  Cal- 
vin, Lyons,  1577 ;  and  Histoire  de  la  vie,  Mceurs  et 
deporlemens  de  Th.  Beze,  Paris,  1582.  The  first 
work  appeared  in  Cologne,  in  Latin,  1580,  in  Ger- 
man, 1581;  last  ed.  in  French,  Lyons,  1875;  the 
second,  in  Latin,  Ingolstadt,  1584.  The  two 
works  were  reprinted,  with  a  life  of  their  author, 
at  Geneva,  in  1835. 

BOLZANO,  Bernhard,  a  Roman-Catholic  theo- 
logian and  philosopher,  b.  at  Prague,  Oct.  5, 
1781 ;  d.  there  Dec.  18,  1848.  He  early  showed 
marked  ability  in  mathematics  and  philosophy, 
and  was  appointed  professor  of  the  philosophy  of 
religion  in  the  university  of  his  native  city  when 
twenty-four  years  old.  He  at  that  time  was 
already  in  holy  orders  :  consequently  he  was  sub- 
jected to  ecclesiastical  censure  when  his  views 
developied  themselves  in  a  course  contrary  to  the 
ideas  of  the  Church.  The  Prince  Archbishop 
Salm-Sahn,  however,  i^rotected  him,  and  for  some 


BONA. 


310 


BONIFACE. 


time  he  escaped  expulsion,  and  enjoyed  gi-eat 
popularity.  But  in  18:20  he  was  charged  with 
complicity  with  the  students  in  their  revolution- 
ary schemes,  and  compelled  to  resign  his  chair. 
He  was  also  suspended  from  his  priestly  functions 
in  consequence  of  certain  alleged  errors  in  his 
works.  He  lived  by  his  pen  from  that  time  forth. 
His  works  are  very  numerous.  Of  most  interest 
to  lis  is  the  Lehrbuck  der  RiAujionfwissenschafl, 
Sulzbach.  1837,  4  vols.,  which  contains  a  philo- 
sophic representation  of  all  the  dogmas  of  the 
Koman-Catholic  theology. 

See  Leheiisheschreihung  lies  Dr.  Bohaitu,  1836 ; 
AVeisshaupt  :  Skizzcii  aus  don  Lehen  Dr.  Bolzano, 
1850. 

BONA,  Giovanni,  b.  at  llondovi.  Piedmont, 
Oct.  12,  IIJOIJ  ;  d.  in  Rome,  Oct.  25,  1074  ;  entered 
the  order  of  the  Fenillants,  1625,  and  was  chosen 
general  of  the  order  in  1651,  and  made  a  cardinal 
in  1669.  His  two  devotional  tracts,  Principhi  Vilce 
Christiaiice,  and  Manud actio  ad  Coslum,  were  fre- 
quently translated,  and  widely  read.  Of  his  scien- 
tific works  his  Rerum  Liturgicarum  Libri  Duo  is 
still  of  value.  A  collected  edition  of  his  works 
was  given  by  P.  Sala,  in  4  vols.,  Turin,  1747, 
who  also  gave  a  collection  of  his  letters,  Turin, 
1755,  1  vol. 

BON ALD,  Louis  Gabriel  Ambroise,  VIcomte  de, 
I),  at  ]\Ionna,  in  the  Rouergue,  Oct.  2,  1754 ;  d. 
there  Xov.  23,  1840;  emigrated  in  1791,  but 
returned  in  1805;  was  made  a  peer  of  France  in 
1823,  and  retired  into  private  life  on  the  acces- 
sion of  Louis  Philippe.  Practically  he  was  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  Ultramontane  re-action  after 
the  Restoration,  and  theoretically  he  was  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  theological  school  (de  Maistre, 
Eckstein,  Lamennais),  which  started  from  the 
maxim  that  revelation,  and  not  observation,  is  the 
true  principle  of  philosophy,  and  wliich  ended  with 
considering  the  crown,  the  mitre,  the  escutcheon, 
and  the  jiolice-baton  as  sacred  forms  of  divine  reve- 
lation. His  works,  the  most  remarkable  among 
which  are,  Tlienrie  du  ponvoir  polilii/iie  el  relii/i- 
eux,  Constance,  1796,  Lei/i.flation  prhnilire,  Paris, 
1802,  were  collected  in  10  vols.,  Paris,  1817-92. 

BONAVENTURA,  or  Giovanni  di  Fidenza  (ftx- 
tor  Sf!ra/>liicu.-<).  li.  at  Bagiuirea  in  Tuscany,  1221; 
d.  at  Lyons,  July  15,  1274 ;  entered  the  order  of 
the  Franci.scans  in  1243 ;  studied  theology  and 
philosopliy  in  Paris,  under  Alexander  of  Hales 
and  John  of  Kochelle ;  succeeded  the  latter  in  the 
Franciscan  chair  of  theology  in  the  University, 
1253,  and  was  cho.sen  general  of  his  order  in 
1250,  and  made  cardinal-bishop  of  Alba  in  1273. 
His  la-st  public  act  was  a  lirilliant  and  most  im- 
pressive speech,  delivered  to  the  Council  of  Lyons 
in  ALay,  1274,  for  the  union  between  the  Eastern 
and  AVestern  Churches.  He  was  canonized  by 
Sixtus  IV.,  in  1482. 

Already,  before  he  became  its  general,  Bona- 
ventura  had  had  an  oppotunity  to  work  for  his 
order.  In  the  great  cont(!st  between  the  Sor- 
bonne  and  the  Alendicant  orders  (1254-60),  occa- 
sioned by  the  attacks  of  (iuillaume  de  St.  Amour 
on  the  Dominicans,  he  wrote  Dn  Paiijxtrlale 
Clirisli,  in  which  he,  through  a  somewhat  forced 
and  sophistical  argumentation,  repre.sents  volun- 
tary iioverty  as  an  element  of  moral  perfection. 
Of  his  general  views  of  monastic  life  he  has  given 
an   exposition  in  his  Dctcrminationcs  Cliieslioiiiim 


circa  Ih'f/idam  Franci.sci.  In  his  practical  ad- 
ministration he  was  very  mild,  yet  firm.  As  a 
teacher  and  author,  he  occupies  one  of  the  most 
prominent  places  in  the  history  of  mediajval  the- 
ology ;  not  so  much,  however,  on  account  of  any 
strongly  pronounced  originality,  as  on  account 
of  the  comprehensiveness  of  his  views,  the  ease 
and  clearness  of  his  reasoning,  and  a  style  in 
w'hich  are  still  lingering  some  traces  of  the  great 
charm  of  his  personality.  His  mystical  and  devo- 
tional writings  —  as,  for  instance,  De  Sej>lem  Ili- 
neribua  jEternitalix — are  almost  imitations  of  Hugo 
de  St.  Victor.  More  independent  are  his  dialectical 
writings.  YWs Breriloquium  (lasted.  Freiburg,  ISSl) 
is  considered  one  of  the  best  expositions  of  Chris- 
tian dogmatics  which  the  middle  ages  produced. 

Lit.  —  The  works  of  Bonaventura  were  pub- 
lished by  the  order  of  Sixtus  V.  in  S  vols..  Home, 
1588-96 ;  again,  Quaracchii,  1884  sqq.  His  life  is 
found  in  Act.  Sand.  Jul.  III.,  and  in  the  introduc- 
tion to  the  editions.  See  also,  A.  Hollenberg  : 
Htudien  zu  Bonaventura,  Berlin,  1862;  P.  Fidelis 
A  Fanna  :  Ratio  novce  collectionis  operum  omnium 
Bonavenluroe,  Taurini,  1874;  [Margerie:  iJ.wd 
sur  la  pIiilo.<<opliie  de  St.  Bunaventure,  Paris,  1855 ; 
a  translation  of  Meditations  on  the  Life  of  Christ, 
by  Rev.  W.  H.  Hutchings,  London,  1881;  An- 
TONius  M.\i!iA  .\  Vicetia  et  Johanxes  a  Ru- 
HINO  :  Lexicon  Bonacenturianum  philo.topltico-theu- 
loytcum,  Venetiis,  1880.]  UASS. 

BONIFACE  is  the  name  of  nine  popes.  —  Boni- 
face I.  (Dec.  28,  41S-Sept.  4,  422)  was  elected 
the  successor  of  Zosimus  by  a  majority  of  the 
clergy;  but  Eulalius  succeeded  in  obtaining  the 
recognition  of  the  Emperor  llonorius.  The  em- 
peror, however,  acknowledging  the  flaw  in  the 
election  of  Eulalius,  referred  the  matter  to  a 
council,  and  forbade  the  two  rivals,  in  the  mean 
tune,  to  enter  the  city  of  Rome.  But  Eulalius 
disobeyed  the  order,  which  irritated  the  emperor 
to  such  a  degree,  that  he  expelled  him  by  force, 
and  recognized  I5oniface  without  awaiting  the 
decision  of  the  council.  Afterwards,  in  a  con- 
troversy with  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
llonorius  again  came  to  the  support  of  Boniface ; 
and,  by  his  influence  on  the  emperor  Theodosius, 
the  authority  of  the  Roman  see  over  Illyria  was 
acknowledged.  See  Vita  Bon.  I.,  in  ]\Iuratori: 
Rer.  Ital.  Script.  III.  p.  116;  and  Constant: 
Epist.  Rom.  I'ontif.,  Paris,  1721.  p.  1007  sq.,  where 
his  letters  are  found.  —  Boniface  II.  (.Sept.  22, 
530-October,  532),  a  Goth,  obtained  the  election 
by  bribery,  which  occasioned  the  Roman  Senate 
to  issue  a  decree  that  no  election  to  the  chair  of 
St.  Peter  should  be  valid,  if  the  person  elected 
could  be  proved  guilty  of  influencing  the  voters 
by  jiromises.  Boniface  compelled  the  Ronuin 
clergy  to  give  him  the  right  of  choosing  his  suc- 
cessor, and  he  designated  Vigilius  as  such;  but,  as 
this  privilege  involved  an  infringement  of  the 
royal  prerogatives.  King  Athalarich  conqielled 
Boniface  to  cancel  the  designation,  to  burn  the 
document  on  which  it  was  based,  and  to  declare 
himself  guilty  of  treason.  See  Vila  Bon.  H.,  in 
iMuRATOiii:  Rer.  Ual.  Script.  HI.  p.  127.— 
Boniface  III.  (Feb.  19,  607-Nov.  12.  607)  was  by 
(iregory  the  Great  (who  styled  himself  .srcciw 
nervorum  dei)  .sent  as  aiirokrisiarins  (o  the  court 
of  Constantinople  in  .luly,  6(13.  in  order  to  com- 
pel the  Constantinoi)olitan  patriarch  to  renounce 


BONIFACE. 


311 


BONIFACE. 


the  title  of  ephcopiis  iinwersalis  ;  and  so  iiitiiiiato 
liecaiiie  his  friendship  with,  and  so  strong  his 
influence  over,  tlie  mean  and  vicious  I'liokas,  tliat 
tlie  latter,  in  007,  was  actually  induced  to  transfer 
the  title  from  the  patriarch  to  the  pope.  See 
]'ila  Bimif.  III.,  in  1\1uratori:  Rer.  Ital.  Script. 
ni.  p.  lo.j;  Paui,us  Diaconus  :  De  Gcstis  Lon- 
qoh.  IV.  37;  I.  M.  Lorenz;  Examen  Dicreti 
Pltoc(E,  1700. —  Boniface  IV.  (.Se]it.  X',,  GOS-May 
2."),  61."))  continued  the  alliance  which  his  predeces- 
sor had  concluded  with  Phokas,  and  received 
permission  from  him  to  transform  the  J'aiilhcoii, 
which  Agrippa  had  built  in  Koine,  and  dedicated 
to  C'ybele  and  all  the  Olympian  gods,  into  a 
Christian  church,  Sancta  Maria  lloluiida.  After 
the  overthrow  of  Phokas  by  Heraclius,  he  enter- 
tained friendly  relations  also  with  the  latter,  with- 
out taking  umbrage  of  his  monophysitic  tenden- 
cies. See  the  letter  of  C'olumban  in  Eij]!.\rd  ; 
Die  iro-scoUische  Missionskirclie,  Giitersloh,  187.S, 
p.  95.  For  his  relations  with  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Church,  see  Bed.\  :  Hist.  Ecd.  II.  4.  His  life  is 
given  in  ]\Iur.\tori:  Rer.  Ital.  Scrijtt.  III.  p. 
13.5. —  Boniface  V.  (Dec.  24,  618-Oct.  2.5,  G25) 
made  Cauterl)ury  the  metropolitan  see  of  Eng- 
land. See  I7/n  Bunif.  V.,  in  Mur,\toki  :  Rer. 
Ital.  Script.  Iff.  p.  13.5;  Beda  :  Hist.  Ecd.  11.  7, 
8,  10,  11.  —  Boniface  VI.  (8r»6)  was  raised  to  the 
papal  throne  by  a  mob,  after  tlie  death  of  For- 
mosus  (though  John  VIII.  had  deprived  him  of 
his  ecclesiastical  offices,  on  account  of  his  vicious 
life),  but  died  fifteen  days  later.  —  Boniface  VII. 
(974-98.5)  began  his  reign  by  having  Benedict  VI. 
.strangled  in  the  Castle  of  S.  Angelo,  but  fled  him- 
self shortly  after  with  the  papal  treasury  to  Con- 
stantinople, where  he  lived  nine  years.  After  the 
death  of  Otho  II.,  he  returned  to  Rome,  and  had 
.lohn  XIV,  poisoned  in  the  same  castle,  but  was 
liiniself  murdered  in  tiie  streets  of  Rome  eleven 
\nontlis  afterwards.  Ferrucci,  in  his  Investiya- 
zioni  su  la  Persona  el  il  Pontijicalo  di  Bonif.  VII., 
1856,  tries  to  whitewash  this  monstrum  horreiuhim. 
—  Boniface  VIM.  (Dec.  24,  1294-Oct.  11,  1303) 
entertained  the  most  extravagant  ideas  of  the 
papal  office,  as  instituted  by  God  to  give  judg- 
ment over  kings  and  empires,  to  examine  the 
persons  elected  kings,  and  reject  them  if  found 
incapable,  etc. ;  and  these  ideas  he  actually  en- 
deavored to  realize,  thereby  involving  himself  in 
strife  with  all  the  princes  of  Christendom.  In 
Germany  he  succeeded.  Adolf  of  Nassau  and 
Albrecht  of  Habsburg  he  treated  as  simple  vas- 
sals ;  but  Erik  VIII.  of  Denmark  took  no  notice 
of  his  demands ;  Wenzel  II.  of  Bohemia  openly 
defied  them;  and  Edward  I.  of  England  laid  them 
before  Parliament,  which  met  them  with  a  spite- 
ful protest.  It  was  in  the  contest,  however,  with 
Philip  IV.  the  Fair  of  France,  that  this  question 
of  the  secular  supremacy  of  the  Pope  was  decided 
generally  and  forever.  The  relations  between 
Boniface  VIII.  and  Philip  IV.  were  originally 
very  friendly.  The  first  case  of  discord,  however, 
occurred  already  in  1295,  when  the  French  clergy 
complained  of  the  taxes  which  Philip  IV.  levied 
on  them,  and  the  Pope  addressed  the  King  with 
the  bull  Clericis  laicos,  Feb.  25,  1296.  The  King 
answered  by  forbidding  aU  exportation  of  gold 
and  silver,  coined  or  uncoined,  from  France ;  and 
as  soon  as  the  I'ope  felt  the  famine  in  his  treas- 
ury, he    submitted,   and    attenij)ted    to    explain 


away  the  most  olfensive  expres.sions  in  his  bull. 
Again  the  relations  became  very  friendly,  liut, 
during  the  great  centennial  festival  of  1300,  the 
Pope  showed  himself  to  the  multitude  one  day  in 
the  pontifical  robe,  with  the  tiara,  and  another 
day  in  the  imperial  mantle,  with  the  crown  ;  and 
in  the  same  year  Pierre  Dubois,  royal  advocate 
of  France,  publislied  his  Siivimaria  brcvis,  develoi>- 
ing  iiow  and  by  what  means  Constantinople, 
S])ain,  Italy,  etc.,  could  be  brought  under  the 
French  scei)tre.  There  were  asjiirations  of  a 
universal  empire  on  both  sides,  and  a  collision 
was  unavoidable.  The  ajipearance  of  Bernard  of 
Saisset,  Bishop  of  I'amiers,  at  the  Fi'i^nch  crjurt, 
1301,  as  papal  legate,  and  urging  the  King  to 
imdertake  a  crusade,  gave  the  occasion.  The 
King  had  the  bishop  imprisoned.  The  Pope 
ordered  the  bishop  released  immediately,  and 
summoned  the  bishops,  abbots,  and  doctors  of 
France  to  Rome  to  hold  a  council.  The  King 
released  the  bishop,  but  forbade  the  French 
clergy  to  go  to  Rome.  Several  went,  neverthe- 
less; and  the  result  of  this  synod  (opened  Oct. 
30,  1302)  was  the  bull  Unain  saiirlain,  which,  in  a 
style  never  used  by  the  papal  curia,  either  before 
or  after,  .sets  forth  the  doctrine  of  the  two  swords, 
both  intrusted  to  the  Pope.  The  strife  now 
assumed  dimensions  which  made  it  of  world-wide 
importance.  The  Pope,  who  resided  at  that  time 
in  Anagni,  prepared  himself  to  .speak  the  anathe- 
ma against  Philip  IV.  in  the  church  of  the  city 
on  Sept.  8,  1303 ;  when,  on  Sept.  7,  Guillaume 
Nogaret  of  Toulouse,  vice-chancellor  to  Philip 
IV.,  in  connection  with  some  members  of  the 
family  of  the  Colonna,  which  had  been  expelled 
by  Boniface  VIII.,  and  some  menibers  of  the 
nobility  of  the  Romagna,  which  had  Ijeen  bought 
by  Philip  IV.,  penetrated  into  the  sleeping-room 
of  the  Pope,  and  made  him  a  prisoner.  lie  was 
soon  after  liberated  by  the  citizens ;  but  he  re- 
turned to  Rome  a  broken-hearted  man,  and  died 
shortly  after.  On  his  order  was  issued  the  Liber 
Textus  (see  article  on  C.vxoN  L.wv).  See  J. 
RuBEUs:  Bonif.  VIII.,  Rome,  1651;  L.  TosTi : 
Storia  di  Bniiifazio  VIII.,  IMonte  Casino,  1846; 
W.  Drumann  :  Geschichte  Boni/aciiis  VIII., 
Konigsberg,  1852.  [His  Reyistres,  published, 
Paris,  1884.]—  Boniface  IX.  (Nov.  2, 13S9-Oct.  1, 
1404),  a  mean  and  gTeedy  character,  spent  his 
reign  in  useless  intrigues  agamst  the  Popes  of 
Avignon.  See  Vita  Bonif.  IX.,  in  Muratoki  : 
Rer.  Ital.  Script.  III.  p.  830 ;  Du  PuYS :  Histoire 
du  Schisme,  1378-U28,  Paris,  1654;  Maimuourg: 
Histoire  du  Grand  Schisme  d'Occident,  Paris, 
1678.  B.  ZOPFFEL. 

BONIFACE  (Winfrid,  the  "Apostle  of  Ger- 
many "),  b.  at  Kirtoii  near  Exeter,  between  680 
and  683 ;  d.  near  Dokkum  in  Friesland,  June  5, 
754  or  755 ;  a  Saxon  by  birth ;  was  educated  in 
the  monasteries  of  Adescancastre  and  Nhutscelle, 
and  had  already  acquii-ed  a  name  for  learning  and 
piety,  when,  in  716,  he  left  his  native  country,  and 
joined  the  missionaiy  AMllibrord  in  Friesland. 
Political  circumstances, howe\er,  made  missionary 
labor  an  impossibility  in  that  field  at  tliat  mo- 
ment ;  and  Boniface  returned  to  England,  But 
in  718  he  again  started  for  the  Continent,  This 
time  he  went  to  France,  and  thence  to  Rome ;  and 
with  papal  authorization  he  repaired  in  719  to 
(Je'-many      His  first  attempts  as  a  missionary  in 


BONNIVARD. 


312 


BONOSUS. 


Bavavi.a  and  in  the  Frankisli  dominions  failed, 
and  he  once  more  joined  Willibrord  in  Fiiesland. 
After  the  death  of  the  latter,  Boniface  returned 
to  Germany  (722)  ;  and  in  the  region  between  the 
Lahn  and  the  Saal^  ho  finally  succeeded  in  taking 
root,  and  forming  for  himself  a  basis  of  operation. 
From  this  moment  to  his  death  he  labored  with 
great  success  in  Hesse,  Bavaria,  and,  after  the 
death  of  Charles  Martel,  also  in  the  Frankish 
Empire.  In  723  he  was  made  a  bishop  ;  in  732, 
an  archbishop.  His  last  eifort  was  a  tour  into 
Friesland,  where  a  Pagan  re-action  had  taken 
place  after  the  death  of  Willibrord ;  and  here  he 
was  killed  while  administering  confirmation  to 
those  who  liad  remained  faithful.  His  work  con- 
sisted, however,  not  so  much  in  the  preaching  of 
Christianity  as  in  the  propagation  of  Romanism, 
which  to  him  was  identical  with  Christianity 
organized,  and  which,  perhaps,  was  the  best  for 
that  age.  He  labored  mostly  in  countries  which 
had  already  been  Christianized  by  the  Iro-Scottish 
nnssionaries ;  and  the  result  of  his  labor  was  sim- 
ply the  establishment  of  the  Roman  hierarchy. 
He  formed  bishoprics,  and  secured  bishops  who 
were  willing  to  administer  their  dioceses  in  sub- 
mission to  the  Pope.  To  convert  Pagans  to  Chris- 
tianity was  not  liis  only  or  his  chief  office,  but  to 
drive  away  by  force  or  intrigue  tlie  independent 
Christian  missionaries,  and  replace  them  with 
lloman  priests ;  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  that 
part  of  Germany  which  had  received  Christianity 
»vas  tinuly  coiuiected  with  the  Roman  see. 

Lit.  —  The  works  of  Boniface,  .sermons,  letters, 
etc.,  have  V)een  edited  by  J.  A.  Gilks,  London, 
1844,  2  vols.  His  life  was  written  by  Wilhb.\li> 
(Pertz:  Monum.  U.,  33);  I.  P.  Mullkr,  Am- 
sterdam. ISfi!) ;  August  Werner,  I^eipzig,  1875. 
[G.  Pfahler:  St.  Boni/acius,  iiegensh.,  18S0;  O. 
Fischer:  Bonifalius,  Leipzig,  1881.]  WERNER. 

BONNIVARD,  Franz,  the  "  Prisoner  of  Chillon," 
b.  149:i  at  Seyssel  on  the  Rhone ;  d.  1570  at  (ie- 
neva.  He  was  the  younger  son  of  a  Savoy  family 
which  liad  an  almost  hereditary  claim  upon  sev- 
eral benefices :  so  when  he  entered  the  Church  he 
thought  to  hold  them;  but,  through  the  intrigues 
of  the  Duke  Charles  of  Savoy,  he  was  deprived  of 
all  save  the  priory  of  St.  Victor,  whose  dependen- 
cies, however,  comprised  a  considerable  part  of  the 
Genevan  territory.  Tliis  unexpected  tmii  of  for- 
tune affected  his  life,  and  is  the  key  to  his  career; 
for  his  hatred  of  the  duke  led  him  to  fraternize 
with  the  young  (ienevan  patriots  who  were  re.sist- 
ing  the  duke's  attempts  to  obtain  control  of  that 
city.  Bonnivard  quickly  became  tlie  leader  of 
the  movement,  and  was  largely  instrumental  in 
bringing  (ieneva  and  Freiburg  into  alliance  ( I51S). 
His  devotion  cost  him  for  a  time  his  ]iriory.  In 
1510  the  duke  entered  (ieneva.  Bonnivard  tied, 
was  Vietrayeil  l>y  his  travellitig-coin)ianions,  and 
imprisoned  for  twenty  inonllis.  Nine  years  later 
he  obtained  from  the  duke  a  "safe-conduct,"  and 
set  out  on  a  visit  to  his  aged  parents  at  Seyssel. 
But  the  duke  broke  his  word,  arrested  him  at 
Lausanne  (May  21),  1530),  and  imprisoned  him  in 
the  Castle  of  Chillon,  wheiv  for  six  years  lie  pined. 
It  is  this  imprisoinnent  which  Byron  has  immor- 
talized inverse,  more  musical  than  truthful.  The 
first  two  years  were  tolerable;  but  after  a  visit 
from  tlie  duke  he  was  put  in  the  dungeon  now 
ehowii  to  vi.sitor».      It  ia  only  a  local  tradition 


that  he  was  fastened  to  a  pillar.  In  the  spring  of 
153()  the  Bernese  took  the  ca.stle,  and  freed  him. 
During  his  incarceration  tlie  priory  and  Church  of 
St.  Victor  had  lieen  razed,  and  the  income  of  the 
estates  applied  to  the  city  hospital.  By  the  in- 
tervention of  the  Bernese,  the  original  sum  of 
twenty  thalers,  granted  him  by  the  city  for  the ,. 
payment  of  his  debts,  was  increased  to  eight  hun- 
dred, which  he  received  in  addition  to  a  pension 
of  two  hundred  thalers.  Bonnivard  then  married, 
in  all  four  times,  but  not  happily,  nor  had  he 
children.  His  last  wife  was  accused  of  adultery, 
confessed  to  the  charge  on  the  rack,  was  put  in  a 
sack,  and  drowned  in  the  Rhone  ;  while  her  para- 
mour, a  former  monk,  was  lieheaded.  Bonnivard 
made  the  city  of  Geneva  his  heir  on  condition 
that  it  paid  his  debts;  but  his  estate  consisted 
only  of  his  books,  which  formed  the  foundation 
of  the  city  library. 

Boimivard's  literary  activity  was  the  chief  rea- 
son for  the  forbearance  his  contemporaries  showed 
him ;  for  his  career  was  somewhat  dishonorable, 
wavering,  and  time-serving.  In  1517  he  was  en- 
titled "  poet-laureate  ;  "  and  after  his  liberation  he 
was  commissioned  liy  the  magistracy  to  write  a 
history  of  the  republic  of  Geneva.  This  work, 
called  Chivniijue!:  Ue  Oeiiere,  ends  with  1551,  is 
interesting,  full  of  anecdotes,  but  so  marred  by 
contradictions  and  exaggerations  as  to  be  unre- 
liable, and  probably  did  not  suit  his  patrons. 
Strangely  enough,  his  more  important  works  were 
not  printed  until  this  century,  although  the  auto- 
graphs have  always  been  in  the  city  library. 
Those  now  printed  are  :  Les  Chroniques  de  Geneve, 
Geneve,  1831,  4  vols.  ;  Advis  el  devis  des  lani/iies 
(1563),  Geneve  et  Paris,  1849;  Adris  et  devis  ile  la 
source  de  i'idutalrie  el  li/raiinie  papule,  tieueve,  1856 
(with  an  historical  introduction).  GALIFFK. 

BONNER,  Edmund,  b.  at  Ilanley,  Worcester- 
shire, Eng.,  about  14!)5 ;  d.  as  a  prLsouer  in  Lon- 
don, Sej)t.  5,  150!) ;  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and  received  his  first  preferment  from  Cardinal 
W'olsey.  After  the  death  of  'Wolsey,  however, 
he  seemed  to  veer  aroiiiul  towaids  the  Reforma- 
tion ;  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Henry  VIII.; 
employed  in  various  emba.ssies  to  Fiance,  Gei- 
niany,  and  the  Pope  ;  and  made  Bishop  of  London 
in  1540;  but  as  soon  as  the  King  died,  the  refor- 
matory zeal  of  the  bishop  slackened  ;  he  refused 
to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy,  and  was  committed 
to  the  Fleet.  After  his  release  he  was  twice 
reprimanded  by  the  privy  council  for  neglect  in 
the,  cause  of  the  Reformation,  and  finally  com- 
mitted to  the  JSIar.shal.sea,  and  deprived  of  his  see, 
1540.  R(!storcd  by  Queen  Mary,  he  took  his  re- 
venge. In  the  course  of  threi^  years  he  con- 
demned more  tlian  two  hundred  Protestants  to 
the  stake;  and  in  many  eases  Cardinal  Pole  and 
other  champions  of  the  Roman  Church  had  to 
interfere  with  his  persecuting  fury.  Inimedi- 
ately  after  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  however, 
he  was  again  committed  to  the  Marshalsea,  and 
died  in  confinement.  See  Life  and  Defence  of 
Bishop  Bonner,  London,  1842;  j\I.\iti..\ni)  :  Es- 
sni/s  on  Snh/ecls  connected  with  the  licforiimtinn, 
London,  184it. 

BONOSUS,  Hishop  of  .Sanlica  in  the  latter  part, 
of  the  Inuitli  century;  held  that  Mary,  in  her 
marriage  with  .(ose]ih,  had  borne  several  children 
beside  Jesus ;  for  this  opinion  he  vv.is  condemned 


BOOS. 


313 


BORROMEO. 


by  a  synod  of  Illyrian  bishops,  and  the  condcni- 
iiation  was  confirmed  by  the  Bishop  of  Home, 
lie  foimd  adherents,  however,  wlio  aftei-wai'ds 
affiliated  willi  the  I'hotinians  in  tlie  Kast  and  tlie 
Adoptians  in  tlie  West.  See  C.  AV.  F.  Walch: 
De  Jjoiioso  llii rclico,  (ibttingen,  1704. 

BOOS,  Martin,  b.  at  Iluttemied,  Bavaria.  Dec. 
25,  17(ji2 ;  d.  at  Sayn,  near  Colilenz,  Aug.  'lU, 
1825;  stndied  theology  at  the  University  of  Dil- 
lingen,  where  an  evangelical  movement  had  bet'ii 
started  by  Sailer,  Zinnner,  and  AVeber.  Without 
leaving  the  Roman  Church,  ho  began  to  preach 
justification  by  faith;  and  everywhere,  in  Bavaria, 
Austria,  and  Prussia,  his  preacliing  caused  a  reli- 
gious revival,  which  the  Roman  clergy  feared 
and  hated.  He  was  driven  from  place  to  place, 
hunted  out  of  Bavaria  by  the  Inijuisition,  ban- 
ished from  Austria  by  the  emperor,  and  hardly 
left  in  peace  in  Dusseldorf  and  Sapi  under  the 
protection  of  a  Protestant  government.  See  I. 
GosSNER :  S.  M.  Boos,  1831,  translated  into 
English,  London,  1836;  Bodem.\nn  :  M.  Boos, 
Bielefeld,  18.54. 

BOQUIN,  Pierre,  b.  in  Guienne  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth  century ;  studied  in  the 
University  of  Bourges ;  entered  the  order  of  the 
Carmelites,  and  was  elected  abbot;  but,  liaving 
become  acquainted  with  the  ideas  of  the  Refor- 
mation, he  abandoned  the  cowl,  and  left  France ; 
in  1.541  vi.sited  AVittenberg;  occupied  for  some 
time  Calvin's  chair  in  Strassburg ;  returned  to 
Bourges,  and  lectured  on  Hebrew  and  exegesis  in 
the  iniiversity  under  the  protection  of  the  Queen 
of  Navarre.  Persecutions,  however,  compelled 
him  to  leave  his  native  country  a  second  time. 
In  1557  he  was  made  professor  in  the  University 
of  Heidelberg,  and  in  1574  he  moved  to  Lausanne, 
where  he  died  in  1582.  A  list  of  his  works, 
mostly  consisting  of  polemics  against  the  Roman- 
ists and  the  Lutherans,  is  found  in  II,\.\G  :  La 
France  Protestante.  See  also  Melchior  Adam  : 
Vike  Theotof/orum  Exlernoruin. 

BORA,  Catharine  von,  b.  at  Bitterfeld  in  the 
countship  of  Meissen,  Jan.  29,  1499 ;  d.  at  Tor- 
gau,  Dec.  20,  1552.  She  was  a  nun  in  the  mon- 
astery of  Nimtzsch,  near  Grimma ;  but,  with  the 
cognizance  of  Luther,  she  fled  from  the  monastery 
together  with  eight  other  nuns  (April  4,  1523), 
and  repaired  to  AA'^ittenberg.  June  13,  1.525,  she 
married  Luther,  to  whom  she  bore  six  children. 
Luther  first  offered  her  to  his  friend  Am.sdorf; 
but  she  declined,  her  aspirations  rising  liigher. 
He  married,  he  said,  for  three  reasons,  —  to  please 
his  father,  to  tease  the  Pope,  and  to  vex  the  Devil 
He  lived  in  happy  wedlock,  and  wrote  many 
characteristic  letters  to  his  wife  and  cliildren. 
After  his  death  (1546)  she  continued  to  live  in 
Wittenberg,  often  in  troubles,  and  Init  sparingly 
supported  by  the  Danish  king.  Christian  HI. 
See  F.  G.  HoFMANN :  Kalharina  von  Bora,  Leip- 
zig, 1845,  and  the  many  lives  of  Luther.  Among 
the  many  libels  concerning  Luther's  marriage  the 
principal  one  is  Eusebius  ExXtELHAKD :  Lucifer 
Witlenbergensis  oder  der  Morgenstern  von  Willen- 
herg,  Landsberg,  1747-49,  2  vols. 

BORBORITES  or  BORBORIANS,  from  ,3op- 
^opof  ("  dirt-eaters '"),  is  the  name  of  one  of  the 
most  extravagant  Gnostic  sects,  mentioned  by 
Epiphanius,  Hares.  26,  and  by  Augustine, 
De  Hceres 


BORDAS-DEMOULIN,    Jean    Baptiste,    1).    at 

Montagnac  in  the  Dordogne,  1798 ;  d.  in  Paris, 
1>S.")9;  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  lilieral 
Catliolic  )iarty,  which,  by  developing  tlie  princi- 
jiles  of  till'  old  Gallii-anism,  tried  to  reconcile  the 
Roman-Catholic  Churcli  and  the  demands  of  mod- 
ern civilization.  Besides  his  Mc'lnngi.t  philoso- 
/i/iifjucs  el  reliyieux,  his  two  jirincipal  works  are 
Lns  Powoirs  constitulifi  de  I'Eglise  (185.5),  and 
ICxsiii/  sur  le  Refiirme  cnlhotUjue  (1857).  Ilis 
Etuiles  de  pldlosopJtie  cark'sicnne  was  crowned  by 
the  French  Aeadeniv ;  but  he  died  in  the  poorhou.se. 
See  Ili-ET  :    17,-  cl  (Kurrcx  lie  B.  -  TJ.,  Paris,  1860. 

BORDELUMIAN  SECT,  one  of  the  obscurest 
and  weakest  of  the  nunierons  unwholesome  re- 
ligious developments  of  the  last  century,  com- 
prised some  fifteen  or  twenty  persons  in  the  town 
of  Bordelum  in  Schleswig-IIolstein,  under  the 
leadership  of  two  Saxons,  candidates  of  theol- 
ogy,—  David  Bahr  and  Borsenius.  In  1739  the 
sect  was  complained  against  by  the  local  pastors, 
and  charged  with  holding  that  they  were  saints 
who  had  advanced  upon  Paul  in  Rom.  vii.  24; 
that  God  had  special  care  over  them ;  that  they 
decried  the  Church  as  the  devil's  house,  despised 
the  sacraments ;  that,  as  clean,  they  rejected  mar- 
riage, and,  like  so  many  of  these  clean  and  pine 
persons,  —  indeed,  this  .seems  to  have  been  Satan's 
bait,  —  lived  in  the  greatest  unchastity  among 
themselves.  For  their  mutual  supjiort  they  insti- 
tuted a  sort  of  community  of  goods.  They  were 
found  guilty  of  these  charges  :  and  King  Christian 
VI.,  by  edict  of  June  11,  1739,  suppressed  the 
sect,  and  condemned  the  leaders  to  imprisonment ; 
but  they  escaped.  Borsenius  married,  and  lived 
quietly;  Biihr  ventured  back  to  Ilolstein,  was 
arrested  and  imprisoned,  very  harshly  treated,  and 
died  miserably  in  Bredstiidt,  1743.  The  sect  gave 
much  local  trouble.  P.\UL  TSCHACKERT. 

BOREL,  ADAM,  the  founder  of  the  Borelists; 
b.  in  Zealand,  1603;  d.  in  Amsterdam,  1667; 
was  pastor  of  a  Reformed  congregation,  but  re- 
signed his  otfice,  and  liecame  the  leader  of  a 
separatistic  party,  wliich  acknowledged  no  other 
religious  authoiity  than  the  Scripture.  His 
work.  Ad  Legem  et  Teslinionium.  attracted  great 
attention.  Here  he  developed  that  the  written 
word  of  God,  without  any  human  commentary, 
was  the  sole  means  of  awakening  faith  ;  that  the 
Church  had  fallen  completely  away  from  the 
Lord ;  that  the  Christian  ought  to  shun  all  con- 
nection with  the  Established  Church,  and  confine 
himself  to  his  private  devotion,  etc.  Though 
violently  attacked  by  Maresius  and  Hornbeck,  he 
gathered  quite  a  number  of  adherents,  —  the 
Borelists.  See  Arnold  :  Kirchen-  und  Ketzcrhis- 
lurien.  III.  6,  p.  28.  HERZOQ. 

BORGIA.     See  Alexander  VI.,  Jesuits. 

BORRHAUS.     .See  Cellarius. 

BORROMEO,  Carlo,  b.  Oct.  2,  1.538,  in  the 
Castle  of  Arona,  on  the  southern  shore  of  Lago 
Maggiore;  d.  Xov.  3,  1584,  in  ;\lilau ;  was,  in 
harmony  with  the  natural  bent  of  his  character, 
destined  for  the  Church,  and  stndif-d  theology, 
philosophy,  and  canon  law  at  Pavia.  When  his 
uncle,  Pius  IV.,  was  elected  pope  in  1.559,  he  was 
immediately  called  to  Rome,  and  made  cardinal- 
deacon,  and  Archbishop  of  Milan.  After  the 
death  of  his  elder  brother,  liowever,  in  1562,  both 
the  Pope  and  his  other  relatives  wished  him  to 


BORROW. 


314 


BOST. 


relinquish  the  Church,  and  marry  ;  but  lie  refused. 
His  whole  ambition  had  become  concentrated  on 
the  one  idea  of  restoring  the  Church  to  its  for- 
mer dignity  and  power ;  and  to  the  realization  of 
this  idea  he  devoted  his  wliole  life  :  he  is  the  hero 
of  the  ecclesiastical  re-action  of  the  sixteenth  ceu- 
tmy.  When  the  Council  of  Trent  decreed  that 
the  bishops  should  reside  in  their  dioceses,  he 
immediately  repaired  to  INIilan,  preceded  by  the 
Jesuits  and  tlie  Inquisition.  Milan  was  not  only 
the  largest,  but  also  the  most  difficult  diocese  of 
Italy,  comprising  fifteen  suffragan  bishoprics, 
twelve  hundred  and  twenty  churches,  and  a  Inni- 
dred  and  se\enty  monasteries,  pervaded  by  all  the 
most  hideous  corruptions  of  the  Itoman  Churcli, 
and  stirred  up  by  tlie  ideas  of  the  Reformation 
penetrating  into  the  country  from  Switzerland. 
But  the  young  archbishop  was  equal  to  the  task. 
Ill  spite  of  the  violent  opposition  which  went  so 
far  as  to  attempt  his  life,  he  restored  discipline  in 
the  Church,  the  monasteries,  and  the  school ;  and 
the  Reformers  he  pursued  to  the  top  of  the  Alps, 
never  sparing  even  their  lives.  Xo  wonder  that 
the  gratefid  Church  has  adopted  him  among  its 
saints,  especially  as  his  personal  life  was  stain- 
lessly pure,  and  as  rich  in  self-sacriflce  as  full  of 
energy  and  activity.  He  was  canonized  m  IGIO 
by  Paul  y. 

Lit. — His  Opera  Omnia  were  published  in 
Milan,  1717.  His  life  was  written  in  Latin  by 
Bascapi,  Ingoldstadt,  1502,  and  I)e  Vit,  Amster- 
dam, 18.58;  in  Gei'man  by  S.4.ILER,  Augsburg, 
1823,  and  Dieiu.nger,  Cologne,  1840 ;  in  French 
by  TouROX,  Paris,  17.51 ;  and  iir  Italian  by 
Giuss.\xo,  Rome,  IGIO,  and  Aristide  S.\ia, 
Milan,  18.57-61,  3  vols.  The  last-mentioned  work 
is  the  principal  one.  BEXRATH. 

BORROW,  George,  autlior  of  the  Bible  in 
Spain,  b.  at  East  Dereham,  Norfolk,  Eng.,  Febru- 
ary, 1803;  d.  July  30,  1881.  After  receiving  a 
good  .school-education,  he  was  in  1818  articled  to 
a  solicitor  in  Xorwich ;  but,  following  his  natural 
bent,  he  abandoned  tlie  law  for  literature  and 
philology,  acquired  several  modern  languages,  in- 
cluding that  of  the  English  gyqisies,  did  hack- 
work for  London  publishers,  travelled,  and  so 
spent  many  years.  From  1833  to  1830  he  was  in 
the  service  of  the  Hritisli  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society,  and  laliored  as  a  colportor  in  Russia  and 
Spain,  in  the  latter  country  he  was  twice  impris- 
oned. At  St.  Petersburg  lie  edited  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  tlie  MaiKlchu  or  Chinese-Tartar  language, 
at  Madrid,  the  Xew  Testament  in  Spanish,  and 
translated  the  Gospel  of  Luke  into  the  Spanish- 
Gj'psy  language.  Having  returned  to  England, 
he  issued  Zincnli,  or  An  Account  of  the  Gypsies  in 
Spain,  London,  1841,  and  in  1843,  T/ie  Bible  in 
Spain,  or  the  Journei/s,  Adrenlurcs,  and  Imprison- 
ments of  an  Enylishman  in  an  Attempt  tn  circulate 
the  Scriptnren  on  the  Peninsula.  By  the  latter 
work  he  achievccl  a  great  leputation.  The  re- 
mainder of  Ills  life  was  devoted  to  literature,  and 
to  researches  into  the  manners  and  speech  of  the 
gj-psies  in  Europe.  He  was  a  popular  and  prolific 
writiT. 

BOSSUET,  Jacques  Binigne,  b.  at  Dijon, 
Sept.  27,  11127;  d.  in  Paris,  April  12,  1704;  was 
educated  in  the  Jesuit  school  of  his  native  town, 
and  made  his  tlieological  studies  in  tlie  College  tie 
Navarre  in  Paris;  lived  there  for  some  time  in 


retirement  at  St.  Lazare  before  he  removed  to 
iletz,  where  he  held  a  rich  benefice,  and  developed 
!  a  great  activity  in  controversies  with  the  Reformed 
churches ;  was  made  Bishop  of  Condom  in  1009, 
but  resigned  this  office,  wlieii,  in  1070,  he  was  ai 
pointed  tutor  to  the  Dauphin,  with  whom  lie 
staid  till  108),  when  he  was  made  Bi.shop  of 
Meaux.  Bos.suet  first  attracted  attention  as  an 
orator  by  his  sermons ;  and,  so  far  as  eloquence 
is  an  art,  his  Discours  Fu7iebres  must  be  ranked 
among  the  highest  .specimens  of  Christian  elo- 
quence, though  they  reflect  the  splendor  and 
greatness  of  Louis  Quatorze  more  vividly  than 
the  power  and  humility  of  the  Gospel.  As  tutor 
to  the  Dauphin  he  wrote  Traitc  de  la  connaissance 
lie  Divu  I't  lie  soi-nu'ine  and  Discours  sur  I'llistuire 
unirerselle,  the  latter  of  which  is  a  strikinglj' origi- 
nal attempt  to  construct  a  Christian  philosophy 
of  history  on  the  ]>riiiciple  that  the  destinies  of 
nations  are  controlled  by  Providence  in  the  inter- 
est of  the  Roman-Catholic  Church.  Among  his 
controversial  writings  against  the  Protestants,  the 
two  iiiost  remarkable  are  Exposition  de  la  doctrine 
de  i'E;/lise  calholique  sur  Ics  muti'eres  de  cvntro- 
rerse  (1071),  and  Ilistoire  dcs  J'arialiuns  des  Eylises 
protestaiitcs  (IGSS).  The  latter  was  very  sharply 
criticised  by  Jurieu  and  Basnage,  and  involved 
its  author  in  a  long  and  vehement  controversy. 
His  fanaticism  against  the  Reformation  made  him 
so  blind  that  he  characterized  the  revocation  of 
the  Edict  of  Xantes  (1085)  as  "  le  plus  bel  usage  de 
rautorite."  He  was  no  ultramontanist,  howevi'r. 
On  the  contrary,  he  presided  in  1082  over  the  as- 
.sembly  of  the  French  clergy  which  the  King  had 
convened  in  order  to  defend  the  royal  prerogatives 
and  the  liberties  of  the  Galilean  Church  against  the 
claims  of  the  Pope.  Xor  was  he  in  the  least  tainted 
by  mysticism.  His  attacks  on  Fene!on  and  the 
Quietists  approached  ^■ery  near  to  persecution. 
His  passion  was  cold;  and  his  peculiar  ideas  of 
cluu-ch-polity  corn'sjionded  to,  if  they  were  not 
dictated  by,  Louis  Quatorze's  "  L'etat,  c'est  moi." 
The  latest  and  best  edition  of  his  works  appeared 
at  Versailles,  1819  sqq.,  in  40  vols.,  edited  by  Car- 
dinal Be.wsset,  who  also  wrote  his  life.  See 
also  T.\UAi!.\ii> :  Supplement  aux  Ilistoircs  de  Bus- 
suet  et  de  Fcnelon,  Paris,  1822;  [II.  L.  Sidxey 
Le.\r  :  Bnssucl  and  his  Contemporaries,  London, 
1874.  A  translation  of  select  sermons  was  pub- 
lished, 2d  ed.,  London,  ISOl].  C.  SCHMIDT. 

BOST,  Paul  Ami  Isaac  David,  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  lu'ct.il  in  Swit/.rrlaud  and  France,  b.  June 
10,  1700,  in  (Jeiieva;  d.  Dec.  14.  1874,  in  La 
Force.  His  father  was  a  Mt>ravian.  pious  and 
hard-working,  ser\'ed  as  chorister,  and  tauglit 
music;  and  piety  and  musical  tastes  were  sliowu 
by  the  son.  lie  .studicil  theology  in  Geneva  ;  but 
at  that  time  the  Bible  was  scarcely  opened,  so 
when  he  was  ordained  (1814)  he  had  little  lieart 
for  liis  profession.  Shortly  after,  however,  he 
was  converted.  For  the  greater  part  of  his  active 
life  he  was  a  missionary  of  the  London  Continen- 
tal Society.  He  was  of  an  active,  restless  dispo- 
sition, but  thus  providentially  spread  the  wider 
his  flaming  love  for  Christ.  Many  owed  to  him 
under  (iod  their  conversion.  He  was  no  tiieolo- 
gian ;  but  as  composer  and  poet  he  did  superior 
service,  and  he  has  written  some  valuable  works, 
among  tliem,  Ilistoire  drs  frcres  de  Bohime  et  ilc 
Moravie,  Genbve,  1831,  2  vols.,  particularly  hia  Me^ 


BOSTON. 


315 


BOYLE. 


moire.i  poumnt  ito-i-ir  a  I'hlitoire  du  re'veil  reliyieux, 
(ieucve,  ISol,  1855,  2  vols.  [See  GuKUs:  Pre- 
mier n'rcil  a  O'eiivri',  1871.]        KDWAUD  BAUDE. 

BOSTON,  Thomas,  li.  at  Dunsc,  Heiwicksliirc, 
Scotland,  March  17,  l(i7(i;  d.  at  Kttrick,  May  20, 
1732;  was  ('(liicati'd  at  tlio  rnivcrsity  ol'  Kdiu- 
Imrgli,  and  liccainc  minister  of  Siniprin  in  1(J9», 
and  of  Ettrick  in  17U7.  He  was  a  very  voliuni- 
nous  writer,  and  lias  exercised  };reat  influence  in 
tlie  Presbyterian  churclii-s  in  Scotland  and  Eng- 
land. The  two  works  by  which  he  is  now  best 
known  are,  T/ie  Crook  in  the  Lot,  a  book  for 
mourners,  being  the  substance  of  several  sermons  ; 
and  Ilinnaii  IViituiv  in  its  Fourjhlil  Slali;  of  Primilire 
Inlei/rlli/,  Entire  Dtpracution,  Bei/im  Jiccoreri/,  and 
Consumiiiale  II<ij>])iiiess  or  Uliseri/.  The  last  was 
first  published  iu  1720.  lie  left  an  autobiography, 
or  Memoirs,  which  appeared  in  1776.  A  collected 
edition  of  his  works  was  published  in  12  vols., 
London,  LS.'c'. 

BOUDINOT,  Elias,  b.  in  Philadelphia  May  2, 
1710;  d.  at  Purlington,  N.J.,  Oct.  24,  1S21 ;  re- 
■ceived  a  classical  education,  and  studied  law ;  was 
the  president  of  Congress  in  1782,  and  signed  as 
such  the  preliminaries  of  peace  with  Great  Bri- 
tain;  became  a  member  of  the  P)Oard  of  Conuuis- 
sioners  for  Foreign  Missions  in  1812,  and  in  181G 
the  first  president  of  the  American  Itible  Society, 
and  devoted  himself  with  great  zeal  and  seif- 
sacriflce  to  benevolent  and  philanthropical  under- 
takings, lie  published :  T/te  Aye  of  Revckdioyi, 
1790;  Second  Adreiit  of  the  Messiah,  1815;  and 
Star  in  the  West,  or  an  Allciiipt  to  discover  the 
Lonfj-lost  Tribes  of  Israel,  ISIG. 

B'OURDALOUE,  Louis,  b.  at  Bourges,  Aug.  20, 
10:52  ;  <1.  in  Paris,  ^May  l^i,  1704  ;  entered  the  Soci- 
ety of  the  Jesuits  in  1018 ;  was  for  some  time  a 
teacher  in  literature  and  rhetoric,  then  a  preacher 
in  the  provinces,  afterwards  in  Paris,  and  finally, 
after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Xantes,  in 
Eanguedoc,  among  the  Protestants.  As  a  preach- 
er he  has  neither  the  magnificent  oratory  of  Bos- 
suet,  nor  the  sympiathetic  strain  of  INlassillon:  his 
strength  is  in  the  clearness  of  liis  argument,  its 
readiness  and  its  cogency.  IMany  of  his  sermons 
have  been  translated  into  English,  London,  1776, 
4  vols.  One  of  the  best  recent  editions  is  that 
of  Paris,  1804,  4  vols.  The  best  old  edition  is 
Bretonneau's,  Paris,  1707-34,  16  vols.  Svo.  His 
life  was  written  by  Mailame  de  Piucny,  Paris, 
1705.  M.  Lauras  :  Bourdaloue,  sa  vie  et  ses 
ieuvres,  Paris,  1881  (1,222  pages). 

BOURIGNON,  Antoinette,  b.  at  Lille,  Jau.  13, 
1016;  d.  at  Franeker,  Oct.  30,  1G80 ;  grew  up 
neglected  and  solitary  because  of  her  temper  and 
her  physical  deformities,  spending  her  time  in 
reading  mystical  and  fantastical  books  ;  fled  just 
as  she  was  about  to  be  married,  and  found  ref- 
uge in  a  monastery  near  Cambray,  but  was  ex- 
pelled on  account  of  insubordination,  and  wan- 
dered about  for  the  rest  of  her  life  in  Flanders, 
Holland,  and  Korthern  Germany,  gathering  a 
number  of  restless  enthusiasts  around  her,  and 
busily  engaged  in  the  propagation  of  her  views, 
—  that  the  Church  needed  a  thorough  reforma- 
tion, that  there  existed  no  more  true  Christians, 
that  all  religious  rites  were  superfluous,  and  true 
worship  confined  to  an  inner,  mental  process,  etc. 
In  Scotland  her  ideas  foimd  some  adherents. 
Her  works  were  edited  (1679-86,  19  vols.),  and 


lier  life  written,  by  Poirkt,  Amsterdam,  1679, 
2  vols.  See  Elude  suj;  Ant.  Botiriynon,  by  M. 
E.  S.,  Paris,  1870. 

BOWER,  Archibald,  1..  at  Dundee,  .Tan.  17, 
1086;  d.  in  l^ondon,  Sept.  3,  1766;  wa.s  educated 
at  Douay ;  went  afterwards  to  Italy;  became  a 
.lesuit,  and  member  of  (lie  In(piisition  of  Mace- 
rata.  In  1726  he  suddenly  returned  to  England; 
became  a  member  of  the  Established  Chnich ; 
was  m,a<le  librarian  to  tlie  (,^ueen  in  1748,  and 
occupied  him.self  with  literature.  His  principal 
work  is  his  History  of  the  Popes,  7  vols.  4to,  Lon- 
don, 3d  ed.,  17.50-06;  which  contains  the  most 
copious  account  of  the  Popes  in  the  English  lan- 
guage, but  was  very  severely  criticised  on  account 
of  want  of  originality,  and  of  the  author's  re- 
peated clianges  of  religion.  Bishoj)  Douglas  of 
Salisbury  wrote  against  him,  Bower  ami  Tillevionl 
compared,  London,  1757. 

BOWRINC,  Sir  John,  b.  at  Exeter.  Oct.  17, 
1792 ;  d.  Xov.  22,  1872.  He  distinguished  him- 
self as  statesman,  translator,  and  original  author 
in  prose  and  poetry :  he  is  here  mentioned  for  his 
liynms.  He  issued  "  Matins  and  Vespers,  with 
Hymns  and  Devotional  Pieces,"  1823  (4th  ed. 
1851) ;  "  Hymns,  as  a  Sequel  to  the  JIatins," 
1825.  His  best  known  hynms  probably  are,  "  In 
the  Cross  of  Christ  I  glory,"  and  "  M'e  cannot 
always  trace  the  way"  (the  latter  has  been  erro- 
neously credited  to  anotlier). 

BOY-BISHOP,  a  boy  who  figured  in  one  of 
the  nnimmeries  so  connnon  in  the  middle  ages. 
He  was  a  cathedral-choir  boy  elected  by  his  fel- 
lows on  St.  Xicholas'  Day,  Dec.  6 :  arrayed  in 
episcopal  robes,  with  mitre  and  crosier,  and  fol- 
lowed by  liis  companions  as  priests,  he  made  his 
entry  into  the  cathedral ;  and,  except  the  offering 
of  nuiss,  he  discharged  episcopal  functions.  lie 
held  this  mock  office  until  Innocents'  Day,  Dec. 
28.  If  he  died  before  the  close  of  his  term,  he 
was  buried  in  liis  robes.  This  absurd  travesty 
was  enacted  in  many  ]iarts  of  Europe.  The  re- 
turning sense  of  the  Church  was,  however,  shown 
by  the  sixteenth  canon,  fourth  part  of  the  decis- 
ions of  the  Council  of  Paris,  1212  (see  Hefele 
Concilienyeschichle,  5th  vol.  p.  776),  peremptorily 
forbidding  them  ;  but  this  was  of  merel)'  mitional 
and  temporary  effect,  for  the  practice  continued. 
In  1.542  Henry  VIII.  of  England  abolished  the 
festival ;  but  it  was  revived  under  Queen  Mary, 
and  so  late  as  1556  English  boy-bishops  are  men- 
tioned. 

BOYLE  and  the  BOYLE  LECTURES.  Robert 
Boyle,  son  of  Richard  Boyle,  Earl  of  Cork,  was 
born  at  Lismore  Castle,  in  Ireland,  Jan.  25,  1627, 
and  educated  at  Eton.  From  1G38  to  1644  he 
lived  at  Geneva,  studying  natural  science ;  and 
after  his  return  he  first  settled  on  his  estate,  Stal- 
bridge,  then,  since  1654,  at  Oxford,  and  finally, 
since  1608,  in  London,  where  he  died  Dec.  30, 
1091.  He  was  never  married,  and  never  held  an 
office.  His  great  mental  gifts  and  his  large  for- 
tune he  devoted  to  the  study  of  natural  science 
and  to  labor  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  As  a 
scientist  he  holds  a  very  high  rank  ;  and  he  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Society  (1662), 
which,  indeed,  grew  out  of  that  association  of 
scholars  to  which  he  belonged  while  residing  at 
Stalbridge.  As  a  religionist,  lie  wrote  a  number 
of  theorogical  essays,  defrayed   the  expenses  of 


BOYS. 


316 


BRAHMANISM. 


tlie  Irish  translation  of  the  Xew  Testament,  of 
the  Malay  translation  of  the  Gospels  and  the  Acts. 
of  Pococke's  Arabic  translation  of  Grotius's  Dc 
Veritate.  etc.,  and  instituted  the  Boyle  Lectures,  — 
eight  sermons  to  be  preached  annually,  by  some 
one  elected  for  the  purpose,  against  raganisin, 
.Judaism,  Mohammedanism,  Deism,  and  Atheism. 
Some  of  England's  most  pronnnent  theologians 
have  successively  assumed  the  task,  and  thus  a 
valuable  body  of  apologetic  literature  has  been 
produced.  A'  selection  of  such  sermons  was  given 
in  -1  vols.,  by  Gilbert  Burnett,  in  1737.  A  col- 
lected edition  of  Boyle's  own  works,  with  a  life  of 
him  by  Bikch,  was  published  in  G  vols,  in  Lon- 
don. 1772.     See  Lectures. 

BOYS,  or  BOIS,  John,  h.  at  Nettlestead,  Suf- 
folk, Eng.,  .Ian.  ■',,  ISlil  :  d.  at  Boxworth,  Jan. 
11,  lG4:i;  was  so  precocious  tliat  he  could  read 
the  Bible  in  Hebrew  when  he  was  five  years 
old ;  was  fellow  at  Cambridge,  where  he  specially 
cultivated  Greek ;  became  rector  of  Boxworth  m 
1596,  and  prebendary  of  Ely,  IGl.).  He  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  translators  of  the  authorized 
version,  and  was  one  of  the  company  upon  the 
Apocrj^iha.  AVhen  it  was  finished,  he  joined,  at 
their  own  urgent  request,  the  company  at  work 
upon  the  section  from  Chronicles  to  Canticles, 
and  was  one  of  the  delegates  engaged  in  the  final 
revision.  He  was  one  of  the  greatest  scholars  of 
his  day  in  the  Oriental  languages.  He  assisted 
Sir  Henry  Savile  in  liis  edition  of  Chrysostom, 
Eton,  1613,  8  vols,  folio,  the  first  good  edition. 
He  left  many  manuscripts,  but  only  one  work  has 
been  published :  Veleris  iiiterjiirlis  rum  Beza, 
(iliisque  recenloribus  coUatio  in  I\'.  Ecanyeliis  el 
Apostolnrum  Actis,  London,  1655. 

BRADFORD,  John,  b.  at  Manchester  in  the 
first  decade  of  tlie  sixteenth  centui-y;  began  to 
study  law  in  the  Temple,  1547,  but  went  next 
year  to  Cambridge;  studied  theology,  and  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  Edward  VI.  in  1552.  On 
the  accession  of  Mary,  he  was  discharged,  and 
committed  to  the  Tower.  In  1554  he  was  ar- 
raigned before  Gardiner,  Bonner,  and  others,  and 
convicted  of  heresy;  and  .Tune  1,  1555,  he  was 
burnt  at  Smithfield'.  His  writings  have  been  re- 
publislied  by  the  Parker  Society,  edited  by  Town- 
send,  Cambridge,  1848.  There  is  a  Memoir  of 
him  by  Stevens,  London,  1832. 

BRADSHAW,  William,  a  Puritan  divine,  b.  at 
Markct-Hosworlh,  Li-icrslershire,  1.571 ;  d.  at  Xew- 
hall,  1618.  He  was  educated  at  Emniamiel  Col- 
lege, Cambridge;  obtained  a  fellowship  at  .Sidney 
Sussex  College,  Cambridge;  took  orders,  and  in 
1601  settUMl  at  Chatham  in  Kent ;  but,  refusing  to 
.sign  tiie  Thirty-nine  Articles,  he  was  soon  sus- 
pende<l,  and  obliged  to  remove.  He  at  last  was 
chosen  lecturer  of  Christ  Church,  Newgate  Street, 
London,  but  again  got  himself  into  trouble  by 
his  opposition  to  "ceremonies,"  aiul  retired  to  his 
native  county.  He  wrote :  A  Treatise  of  })ivine 
Worship.  Tending  li>  prove  thai  the  Ceremoniea:  im- 
posed upon  the  Ministers  of  the  Gospell  in  Enf/ltind, 
in  present  rontrouersie,  are  in  their  use  nnliiwfull 
(1611 1)  ;  A  Treatise  on  tlie  Nature  and  l^se  of  Thiiii/s 
Indifferent  [i.e.,  ceremonies]  (l(!l)5)  ;  I'.nijlish  Puri- 
tanisme.  Containeini) :  The  iiiaine  O/iininns  oj"  the 
riffidest  sort  of  those  that  are  called  I'liritanes  in  the 
Realme  of  Eni/land  (lUO')).  Tliis  imi)ortant  work 
is  given  ill  outline  iii  Ncal,  llariier'.s  ed.,  vol.   i. 


pp.  248  sq.  It  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Wil- 
liam Ames,  and  republished  in  Frankfort,  1610. 
.See  Dexter  :  Congregationalism  as  seen  in  its  Lit- 
erature, Bibliographical  Appendix. 

BRADWARDINE,  Thomas  (doctor  profundus),. 
I.,  [probal'ly  in  12!il>  at  Chichester,  Eng.];  d.  in 
London,  .\ug.  26, 134!( ;  studied  theology,  philoso- 
phy, mathematics,  and  astronomy  in  Merton  Col- 
lege, Oxford ;  became  one  of  the  proctors  of  the 
university  in  1325;  followed  Edward  III.  as  his 
confessor,  since  1338,  in  his  campaigns  in  France  ; 
and  was  chosen  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and 
consecrated  at  Avignon  a  few  weeks  before  his 
death.  His  great  work,  De  Causa  Dei,  more 
philosophical  and  metaphysical  than  theological 
in  its  character,  was  edited  by  Sir  Henry  Savile, 
London,  1618.  Several  of  his  mathenuitical  works 
were  published  at  Venice  or  Paris,  1495-1536. 
See  G.  Lechler  :  Wiclif,  I.  pp.  234  sqq.  [Eng- 
lish translation  by  Peter  Lorimer,  D.D.,  London,. 
1878,  2  vols.,  vol.'i.  pp.  88-96.]    G.  lechlkr. 

BRADY,  Nicholas,  b.  at  Baudon,  Ireland,  Oct. 
20.  16.5!);  d.  at  Uichmond,  IMay  2t1,  1726;  was- 
educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  Trinity 
College,  Dublin  ;  settled,  after  the  Revolution,  in 
Loudon ;  became  minister  of  St.  Catharine  Cree- 
and  lecturer  of  St.  Michael's  in  Wood  Street,, 
afterwards  rector  of  Richmond,  and  also  of  Clap- 
ham,  and  the  chaplain  of  King  William.  He- 
published  (1726)  a  translation  of  the  -Eneid  in 
four  volumes,  a  tragedy,  "  The  Innocent  Inipo.s- 
tor,"  two  volumes  of  sermons  (1704-06),  and,. 
in  conjunction  with  Tate,  a  metrical  translation 
of  the  Psalms,  London,  1695,  now  ordinarily 
printed  in  the  English  Book  of  Common  Pi-ayer- 
See  Tate,  Nahum. 

BRAHMA.     See  Brahmanism. 

BRAHMANISM'  is  .the  term  for  the  religiott 
and  practices  originated  and  elaborated  by  the- 
Brahmans,  who  are  the  highest  of  the  four  great 
classes,  or  castes,  into  which  the  Hindu  people 
are  divided,  —  the  Brahiiianas  ("  priests  "),  Ksha- 
triifos  ("soldiers"),  ]'(iisi/as  ("agriculturists"), 
and  Sudras  ("servants").  Like  other  religions, 
Brahmanism  has  its  sacred  books  and  their  offi- 
cial interpreters.  The  oldest  portions  of  this 
collection  are  the  Vedas  ("knowledge"),  or  Sruti 
("that  which  is  directly  lieard  or  revealed"). 
The  Vedas  are  divided  again  into  Mantra  ("the 
instrument  of  conveying  thought"),  prayer  and 
])rai.se,  enibo(lie<l  in  texts  and  metrical  hynms;. 
lirahniaiui,  or  ritualistic^  precept  and  illustration 
written  in  pro.se;  and  Upanisliad,  mystical  or 
secret  doctrine  appended  to  the  aforesaid  Brah- 
mana,  written  in  prose  and  occasional  ver.se,  and 
"the  only  part  of  tlie  Veda  much  studied  and 
apjiealed  to  by  educated  Hindus  in  the  pre.sent 
day." 

'I'here  are  four  Samhitas,  or  collections  of  Man- 
tra; viz.,  the  Jiigreda  (upon  which  the  other.s 
are  ba.sed),  the  Sinnareda,  the  yajurredii,  and  the 
Athiirrareda.  The  word  Vida  is  applied  to  that 
unwiitlcn  knowledge  which  came  like  breath 
from  Brahman:  hence  llie  \'e(la  is  often  called 
Brahman,  a  word  variously  interpreted,  —  "the 
universally  diffused  essence,"  or  "  the  sjiirit  of 
devotion,"  or  "divine  spiritual  knowledge."    The 


»  Iti  Itilt*  artirlc  cHpi'i-Iiil  im<'  ttiin  been  mitdr'  of  Dr.  Monlcr 
Wlllluni«'i<  llhiiiiiiHm,  iiMil  riiilV'KHur  Kkhl'Umij'ii  mi.  "  Brah- 
niuiilt.iu,"  ill  llu-  nlnlli  i-Ultiou  ^li  llie  h'lii  !/<  iojHtditi  HrUaunica. 


BRAHMANISM. 


317 


BRAHMANISM. 


liyiiiiis  of  the  Vi'ilas  (Miiliracc  tlio  earliest  known 
lyrics  of  the  Aryan  setMcM's  of  India.  Dr.  Monier 
Williams  thinks  they  wcn'e  (iroliably  coiuposeil  by 
a  sncccssiiin  of  |ioets,  at  different  dates  between 
151)0  and  1000  li.i:.  'J'lie  oldest  are  found  in  tin; 
Rifjoeila:  they  iiuniber  one  thousand  and  seven- 
teen, and  express  a  nature-worship  the  purest 
known.  The  latest  are  those  of  the  Alliart-ai-cda, 
jirincipally  u.sed  as  incantations  for  calling  down 
■or  driving  away  curses.  The  Vedas,  as  a  collec- 
tion, are  not  ea,sy  or  pleasant  reading;  but  they 
throw  light  upon  the  fjuality  of  mind  and  the 
t'uvironinent  of  our  Aryan  ancestors.  They 
prove  tliat  the  Aryan  was  a  worshipper  of  nature, 
liut  had  not  learned  to  distinguish  between  the 
<lifferent  objects  of  his  worship:  hence  he  gave 
to  them  tlie  generic  name  dcoa  ("the  shining 
fines").  "  In  the  prinutive  worship  of  the  mani- 
fold phenomena  of  nature  it  is  not  so  much  their 
physical  aspect  that  impresses  the  human  heart, 
as  the  moral  and  intellectual  forces  which  are 
supposed  to  move  and  animate  them."  The 
primitive  conception  best  .seen  in  the  Rigveda 
was  gradually  tarnished,  taking  on  in  the  later 
hynms  a  more  sensuous  and  anthiopomorphic 
•character-  Epithets  applied  to  the  same  divinity 
become  at  last  separate  divinities;  until  at  a 
later  period,  after  centuries  of  speculation,  a 
pantlieistic  conception  was  arrived  at,  and  this 
divine  essence  bore  various  names,  such  as 
Purusha  ("soul"),  Kama  ("desire"),  Brahman 
("devotion,  prayer").  Metaphysical  and  theo- 
sophical  speculations  completely  possessed  the 
authors  of  the  Bra/imanaa  and  the  UpanisJiads : 
and  the  compromise  between  polytheism  and 
monotheism  resulted  in  the  composite  pantheistic 
•system  which  makes  Prajapali  ("lord  of  crea- 
tures ")  the  personal  creator  of  the  world,  the 
manifestation  of  the  impersonal  Braluna,  the  uni- 
versal, self-existent  soul;  and  this  is  the  charac- 
teristic dogma  of  the  Brahmanical  period. 

The  Brahmaiuis,  the  second  division  of  each 
Veda,  were  composed  as  a  guide  to  the  Brahman 
in  sacrificing.  They  developed  the  ritual.  The 
oldest  dates  perhaps  from  the  seventh  century 
B.C.  They  contain  some  very  remarkable  ideas  ; 
thus,  that  "  the  gods  were  merely  mortals  till 
they  extorted  immoi'tality  from  the  Supreme  Be- 
ing by  sacrifices  and  austerities  ;  "  that  the  "  lord 
of  creatures  offered  himself  a  sacrifice  for  the 
gods ; "  that  human  sacrifices,  although  known, 
were  so  strongly  repugnant  to  the  Brahmans,  that 
they  legislated  against  them  in  favor  of  animal 
sacrifices.  Thousands  of  animals  were  killed 
every  day,  until  in  disgust  the  people  turned  from 
this  endless  succession  of  bloody  rites. 

The  Upanishaih,  the  third  division  of  each 
Teda,  which  present  the  underlying  doctrine,  are 
pantheistic.  "  There  is  one  real  Being  in  the 
universe,  which  Being  also  constitutes  the  uni- 
verse." The}'  are  not  earlier  than  600  B.C.,  and 
show  the  working  of  the  Ai-yan  mind  upon  reli- 
gious and  philosophic  problems.  They  .are  more 
mature  and  systematic  than  the  earlier  writings, 
and  contain  many  original  ideas  and  striking 
thoughts. 

Worship,  as  enjoined  by  the  Vedas,  rests  upon 
the  two  ideas  of  the  efficacy  of  prayer  and  of 
sacrifice.  Prayer  was  especially  emphasized : 
the  very  word  for  the  officiating  priest  was  brah- 


man ("one  who  prays").  'I"he  I'anlliion  of  the 
early  Hindus  was  thus  developed.  In  the  begin- 
ning was  Brithma,  sole  and  self-existent.  lie 
willed  to  creates  various  creatures  out  of  liis  own 
substance.  Accordingly,  by  meditation,  he  pro- 
duced the  waters  ;  into  them  lie  put  a  seed,  which 
developed  a  golden  egg;  and  from  that  egg  he 
was  born.  Hut,  as  the  people  did  not  aliandon 
their  worship  of  the  old  gods  to  take  up  with  any 
such  abstraction,  th(!  priests,  with  singular  tact, 
incorporated  the  most  popular  of  these  divinities 
with  Brahma,  and  so  the  triad  was  formed, — 
Brahma  ("the  creator  of  all  things"),  Vishnu 
("the  preserver,"  who  underwent  ten  ararlaras, 
or  incarnations,  to  deliver  the  people  from  the 
tyranny  of  as  many  wicked  princes),  and  Sica 
("the  destroyer").  Here  was  no  trinity,  for 
there  was  no  unity,  but  a  triad,  —  three  co-ordinate 
male  deities.  To  them  three  female  deities  were 
respectively  consorts,  —  Vach  or  Sararali  ("  the 
goddess  of  speech  or  learning"),  Sri  or  Lakshami 
("beauty,  fortune"),  and  Uma  or  Parrati  ("the 
daughter  of  Himaeaf,"  the  god  of  the  Himalaya 
mountains).  The  problem,  what  to  do  wiLb  the 
discarded  gods  of  the  Hindu  ])antheon,  was 
solved  by  relegating  them  to  the  domain  of  Indru 
("sky"),  an  intermediate  sphere,  into  which  men 
also  can  enter  at  death,  if  they  have  been  obedi- 
ent. The  retinue  of  Indra  consists  of  tlie  GaniUi- 
arvas  ("genii")  and  their  wives,  the  Apsaras, 
lovely  nymphs  whom  the  gods  often  select  to 
tempt  the  pious  devotee.  The  messenger  be- 
tween the  gods  and  men  is  Narada,  who  sprang 
from  the  forehead  of  Brahma.  The  god  of  love 
is  Kaiiiadera,  or  "  the  bodiless."  .so  called  because 
lie  was  reduced  to  ashes  by  an  angry  glance  from 
Siva,  whom  he  had  endeavored  to  make  fall  m 
love  with  Parvati,  while  at  his  (Siva'.s)  devotions. 
The  gods  in  this  heaven  of  Indra  resemble  men 
in  their  liability  to  be  reborn  in  a  lower  state, 
and  also,  therefore,  in  longing  for  emancipation 
from  such  a  dread. 

The  peculiar  institution  which  has  given  Indian 
life  its  distinctive  fiavor  is  caste.  Professor  Egge- 
ling  states  that  "  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
Hindus  do  not  feel,  and  perhaps  never  have  felt, 
their  class  I'estrictions  as  being  in  any  way  bur- 
densome, or  still  less  a  disgrace  to  them,  and 
that  even  the  lowest  man  looks  upon  his  caste  as 
a  privilege  as  high  as  that  of  the  Brahman."  It 
is  the  opinion  of  the  Brahmans  that  there  is  only 
one  original  caste  now  extant,  viz.,  their  own; 
all  the  others  having  resulted  from  successive 
intermixtures.  The  Brahman  occupies  iiis  posi- 
tion for  three  rea.sons,  —  his  assumed  sanctity, 
his  intellectual  superiority,  and  his  learning;  fcr 
in  the  popular  estimation  he  is  not  only  a  sharer 
in  divinity,  but  acquainted  with  the  sacred  bocks, 
the  Vedas,  and  also  the  Shastras  and  the  Puranas, 
which  are  modern  works,  composed  for  the  ex- 
press purpose  of  promoting  the  worship  of  some 
particular  deity.  Mr.  Sherring,  in  his  Hindu 
Tribes  and  Castes,  thus  describes  the  Brahman's 
apjiearauce  :  "  Light  of  complexion,  his  forehead 
ample,  his  countenance  of  striking  significance, 
his  lips  thin,  and  mouth  expressive,  his  eyes 
quick  and  sharp,  his  fingers  long,  his  carriage 
noble  and  almost  sublime,  the  true  Brahman, 
uncontaminated  by  European  influence  and  man- 
ners, with  his  intense  self-consciousness,  with  the 


BRAHMANISM. 


318 


BRAHMANISM. 


proud  conviction  of  superiority  depicted  in  every 
muscle  of  his  face,  and  manifest  in  every  move- 
ment of  liis  body,  is  a  wonderful  specimen  of 
humanity,  walking  on  (iod's  earth." 

Caste  is  later  than  the  oldest  Veda,  for  iu  the 
Rigceda  it  is  uukuowu.  The  word  means  "color," 
and  points  to  the  contrast  in  color  between  the 
aboriginal  Sudras  and  the  conquerors,  the  Aryas. 
As  among  the  latter  only  the  priestly  class  held 
themselves  aloof  from  marriage  with  the  Sudras, 
therefore  only  this  class  kept  the  strain  pure.  In 
coui-se  of  time  the  other  castes  were  formed,  dis- 
tinguished, not  now  by  color,  but  by  occupation. 
The  Ksltatrii/as  are  the  governing  and  military 
class  ;  the  Vaisyas  are  the  farmer  and  merchant 
class  ;  the  Sudras  are  the  servants,  particularly  of 
the  Bi'alimaus,  who  take  particular  pains  to  keep 
them  ignorant  of  botli  the  tlieory  and  practice  of 
religion  Between  the  Brahmans  and  the  Ksha- 
triyas  there  was  a  sharp  and  long  contest ;  but, 
when  the  former  were  victorious,  they  riveted 
their  chains  upon  the  obedience  of  all  lower 
castes  by  making  themselves  indispensable  to 
the  performance  of  any  rite.  Tliey  also  framed 
laws  which  made  any  injury  done  to  them  a  seri- 
ous affair;  while  they  migjit  almost  with  impu- 
nity maltreat  those  of  tlie  lower  castes.  The 
tliree  upper  castes  are  styled  the  "  Twice-born," 
because  their  sons  are  initiated  into  the  study  of 
the  Veda,  the  management  of  the  sacred  fire  and 
of  the  purifpng  rites,  by  a  singular  ceremon}-,  — 
the  rite  of  conducting  a  boy  to  a  spiritual  teacher, 
connected  with  which  is  the  investiture  with  the 
sacred  cord,  ordinarily  worn  over  the  left  shoulder 
and  under  the  right  arm,  and  varying  in  material 
according  to  the  class  of  the  wearer.  In  the  case 
of  girls  there  is  no  such  rite,  nor  is  there  any  such 
instruction.  Marriage  is,  however,  for  them  ac- 
cepted as  an  equivalent.  It  is  just  iu  this  matter 
of  marriage  that  the  caste  .system  does  most  mis- 
chief;  for  it  is  forbidden  by  Hindu  laws  for  a 
man  to  marry  into  a  caste  above  his  own,  wliile 
it  is  allowable  to  marry  in  any  or  all  those  below, 
if  he  has  already  a  wife  of  his  own  caste.  If, 
however,  he  marries  a  Sudra,  and  has  children  by 
her,  they  are  not  admitted  into  the  pri\'ileges  of 
the  "  Twice-born." 

But  great  social  and  religious  changes  are  tak- 
ing place  in  India.  "  It  is  satisfactory  to  know," 
says  Dr.  Williams,  "  that  although  it  is  too  true 
that  caste  is  still  the  very  life  and  soul  of  Hindu- 
ism, and  although  tins  very  caste  is  not  without 
certain  good  points  and  advantages,  yet  some  of 
its  most  vexatious  rules  ai'e  graduall}'  giving  way 
under  the  pressure  of  steam,  electricity,  and 
European  influence.  ^lany  ye;irs  ago,  a  Brahman 
who  accidentally  touched  leather  would  have  had 
to  choose  between  public  expiation,  or  degrada- 
tion, and  expulsion  from  caste;  whereas  in  ISTO 
a  Uriya  Brahman  held  the  post  of  sub-inspector 
of  police  in  Puri  itself,  under  the  very  shadow  of 
Jagannath,  although  a  leather  belt  iormed  part 
of  his  uniform."  Again:  no  caste  but  the  Brah- 
man's pretends  to  fulfil  the  round  of  duties  which 
lead  to  the  supreme  bliss,  which  is  ab.sorption  into 
the  one  eternal  .soul,  complete  deliverance  from 
the  circle  of  births  by  which  other  .soids  are  pun- 
ished and  purified.  Tliis  round  is  divided  into 
four  stages  :  (1)  Ri'Viijioits  sludi  til,  when  tlu'  youtli 
ii  studying  tlie  Vedas,  and  supjrarts  him.self  by 


begging  from  door  to  door  ;  (L')  Huusehuhlcr,  for 
marriage  is  obligatory,  else  there  would  be  no  son 
to  perform  funeral-rites:  (3)  Ancliorile,  reached 
when  the  man  is  a  grandfather,  then  he  goes  forth 
alone,  or  with  his  wife,  to  spend  his  time  in  the 
study  of  the  profounder  portions  of  the  Vedas, 
living  in  the  open  air  upon  fruit,  and  trying  to 
kill  every  worldly  desire;  (4)  Relir/ious  nicKdwant, 
now  he  begs  his  food  in  the  evening,  lives  in 
solitude,  and  meditates  upon  the  divinity.  In 
these  days  few  Brahmans  even  are  found  earnest 
enough  to  go  this  round. 

A  decided  change  for  the  better  is  in  the  treat- 
ment of  widows.  Hindu  law  does  not  allow  the 
remarriage  of  widows,  and  yet  their  treatment  is 
outrageous.  They  are  kept  in  complete  seclusion, 
the  object  of  scorn,  abuse,  and  barbarous  neglect ; 
stripped  of  their  jewels,  clad  in  the  coarsest  garb, 
compelled  to  perform  the  most  menial  duties^  and 
to  eat  the  poorest  food,  avoided  and  depised  as 
though  they  were  criminals.  So  miserable  is 
their  condition,  that  it  is  not  wonderful  they 
should  have  preferred  death  to  life,  and  therefore 
should  liave  performed  sultee,  or  voluntary  innno- 
lation  (which  really  is  a  comparatively  modern 
institution;  for  the  passage  iu  the  Rigceda  quoted 
in  its  defence  is  really  an  exhortation  to  the  widow 
to  return  home,  and  resume  her  usual  life),  burn- 
ing themselves  upon  the  pyre  of  their  husbands. 
But  tyrannical  custom  is  no  ionger  so  formidable. 
The  British  Government  thirty  years  ago  suc- 
ceeded in  prohibiting  sullce,  and  now,  iu  most 
parts  of  India  where  the  idea  of  widow-man  iages 
was  but  lately  repugnant,  and  considered  tanta- 
mount to  apostasy  from  the  ancestral  religion, 
and  the  first  step  towards  denationalization,  they 
are  becoming  common.  This  is  especially  true 
of  Bombay,  Bengal,  and  in  the  I'anjab. 

It  remains  to  speak  of  certain  peculiar  objects 
of  Hindu  worship,  and  of  two  great  religious 
movements  which  have  greatly  affected  Brahman- 
ism.  Three  animals  are  most  .sacred,  —  the  cow, 
the  serpent,  and  the  monkey.  The  first  "  typifies 
the  all-yielding  earth."  There  is  a  so-called  '•  cow 
of  plenty,"  of  which  images  are  sold  in  the  ba- 
zaars, and  everyMhere  revered.  The  serpent  is 
the  emblem  of  innnortality,  and  especially  a.s.soci- 
ated  with  Siva.  There  is  supposed  to  be  a  race 
of  half-divine  serpents  existifig  in  the  nether 
regions.  Monkeys  "are  inviolable,  and  never 
imder  any  circumstances  to  be  molested.  Swarms 
of  them  are  encour.aged  to  infest  the  vicinity  of 
temples  and  consecrated  buildings,  where  they 
subsist  upon  the  food  offered  them  by  ]iious  wor- 
shippers." Plants  are  al.so  sacred,  and  are  wor- 
shipped. Thus  the  'I'ulsi  plant  is  sacred  to  Vishnu, 
the  Vilva  to  .Siva,  llu'  Pipal  to  Brahma:  it  is 
invested  with  tlie  sacred  (lircad.  Certain  stones 
have  religious  value.  Indi>ed,  the  pantheism  of 
the  Hindu  philosophy  puts  (iod  into  every  thing; 
so  that  there  is  not  an  object  in  earth  or  he.aven 
which  lie  is  not  prepared  to  worship.  A\'e  are  not 
surprised,  therefore,  to  find  sacred  places.  They 
are  of  all  sizes,  from  Benares,  the  Hindu's  .lerusa- 
lem  or  Mecca,  down  lo  mere  hamlets.  Kiver.s, 
too,  come  in  for  their  .share  of  adoration.  .Stately 
rivers  like  the  (Janges  naturally  hold  the  first 
place.  Bathing  in  them  clean.ses  from  the  foulest 
sins.  It  is  extremely  meritorious  to  trace  their 
course  on  foot,  —  a  work  of  no  small  amount  of 


BRAHMO. 


319 


BRAHMO. 


laboi-.     It  takes  six  years  to  make  such  a  pilgrim- 
age of  the  (Janges. 

IJraliiiianisiii  has  encouiitei'ed  one  l'ormiilal)li' 
clieck,  —  lUiddhisin.  Tliis  new  religion  sprang  up 
in  Iiitlia  itself.  It  seemed  likely  to  gain  tlie  mas- 
tery;  lint  after  a  time  it  became  so  corrnpt,  that 
it  "no  lunger  attracted  the  people ;  and  wlien  the 
support  of  the  powerfid  kings  wlu)  had  protected 
it  was  withdrawn,  it  fell.  According  to  the  un- 
certain traditions  which  have  come  down  to  us, 
its  suppression  was  accompanied  with  bloodshed. 
By  the  eleventh  Christian  century  it  had  died  out 
in  India.  Yet  it  was  purer  in  its  morality,  and 
freer  in  its  polity,  than  Brahmanism.  It  accepted 
the  caste  system,  yet  proclaimed  the  eqiuility  of 
all  men  in  point  of  religious  pi-i\ilege.  Kor  Jiave 
all  traces  of  its  existence  vanished.  "  The  human- 
izing spirit  of  its  doctrines  left  a  deep  impress  on 
the  llindu  mind,"  and  it  also  led  to  the  doubtful 
institution  of  monastioism.  The  convents  are 
called  tiialhs,  and  their  superiors  mahduts.  They 
are  quite  numerous  in  all  parts  of  India.  A  cpiali- 
fied  Buddhism  exists  at  the  present  day  in  tlie 
important  sect  of  tlie  Jains.  They  reject  the 
Vedas,  yet  retain  belief  in  the  Hindu  gods.  They 
pay  great  respect  unto  holy  men  who  have,  by 
conquering  all  worldly  desire,  raised  themselves 
to  divine  perfection. 

Lit.  —  H.  II.  AVilson:  Two  Lectures  on  tin 
Keliyious  Practices  and  Opinions  of  the  Hindus. 
Oxford,  1840;  the  same:  .4  .Sketch  of  the  Rili- 
f/ious  Sects  of  the  Hindus,  Calcutta,  1846;  Eli'III.n- 
STONE :  Historij  of  India,  1841,  2  vols,  (new  ed. 
by  E.  B.  Cowell) ;  C.  Lassen:  Indische  Alter- 
tumskunde,  Bomi,  1844-62,  4  vols.  ;  J.  MuiR  : 
(Jriijintd  Sanskrit  Texts  on  the  Origin  and  Histortj 
of  the  People  of  India,  their  Religion  and  Institu- 
tions, collects/,  translated,  and  illustrated,  London, 
1858-70,  5  vols.;  F.  Max  Mui-ler:  Histori/  of 
Ancient  Sanskrit  Literature,  Oxford,  1860;  Sam- 
uel Johnson  :  Oriental  Religions,  vol.  I.,  India, 
Boston,  1872;  W.  A.  Leonard:  Hindu  Thought : 
A  Short  Account  of  the  Religious  Books  of  India, 
Glasgow,  1876;  J.  V.\ughan;  7'he  Trident,  the 
Crescent,  and  the  Cross  [in  India],  London,  1876 ; 
MoNiEK  Williams:  Indian  IlV.vf/yw,  3d  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1876  ;  the  same  :  Hinduism,  London,  1878  ; 
A.  Beugaigne:  Les  deux  souverains  de  la  religion 
vedique,  Paris,  1877 ;  the  same :  La  religion  ve- 
dique  d'apres  les  hymnes  du  Rig-Veda,  Paris,  1878 
sq. ;  J.  VVackernagel  :  Ueber  den  Ursprung  des 
Brahmanismus,  Basel,  1877  (a  valuable  lecture  of 
35  pages)  ;  F.  Max  IMuller  :  Origin  and  Grouih 
of  Religion  as  illustrated  htj  the  Religions  of  India., 
London,  1878;  A.  Barth  :  Religions  de  I'Inde, 
Paris,  1880.  —  For  the  sources  see  Sacred  Books 
of  the  East,  edited  by  F.  Max  JMuller,  Oxford, 
1879  sqq.  ;  Kagi;  Der  Rigveda,  2d  ed.,  Leipzig, 
1881.  SAMUEL  M.   JACKSOX. 

BRAHMO  SOMAJ  (ivorshipping-asscmbbf)  OF 
INDIA  is  the  Theistic  Church  of  India,  which 
owes  its  present  position  and  power  to  the  Babu 
Keshub  Chunder  Sen.  The  movement  originated 
in  the  Rajah  Ram  Mohun  Roy  (b.  Bombay,  1772 ; 
d.  Bristol,  Eng.,  1833),  who',  on  Jan.  2:5,  1830, 
founded  in  Calcutta  the  Brahmiya  Somaj  (Society 
of  God).  He  held  that  if  the  oldest  sacre'd  books, 
particularly  the  Upanishads  (the  philosophical 
treatises),  of  the  Vedas,  were  correctly  interpreted, 
they  would  be  found  to  teach  monotheism ;  and  so, 


basing  hhnself  ujion  the  piiniitive  faith,  he  boldly 
di.ssuaded  his  landsmen  from  idolatiy.  But  the 
.sect  made  little  jirogre.ss  until,  in  1842,  it  was 
joined  by  Debendra  Xatli  Tagore,  who  re-formed 
it,  and  led  it  unto  success,  lie  adopted  European 
|ilaiis  of  projiagaiidism,  .started  a  journal,  jnib- 
hslied  sectarian  treatises,  a])pointed  teachers,  and 
so  succeeded  in  awakening  w  ide-spread  interest, 
leading  to  the  formation  of  branch  Somajes  in 
dilferent  parts  of  Bengal.  The  idea  of  an  au- 
thoritative revelation  in  the  Vedas,  which  Roy 
had  defended,  was  formally  given  up.  In  1858 
Keshub  Chnnder  .Sen  joined  the  sect,  and  quickly 
showed  himself  to  be  a  reformer.  Koy  was  bet- 
ter versed  in  Christian  than  in  Hindu  theology. 
Tagore  was  conservative,  and  clung  to  the  ances- 
tral faith,  although  he  -was  a  radical  in  some 
lines.  Sen  developed  an  eclectic  theology,  veiy 
largely  biblical,  at  least  in  the  two  principal  doc- 
trines of  the  Fatherhood  of  (Jod  and  the  brother- 
hood of  man.  After  a  time,  it  became  evident  that 
the  two  parties  in  the  Somaj  must  separate ;  and 
in  February,  1S65,  a  large  number  of  the  younger 
Brahmos  left  the  Calcutta  Somaj,  and  in  Novem- 
ber, 1866,  they  organized  Iheiiiselves  into  the 
"  Bralimo  Somaj  of  India  ;  "  while  the  con.servative 
portion  is  call(.'il  the  ••  Adi  (original)  Ihahnio 
Somaj."  The  three  propositions  announced  by 
Sen,  and  which  precipitated  the  disruption,  were, — 

"  1.  That  the  external  signs  of  ca.ste  distinctions, 
such  as  the  Brahininical  thread,  shoukl  not  be  u.seil. 
[See  Brahmanism.] 

"2.  Tliat  none  but  Brahiuos  of  suflficient  ability  and 
good  moral  character,  wlio  lived  eonststently  with 
their  profession,  should  be  allowed  to  conduct  the 
services  of  the  Somaj. 

"  3.  That  nothing  should  be  said  in  the  Soraaj  ex- 
pressive of  hatred  or  contempt  for  other  religions." 

Under  Sen,  the  Somaj  was  a  grand  spiritual 
force ;  for  he  is  a  man  of  extraordinary  fervor 
and  piety.  He  laid  down  the  following  Precepts 
of  Practical  Deration  (condensed)  :  — 

1.  Pray  unto  God  every  day,  and  worship  the  Only 
Perfect,  Infinite,  Omnipresent,  Omnipotent,  Omnis- 
cient, All-merciful,  and  All-holy  One. 

(6)  Carefully  cut  off  all  connection  witli  every  man- 
ner of  idolatrous  ceremony  and  festival. 

2.  Knowing  God  to  be  the  common  Father,  thou 
Shalt  love  every  man  as  thy  brother,  anil  every  woman 
as  thy  sister. 

(V)  Do  not  hear  any  emblem  of  idolatry. 

(c)  Do  not  join  any  ceremony,  or  encourage  any 
movement,  which  upholds  the  distinction  of  caste. 

(.3)  Be  truthful.  (4)  Be  good  unto  others.  (.-))  Deal 
justly,  ((i)  Be  forgiving.  (7)  Govern  all  thy  pas- 
sions, and  keep  them  under  restraint.  (S)  Faithfully 
perform  thy  domestic  duties. 

The  movement  is  towards  the  Christian  concep- 
tion of  doctrine  and  life.  But,  although  rever- 
encing Christ,  they  are  essentially  Unitarians. 
They  have  been  well  called  the  "  Protestants  "  of 
India ;  for  they  protest  against  pantheism,  poly- 
theism, idolatry,  caste,  and  the  speculations  which 
infidel  Englisli  science  spreads,  ilany  of  their 
adherents  "come  from  the  government  schools. 
They  have  churches  in  various  parts  of  India. 

In  1872  the  "  Xative  :Marriage  Act  "  ^N'as  passed, 
which  legalized  marriages  by  Brahmic  rites,  re- 
quired tiiat  the  bridegroom  should  be  at  least 
eighteen,  and  the  bride  fourteen  years  old,  and 
made  bigamy  a  penal  offence  for  any  one  marry- 


BRAIN  ERD. 


320 


BRAINERD. 


iiig  under  the  Act.  This  Act  marked  a  wonder- 
ful progress  in  enlightened  views.  Greatly  to 
the  consternation  of  the  Bralnno  Soinaj,  Keshub 
Clumder  Sen,  who  had  been  the  prime  mover  in 
agitating  for  the  Act,  and  who  was  so  generally 
revered,  was  the  first  to  countenance  a  wilful  de- 
parture from  liis  own  principles ;  for  in  1878  he 
married  liis  eldest  daughter,  aged  thirteen,  to  the 
minor  rajah  of  Kuch  Behar,  aged  sixteen,  and, 
furthermore,  with  Hindu  marriage-rites.  The 
marriage  evoked  great  opposition  on  account  of 
its  un-Brahmic  character;  and  a  split,  in  conse- 
quence, took  place  in  the  Brahmo  Somaj,  and  at 
the  present  day  (ISSl)  the  adherents  of  Keshub 
Chunder  .Sen  are  a  decided  minority.  It  was  a 
grievous  disappointment  to  his  followers  to  find 
the  leader  of  the  Brahmo  StJmaj  ready  to  sacrifice 
princijile  to  personal  interest.  Since  1878  Sen 
has  certainly  acted  very  strangely,  issuing  blas- 
piianious  proclamations,  and  showing  a  desire  to 
approach  the  Hindu  idolatry,  which  lie  once  so 
emphatically  and  manfully  renounced.  Never- 
theless the  movement  which  he  so  powerfullj' 
aided  makes  daily  progress,  which  shows  that  it 
has  life  independent  of  (he  great  leader.  The 
sect  has  a  hundred  and  thirty  small  churches 
scattered  over  the  country,  and  celebrated  in  1880 
its  semi-centennial  with  pride  and  gratitude.  The 
normal  t\-pe  of  a  Brahmo  church  embraces  these 
features : — 

Religions. 

(1)  Congregational  worship  at  least  once  a  week. 

(2)  Keligious  festivals  on  special  occasions. 

(3)  Strictly  Brahmic  ceremonies  at  births,  mar- 
riages, and  deaths. 

(4)  A  religious  couversation-class  for  zealous  mem- 
bers. 

(5)  A  theistic  library. 

(6)  Diffusion  of  principles  by  mission-tours,  tracts, 
and  a  periodical. 

Philanllirojiic. 

(1)  Charitable  donations  to  the  poor  and  disabled. 

(2)  Dispensaries  for  the  sick. 

(3)  Societies  for  the  discouragement  of  intemper- 
ance, premature  marriages,  and  other  eAils. 

Educational. 

(1)  Instruction  of  women  by  various  methods. 

(2)  Sclmols  f<ir  boys  and  girls. 

(3)  Night-schools  for  working-men. 

The  movement  .seems  adapted  to  promote  edu- 
cation and  virtue,  the  vanguard  of  the  Christian 
Host.     Sen  died  Jan.  8,  1884. 

See  the  able  and  interesting  little  annuals  of 
Wiss  Soi'iiiA  Doiisox  Coi.LKT  :  The  Hmhmo  Year- 
Book,  London,  lS7(i-8:i;  G.  S.  Lko.nakd  :  A 
Jlislori/  of  l/ii:  Brahmo  Soma/',  from  its  Rise  lo  the 
Present  Day,  Calcutta,  1879 ;  T.  K.  Slatek  : 
Keshab  Chandra  Sen  and  the  Brahma  SamaJ,  Lon- 
don, 1881.  H.VMUEL  M.  JACKSON. 

BRAINERD,  David,  a  celebrated  missionary  to 
the  Indians;  b.  at  Iladdam,  Conn.,  April  20,  ltl8; 
d.  at  Northam])ton,  Oct.  0,  1747.  His  father, 
Ilezekiah  Brainerd,  was  a  mendicr  of  the  King's 
Council  for  tiiat  colony  :  his  mother,  Dorothy,  was 
the  daugliter  of  Kev.' Jeremiaii  IIol)art,  aiid,  by 
a  previous  maniage,  the  motlier  of  .Jeremiaii 
Wa.son,  grandfather  of  the  great  lawyer  of  that 
name.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  was  l(?ft  an 
orphan.     He  was  a  tlioughtful  boy,  inclined  to 


melancholy,  and  full  of  religious  feeling.  His 
account  of  the  spiritual  struggles  that  preceded 
his  conversion  is  very  striking.  In  1739  he  en- 
tered Yale  College,  where  he  stood  first  in  his 
class.  In  February,  1742,  he  was  expelled,  very 
unjustly,  as  he  and  his  friends  always  felt.  It 
was  the  time  of  "  The  Great  Awakening."  He  was 
in  sympathy  with  the  "  Xew  Lights.''  as  those 
who  followed  Wliitefield  and  Tennent  were 
called ;  and  an  indLscreet  remark,  to  the  eifect 
that  one  of  the  tutors  "  had  no  more  grace  than 
that  chair,"  ha\  ing  been  overheard,  and  reported 
to  the  rector,  occasioned  his  expulsion.  Later  he 
made  a  very  manly  acknowledgment  of  his  error, 
and  asked  to  be  allowed  to  take  his  degree ;  but, 
in  spite  of  tlie  intercession  of  Jonathan  Edwards 
and  others,  his  request  was  refused.  This  caused 
so  much  indignation  among  his  friends  as  to 
have  led.  it  is  said,  to  the  founding  of  Princeton 
College.  In  July,  1742,  he  was  licensed  to 
preach,  and  in  April,  1743,  began  to  labor  as  a 
missionary  at  Kaimameek,  an  Indian  village 
between  Stockl)ridge  and  Albany.  He  lived  m  a 
little  cabin  built  by  himself,  and  lodged  upon  a 
bundle  of  straw.  His  food  was  chiefly  boiled 
corn,  hasty-pudding,  and  samp.  Here  he  con- 
tinued for  a  year.  Declining  repeated  calls  to 
churches  at  home,  in  June,  1744,  he  was  ordained 
at  Xewark,  X.J..  as  a  missionary  of  the  Scottish 
"  Society  for  Propagating  Christian  Knowledge," 
to  the  Indians  at  the  forks  of  the  Delaware,  near 
the  present  town  of  Easton,  Penn.  In  June, 
174."),  he  started  a  mission  at  Crossweeksung,  near 
Freehold,  N.J.  Here  his  success  was  wonderful ; 
and  liere,  with  the  exception  of  a  journey  through 
the  forest  to  the  Indians  on  the  Susquehanna, 
he  toiled  until  the  spring  of  1747,  when,  in  con- 
sequence of  tlie  hardships  he  had  endured,  his 
health  broke  down,  and  he  was  advised  to  seek 
relief  by  travel  in  New  England.  In  July  he 
returned  from  Boston  to  Xortham]iton,  where, 
in  the  home  of  Jonathan  Edwards,  and  niu'sed  by 
Jerusha,  the  young  daughter  of  the  great  theo- 
logian, to  w  hom  lie  was  engaged,  • —  herself  a 
youtliful  saint,  —  this  eminent  servant  of  God 
passed  his  last  days.  He  entered  into  rest  Oct. 
9,  1747,  in  the  thirtielh  year  of  his  age.  Brai- 
iierd's  career  was  very  brief,  au<l  in  visitde  results 
it  was  far  surjiassed  by  that  of  Da\id  Zeisberger, 
not  to  mention  other  Moravian  missionaries 
among  the  Indians.  His  great  work  was  the 
priceless  example  of  his  Jiiety,  zeal,  and  self-devo- 
tion. Herein,  since  the  days  of  the  apostles,  none 
'  have  surpassed  him.  And  his  unconnnon  intel- 
lectual gifts,  his  fine  personal  qualities,  his  niel- 
aucholy  and  his  early  death,  as  well  as  liis 
remarkalile  holiness  and  evangelistic  labors,  have 
conspired  to  invest  his  memory  with  a  peculiar 
halo.  The  story  of  his  life  has  been  a  iiotent 
force  in  the  modern  missionary  era.  It  is  related 
of  Henry  M;irtyn.  that,  "perusing  llie  life  of 
David  Brainerd.  his  soul  was  tilled  with  a  lioly 
emulation  of  that  extraordiiiary  man ;  and,  after 
dee|i  consideration  and  fervent  ]irayer,  lie  w.as  at 
length  fixed  ill  a  resolution  to  imitate  Iiis  exam- 
ple." Brainerd  was  a  representative  man.  formed 
both  by  nature  and  grace  to  leave  a  lasting  im- 
pression upon  the  ]ii('ty  of  the  Church.  He  is 
tlie  missionary  saint  of  New  Knglaml.  Presi- 
dent Kuw.\i!i>s:  Memoirs  of  the  liei:  David  Brai- 


BRAINBRD. 


321 


BRAZIL. 


neirl,  Life  and  JiHirniiU,  oil.  by  l)wif;lit,  New 
Haven,  \^2-2;  W.  15.  ().  Pkahody  in  Scakks:  Am. 
Biof/.  VI il.   \'lll.  GEO.  h.  PKENTIH8. 

BRAINERD,  John,  -.i  brotlier  of  David,  1).  at 
lladdani.  Conn.,  Feb.  28,  1720,  and  d.  at  Dcer- 
field,  X.J.,  March,  1781.  He  was  gradnatcd  at 
Yale  College  in  1740,  and  in  1717  tooli  lii.s  brotli- 
■er's  place  as  nii.s.sionary  to  tlie  Indians.  lie  also 
labored  as  a  home  missionary  among  tlie  wliites. 
From  1754  to  liis  death  he  was  a  trnstee  of  tlie. 
College  of  New  .Jersey.  lie  was  a  modcsl,  meek 
man,  and  a  devoted  servant  of  Christ.  'I'/ir  IJjh 
■of  Jfihn  Bniiiicrd,  by  Rev.  T.  BiiAlNHKD,  I'hiUi., 
iSfi.V  «.  L.  1>. 

BRAINERD,  Thomas,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  di- 
vine, b.  at  Leyden,  N.Y.,  June  17,  1804  ;  d.  at 
Scranton,  I'enn.,  Aug.  22,  1800.  His  father,  Je.sse 
Brainerd,  was  a  great-grandson  of  .lames  Brai- 
nerd,  brother  of  Hezekiah,  the  father  of  David 
and  John,  the  missionaries.  lie  was  converted 
under  the  preaching  of  the  Rev.  Charles  G.  Fin- 
ney, while  a  student  of  law  at  Rome.  Be- 
fore completing  his  legal  studies,  he  decided  to 
prepare  for  the  ministry.  After  three  years  in 
the  theological  seminary  at  Andover,  he  became 
in  1831  pastor  of  the  Fourth  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Cincinnati.  In  March,  1837,  he  was 
installed  over  the  Pine-street  Church  in  Pliiladel- 
piiia,  wliere  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  days.  Dr. 
Brainerd  was  a  bosom-friend  of  Lyman  Beecher 
and  Albert  Barnes.  He  was  a  nuiii  of  superior 
gifts,  genial,  whole-souled,  and  full  of  zeal  for 
God.  His  appointment  by  the  New-School  Gen- 
eral Assembly  at  St.  Louis,  in  18(3G,  as  chairman 
■of  its  committee  of  conference  on  re-union,  shows 
the  high  esteem  in  which  he  was  held  by  that 
branch  of  the  Presbyterian  Church.  Dr.  Brai- 
nerd was  an  effective  writer  for  the  religious  press, 
and  the  author  of  a  valuable  Life  of  John  Bmi- 
tterd.  During  the  war  he  was  distinguished  for 
his  patriotic  ardor  and  services.  Life  of  llei\ 
T/inmas  Brainerd,  D.D.,  Phila.,  by  M.  Brainerd, 
1870.  G.  L.  r. 

BRAMHALL,  John,  b.  at Pontefract.  Yorkshire, 
Eng..  in  1593;  d.  in  Dublin,  June,  1663;  was 
educated  at  Cambridge  ;  became  chaplain  to  the 
Archbishop  of  York  in  1623;  went  to  Ireland  in 
1633,  and  was  made  Bishop  of  Londonderry  in 
1634 ;  lived  in  exile  during  the  Revolution,  but 
returned  to  Ireland  after  the  Restoration ;  and 
was  made  Archbishop  of  Armagh  in  1661.  Of 
his  writings,  among  which  his  controversies  with 
Milletiere  and  with  Hobbes  are  the  most  remarka- 
ble, a  collected  edition  in  one  volume  folio  was 
published  in  Dublin,  1677,  and  republished  in 
5  vols.,  Oxford,  1842-45,  accompanied  ^ith  a 
sketch  of  his  life. 

BRANDENBURG.     See  Prussia. 

BRANDT,  Gerard,  b.  in  Amsterdam,  July  25, 
1626;  d.  there  Dec.  11,  1685;  was  first  pa,stor  of 
the  Remonstrant  Church  in  Nieukoop,  then,  since 
1660,  at  Hoorn,  and  finally,  since  1667,  in  Am- 
sterdam. He  wrote  a  History  of  the  Reformation 
in  the  Low  Countries  (4  vols.,  1671-1704),  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Chamberlavne,  London, 
1720-23,  4  vols,  fob,  and  lives  of  Barneveldt, 
Ruyter,  etc. 

BRANT,  Sebastian,  b.  at  Strassburg,  14.57;  d. 
there  1.521 ;  studied  law  and  literature  at  Basel ; 
and  was  made  syndicus  of  his  native  city  in  1501. 
22  —  1 


He  was  a  very  prolific  writer,  lioth  on  law  and 
belles-lettres,  and  is  the  author  of  the  famous 
satirical  poem  Dan  NarrenschiJI',  1  lll4,  translated 
into  Latin,  French,  and  English,  often  imitated, 
and  u.sed  iis  text  for  conmienls  and  moral  reflec- 
tions. Warci^w'h  Ship  ff  Fools,  \7M),  is  a  free 
imitation.  '\V.\tson  gave  an  abridged  jirosi!  ti'ans- 
lation  in  1517.  Be.sl  edition  of  original  text  by 
Zarncke,  Leipzig,  1872:  Sinn'ock  has  translated 
it  into  modern  German,  Berlin,  1872.  See 
('iiAiiLiis  SciiMinr:  S.  Jlninl,  1874. 

BRAY,  Thomas,  D.D.,  b.  at  Marton,  in  Shrop- 
shire, 1650;  d.  in  London,  Feb.  15,  1730.  He 
took  his  degree  of  M.A.  at  Oxford,  1693  ;  founded 
the  ".Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  (iospel 
in  Foreign  Parts,"  1698;  and  was  from  March 
1700  to  1701  in  Maryland,  I'.S.A.,  as  connnissary 
for  organizing  Episcopal  chnrdies,  lieing  .sent  out 
by  Bishop  Compton.  In  1700  he  became  rector 
of  St.  Botolph,  Aldgate,  London.  He  was  a 
faithful  pastor,  particularly  interest-d  in  the  im- 
provement of  the  people  by  parocliial  libraries. 
His  principal  publications  were  Calechetiral  Lec- 
tures, which  induced  Bishop  Cotnpton  to  .appoint 
him  his  connnissary  ;  Bibliotheeu  //aroc/iialis,  vol.  I. 
(all  written),  1697,  2d  ed.,  1707,  a  manual  for  the 
clergy ;  Papal  Usur/iulion  ami  Ti/runn?/,  ancient 
and  modern,  1712  (pvdilished  anonymously).  A 
Memoir  of  him  was  published  in  London,  1848, 
by  the  "Bray  Associates." 

BRAZIL.  The  Roman-Catholic  Church,  intro- 
duced by  the  Portuguese  when  they  took  possession 
of  the  country  in  1500,  and  propagated  among  the 
natives,  first  by  Franciscans,  and,  since  1.549,  by 
.Jesuits,  is  the  Church  of  the  .State,  and  com- 
prises, besides  the  Archliishopric  of  Bahia,  11 
bishoprics  and  1,333  parishes.  But  the  Church  is 
completely  dependent  upon  the  State :  it  has  no 
property  of  its  own.  Its  officials  are  paid,  and 
very  poorly  paid,  by  the  State.  The  bisliops  and 
even  the  priests  are  appointed  by  the  emperor. 
The  monasteries,  of  which  there  are  ninety-one, 
are  rapidly  closing,  as,  by  a  law  of  1S60,  they  are 
forbidden  to  receive  novices.  Other  confessions 
are  tolerated,  and  are  now  allowed  to  have  pub- 
lic worship,  but  not  to  build  churches  with 
spires  and  bells.  Of  late  many  favors  have  been 
gra^:ted  to  the  Protestants.  The  (Jerman  immi- 
gration, which  began  in  1824,  has  become  quite 
important,  and  most  of  the  innnigrants  are  Prot- 
estants. For  many  years  these  Protestants  lived 
without  any  proper  nunisterial  care,  choosing 
some  laymen  to  act  as  ministers  (Schnapps- 
pfarrer),  and  consecrate  their  marriages.  But 
since  the  arrival  of  Dr.  Borchard  in  1804,  and  by 
the  active  support  of  the  Comite  fiir  die  prates- 
tantischen  Deutschen  in  Siidbrasilien,  formed  at 
Barmen,  and  the  mission-liouse  of  Basel,  the  reli- 
gious life  of  the  Protestant  congregations  lias  nmch 
improved.  The  Preslnierian  Church  (North) 
has  recently  established  a  mission  in  Br.azil.  See 
the  reports  of  the  Connnittee  of  Barmen,  espe- 
cially No.  V. 

Brazil  was  a  colony  of  Portugal  up  to  1822, 
when  its  independence  was  declared.  The  con- 
stitution of  1824,  still  in  force,  st.ates  tliat"the 
Homan-Catholic  religion  will  continue  to  be  the 
religion  of  the  State ;  but  all  sects  will  be  toler- 
ated, provided  that  they  should  hold  worship  in 
special  buildings  put  up  for  the  piu'pose,  without 


BREAD. 


322 


BREITINGER. 


the  externai  form  of   churches."     The   coiistitu-  I 
tion   also   determines  that   no   bulls  or  apostolic  ] 
constitutions  shall  be  published  and  promulgated  , 
in  the  empire  by  the  Koman-Catholic  authorities 
without  the  placet  of  the  sovereign.     The  appoint^ 
ment  of  the  bishoj)s  by  the  Pope  is  also  suliject 
to  the  approval  of  the  government.     The  liberty 
of  the  press  is  guaranteed,  except  as  to  denying 
the  existence  of  God  and  the  immortality  of  the 
soul.     Brazil  is  a  Konian-Catholic  province,  with 
one  archbishop  (in  Bahia),  who  is  the   primate, 
and  ten  bishops.     The  clergy  are  mostly  Portu- 
guese and  Italian,  and  they  exert  but  little  hiflu- 
ence  on  the  government  and  people. 

There  are  a  good  number  of  Protestant  churches 
in  Brazil,  principally  in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Sao  Paulo, 
and  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.  Several  foreign  missiona- 
ry societies  have  missions  in  the  empire,  and  tliere 
are  half  a  dozen  native  Protestant  ministers. 

In  1873  there  was  a  serious  conflict  between 
the  State  and  the  Established  Church.  The  young 
and  intelligent  Bishop  of  Pernambuco  tried  to 
enforce  some  of  tlie  injunctions  of  the  Papal 
Syllabus  of  1864,  among  them  those  against  the 
Freenmsons,  some  of  whom  he  expelled  from  a 
certain  brotherhood.  The  que.stion  was  submit- 
ted to  the  government ;  but  the  bishop  disobeyed 
orders,  and  was  then  tried  by  tlie  Supreme  Court, 
and  condemned  to  prison.  His  colleague  of  Tani 
was  also  tried  for  a  similar  offence,  and  equally 
condennied.  Later  on,  however,  both  were  re- 
leased ;  and  the  question  of  how  far  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Church  itself  is  free  in  Brazil  is  precisely 
where  it  was  befoi-e  1873.  The  fact  is,  that  the 
constitution  fails  to  satisfy  either  the  Protestants 
or  the  Roman-Catholics.  See  Flktchkk  and 
KiDDKi!  :  Brazil,  9th  ed.,  Boston,  1878. 

BREAD.     See  IUking. 

BRECKENRIDGE,  John,  b.  at  Cabell's  Dale, 
Ky.,  July  4,  17!)7 ;  d.  near  Lexington,  Ky.,  Aug. 
4,  1841  ;  studied  in  the  Theological  Seminary  of 
Princeton,  and  was  chaplain  to  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, 1822-^3;  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian 
Church,  Lexington,  Ky.,  1823-26 ;  secretary  of  the 
Board  of  Education  of  the  Presbyterian  Clmrch 
in  Philadelphia,  1831-36;  professor  of  theology 
at  Princeton,  1836-38;  secretary  of  the  Presby- 
terian Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  1838-40.  At 
the  time  of  liis  death  he  was  president-elect  of 
Oglethorpe  University,  Georgia.  He  jiublished 
his  famous  discussion  witii  Bishop  Hughes  of 
New  York  under  the  title,  Roman-Cathnlic  Con- 
troverssij,  Pliiladelphia,  1836,  and  some  minor  con- 
troversial essavs. 

BRECKENRIDGE,  Robert  Jefferson,  D.  D., 
LL.D.,  au  i-minent  Presbvtcrian  minister;  b.  at 
Cabell's  Hale,  Ky.,  March' 8,  1800;  d.  at  Danville, 
Ky.,  Dec.  27,  1871;  a  graduate  of  Union  College, 
New  York,  in  1819.  He  practised  law  in  Ken- 
tucky for  eight  3'ears  (1823-31),  and  meanwhile 
was  several  times  in  the  State  I^egislature ;  but, 
convinced  of  his  duty,  he  tm'ued  from  law  to  the- 
ology, and  in  1S!2  he  became  pastor  of  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Baltimore,  and  r.apidly 
made  his  mark  a-s  a  preacher.  In  ISU")  he  accept- 
ed the  presidency  of  .Jefferson  Coll(?ge,  but  in 
1817  returned  to  the  pastorate,  and  from  that  date 
unto  18.'j3  discharged  the  double  duty  of  minister 
to  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  in  Lexington, 
and  superintendent  of  public  instruction  for  the 


State.  In  18.53  he  entered  the  chair  of  theology 
in  Danville  Seminary,  Kentucky,  and  held  it  mitil 
death.  Like  his  l)rother  John,  he  interested  him- 
self in  the  Roman-Catholic  controversy,  and  at- 
tacked the  Roman  Church  without  mercy  as  '-the 
great  apostasy,"  and  enemy  of  progress  and  reli- 
gious liberty.  The  public-school  system  of  Ken- 
tucky is  largely  his  creation.  During  the  civil 
war  he  defended  the  Union  cause.  During  his 
residence  in  Baltimore  he  edited  the  Literary  and 
Reliyiou.i  Ma(/a:i>ie  and  the  Sjiirit  of  the  Nineteenth 
Centuri/ ;  but  his  principal  work  is  upon  The 
Knoidedije  of  Guil,  Olijecticely  and  Subjectively  con- 
sidered, 2  vols.,  N.Y.,  18.37,  18.39.  Dr.  Brecken- 
ridge  was  the  author  of  the  Act  and  Testimony 
(1834),  complaining  of  the  prevalence  of  doctrinal 
errors,  the  relaxation  of  discipline,  and  the  viola- 
tion of  church  order,  which  played  such  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  disruption  of  the  Presliyterian 
Church.  He  was  a  stanch  (Md-School  Presby- 
terian theologian,  and  opposed  the  re-union  of 
the  two  branches  of  the  Presbyterian  Church, 
which  took  place  in  1869. 

BREGKLING,  Friedrich,  b.  at  Handewitt  in 
Schleswig,  1629:  d  in  the  Hague,  1711;  studied 
theology  at  various  German  universities,  and  read 
with  great  avidity  the  works  of  Tauler  and  other 
mystics ;  was  appointed  a  chaplain  in  the  Danish 
army  in  16.37,  and  pastor  of  Handewitt  in  16.59, 
but  was  deposeil  in  1660  on  account  of  his  violent 
attacks  on  the  officials  of  the  Danish  Chiu'ch ; 
fled  to  Holland,  and  was  made  pastor  of  Zwoll, 
but  \\as  deposed  also  here,  and  from  a  similar 
reason  (166.3),  after  which  he  lived  in  retirement 
in  Amsterdam  and  the  Hague.  He  stood  in 
connection  with  all  the  revivalists  and  religious 
enthusiasts  of  his  time,  also  with  the  Pietists, 
and  was  himself  veiy  busily  engaged  as  a  writer, 
though  without  making  any  impression.  A  list 
of  his  works  and  a  life  have  been  given  by  .Jon.  • 
;\IoLLEH,  in  his  Cinibria  Litlernta,  III.  p.  72. 
Also  Adki.uxg  has  written  a  life  of  him  in  his 
Gtschlchte  il.  nienscldichcn  Thorhfit,  4,  p.  16. 

BREITHAUPT,  Joachim  Justus,  b.  at  Nord- 
heim,  February,  KiriS ;  d.  at  Kloster  Bergen, 
March  16,  1732;  studied  theology  at  Helm.stedt 
and  Kiel;  and  lived  for  some  time  in  Francfort, 
together  witli  Spener,  whose  plans  of  regenerating 
the  Protestant  Church  he  fully  adojited;  was  in 
1685  appointed  court-preaciier  to  the  Duke  of 
Meiningen ;  1687,  professor  of  theology  at  Er- 
furt;  and  1691,  i)rofessor  of  theology  at  Halle, 
where,  together  with  Francke  and  Anton,  he  gave 
the  whole  theological  study  its  peculiar  character 
and  tendency.  In  170.3  ]h\  was  made  superintend- 
ent-general of  JIagdeburg,  and  in  1709  .Vblxit  of 
Kloster  Bergen,  in  which  jiositions  lie  had  an 
opportunity  to  carry  out  his  jirinciples  in  practice. 
Besides  a  number  of  minor  writings,  he  published 
Institutione.i  Theohxjicce,  Halle,  1694,  2  vols.,  much 
extended,  1732,  3  vols.,  and  Tlicscs  Credeudornm  td 
Ai/enilornm  Fundamentales,  Halle,  1700.  See  G. 
.V.  Fh.wckk:  Das  ijesef/nele  Geddchtniss  drs  selitjcn 
Brtitlnnipt,  Halle,  173C;  fol.  nilYANDEli. 

BREITINGER,  Johann  Jacob,  b.  at  Ziirich, 
April  19,  1.37.3;  .1.  tliere  Aj.ril  1,  164.3;  studied 
theology  at  Franeeker,  Heidelberg,  and  Basel; 
was  ap]w)inteil  minister  of  St.  Peter's  Church  in 
Ziirich  in  1613;  represented  the  church  of  Zuiicli 
at  the  .synod   of    Dort;  and  exercised  on  all  the 


BREMEN. 


323 


BRETHREN. 


affairs  of  his  native  city  an  aullioiify  pqnal  to 
tliat  of  Zwingli  ami  Bulliiigi-r.  His  writinj^s  arc 
mostly  of  a  practical  character.  Ilis  life  was 
written  by  .1.  C.  MiiuiKoKKi!,  Ziirich,  1874. 

BREMEN.  Charleniaf;n(!  fouiidcd  here  a  bish- 
opric in  7ii7,  inider  the  metropolitan  authority  of 
the  Archbishop  of  Cologne.  Hut  when,  in  S.'itl, 
1  lambing  was  burnt  down  by  the  heathen  Danes, 
the  archiepiscopal  see  of  that  city,  with  its  met- 
ropolitan authority  over  all  the  Scandinavian 
countries,  was  removed  to  Bremen,  whicli  occa- 
sioned jirotracted  and  vehement  controversies 
with  the  archbishops  of  Cologne.  Though  in 
1111  the  Scandinavian  countries  were  formed 
into  an  independent  metropolitan  province,  under 
the  Archbishop  of  Lund,  and  though  the  city  of 
Bremen  threw  off  its  feudal  allegiance  to  the 
archbisliop  in  1284,  and  became  a  free  city,  and 
member  of  the  Ilanseatic  League,  the  Arch- 
iiishop  of  Bremen  still  contiimed  to  be  one  of 
the  most  powerful  prelates  of  Germany.  In  the 
city  of  Bremen  the  Reformation  was  introduced 
(lrii2-'27)  witliout  causing  any  great  trouble  ; 
and  during  the  Smalcaldian  Wkv  the  city  sus- 
tained a  long  siege  with  great  iieroism.  But  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  centuiT  heavy 
disturbances  arose  from  the  conflict  between  Lu- 
theranism  and  Calvinism.  In  ISti'J  all  Lutherans 
were  expelled  from  the  city.  Hamburg,  Lubeck, 
and  tlie  other  members  of  the  Ilansa,  interfered, 
and  declared  that  they  would  have  no  dealings 
with  the  heretical  city.  In  1.568  the  Lutherans 
were  allowed  to  return,  thougli  under  certain  re- 
strictions. At  present  the  majority  of  the  inhab- 
itants, f)7,.'5.33,  are  Luther.ans;  21,127  .are  Reformed; 
8,932,  Evangelicals  (united)  ;  4,164,  Roman-Cath- 
olics ;  24-5,  other  confessions ;  and  408,  .Jews. 

BRENZ,  Johann,  b.  at  Weil,  Winttemberg, 
June  24,  1493;  d.  at  Stuttgart,  Sept.  11,  1570; 
studied  at  Heidelberg;  and  was  ordained  priest  in 
1520  by  the  Bishop  of  Spires,  and  appointed 
priest  at  the  free  city  of  Hall  in  Suabi.a,  1.522. 
The  appearance  of  Luther  had  made  a  deep  im- 
pression on  him,  and  gradually  lie  espoused  all 
the  ideas  of  the  Retormation.  In  1523  he  ceased 
to  read  mass ;  and  in  the  next  year  he  not  only 
preached  the  new  ideas,  but  re-organized  the 
church  of  Hall  on  the  basis  of  them.  He  was 
eminently  successful,  resisting  the  insurrection  of 
the  peasants  with  the  same  firnniess  as  the  in- 
trigues of  the  Roman  priests.  But  with  the 
Smalcaldian  War  his  days  of  trouble  began.  In 
1.546  Hall  was  taken  by  the  imperial  troops,  and 
Brenz  had  to  flee.  He  found  refuge  with  Duke 
Ulrich  of  ^^'urttemberg ;  and,  having  been  ap- 
pointed minister  of  the  Collegiate  Clmrch  of 
Stuttgart  in  1553,  he  established  the  Refornuition 
in  that  country,  distinguishing  himself  equally  as 
author,  organizer,  and  administrator.  In  the 
literary  controversies  of  the  time  he  took  an 
active  part,  especially  in  tiiat  concerning  the 
Lord's  Supper,  in  which  he  placed  himself  on  the 
side  of  Luther,  and  wrote  the  famous  Si/nr/ramma 
Suericum,  1.52.5.  The  only  collected  edition  of 
his  works  is  untinished,  Tubingen,  1.576-90,  8  vols. 
His  life  was  written  by  HAnxM.wx  and  .Iagkr, 
Hamburg.  1840-42,  2  vols.,  and  by  .Julius 
Hartm.\nx,  in  Vateim  d.  lulh.  Kirche,  vol.  VI., 
Elberfeld,  1862.  See  Pressel,  Anecdota  Brenli- 
ana,  Tub.,  1868 


BRETHREN  OF  THE  COMMON  LIFE  (Prn- 

(rfs  riitiniinins  rifn  ;  Ftiilir-<  tieroti :  Ftdlrfs  hoiife 
roluntali.i :  Frafrcx  rolhiliiDiarii),  a  free  Cliristian 
association  which  flourished  in  the  transition 
]ieriod  between  the  middle  ages  and  tlie  Hefonna- 
tion.  It  was  formed,  not  in  direct  opposition  to 
the  Church,  but  simply  iis  a  kind  of  sujiplenieiit, 
;is  .an  organ  of  the  true  ev.angelical  spirit  which 
had  liecome  nearly  lost  in  the  el.abor.afe  system  of 
doc'trines  and  rites.  It  nowise  prot(^sted  again.st 
the  world-encompassing  ;is]iirationsof  the  Church; 
but  it  strove  within  this  splendid  organization  to 
n^alize  the  simple  and  severe  ideas  of  tlie  apostolic 
age.  Its  principal  impulse  was  mysticism,  liiit  a 
mysticism  free  of  all  pantheistic  and  antinomistie 
tendencies :  all  its  enils  were  sober,  practical,  and 
moral.  The  association  was  founded  by  (ierhard 
(iroot  (1310-84),  who.se  life  has  lieeii  written  by 
Thomas  a  Kempis.  .\wakened  to  full  conscioius- 
ness  of  the  seriousne.s.ss  of  human  life,  he  wan- 
dered about  for  some  time  in  the  diocese  of 
Utrecht  as  a  lay-preacher,  until  the  jealou.sy  of  the 
priests,  and  especially  of  the  mendicant  monks, 
prevented  him  from  pursuing  this  line  of  work. 
A  visit  to  the  priory  of  Johann  Ruysbroek  oiiened 
another  .avenue  to  him.  Having  returned  to  his 
native  city,  Deventer.  he  gathered  a  number  of 
young  men.  who.  under  his  leadersliip.  engaged  to 
aid  each  other  in  leading  a  Christian  life,  to  oc- 
cupy themselves  by  studying  the  Bible,  and  copy- 
ing useful  books,  to  help  otlier  people  directly  and 
indirectly  in  their  struggle  for  Christian  perfec- 
tion, etc.  The  common  labor  led  to  a  common 
purse,  the  common  purse  to  full  community  of 
life,  and  thus  the  first  brother-house  was  formed 
at  Deventer.  After  the  death  of  Groot,  Floren- 
tius  (1350-1400),  wlio.se  life  h.as  also  been  written 
by  Tliomas  a  Kempis,  became  tlie  leader  of  the 
association.  He  founded  a  monastery  for  regu- 
lar canons  at  \'indeseii,  another  at  St.  Agneten- 
berg,  near  Zwolle ;  and  the  association  began  to 
spread  very  rapidly.  During  the  course  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  nearly  every  larger  town  between 
the  ocean  and  Merseburg.  and  between  the  Baltic 
and  the  frontiers  of  Suabia,  contained  one  or 
more  such  brother  or  sister  houses.  The  coniinu- 
iiity  of  property,  occupation,  station,  etc.,  which 
ruled  in  these  houses,  did  not  depend  upon  a 
vow  such  as  in  the  monasteries.  It  was  entirely 
voluntary,  the  free  expression  of  love,  (ienerally 
twenty  brethren  or  sisters  lived  together,  and 
formed  a  family.  Peculiar  offices  were  those  of 
the  Scripluariti.':,  Librariua,  Magisler  NovUinrwn, 
Infermarius,  and  Hofpitarhm.  At  the  head  of  the 
house  stood  the  rector,  chosen  by  the  members  ; 
and  all  houses  found  their  common  centre  in  the 
great  fathei'-house  of  Deventer.  "\Mth  respect 
to  the  external  world,  the  principal  office  of  the 
association  was  education,  both  directly  by  schools 
and  teaching  of  children,  and  indirectly  by  preach- 
ing, lecturing,  and  the  diffusion  of  good  books. 
School  education  had  hitherto  been  confided  to 
the  mendicant  orders,  but  very  poorly  performed 
liy  them.  In  this  field  the  Brethren  of  the  Com- 
mon Life  actually  worked  a  revolution.  Never- 
theless, during  the  course  of  the  sixteenth  century 
the  association  lost  its  significance  and  its  impor- 
tance in  this  respect  as  in  many  others.  After 
the  Reformation,  schools  were  founded  by  the 
State,  and  put  much  more  powerfuUy  in  opera- 


BRETHREN. 


324 


BREVIARY. 


tion.  The  printing-press  made  tlie  copying  of 
books  completel}-  superfluous,  a  waste  of  time. 
The  sermon  had  become  a  prominent  part  of  di- 
^•ine  seiTice ;  and  preaching  in  tlie  vei-nacular 
tongue  was  now  part  of  the  office  of  every  clergy- 
man, etc.  Tlius  the  very  purposes  for  which  tlie 
association  had  lieen  formed  were  now  fulfilled  ; 
and  after  producing  many  great  men,  such  as 
Tlionias  a  ivempis.Busch,  Lange,  Ilegius,  etc., 
and  leaving  behind  itself  a  venerable  memory,  it 
tiradually  disappeared. 

[Lit.  — Delpk  AT  :  I'erhaiulettuf/  over  de  liroeder- 
M-liciji  van  G.  Groole.  l.'trecht,  lS:iO;  Ui.lmanx: 
Tlefonners  before  the  llefurmiiliun,  Eug.  trans.,  Kd- 
iuburgh,  1855,  2  vols. ;  .S.  Kktti.kwkli,  :  Thomax 
<i.  Kempis  ami  the  Brothers  of  the  (^omiiion  Life, 
].,ond.  and  X.Y.,  1882,  2  vols. ;  and  art.  Brmler  des 
i/eiiieinsamen  Lehenf.  by  Kaim.  IIii;sriiK,  in  2d  ed. 

of    IlerZOg.]  ri'l. MAN'S-  (fr.,.n  lUrzog.  ed.  I.). 

BRETHREN  OF  THE  FREE  SPIRIT,  a  sect 
-which  flourished  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries,  and  forms  one  of  the  most  rei«arkable 
instances  of  heresy  during  the  middle  ages,  on 
account  of  the  Pantheism  they  taught,  .and  the 
jiractical  inferences  they  drew  from  their  theory. 
Their  doctrines  may  be  learned  from  the  letters 
of  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne  (l^idli)  and  the 
Bisliop  of  Strassburg  (l^ilT).  and  from  the  edicts 
of  Clement  V.  (l-ill)  and  dohn  XXII.  (1330); 
which  documents  are  found  in  Jlosheini,  De  Be- 
(jhardh.  Leipzig.  1701).  The  principal  points  of 
their  theoiy  were :  all  that  is  is  (Jod ;  man  is 
(iod,  and  there  is  no  difference  between  (Jod 
and  nuan.  A  separation,  however,  between  God 
and  man  is  caused  by  sin ;  but  tiie  union  may  be 
re-established  through  the  consciousness  of  its  pos- 
.sibility  and  necessity.  In  this  state  man  cannot 
sin  any  more.  All  he  does  is  good,  as  he  is  above 
all  differences.  Of  the  Church  and  the  moral  law 
lie  has  no  more  need.  Virtue  is  something  subor- 
dinate, something  relative,  etc.  The  origin  of  the 
sect  is  obscure,  though  generally  ascribed  to  the 
influence  of  Anialrich  of  Hena,  condemned  in 
I'aris,  1210.  In  1212  Ortlieb  taught  at  Str<assburg 
that  man  should  ah  exteriorihus  abstinere  el  sei/ui 
responsa  Spirltus  intra  se.  In  1216  similar  princi- 
ples were  preached  in  Switzerland.  In  1230  they 
appeared  at  Lyons,  mixed  up  with  the  doctrines  of 
the  A\'aldenses.  In  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century  they  occtuTed  in  Cologne  and  Snabia  ;  and 
in  the  fourteenth  century  they  spread  over  the 
regions  of  the  Khiue,  Holland,  and  Northern 
Trance.  The  sect  called  itself  Hrethren  of  the 
Free,  or  of  the  New,  Spirit;  but  also  other  names 
occur,  as,  for  instance,  Tnrlepins  iu  Paris,  Homi- 
nes InteUitjentice  in  Brussels,  etc.  In  (Jermany 
they  were  often  confounded  with  the  Beghards. 
1'hey  were  vigorously  ]iursued,  both  by  the  popes 
and  the  Inquisition;  but  the  sect  w;is  .still  alive 
in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  See 
IIaiix  :  Geschk-hte  der  Kelzer  im  Mitlelalter,  Stutt^ 
gart,  1817;  Ju.mit:  lliatoire  (In  panthi'isme  popn- 
/(lire  an  ICine  si,  cie.  Paris,  1875.         C.  SCtlMIDT. 

BRETHREN,  Plymouth.  See  Plymouth 
l!l!i  Tiii;i  \. 

BRETHREN,  United.    .S.c  I'nitkd  Bhktiiukn. 

BRETHREN,  United,  in  Christ.     See  Unitkd 

Bl'.l    I  IIKI    \    l\'    •    IIKlN  I  . 

BRETSCHNEIDER,  Karl  Gottlieb,  b.  at  Gers- 
dorf,  Saxony,  Feb.  11,  1776 ;  d.  at  Gotha,  Jaa.  22, 


1848;  studied  theology  at  Leipsic,  and  was  ap- 
pointed minister  at  Sclinoeberg  iu  1807,  superin- 
tendent at  .\iiiiaberg  in  1808,  and  superintendent- 
general  at  (iotha  in  ISIO.  He  was  a  very  prolific 
writer,  contriliuted  frequently  to  various  periodi- 
cals, took  active  part  in  controversies,  and  wrote 
independent  works,  both  on  exegis  and  dogmatics. 
Ilis  principal  works  are;  Lexicon  manuale  Grreco- 
lafiniiiii  in  /ibnis  X.  T.,  Leipzig,  182!);  Syslematische 
EnticickeluHti  alter  in  der  Doyniatik  eorkommenden 
Beqriffe,  1805;  and  Handbuch  der  Dogmatik,  1814, 
whicii  ran  through  many  editions.  They  repre- 
sent the  stand-point  of  the  so-called  rational  supra- 
naturalism,  —  a  rather  untenable  ground,  interme- 
diate between  rationalism  and  supranaturalism. 
But,  though  destitute  of  genuine  religious  life 
and  speculative  talent,  they  are  distinguished  by 
clearness  of  arrangement,  and  acuteness  in  the 
definitions.  His  autobiography  was  published  by 
his  son.  Goth.a,  1851,  and  attracted  much  atten- 
tion. [Parts  of  it  have  been  translated  into  Eng- 
lish for  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra-I         HAGENBACH. 

BREVIARY  (Brcviariiim)  denotes  an  ottice-book 
of  the  Uoman-Catholic  Church  which  contains 
the  offices  for  the  canonical  hours  (see  title),  in 
distinction  to  the  missal,  which  contains  those  of 
the  mass.  The  name  has  been  variously  explained. 
Most  probably  it  means  the  abbret-ialion  of  the 
"  inissale  plenarium,"  and  was  originally  compiled 
for  the  direction  of  tlie  choir.  The  word  itself  is 
certainly  very  old ;  for  it  was  in  common  use  when 
^licrologus,  i.e.,  Ivo,  Bishop  of  Chartres  (1125), 
wrote  his  De  ecclesiasticis  observationibus.  The 
breviary  was  a  growth.  It  consists  of  the  Psahns, 
arranged  for  a  weekly  reading  or  singing.  These 
form  tlie  foundation,  and  come  first  in  orc'er  of 
time ;  next  antiphons  before  and  after  the  Psalms ; 
readings  from  the  Scriptures,  the  Fathers,  the 
lives  of  saints  and  martyrs ;  and,  finally,  hymns, 
which  were  introduced  in  the  face  of  great  oppo- 
sition, especially  in  Rome.  Gregory  ATI.  (1073- 
85)  reduced  this  growth  to  reasonable  limits  ;  and 
the  Breviary  now  in  common  use,  dating  from 
Pius  V.  (1566-72),  is  the  repeated  revision  of  his 
work.  In  former  times,  besides  the  Roman  Bre- 
viary and  the  mona.stic,  whicli  followed  that  made 
by  Benedict  in  the  sixth  century,  and  wliicli  dilfer 
very  mucli  from  the  secular  kind,  the  Anibrosian, 
now  confined  to  Milan,  and  the  Mozanibie,  now 
used  only  in  Toledo,  were  widely  used.  From  an 
unaccepted  revision  madi'  in  1536  by  Cardinal 
(^uignon  for  Clement  \'H.,  the  Jlorning  and  Even- 
ing Players  of  the  English  Prayer-ISook  were 
condensed. 

The  use  of  the  Breviary  at  the  eight  canonical 
hours  being  impracticable  to  any  other  than  a 
"religious"  (monk  or  nun),  the  secul.ar  clergy  are 
•allowed  to  group  hours,  and  say  them  at  the  most 
convenient  time.  But  monks  and  iinns  are  en- 
joined by  the  Council  of  Trent  to  repeat  the  Bre- 
viary asit  stands.  Many  of  the  readings  .about 
the  saints  are  absurd.  Hence  there  aro.se  i'l 
France  a  strong  revisioiuiry  sjiirit,  really  coming 
from  Port  Koyal,  which  carried  a  great  refomi 
The  original  intention  to  read  the  entire  Psalter 
once  a  week  was  again  carried  out;  for  the  multi- 
]>lication  of  saints  iqioii  the  calendar  ha'!  imslied 
the  Psalter  ;isidi',  and  the  whole  service  was 
much  siinplilied.  Hut,  under  the  leadership  of 
the  Count  de  Montalemberl,  a  movement  was  sue- 


BREWSTER. 


325 


BRIDGET. 


cessfully  rarriod  on  against  this  Uevisnd  Hreviary, 
and  it  has  been  suppressed  in  every  place  except 

Ly*"'**- 

Breviaries  have  appendices  of  miscellaneous 
character,  —  jirayers  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  for  the 
dead,  etc.  ;  Imt  the  ludk  of  the  volume  is  sub- 
divided into  four  parts,  —  (I)  the  Pmi/lcriiiin  (the 
Psalter)  ;  (J)  the  l^iopriumdi'  Ti'Dijuirc  (the  Proper 
of  the  season),  containing  those  portions  of  the 
offices  which  vai'y  with  tlu;  season ;  (:!)  the  Pro- 
prium  Sanctoruin  (I'roper  of  the  Saints),  the  cor-' 
responding  portions  for  the  saints'  festivals;  (4) 
the  Cuinniune  Sanctorum  (Connnon  of  the  Saints), 
for  such  festivals  which  possess  no  particular  form 
of  prayer. 

In  the  Greek  Church  there  is  a  Breviary  'ilpuAn- 
yiov  (^Horoloi/ium),  wliich  contains  prayer.s  for  the 
canonical  hours,  a  complete  calendar  (Menolo- 
giuni),  and  different  liturgical  appendices. 

In  the  Lutheran  and  Episcopal  Churches  modi- 
fications and  translations  of  the  Breviarium  Ito- 
inanum  are  now  in  use. 

Lit.  —  I)u  Fresne  :  Gtosxaritan  (sub  voco)  ; 
Kopp :  Die  Icath.  Kirche  im  19th  Jahrhunilerla, 
Mainz,  1830 ;  ^'A^'  Espen  :  Der  yeweiheteii  oiler  Irt- 
nonischen  Stunden,  Alter,  Geist,  u.  Wesen,  Landshiit, 
1835 ;  Ranke  :  Das  kirchliche  Perikopensijstem 
aus  den  altesten  Urkunden  der  rSmischen  JJlurr/ie, 
Berlin,  1847  ;  Fluck  :  Kalh.  Liturgik;  Regensburg, 
1855;  Probst:  Brevier  u.  Breitiergebet ,  and  the 
general  works  of  Bi.\gh.\m  :  Origines,  and  Bix- 
terim  :  Denkwurdigkeiten  d.  chrislkalh.  Kirche. 
[See  also  John,  Marquess  of  Bute  :  The  Roman 
Breviary  (translated),  Edinluu'gh  and  Ixjudon, 
1879,  2  vols.]  M.  HEROLD. 

BREWSTER,  William,  b.  at  Scrooby,  Eng.,  in 
the  year  1560  (?);  d.  at  Plymouth,  Mass.,  April 
10,  1644.  He  studied  for  a  short  time  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge  ;  entered  in  1584  (?)  the  ser- 
vice of  William  Davison,  ambassador,  and  later 
secretary  of  state  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  went 
with  him  in  1585  on  a  mission  to  the  Netherlands 
as  confidential  private  secretary.  On  Davison's 
disgrace,  in  1587,  he  returned  to  Scrooby,  where 
from  April,  1594,  to  September,  1607,  he  was  keep- 
er of  the  post-office,  and  lived  in  Scrooby  Manor. 
In  this  house  a  company  of  Brownists  regularly 
assembled  every  Lord's  day.  In  16t)8,  after  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  in  1607,  this  congregation, 
under  John  Robinson  as  teacher  and  Brewster  as 
ruling  elder,  removed,  on  account  of  repeated  ma- 
lignant persecution,  to  Amsterdam,  and  in  1609 
settled  at  Leyden.  "  Mr.  Brewster,  who  had  been 
reduced  almost  to  poverty  by  his  charities  and 
munificent  aid  to  his  .struggling  brethren,  earned 
his  living  by  giving  les.sous  in  Engli.sh,  having 
composed  a  granniiar,  according  to  the  Latin 
model,  for  the  use  of  his  pupils.  He  also  set  up  a 
printing  establishment,  and  published  nuiny  con- 
troversial works"  (Motley:  John  of  Barntveld,  II. 
p.  288).  In  1620  a  portion  of  the  congreg.ation 
emigrated  to  Xew  England.  Elder  Brewster  was 
their  spiritual  head;  but,  not  having  been  or- 
dained, he  never  administered  the  sacraments,  3'et 
preached  regularly  on  .Sunday  nntil  1629,  when 
William  Ralph,  the  first  settled  nnnister,  came. 

BRICONNET,  Guillaume,  b.  in  Paris,  1470: 
d.  at  .\inians,  near  Monteieau-sur-Yonne,  .Jan.  25, 
1534 ;  was  a  son  of  Cardinal  Bri(;onnet,  Arch- 
bishop of  Narbonne;  aud  was  made  Bishop  of 


Lodeve  in  1504,  and  of  Meaux  in  1516.  lie  was 
po.s.ses.sed  of  a  good  cla.ssical  education,  and  w.is 
twice  sent  as  ambassailor  to  the  papal  court;  but 
,a  mystic  by  natural  dis]i(isition,  a  jnipil  of  Lefevre 
d'Etaples,  and  a  friend  of  Marguerite  d'.Vngou- 
leme,  he-  soon  came  in  a  ditlicult  position  with 
respect  to  thi^  Ronum  Church,  ile  was  a  friend 
of  reforms,  and  compelled  the  clergy  of  his  dio- 
cese to  reside  in  th(!  places  where  they  were  a])- 
pointed.  lie  chose  Lefevre  for  his  vicar-general, 
and  invited  Farrel,  and  others  who  had  been  en- 
gaged in  disseminating  the  ideas  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, to  come  to  Meaux,  and  preach.  The  result 
vvas  the  fornuition  of  a  Protestant  ctjlony  at 
Meaux.  But  Bri(;onnet's  ideas  of  reform  fell 
very  far  short  of  a  breach  with  the  Roman 
Church  ;  and,  when  the  opposition  to  the  Reforma- 
tion became  .serious,  he  was  compelled  to  allow, 
and  even  to  employ,  very  harsh  measures  against 
his  own  work.  Of  his  correspondence  with 
IMarguerite  d'AngoulC-me  parts  have  been  pub- 
lished by  Genin,  in  Lettres  de  Marguerite  d'Angou- 
leme,  Paris,  1841.  and  Nouvelles  Lettres  de  la  Heme 
de  Navarre.  Paris,  1S42. 

BRIDAINE,  Jacques,  b.  at  Chu.selan,  March 
21,  17()1 ;  d.  at  Roquemaure,  Sept.  22,  1767;  was 
educated  in  the  Jesuit  College  in  Avignon,  and 
in  the  seminary  of  La  Congregation  des  Missions 
royedes  de  Saint-Charles  de  la  Croix ;  visited  as  a 
missionary  preacher  almost  ever}'  city  and  town 
of  .Southern  and  Central  France;  came  to  Pari.s 
in  1744,  and  produced  everywhere  a  deep  impres- 
sion by  his  sermons,  wliich  are  sombre  and  vehe- 
ment, but  full  of  genius  and  sincerity.  They  ap- 
peared at  Avignon  in  1823,  in  five  volumes.  His 
life  was  written  by  Carro.v,  ie  Moilele  des  Pretres, 
Paris,  1804. 

BRIDGE,  William,  Puritan  divine,  b.  1600;  d.at 
(ireat  Yarmouth,  IVIarch  12,  1670;  he  was  a  fellow 
of  iMnmanuel  College,  Cambridge ;  preached  at 
Norwich ;  was  silenced  by  Bishop  AVren  for  noncon- 
formity (1637),  afterwards  excommunicated;  but 
when  the  writ  de  excommunicato  capiendo  came  out 
against  liim,  he  withdrew  to  Holland,  and  became 
pastor  to  the  English  Cliurch  at  Rotterdam,  where 
Jeremiah  Burrouglis  was  preacher.  In  1642  he 
returned  to  England  ;  was  a  member  of  the  West- 
minster Assembly ;  after  a  time  was  chosen  min- 
ister of  Great  Yarmouth,  but  ejected  1662.  He 
was  a  Cougregationalist  (Independent),  a  Calvin- 
ist,  a  learned  man,  and  had  a  librai-y  ricli  in  the 
fathers  and  the  schoolmen,  of  which  he  made 
diligent  use.  Xeal  says  also,  that  "  he  was  a  good 
preacher,  a  candid  and  charitable  man,  and  did 
much  good  by  his  ministry."  Bridge  published 
Bali'/lon's  Dnicnfall,  a  .sermon,  London,  1641  :  also 
a  collected  edition  of  his  works,  4  vols.  4to.  1649 ; 
and,  as  conclusive  proof  of  the  esteem  in  which  he 
is  still  held,  there  appeared  a  new,  and,  for  the 
fii-st  time,  complete  edition  of  his  Works,  London, 
1845,  5  vols.  Svo :  the  Works  are  mostly  sermons. 
See  Xeal's  History  of  the  Puritans,  vol.  ii.  p.  270 
(ll:iri«'r's  ed.). 

BRIDGET,  St.  (Brigida),  the  "Mary  of  the 
Irish,"  d.  in  523,  was  the  daughter  of  a  certain 
Duptach,  and  born  at  Fochart  Muirthemue,  Lein- 
ster.  In  her  fourteenth  year  she  took  tlie  veil  in 
the  Monastery  of  Meath ;  obtained  a  great  fame 
for  lioliness ;  founded  the  monasteries  of  Kildare, 
Hay  in  Conuaught,  Cliagh  in  Munster,  etc. ;  and 


BRIDGEWATER. 


326 


BRIGHTMAN. 


was  buried  at  Kildare,  where  a  perpetual  fire 
was  lit  in  her  honor,  and  kept  up  until  1220, 
when  the  bishop  of  the  place  forbade  the  super- 
stition This  fire  of  St  Brigida,  as  well  as  many 
other  traits  in  her  life,  such  a-s  described  by 
Ultan,  Aileran,  Cogitosus,  Chilianus,  Laurentius 
of  Dunelin,  and  in  the  Act  Sand.,  February,  pp. 
99-183,  indicates  that  the  old  Pagan  worship  of 
the  goddess  Ceridwen,  the  Ceres  of  tlie  Kelts, 
who  had  her  principal  temple  at  Kildare,  was 
continued  in  the  worship  of  St.  Bridget.  See 
Traiix(iclii)ifi  uf  the  Irish  Acailevuj,  III.  75;  Frif.d- 
KKicii  ■  Si/iiihiilik  unil  Mi/lhiihxjie  der  Naltir,  p. 
190;  I  II  Todd:  Hi/iiiiis  of  the  Ancient  Church 
of  Ireland,  Dublin,  1805  [Stokes-  Three  Mid- 
ille-lrish  Ilriniilies  im  the  Lires  of  Saints  Patrick; 
Briijil.  and  Coluinlia,  London,  ISSO  j      ZOCKLER. 

BRIDGEWATER  TREATISES.  By  his  death 
(Feb  11,  1829)  Francis  Henry,  Earl  of  Bridge- 
water,  left  eight  thou.sand  pounds  to  the  Royal 
Society,  to  be  paid  to  one  or  several  authors, 
selected  by  the  president,  for  writing  a  treatise 
'•  On  tlie  Power,  AVisdom,  and  Goodness  of  God,  as 
manifested  in  the  Creation."  The  following  eight 
authors  were  .selected,  and  their  treati.ses  published 
(1833-40):  (1)  Thomas  Chalmers:  The  Ada/ita- 
iion  of  External  Nature  to  tlie  Moral  and  Intellec- 
tual Condition  of  Man,  (2)  John  Kidd :  The 
Adaptation  of  External  Nature  to  the  Physical  Con- 
dition of  Man  .  (3)  William  Whewell :  Axtrononnj 
and  General  I'lii/sics  considered  with  reference  to 
Natural  Theolo;;;/.  (4)  Charles  Bell:  The  Hand, 
its  Mechanism  and  Vital  Endowments  as  ecincinij 
Design.  (5)  Peter  JMark  Koget :  Animal  and 
Vei/elahle  Phi/siolof/>/  considered  with  reference  to 
Natural  Theoloijy,  (G)  William  Buckland:  Ge- 
oloepi  and  Mineralor/i/  considered  with  reference  to 
Natural  Tlieoioijii.  (7)  \\'illiam  Kirby:  Tlie  Habits 
and  Instincts  of  Animals  with  reference  to  Natui'al 
Theolofjij ,  (8)  William  Prout :  Cheniistri/,  Meteor- 
olof/i/,  anil  /he  Function  of  Diyestion  considered  with 
reference  to  Natural  Theolot/if 

BRIEFS,  BULLS,  and' BULLARIUM,  Papal. 
The  word  '■  bull '  is  from  the  Latin  l/ulla,  which 
liteially  means  '"any  object  made  round  by  swell- 
ing up  ;  "  lience  a  drop,  and  so  used  of  the  "drop  " 
of  metal  which  bore  the  seal  attached  to  a  docu- 
ment; and  at  last  the  word  came  to  stand  for  the 
document  itself.  "Brief"  is  from  tlie  later  I-atin 
breve,  a  short  catalogue,  or  sununary.  A  pajial 
hull  of  the  present  d;iy  is  an  open  letter,  written 
in  Latin,  in  angular  Gotliic  letters,  upon  loiigh 
yellow  parchment.  The  string  which  holds  the 
seal  is,  in  forma  e/ratio.sa  (ahull  of  grace;  i.e., 
when  the  bull  is  a  blessing),  of  red  and  yellow 
silk;  ill  forma  rii/orosa  (a  bull  of  justice;  i.e., 
when  it  is  a  curse),  of  hemp.  On  the  seal,  which 
is  of  lead,  are  stamped  on  the  obver.se  side  the 
heads  of  Peter  and  Paul,  and  above  S.  PE.  and 
S.  PA.  (Pet('r  on  the  left:  this  fact  has  not 
escaped  the  notice  of  antipapists,  and  has  puzzled 
the  papists  to  explain)  ;  on  the  reverse  the  name 
of  tile  Pope.  'I'lie  bull  begins  with  the  name  of 
the  Pope,  but  not  often  the  nunibei-  (jf  the  name  ; 
e.g.,  Leo,  not  Leo  XIII.  Then  follow  ••e]>isco])us, 
servus  .servorum  Dei,"  and  the  formula  ••  ad  i)ei- 
petuaiii  rei  meinoriam,"  or  the  salutation  "in 
Domino  salulem  el  apostolic:iin  l)eiiediclionein." 
At  the  end  come  the  date  and  place.  The  bulls 
are  not  u.sually  signed  liy  the  Pope,  but  by  the 


wi-iter  of  the  bull ;  or,  if  it  is  a  consistorial  buh 
(i.e.,  issued  after  consultation  with  the  consi.story 
of  cardinals),  it  is  signed  by  all  the  cardinals 
con.sulted.  The  bulls  are  named  from  the  words 
with  whicli  they  begin,  as  tlie  .Jews  call  the  books 
of  the  Bible.  Thus  "  In  coena  Domini  "  (at  the 
Lord's  Supper),  the  bull  of  excommunication  of 
all  heretics,  which  is  the  product  of  centuries, 
although  now  disused  ;  "  Unigeiiitus  "  (onl}--be- 
gotten),  issued  bj'  Clement  XI.  in  1713,  against 
the  Moral  Reflections  upon  the  New  Testament, 
by  Quesnel :  "  Ineffabilis  Deus  '"  (ineffable  God), 
is.sued  by  Pius  IX.  (18.')4).  declaring  the  dogma 
of  the  immaculate  conception  of  Mary;  "^Eterni 
Patris  "  (of  the  Eternal  Father),  the  bull  is.sued  in 
1SG8,  which  convened  the  Vatican  Council  of  1869 
and  1870.  Bulla  Uanca  is  a  bull  issued  by  a 
pope  before  he  is  enthroned,  the  seal  of  which 
is  blank  Briefi  are  open  or  closed  letters,  of 
equal  authority,  but  are  not  in  so  solemn  a  form 
Tliey  are  written  on  paper,  in  a  running  hand, 
and  by  the  papal  secretary,  sealed  with  red  wax, 
and  impressed  with  the  seal  of  the  fishormau,  or 
Peter  in  a  boat,  and  tlie  name  and  number  of  the 
Pope.  The  distinction  between  briefs  and  bulls 
is  not  much  older  than  the  fifteentli  century.  As 
both  these  ducuments  are  liable  to  be  forged, 
various  official  precautions  are  taken  Bullarium 
is  a  collection  of  briefs  and  bulls  The  oldest 
of  such  collections  is  the  Bulla;  dnersorum  Ponlifi- 
cum  a  Joanne  XNII  ad  Julium  III  ex  hililiolheca 
Luducici  Gomes,  Rome,  ISCO ;  but  it  contains  only 
fifty  documents  The  first  comprehensive  collec- 
tion is  the  Mui/num  Buitariuni  liomanum,  made  by 
Cherubim  on  the  order  of  Sixtus  V  ,  and  con- 
taining all  briefs  and  bulls  from  Leo  I.  up  to 
1585  Among  the  later  continuations  of  this 
work  the  most  prominent  are,  Bullarium  Muy- 
num  Romanum  a  Leone  M.  tuti/ue  ail  Benediclum 
XIV ,  Luxembourg,  1727-58,  19  vols  fob,  and 
the  contemporary  collections  by  Cocquelines, 
Rome,  1733-48,  14  vols,  fol  The  latest  con- 
tinuation is  that  by  Tomasetti,  Turin,  18.57-72, 
24  vols  There  are  also  bidlariums  for  single 
countries,  separate  orders,  etc.  ME.IER. 

BRIGHAIVI,  Charles  Henry,  a  l'iiit;irian  autlior 
and  professor,  b.  in  Boston.  Ma.ss.,  .lulv  27,  1820; 
d  at  Brooklyn,  X.V.,  Feb.  19,  1879  After 
graduation  at  Harvard  University,  he  was  jiastor 
of  the  Unitarian  Church  of  Taunton  from  1844  to 
1805,  when  he  went  to  his  second  charge,  at  Ann 
Harbor,  Mich  In  18(ili  he  was  appointed  non- 
resident prt>fe.s.sor  of  ecclesiastical  history  in  the 
theological  .school  at  Jleadville,  Penn.  Mr.  Brig- 
hain  w;us  a  prominent  member  of  the  American 
Oriental  and  Philological  Societies,  also  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Advauceinent  ot 
Scic^nee ;  was  a  prolific  writer  for  his  denomina- 
tional ]ire.ss,  and  periodicals  of  high  grade,  e.g., 
North-Ainrrlcan  Reriew  and  the  Riicue  des  Deux 
Mondes  (Paris),  but  left  little  of  perinanent  value. 
See  Cii.vHLKs  IIi;.\i;v  Brigiiam,  Memoir  and 
Papers.  Boston,  1881. 

BRIGITTINES.     .Se  l!iH(;rrriM:s. 

BRIGHTMAN,  Thomas,  b.  in  1.5.')()  at  Xotting- 
liam;  d.  Aug.  24,  1()(»7.  He  was  educated  at 
(ineens  College,  Cambridge,  and  became  rector 
of  the  clinich  at  Ilawnes,  in  Bedfordshire,  in  or 
about  l.'>92.  He  was  one  of  the  fathers  of  Pre.s- 
byteriauism  in  England ;  as  'J'homas  Caitwright 


BRILL. 


327 


BROUGHTON. 


savs,  "  The  liriglit  star  in  tlio  f'liiiich  of  (!o(l." 
He  subscrilied  tlie  I'lvslntcriaii  Books  of  Disoi- 
pliiie.  His  priiioijiul  work  was  ^l/i<ic<ih//isix  Ajiocd- 
li/.<ei,s,  rrankfort.  KiO!),  and  Hcidrli.cr;;',  KilL'; 
also  in  English  with  the  title  ,1  Jti-ruOilidii  of  lite 
Jlevcluliori,  Amsterdam,  Kilo,  and  Leyden,  llilG, 
with  freqiKMit  subsequent  editions.  Few  liooks 
have  been  i>ul)Iished  at  so  many  different  places, 
and  in  so  many  different  editions,  and  so  wiih^ly 
read.  He  opened  up  a  new  i>ath  in  the  e.xposition 
■of  the  Apocalypse  by  making  two  distinct  millenni- 
ums :  the  first,  from  Consfantine  until  l^iOO,  in  this 
corresponding  with  the  connnon  Ortho<lox  view  ; 
the  second,  from  1300  to  Lf-iOO,  which  was  a  new 
■departure,  by  which  he  was  enaliled  to  find  a  jilace 
for  the  future  conversion  of  the  Jew.s,  and  a  more 
glorious  condition  of  the  Church  on  (>:irtli,  which 
he  gains  by  a  symbolical  interpi-etation  of  Kev. 
xxi  and  xxii.  Brightman  was  one  of  the  most 
infiuential  of  the  Puritans ;  and  his  views  gi'eatly 
modified  their  interpretation  of  tlie  Apocalypse, 
and  found  supportei'S  throughout  the  seventeenth 
century.  He  also  published  commentaries  on  the 
Song  of  Songs  and  Daniel,  and  discus.sed  various 
questions  in  dispute  between  the  Puritans  and 
the  bishops.  His  works  were  collected  and  pub- 
lished, London,  1044,  4to.  C.  A.  BRIGGS. 

BRILL,  Jacob,  b.  Jan.  21,  1639,  at  Leyden ;  d 
there  Jan.  "JS,  1700;  was  a  pupil  of  Pontiaan  van 
Hattem,  .and  as  such  deposed  from  his  oliice  as 
preacher  of  Phillipsburg,  1683.  Between  1685 
and  lCf(9  he  published  about  forty  works  of  a 
mystical-devotional  chai'acter,  which  were  nuich 
read ;  but  spiritualizing  Christ  to  such  a  degree 
that  tlie  historical  Christ  alino.st  disappeared,  and 
the  sacrifice  on  the  cross  became  a  niei'e  symbol 
of  the  sacrifice  which  sliall  take  place  in  us,  he 
at  last  got  lost  in  a  mystical  pantheism,  far  away 
from  Christianity.  See  Poiket;  Bib.  Mi/slic. 
Select.,  1708  (which  contains  a  eulogy  of  Brill); 
Ypf.V  kx  1-)i-;i!MOUT  :  Di-  hercormde  Kerk  in  Ned- 
ciiuitd,  Breda,  1824,  vol.  III.  M.  GOBEL. 

BRITTINJANS,  acla.ss  of  Augustinian  eremites, 
so  called  fi-om  Brittini  in  Ancona,  their  first  .set- 
tlement. Their  rule  was  confirmed  bj'  Gregory 
JX.  (d.  1211). 

BROCHMAND,  Jesper  Rasmussen,b.  at  Kjoge, 
in  the  Ishmd  of  Sealand,  Aug.  5.  I.jSS;  d.  in  Co- 
penhagen, April  17,  1652 ;  studied  theology  and 
)ihilology  in  Copenhagen,  Leyden,  and  Franecker  ; 
was  made  professor  in  the  L'niversity  of  Copen- 
hagen in  1610,  afterwards  tutor  to  the  crown- 
prince,  and  in  1639  Bishop  of  Sealand.  He  I'epre- 
sents  the  stiff  Orthodoxy  of  his  time,  with  its 
narrowness  and  its  intolerance;  but  he  was  a  man 
of  superior  intellect,  of  great  accomplishments  as 
a  scholar,  and  without  personal  ambition.  His 
principal  dogmatical  work,  Univtrsw  Theolofjke 
Systema,  1633,  was  often  reprinted,  both  in  Den- 
mark and  Germany ;  and  his  controversy  with  the 
tJesuits,  on  occasion  of  the  conversion  of  Chris- 
tian William  of  Brandenburg  to  the  Roman 
Church,  attracted  wide-spread  attention.  He  also 
wrote  a  luimber  of  practical  devotional  works, 
wliicli  are  still  used  in  the  Danish  Church. 

BROMLEY,  Thomas,  an  English  mvstic,  b.  in 
"Worcester,  1629;  d.  1691.  He  held  a 'fellowship 
in  Oxford  until  1660,  wdien  he,  as  a  nonconform- 
ist, refused  to  accept  the  Anglican  Liturgy.  But 
previously  he   had   become  a  follower  of  Jacob 


Boehme  the  mystic  (see  title),  and  with  John 
I'ordage  and  Johanna  Leade  had  founded  the 
Philadel]>hian  Society  (see  title):  and  when  he 
left  Oxford,  lie  came  to  I'ordage,  and  lived  with 
him  many  years.  Bromley  went  further  than 
Boehme:  he  rejected  the  Church,  and  also  mar- 
riage, which  he  held  was  an  inferior  condition, 
not  bearable  by  a  xaint  But  witli  Brondey  and 
his  friends,  the  latter  tenet  was  not  connected  with 
undiastity  :  on  the  contrary,  they  insisted  upon 
perfect  purity  of  life.  Bromley  was  active  in 
propagating  his  opinion.s,  and  was  an  estimable 
man.  His  works  were  pnblislied,  in  second  edi- 
tion, at  Frankfort  and  Leipzig,  1719-32,  2  vols. 
The  best  of  them  are.  The  11'"//  /"  lite  S(diliiilh  of 
Jirxl,  XCIV.  lii;miijelic(d  ICpislUs  lo  his  Good 
Friends,  and  The  Juurnetj  uf  the  Children  nf 
Israel. 

BROOKS,  Elbridge  Gerry,  D.D.,  an  able  and 
beloved  minister  of  the  l'niv('rsalist  Church;  b. 
at  Dover,  N.II.,  July  29,  1816  ;  d.  at  Philadelphia, 
April  8,  1878.  He  was  licensed  at  Portsmouth, 
N.II.,  June  16,  1836;  was  pastor  in  West  Ames- 
bury,  :Mass.,  Oct.  19,  1837  to  June,  1838;  in  East 
Cambridge,  !Mass  ,  1838  to  1845;  in  Lowell,  Mass 
(First  L'niversalist  Church)  for  a  year;  in  Bath, 
JNIe.,  from  November,  1846  to  1850;  in  Lynn, 
Mass.  (First  Universalist  Church),  1850  to  1859: 
in  Xew-Yoik  City  (Church  of  our  .Saviour),  18.59 
to  1867  ;  in  1867  general  agent  of  the  board  of 
trustees  of  the  General  Convention;  Dec  13, 
1868,  installed  pastor  of  the  Cliurch  of  the  Me.s- 
siah,  Philadelphia  He  was  the  author  of  Our 
Ncir  Departure  (1874),  ami  of  Uuicerstdism  in  Life 
and  Doctrine,  and  its  Sii/ieri<n-it7/  as  a  Practical 
Poirer.  In  July,  1867,  he  received  the  degree  of 
D.I),  from  Tufts  College. 

Di'.  Bi'ooks  was  a  born  leader  and  reformer,  elo- 
quent, untiring,  courageous,  .and  full  of  resources, 
as  is  evidenced  by  his  advocacy  of  the  Maine 
liquor  law,  the  cause  of  the  Union,  and,  within 
his  denominational  lines,  of  the  modified  the- 
ology of  exi.sting  Univer.sali.sm,  —  the  doctrine  of 
remedi.al  punishment  in  the  future  world,  in  con- 
trast to  the  older  theory  in  that  body  which  denied 
all  punishment  after  de.ath.  To  his  energy  and 
tact  tlie  body  in  no  small  degree  owes  its  present 
organization.  .See  E.  .S.  Brooks  :  The  Life -Work 
of  Elbridge  Gerrij  Rrvuks,  Boston.  1881.  from 
which  the  above  sketch  has  lieen  derived. 

BRORSON,  Hans  Adolf,  b.  at  Kandrup.  near 
Kibe  in  Jutland.  June  20.  1694;  d.  in  Kibe, 
June  3,  1764;  studied  theology  in  Copenhagen, 
and  w<as  successively  minister  in  Kandrup,  Touder, 
and  Kibe,  till  in  1741  he  became  iiishop  of  the 
diocese  of  Kibe.  To  him  the  Danish  Clnnch  is 
indebted  for  about  one-third  of  its  hymns.  He 
was  strongly  influenced  by  the  (jernuin  pietism, 
and  so  are  his  hymns,  many  of  which  are  adapta- 
tions. But  the  unsound  elements  of  this  influ- 
ence were  counterbalanced  by  a  natural  affinity 
for  the  popular  song,  its  cheerfulness,  its  naivete', 
its  melodiousness;  and  most  of  his  hynms  are 
still  living  in  the  congregations.  A  collected  and 
ci-itical  edition  was  given  by  P.  A.  Arland,  Copen- 
hagen. 18(i7. 

BROUGHTON,  Hugh,  a  distinguished  Hebrew 
scholar,  li.  at  OMlnny.  Salop.  1549;  d.  in  London, 
Aug.  4,  1612.  His  earliest  patron  was  ISernard 
Gilpin  (see  title),  who  met  him  accidentally,  edu- 


BROUSSON. 


328 


BROWNE. 


cated  him  at  his  parish  school,  and  sent  him  to 
Cambridge,  where  lie  became  fellow  of  Christ 
College ;  but  afterwards  he  went  to  London,  and 
enjoyed  great  reputation  as  a  preacher.  His  He- 
brew and  Greek  learning  was  remarkable  in  an 
age  characterized  by  its  attainments  in  these 
tongues.  lie  translated  the  prophetical  books 
into  fireek.  and  the  .\pocalypse  into  Hebrew,  and 
de.sired  to  translate  the  whole  New  Testament 
into  Hebrew,  believing  that  it  would  have  for- 
warded the  oonvei-sion  of  the  Jews.  While  liis 
learning  and  ability  were  unquestioned,  his  un- 
happy \em[)er  prevented  his  advancement.  Dr. 
.lohn  Lightfoot  edited  his  literary  remains  un- 
der tile  title.  The  works  of  Ihe  great  Albioneaii 
iliciiie,  reiioirned  in  many  iiationx  for  rare  skill 
ill  Salem's  and  Atheii's  tongues,  and  familiar 
acqiiaiiituiice  with  alt  Rabbinical  harniny,  JSIr. 
Hugh  linouGHTO-N  Collected  in  one  volume, 
and   digested   into   four  tomes.     Folio,   London, 

im-i. 

BROUSSON,  Claude,  b.  at  Ximes.  1647;  exe- 
cuted at  Montpellier.  Nov.  4,  1698;  practised  as  a 
lawyer  at  C<i-stres,  Castelnaudary.  and  'J'oulouse, 
and  employed  his  talent  with  great  courage  and 
self-sacritice  to  defend  his  co-religionists  of  the 
Reformed  Ciiurch  against  the  steadily-increasing 
injustice  with  which  they  were  treated.  -Vt  last 
he  was  comiielled  to  flee  ;  and  June  U'6, 1684,  he  was 
coiidenmed  to  death,  which  .sentence  was  executed 
.July  'A  in  ejfigie.  Aleanwliile  he  visited  Berlin 
and  Holland,  to  bring  about  a  coalition  between 
the  Protestant  princes  agahist  Louis  XIV.;  but, 
not  satisfied  with  what  coidd  be  done  in  this  way, 
he  returned  in  1689  to  France,  and  wandered 
about  in  the  Cevennes,  "  preaching  in  the  desert," 
admonishing  and  exhorting  his  brethren,  thougii 
a  price  was  put  on  his  head,  and  he  was  limited 
by  the  government  offlcials  like  a  beast  of  prey. 
In  169:^  he  went  to  Holland,  and  staid  fourteen 
months  in  the  Hague  as  preacher  to  the  congrega- 
tion of  French  exiles ;  but  in  169.5  he  again  en- 
tered France  through  Sedan,  and  visited  most  of 
the  Reformed  congregations  north  of  Loire,  finally 
escaping  through  Franchecomte  into  Switzerland. 
Once  more,  in  1697,  he  visited  France,  but  Wiis 
caught  at  Oleron,  and  .sentenced  to  be  broken  on 
the  wheel.  Among  his  works,  of  which  a  list  is 
given  in  La  France  Proleslante,  III.,  ]>.  .i6,  the 
most  prominent  are  :  Etal  des  Riformi's  ile  France, 
La  Haye,  168.5;  La  Manne  Mystique  du  Desert, 
Amsterdam,  1695;  I^ettres  Pastorales,  1697.  His 
life  was  written  by  Borel,  Nimes,  1852,  in  French, 
and  in  Knglish  by  Bavnes  :  The  Evam/clistDfihe 
JJeserl,  London,  1853.  THEODOR  SCIIOTT. 

BROWN,  John,  b.  at  Carpow,  Scotland,  1722; 
d.  at  llaildington,  June  19,  1787;  aci|uiicd  his 
education  under  great  difficulties;  from  17.51  till 
death  was  minister  of  the  Burgher  branch  of  the 
Sece.ssion  Cluirch  of  Haddington,  aiul  alter  1768 
profe8.sor  of  theology  to  the  Associate  Synod. 
He  published  many  i>o]iMlar  and  valuable  works, 
as  a  hiitionary  of  the  Jiilile,  London,  1769,  2  vols., 
often  reprinte(i,  revised  Lond.,  1868;  the  Self-inter- 
preting Jiihle,  Lond.,  1778,  often  reprinted;  Com- 
pendious llisliiry  of  the  liritish  Vhnrrhes,  1784,  new 
edition,editedby  I'ev.  Thomas  Brown.  Kdin.,1823; 
and,  most  widely  circulated  of  all,  A  Short  Cate- 
chism, 1764,  tiiugiit  in  homes  an<l  .Sund.iy  schools 
to  this  day,  and  very  admirable  for  its  simple  piety 


BROWN,  John,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  b. 
at  Whitliurn,  Linlithgowshire,  Scotland,  July  12» 
1784;  d.  in  Edinburgh,  Oct.  13,  1858;  .studied  at 
Ediub.  University  and  at  the  divinity  school  of 
the  Burgher  branch  of  the  Secession  Church,  and 
was  ordained  minister  of  the  Burgher  congrega- 
tion of  Biggar.  In  1822  he  moved  to  Edinburgh, 
where -he  took  charge,  first  of  the  Hose-street 
Chmcli,  and  afterwards  of  the  Broughtou-place 
Church.  In  1835  he  was  also  appointed  profe.s.sor 
of  theology  to  the  United  .\ssociate  Synod.  He 
was  a  great  pnlpit-orator,  and  a  voluminous  writer. 
The  most  prominent  of  his  works  are :  Expository 
Discourses  on  First  Peter,  1848;  Exposition  of  the 
Discourses  and  Sayings  of  our  Lord,  1850;  The 
Resurrection  of  Life,  1851  ;  Exposition  of  the  Epistle 
to  the  Galntians,  1853,  etc.  See  Joiix  C.\IRXS : 
Memoirs  of  John  Brotrn.  D.D..  London.  1S60. 

BROWN,  John  Newton,  D.I).,  a  Baptist  minister 
and  editor,  b.  New  London.  Conn.,  June  29,  1803; 
d.  at  Germantown,  Penn.,  May  15,  1868.  .\fter 
graduating  head  of  his  class  at  Hamilton  Institute, 
New  York,  in  1823,  he  entered  the  baptist  ministry, 
and  preached  at  several  places  in  New  England 
In  1835,  while  at  Exeter,  N.H.,  he  issued  his 
Encyclopivdia  of  Religions  Knoirlcdge  (1  vol.  small 
4to,  Brattleborough),  a  good  specimen  of  a  pious, 
uncritical,  u.seful  compilation  from  various  ap- 
proved works,  sucli  as  Calmet's  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible,  Buck's  Theological  Dictionary,  and  Evans's- 
Sketch  of  Religious  Denominations.  This  encyclopse- 
dia.  it  is  true,  is  far  behind  the  times  :  even  the 
revised  edition,  by  Rev.  G.  P.  Tyler  (1858),  re- 
printed Philadelphia,  1866,  cannot  now  be  used. 
In  matter  and  illustration  it  belongs  to  a  former 
generation,  yet  Dr.  Brown  deserves  great  credit 
for  having  so  ably  carried  through  in  tliat  early 
day  a  work  of  such  magnitude  and  instructive- 
ness.  From  1838  to  1845  he  was  professor  of 
theology  and  church-history  in  the  New  Hampton 
Tlieological  Institution,  New  Ilampsliire;  from 
1845  to  1849,  pastor  at  Lexington.  Va.  ;  then 
editorial  secretary  of  the  .\merican  Baptist  Pnb- 
lishing  Society,  and  of  their  journals.  The  ( 'hri.';- 
tian  C/ironicle  and  The  Xatioiiiil  Bojjtisl.  The 
New  Hampshire  (Baptist)  Confession  was  pre- 
pared and  revised  (1852)  by  him. 

BROWNE,  Robert,  the  founder  of  the  Brown- 
ISTS,  and  thus  the  spiritual  father  of  Congren;a- 
tion;dism.  His  life  and  principles  have  lieen  tor 
the  fir.st  time  intelligently  and  authoritatively 
stated  by  Henry  Martyu  Dexter,  in  his  Congrega- 
tionalism as  .-ieen  in  its  Literature,  New  York.  1880; 
and  we  present  his  account  in  a  very  condensed 
form.  Robert  Browne  Wivs  born  at  Tolethorp, 
Rutlandshire,  Eng.,  about  1550;  d.  between  1631 
and  11)33,  at  -Northampton.  His  father  wa.s  a 
gentleman,  a  relative  of  Lord  Bnrghley ;  his 
mother,  a  daugliter  of  a  baronet.  He  was  edu- 
cated, and  in' all  probabilitv  took  the  regular 
degrees,  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Candiridge; 
and  in  1571  became  domestic  diaplain  to  the 
Duke  of  Norfolk,  who  tpiickly  wa.s  called  upon 
to  take  his  part  in  refusing  to  obey  a  citation  to 
answer  before  the  ecclesiastical  commissioners  a 
charge  of  di.sseminating  .seditions  doctrines.  At 
some  time  after  this,  Browne  taught  school,  probar 
biy  at  Southnark,  for  three  years;  but  after  1.578 
he"  re-entered  the  university  to  study  theology. 
He   had   no   license   to   preach,  yet  he  preached 


BROWNE. 


329 


BROWNE. 


frequently  and  powerfully.  When  his  brother 
obtaineil  for  him  the  necessary  license,  he  not 
only  refused  to  receive  it,  but  publicly  liarans^ued 
"against  the  calling  and  authorizing  of  preachers 
by  bishops."  Discouraged  by  the  failure  to  (ex- 
cite Muicli  interest  in  Cambridge,  inhibited  from 
preaching,  and  recovered  from  a  severe  illnc^ss, 
lie  went  to  Norwich,  where  he  kept  on  pre'aching 
his  "seditious"  doctrines,  and  in  15HI  was  com- 
plained against  by  the  Bisho])  of  Norwich,  but 
[)rotected  by  his  kinsman  Lord  Uurghley.  He, 
with  his  disciples,  now  found  it  so  uncomfortable 
that  they  fled  to  Middelberg  in  Zeland,  to  seek 
there  amid  strangers  peace  and  liberty  of  wor- 
ship. There  is  no  direct  evidence  that  Krowne 
preached  to  the  Dutch  element  of  Norwich,  as  is 
80  commonly  stated ;  nor  is  it  probable  that 
Browne  joined  Cartwright's  English  Church  at 
Middelberg.  For  two  years  he  remained  in  Mid- 
delberg ;  and  there  his  three  treatises,  which 
were  probably  intended  to  form  one  volume,  were 
succcv.iirc'l//  printed,  and  thence  sent  for  distribu- 
tion to  England.  They  are  entitled:  1.  "A 
Booke  which  Sheweth  the  life  and  manners  of  all 
true  Christians,  and  howe  unlike  they  are  imto 
Turkes  and  Papistes,  and  Heathen  folke.  Also 
the  pointes  and  partes  of  all  Dininitie,  that  is  of 
the  reuealed  will  and  worde  of  God,  are  declared 
by  their  seuerall  Definitions  and  Diuisions  in 
order  as  followeth  "  (pp.  Ill);  2.  "A  Treatise 
upon  tlie  23  of  Matthewe,  both  for  an  order  of 
studying  and  handling  the  Scriptures,  and  also 
auoyding  the  Popishe  disorders,  and  ungodly 
communion  of  all  false  Christians,  and  especiallie 
of  wiked  Preachers  and  hirelings "  (pp.  44)  ; 
3.  "  A  Treatise  of  reformation  without  tarying 
fer  anie,  and  of  the  wikednesse  of  those  Preach- 
ers, which  will  not  reforme  till  the  Magistrate 
commaunde  or  compell  them"  (pp.  18).  These 
are  all  in  quarto,  and  printed  by  llicliard  Painter 
[Schilder],  whose  charges  were  met,  it  is  proba- 
ble, by  Robert  Harrison,  one  of  Browne's  early 
converts.  But  in  Middelberg  the  very  principles 
they  held  to  led  to  continual  discussion  and  divis- 
ion of  sentiments  among  themselves;  and  in 
December,  1583,  Browne,  with  four  or  five  fami- 
lies, came  to  Scotland;  and  Thursday,  Jan.  9, 
1.384,  arrived  in  Edinburgh,  and  at  once  com- 
menced the  circulation  of  his  peculiar  doctrines. 
"  They  held  opinion  of  separation  from  all  kirks 
where  excommunication  was  not  rigorously  used 
against  open  offenders  not  repenting.  They 
would  not  admit  witnesses  [i.e.,  sponsors]  in 
baptism;  and  sundry  other  opinions  they  had." 
These  were  the  charges  .against  them,  when,  on 
the  fdlldicinf/  Tuexdai/,  Browne  was  sunnnoned 
before  the  .session  of  the  Kirk  of  Edinburgh.  He 
was  for  a  few  days  imprisoned ;  but  unhindered, 
if  not  covertly  encouraged,  by  the  .secular  authori- 
ties, he  ti'aveiled  over  Scotland.  Soon  he  returned 
to  England,  and  endured  a  lengthened  imprison- 
ment, with  its  attendant  circumstances  of  mental 
and  bodily  suffering;  was  again  befriended  by 
Lord  Burghley;  removed  to  Northampton  (1580), 
and  was  excoumiunicated  for  disobeying  the 
Bishop  of  Peterborough's  citation  to  trial  for 
his  offensive  teachings.  Now  he  came  to  a 
strange  determination  to  join  the  Church  of 
England.  On  Nov.  21,  1586,  he  was  elected  to 
be  master  of  the  grammar-school  at  St.   Olaves, 


Southwark ;  and  in  order  to  enter  upon  the  posi- 
tion he  bound  himself  not  only  to  abstain  from 
preaching  his  "st'ditious"  dcjctrines,  but  to  live 
as  a  member  of  the  Church  of  England,  so  far  as 
his  conduct  was  concerned.  His  good  behavior 
so  mollified  the  popular  feiding  against  him, 
that  in  Septendier,  15!J1,  hi^  was  installed  rector 
of  Achurch-cuni-Tliorpe,  a  very  small  living  (for 
in  the  next  century  the  parish  contained  only 
eighteen  families)  given  him  by  Lord  Burghh^y. 
Here  the  fiery,  eloquent,  determined  Hobert 
Browne  lived  ior  forty  years.  But  in  what  condi- 
tion ?  Dr.  Dexter  explains  the  cessation  of 
Browne's  activity,  and  his  long  residence  in  the 
little  parish,  on  the  supposition  of  his  mental 
incapacity,  which  may  at  times  have  amounted  to 
real  insanity.  It  was  for  a  mad  blow  at  a  con- 
stable he  died  in  prison.  [It  is  ea.sy  to  understand 
how  Fuller  {Church  IJislori/,  V.  (iO)  cuvdd  say  thai, 
Browne  did  not  preach  in  his  (Binwne's)  church: 
he  could  not.  j\lany  other  slanders  are  likewise 
refuted  by  supposing  him  to  be  weak-minded. 
This  account  of  Browne  differs  radically  from 
the  ordinary  story,  which  is  found  in  Neal's  llis- 
lori/  of  the  Piirildtis,  in  Fuller's  Church  History  of 
Britain^  and  in  books  based  upon  them.] 

The  followers  of  Browne  are  known  as  Brotm- 
ixtx,  a  term  of  reproach.  Our  knowledge  of  the 
early  history  of  the  .sect  is  derived  from  Uobert 
Browne  him.self,  who  published  in  1584  A  'J'rue 
and  Short  Declaration,  Both  of  the  Gathcrinr/  and 
Joyning  tof/elhcr  of  certaine  Persona:  ahd  idso  (f  the 
Lamentable  Breach  anil  Disuision  which  fell  anionr/xt 
them  (4to,  pp.  24),  —  a  treati.se  which  answers 
its  name,  is  true  on  the  face  of  it,  and  certainly 
short.  But  Browne's  change,  and  the  bad  stoiics 
about  his  later  life,  made  those  who  shared  his 
earlier  views  disclaim  all  connection  with  him  : 
and  so,  although  to  him  is  due,  in  Dr.  Dexter'M 
opinion,  the  founding  of  Congregationalism,  the 
denomination  in  England  and  America  slightH 
his  claim.  But  the  man  merits  better  treat- 
ment. He  was  not  "an  ambitious  bigot  iu 
his  earlier,  and  a  contemptible  sneak  in  later, 
years."  His  voluntary  as.sociation  for  a  long 
period  with  that  estimable  minister  and  eminent 
Christian,  the  Rev.  Richard  Greenham  of  Dry 
Drayton,  the  modesty  and  charity  with  which. the 
7'nie  and  Short  Declaration  is  written,  the  works 
already  cited,  and  a  few  others,  may  be  put  in 
evidence  to  prove  his  character,  the  sincerity  of 
his  purpose,  and  its  nobility.  The  movement  he 
started  was  not  solely  to  effect  a  change  of  form 
of  church  polity  :  its  spring  was  his  deep  disgust 
and  shame  at  the  laxity  and  corruption  of  the 
Clun-ch  of  England,  which  tolerated  the  indis- 
criminate mixture  of  good  and  bad  in  the  throng 
to  partake  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  It  was  because 
the  bishops  tolerated  this  state  of  things,  that  he 
declared  they  were  not  Christ's  ministers ;  and 
because  the  Presbyterian  Puritans  i-efused  to  cut 
themselves  loose  from  connection  with  such  a 
system,  and  looked  forward  to  a  State  Church  on 
Genevan  principles,  he  would  not  remain  with 
them.  His  independency  was  therefore  not  from 
policy,  but  from  piety.  In  a  church  so  corrupt 
as  that  of  England,  he  maintained,  the  true 
Christian  could  not  stay.  Nor  was  there  any 
hope  of  reform  for  the  Church  from  the  civil 
power,  neither  any  obligation  to  wait  for  prince 


BROWNE. 


330 


BRUEGGLERS. 


or  magistrate.  He  denied  tlie  ecclesiastical 
authority  of  the  magistrate,  and  so  was  the  tirst 
to  set  forth  the  correct  doctrine  of  the  relation 
of  the  civil  and  religious  powers.  He  further 
declared,  that  any  company  of  believers  thus 
separated  from  the  corrupt  State  Church  formed 
of  themselves  a  true  Church,  amenable  only  to 
Christ's  control,  and  quite  competent  to  govern 
themselves  according  to  their  own  decisions, 
under  the  promised  guidance  of  his  Spirit.  The 
dfficei-s  of  such  a  church  were,  as  deduced  from 
tlie  New  Testament,  a  Pastor,  a  Teacher  of  Doc- 
ti-ine,  one  or  more  Elders,  one  or  more  Relievers 
(deacons)  and  one  or  more  Widows.  The  Lord's 
Supper  is  to  be  the  sweet  and  sacred  bond  of 
anion  in  the  Church,  and  care  must  be  taken  to 
keep  out  all  unworthy  members.  [The  practical 
result  of  this  "  care  "  was  an  inquisition  which 
broke  up  his  church  at  Middelberg.]  He  further 
completed  his  system  by  deciding  that  the  rela- 
tions between  tlie  various  independent  churches 
should  be  sisterly,  admitting  of  no  control,  but 
inviting  unto  mutual  love  and  kindness  in  speech 
and  deed. 

But  the  times  were  not  ripe  for  such  .splendid 
theorizing,  although  it  was  not  God's  design  to 
let  the  world  forget  it.  Robert  Browne  died, 
his  name  smothered  by  his  proper  friends,  and 
jeeringly  repeated  by  his  enemies ;  but  he  lives, 
the  real  founder  of  CongTegationalisni,  and  his 
>\X)i'ks  ai'e  the  acknowledged  quiver  whence  the 
defenders  of  his  polity  have  drawn  their  sharpest 
arrows.  The  miserable,  crazy  dotard  who  died 
in  Xorthamiiton  jail  liad  been  the  enthusiastic, 
impetuous  jireacher,  and  the  man  of  genius,  who 
conceived  and  advocated  the  freest  type  of  chin'ch 
government.  We  bring  out  to  the  light  once 
more,  that  we  may  honor,  the  man  whose  later 
years  God  shrouded  in  gloom,  but  whose  years  of 
health  and  vigor  were  freely  dedicated  unto  the 
senici'  111'  Clivist  and  his  Church. 

BROWNE,  Sir  Thomas,  b.  in  London,  1605;  d. 
at  Xorwich,  1082 ;  studied  medicine ;  ti'avelled 
oil  the  Continent,  and  settled  as  a  practitioner  at 
Norwich  in  l(j;5G.  His  Religio  Medici  was  first 
published  in  l(il2,  and  attracted  inunediately  a 
great  attention,  though  its  peculiar  blending  of 
deep  religious  feeling  and  sceptical  views  is  not 
easy  to  follow.  "  It  is  the  confession  of  faith  of 
a  mind  ki;en  and  sceptical  in  some  aspects,  but 
on  the  whole  deeply  imbued  with  the  sense  of  the 
mysteriousness  of  true  religion,  and  willing  to 
yield  itself  up  without  reserve  to  the  requirements 
of  faith."  In  Ifilti  appeared  the  Treatise  on  Vul- 
gar Errors,  in  l<i.J8  the  Hi/rlri/itaphia  or  Urnhurial, 
and  also  Tlie  (Jarden  of  Ci/rus.  His  Christiiin 
Morals  was  not  jmljlished  until  1710.  Tlie  best 
edition  of  his  work  is  that  by  .Simon  Wilkin,  in 
4  vols.,  llS3(i,  containing  his  letters  and  Johnson's 
biography,  reprinted  by  Bohu,  London,  ISol,  3 
vols. 

BROWNISTS.     Sic  BiunvNK,  Roni-.UT. 

BROWNLEE,  William  C,  b.  at  Torfoot,  Lan- 
arkshire, .Scotland,  17HI;  (1.  in  New  York,  Feb. 
10,1860;  studied  in  the  I'liiversity  of  (ilasgow; 
emigrateil  to  .Vnierica  in  1H(I(S,  and  was  in  l.S'JO 
chosen  miniNt<!r  of  the  Collfgiatc  licformed 
Dutch  Church  in  New  York,  and  distingui.shed 
himself  by  liis  oi)])()sition  to  Romanism.  He 
published  :   Iinjiiiry  iiilo  Ike  J'riiicijitea  of  Quakers, 


New  Y'ork,  1824;  The  Romnn-Calholic  Controversy, 
Phila.,  1834 ;  Lights  ami  Shadoirs  of  Christian 
Life,  New  Y'ork,  1837;  Popery  an  Enemy  to  Ciril 
and  Religious  Liberty,  4th  ed..  New  Y'ork,  1839 ; 
Jlomanism  in  the  Light  of  Prophecy  and  History, 
New  Y'ork,  1854.  From  1820  to  1830  he  was  ed- 
itor of  Magazine  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church. 
This  career  of  eminent  usefulness  was  suddenly 
ended  by  a  paralytic  .stroke  in  1848,  which  effect- 
ually laid  him  aside  from  all  sustained  mental 
labor,  although  he  giadually  regained  some  of 
his  lost  power.     He  was  made  a  pastor-emeritus. 

BROWNSON,  Orestes  Augustus,  LL.D.,  b.  at 
Stockbridge,  Vt.,  .Sejit.  10,  1803;  d.  April  16, 
1870;  was  for  many  years  an  able  opponent  of 
Protestantism,  and  an  unqualified  but  conscien- 
tious defender  of  Romanism.  His  education  was 
defective.  His  religious  career  was  sinuous.  He 
was  originally  a  Baptist,  joined  the  Presbvterian 
Church  at  Ballston,  N.Y'.,  in  1823 ;  but  in  1825 
he  became  a  Universalist  preacher,  and  in  1832 
a  Unitarian  preacher.  He  plunged  into  French 
and  German  literature,  philosophy,  and  theology, 
and  came  out  a  Socialist,  after  the  type  of  Rob- 
ert Owen.  While  in  this  way,  lie  organized  in 
Boston,  in  1830,  the  "  Society  of  Christian  Union 
and  Progress,"  and  ministered  to  it,  until,  in 
1843,  he  avowed  infidel  doctrines  in  his  book, 
A'eic  Vieics  of  Christianity,  Society,  and  the  Church. 
In  1844  he  made  his  final  change.  He  had  gone 
from  Bible  Christianity  to  infidelity :  he  went  to 
the  opposite  extreme,  and  joined  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Church.  Having  exhausted  all  possi- 
bilities, he  never  left  it,  and  established,  in  1844, 
Brotv7u<on's  Quarterly  Recieic,  which  he  edited  until 
his  death,  and  in  which  he  taught  the  strongest 
Ultramoutanism  with  energy  and  enthusiasm. 
He  had  a  rare  facultv  for  defending  the  most 
extreme  views,  and  making  them  plausible.  See 
his  collected  Works,  New  York,  1883-85,  19  vols. 

BRUEGGLERS,  a  sect  founded  in  1740  in  the 
village  of  liruegglen,  in  the  canton  of  Bern,  Swit- 
zerland, by  two  brothers.  Christian  and  Ilierony- 
mus  Kohler.  During  a  religious  excitement  which 
at  that  time  prevailed  in  the  neighborhood,  the 
two  brothers,  who  had  hitherto  led  a  very  disso- 
lute life,  and  were  sorely  in  want  of  means  to 
gratify  their  vanity  and  sensuality,  suddenly  aji- 
peared  as  divine  prophets,  began  to  jireacli  and 
exhort,  and  soon  gathered  a  number  of  followers. 
They  professed  to  stand  in  direct  coniinunicatiou 
witli  God  the  Father,  and  to  know  every  thing  he 
knew.  By  virtue  of  tliis  foreknowledge  they  aii- 
nonnced  that  the  world  should  perish,  and  the 
day  of  judgment  come,  on  next  t'hristnias  Eve ; 
and  this  event,  which  frightened  people  out  of 
their  senses,  was  only  averted  by  the  intercession 
of  the  two  bwjthers.  The  basis  of  their  moral 
system  was  the  doctrine  that  the  whole  external 
]i'art  of  man,  the  flesh  of  human  nature,  is  under 
the  dominion  of  Satan  ;  and  con.sequently  Satan, 
and  not  man,  is  responsible  for  wliat  is  done  in 
the  flesh.  The  effects  of  such  doctrines  soon  be- 
came apparent  in  tlie  wildest  exces.ses;  and  the 
two  brothers  were  banished  from  the  country 
(17.")()).  The  disorders  continued,  however,  as  the 
brothers  every  now  and  then  returned  .secretly 
to  Briiegglen.  In  17."i2  tlii'V  were  cau^;ht;  and 
the  process  institntcil  against  them  now  revealed 
the  whole  abomination  of  their  conduct.      Hie- 


BRUIS. 


331 


BRUNSWICK, 


ronynius  was  sentenced  to  deatli,  ami  exenuted 
Jan.  10,  17'i-i.  Wliat  liecanie  of  ChrisMiui  is  not 
known.  'I'lie  sect  (lisappeared,  tliougli  ai'tcrvvanls 
many  of  its  doctrines  and  instincts  were  renewed 
by  the  Antonians.  See  Kyhuiig  :  l)a:<  ciililcchli: 
O'elteitimiis  ilcr  Jioxlicil  in  (tcr  lirucijtjli^r-Sckle,  Zii- 
ricli,  17.5:5;  Mkisikk  :  Ilalvelisc/ie  Scencn  der  ncu- 
em  Sc/iirdniiiri'i,  Ziirieli,  178."). 

BRUIS,  Pierre  de.  See  rKTicu  of  IJnuYS  and 
Pkthohuiissians. 

BRULLY.or  BRUSLY,  Pierre  (Petrus  Brulins), 
the  successor  of  Calvin  in  Strasslmrg,  and  a 
martyr  of  tiie  Protestant  faitli,  1).  at  Mercy-le- 
Ilaut  near  Jletz,  Germany,  al>out  l.")l.S;  burned 
at  tlie  stalvc  at  Tonrnay,  Fel).  liJ,  151.3.  He  was 
educated  for  the  Cliurch ;  and,  distinguislied  l^y 
his  learning,  he  was  early  appointed  lector  in 
the  Dominican  convent  in  Metz.  The  story  of 
Luther's  recantation,  and  the  preaching  of  tlie 
new  faith,  affected  him  so,  that,  about  the  close 
of  1540,  he  was  expelled  as  an  apostate.  He 
shortly  after  left  the  city,  and  went  to  Katisbon, 
to  Ulm,  and  on  to  Strassburg,  where  he  made  a 
very  favorable  impression  upon  Calvin.  Quite 
contrary  to  his  expectation,  he  settled  there  ;  and, 
when  Calvin  was  recalled  to  Geneva  (1541),  he 
became  his  successor  in  the  pastorate.  His  life 
was  neither  easy  nor  pleasant,  but  he  was  sin- 
cerely attached  to  his  flock ;  yet  in  September, 
1544,  he  quitted  Strassburg  to  go  upon  a  nussion- 
ary  tour  in  Flanders  in  obedience  to  the  invita- 
tion of  persons  in  Tournay  who  wished  to  be 
instructed  in  the  pure  faith.  He  travelled  m  dis- 
guise, and  reached  that  place  in  safety,  although 
he  narrowly  escaped  arrest.  It  was  forbidden  to 
propagate  the  Protestant  "  heresy ; "  and  Brully 
was  compelled  to  exercise  address  and  caution. 
He  labored  with  gi'eat  earnestness  and  success, 
but  secretly.  With  genuine  courage,  he  preached 
in  other  places  in  Flanders.  But  his  career  was 
brief.  On  returning  to  Tournay  he  learned  that 
the  authorities  were  on  the  watch  for  him  (Nov. 
3,  1544).  His  friends  let  him  down  from  the 
wall  at  niglit,  and  lie  might  have  escaped,  had 
not  a  stone  fallen  upon  him  with  such  violence 
that  it  broke  his  leg ;  and  so  he  easily  was  foinid 
and  taken  the  next  morning.  The  touching  story 
is  told,  that  lirully,  in  the  midst  of  his  sufferings, 
praised  his  Saviour,  because,  when  he  was  about 
to  basely  desert  his  flock  in  a  time  of  danger,  he 
had  interposed  to  bring  him  back  to  duty.  His 
trial  soon  followed.  He  made  a  manly  confession 
of  his  work,  concealing,  however,  the  names  of 
his  friends,  lest  he  sliould  bring  them  into  trou- 
ble. At  Strassburg  the  news  of  the  arrest  caused 
a  great  sensation.  A  delegation  from  the  magis- 
tracy of  the  city  was  sent  to  Tournay,  hut  all 
efforts  at  release  failed.  The  German  Protestant 
princes  themselves  addressed  pressing  letters  in 
his  behalf  to  Charles  V.,  which,  however,  arrived 
too  late ;  although  it  is  questionable  whether 
they  would  have  done  any  good.  Brully  perished 
a  martyr  to  the  cause  he  loved  so  well.  —  His 
biography  has  recently  been  written  by  Ror>oi.PiiE 
Reuss,  Pierre  Brully,  Strasbourg,  1879,  who,  how- 
ever, relies  in  great  measure  upon  Le  proces  de 
Pierre  Bridli/,  succenseur  de  Cvlvin  comme  mi- 
nislre  de  C Kylise  frarn-aise  rtformee  de  Sirashourg 
(1544-45),  par  Cii.  Baillakd,  Paris,  1878,  which 
is  derived  from  original  researches. 


BRUNO,  b.  925;  d.  Oct.  11,  905;  a  son  of 
Henry  llu;  Fowler,  and  brother  to  Otlio  I.  ;  was 
from  infancy  destined  for  tlie  Chnreh,  and  edu- 
cated in  the  cathedral  school  of  I'trecht,  and  was 
made  Archbishoj)  of  Cologne  in  95;3.  He  took  a 
very  active  jiart  in  the  political  affairs  of  his 
brother,  always  working  for  peace ;  while  in  the 
history  of  the  Churcli  he  stands  as  a  repres(^nta- 
tivfi  of  that  school-education  wliich  was  started 
by  Charlemagne,  and  in  tli(!  tenth  century  dev(!l- 
oped  in  a  peculiar  way  by  the  Iro-Scottish  monks. 
His  life  was  written  by  Unotger  in  900,  and  in 
the  thirteenth  century  by  the  monks  of  St.  Pan- 
taleon  in  Cologne,  where  he  lies  buried.  See 
Pektz  :  Alouum.  Genu.  Hist.  Script.  IV.  pp.  252, 
275;  also  in  Act.  Sdnct.  Oct.  V.,  and  the  recent 
biographies  by  Piklku,  Ai-nsberg,  1851  ;  K. 
Meyek,  Berlin,  1S70;  PrKiFKEit,  Koln,  1870; 
DuMi.KR  in  Piper's  Zcur/en  der  Wahrhcil,  l,eii> 
zig,  1874.  ALBIIECHT   VOGEL. 

BRUNO,  the  "Apostle  of  the  Pru.ssians,"  also 
called  Jio7iifticiu!<,h.  970;  d.  Feb.  14,  1009;  was 
related  to  the  Saxon  dynasty,  but  destined  for 
the  I'hui'ch,  and  educated  in  ^Slagdeburg;  accom- 
panied Otho  111.  to  Italy  in  990,  and  was  here 
won  over  by  Adelbert  of  Prague  to  those  extreme 
ideas  of  asceticism  which  from  Greece  invaded 
the  Western  Church ;  became  monk,  and  set  out 
in  1004  as  a  missionary,  first  to  Poland,  then  to 
Hungary  and  Russia,  and  finally  among  the  Prus- 
sians, among  whom  he  suffered  martyrdom.  The 
materials  for  his  life  have  been  critically  sifted 
by  ^'olGT,  in  his  Geschichte  Prcuasciis,  I.  p.  280, 
and  by  Pertz,  in  his  introductory  to  Vita  S.  Adel- 
berti.  ALBRECIIT  VOGEL. 

BRUNO,  Giordano,  b.  at  Nola  in  Campania 
al>out  1550;  d.  in  Rome,  Feb.  9,  1000;  entered 
the  Dominican  order;  but  the  study  of  natural 
philosojihy,  and  of  the  works  of  Nicolaus  Cusa- 
nausand  Raimundus  Lnllus,  gradually  placed  him 
in  such  an  opposition  to  the  Roman  Churcli  that 
he  was  compelled  to  flee  from  his  moiiastei'y,  and 
leave  Italy.  In  1580  he  settled  at  Geneva.  He 
was  not  a  Protestant,  however.  He  was  a  Pan- 
theist; and  nniny  of  the  moral  principles  he 
adopted  and  defended  are  of  a  very  doubtful 
character.  But  his  criticism  of  the  superstition 
of  the  Roman  Church  and  the  futility  of  the 
scholastic  system  was  deeji  and  striking;  and  the 
effect  of  his  lectures,  delivered  at  Geneva,  Paris, 
Oxford,  Wittenberg,  Prague,  and  Frankfort,  and 
of  his  numerous  writings,  was  very  keenly  felt, 
and  deeply  resented.  In  1592  he  had  the  au- 
dacity to  return  to  Italy,  and  began  to  lecture  at 
Padua,  and  aftenvards  at  Venice.  But  he  was 
seized  by  the  Inquisition,  and  placed  before  its 
tribunal  in  Rome.  Every  means  was  employed 
to  compel  him  to  recant;  and,  when  he  absolutely 
refused,  he  was  condemned  for  heresy,  and  handed 
over  to  the  secular  authorities  to  be  punished 
citra  fianrjiunis  cffusionem.  He  was  burnt.  His 
Italian  works  were  published  at  Leipsic,  1830; 
the  Latin,  at  Stuttgardt,  1834.  See  Ch.  Bau- 
TiiOLEMESs:  J.  Bruno,  Paris,  1840;  F.  J.  Cle- 
mens :  Bruno  und  Nicol.  von  Cusa,  Leipzig,  1847. 

BRUNSWICK.  Of  the  population  of  the  grand 
duchy  of  Brunswick,  .300,190  are  Lutheran,  7,030 
Roman  Catholic,  2,793  Reformed,  and  1,174  .lews. 
The  Reformed  have  a  church  and  a  ]iastor  in  the 
city  of  Cruiis'wick,  and  form,  togetb"-  with  the 


BRUYS. 


332 


BUDDEUS. 


co7igi'egations  of  Celle,  Hanover,  Biickeburg,  Got- 
tiiigen,  and  Miiuden,  the  Reformed  Synod  of 
Lower  Saxony.  Tlie  Roman  Catholics  have  three 
oliurches,  respectively  in  Helnistedt,  Brunswick, 
and  Wolfenbiittel,  and  belong  to  the  diocese  of 
Uildesheim  in  Hanover.  The  Lutheran  Church, 
established  in  the  city  of  Brunswick  in  1.V2S,  and 
in  the  country  in  1508,  is  the  Church  of  the  State, 
comprising  two  hundred  and  sixty  congregations, 
and  administered  by  a  consistory,  seven  su])erin- 
tendeut^generals,  and  thirty-three  superintendents. 
The  confession  on  which  all  ecclesiastics  of  the 
Kstablished  Church  must  take  oath,  the  Cor/ms 
jMctrinie  Julium,  does  not  contain  the  Formula 
('nncordicc.  The  census  quoted  above  is  that  of 
December,  187L 

BRUYS,  Peter.     See  Peter  of  Bruys   and 

PkT1!OBRUSSIANS. 

BRYAN,  Rev.  W.     See  Bible  Christians. 

BRYANT,  Jacob,  a  learned  though  whimsical 
writer,  b.  at  Plymouth,  171.5;  d.  near  Windsor, 
Nov.  14,  1804.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
Cambridge,  where  he  took  B.A.,  1740,  ]M.A., 
fellow  of  King's  College,  1744;  became  tutor, 
and  then,  later,  secretary,  to  the  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough, 17.')*j.  From  the  duke  he  received  a 
lucrative  appointment  in  the  ordnance,  which,  as 
lie  never  married,  amply  supported  him,  and  was 
assigned  two  rooms  at  ISlenheim,  with  permission 
to  enter  at  anytime  the  magnificent  library  tliere. 
'l"he  passion  of  his  life  w  as  the  cause  of  his  death  ; 
for  when  eighty-nine  years  of  age,  in  attempting 
to  get  a  book  down  from  a  shelf  by  means  of  a 
chair,  his  foot  slipped,  his  leg  was  grazed,  mortifi- 
cation set  in,  and  he  died.  He  published  :  Obser- 
valionx  and  JiKjuirie.i,  Cambridge,  17ti7  (in  this 
volume  he  defends  the  reading  Edrocli/itou  instead 
of  liuro  Aquilo,  ju'oposed  by  Bochart,  Bentley, 
and  others ;  and  also  Melite  as  a  ditferent  island 
from  Malta.  On  both  points  modern  scholarship 
pronounces  him  wrong;  although  in  regard  to  the 
jormer  point  the  decisive  verdict  was  given  only 
recently  by  the  Codex  Sinaiticus)  ;  A  A'eio  Si/alem, 
or  Anuiysis  of  Ancient  MiilJuUuiiii,  l^ondon,  1774- 
70,  A  vols. ;  'id  ed.,  1st  vol.  1775 ;  ;5d  ed.,  with 
Account  of  the  Autlior,  Index,  41  plates,  Loudon, 
1807,  6  vols.  8vo,  —  a  work  of  great  learning 
u]ion  the  plan  of  substantiating  the  Bible  by  a 
.study  of  the  traditional  remains  of  all  nations, 
but  now  utterly  worthli'ss;  Vindicin:  I'luciana^, 
l^oudou,  1777  (a  vindication  of  tin;  testimony 
given  by  .losephus  concerning  our  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ);  Tre.nlisi'  on  the  AnIhenUcUij  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, London,  179J,  ]>reparcd  at  request  of  the 
Dowager  Lady  Pembroke,  M  ed.,  1810;  0/iser- 
Vfilions  v/mn  some  J'nssa</('s  in  Scripture,  I.,ondon, 
180:5.  liesides  these  volumes,  lie  issued  several  of 
a  more  purely  areliieological  interest.  His  great 
fondness  for  paradox,  and  his  other  eccentricities, 
rob  liis  writings  of  a  great  jiart  of  their  value. 

BUCER.     See  Hiit/.ki!. 

BUCHANAN,  Claudius,  b.  at  C'ambuslang.  near 
fJlasgow,  March  ^'J,  17fli!;  il.  at  Broxbourne, 
H(frts,  Feb.  9,  1815;  studii-d  at  Cauil>ridge;  went 
to  the  East  Indies  in  170(1  as  one  of  the  com- 
])an y's  cliaplain.s ;  was  ajipoiiited  professor  of  the 
classical  languages  and  litiTatnres  in  the  College 
of  Fort  William,  Bi'ng:il,  iu  IHIXI,  and  returned 
to  England  in  18(18.  lie  ]iublishi'il :  l\j-jtci/ii'nci/ 
of  an  Ecclesiastical  Establiiliinenl  Jor  India,  1805 ; 


Christian  Jiesearches  in  Asia,  1811 ;  Colonial  Eccle- 
siastical Eslahlishnients,  1813,  etc.  There  is  a  Life 
of  him  by  Hrr.ii  Pkahson,  London,  1819,  L'  vols. 

BUCHANAN,  George,  b.  at  Killearn,  Stirling- 
shire, Scotland,  150(5;  d.  in  Edinburgh,  Sept.  '2i) 
1582;  studied  in  Paris,  15"J0-22,  at  St.  Andrew'.s, 
1524-25,  and  again  in  Paris,  whence  he  returned 
to  Scotland  in  1536.  Having  adopted  Protestant 
views,  his  first  literary  undertakings  were  two 
Latin  satires  on  the  monks,  Somnium  and  Fran- 
ciscanvs,  which  caused  such  indignation  among 
the  Romanists,  that  he  was  compelled  to  leave 
the  couiitrj',  1539.  During  his  exile  he  taught  in 
Paris,  Bordeaux,  Coimbra,  etc. ;  and  to  this 
period  belong  his  Latin  translations  of  Medea 
and  Alcestis,  and  his  two  Latin  tragedies,  Jcphtex 
and  Bitplistes.  Returned  to  Scotland  in  IStJO,  he 
was  appointed  tutor  to  Queen  Mary  in  1562, 
principal  of  St.  Leonard's  College,  St.  Andrew's, 
1566,  and  tutor  to  .James  VI.  in  1570.  During 
this  last  period  of  his  life  he  wrote  his  Latin 
translation  of  the  P.salms,  his  Dc  Jure  Jier/ni  ajnid 
Scolos  (condemned  in  1584,  and  burnt  in  l(i83), 
and  JieruiH  Scoticurum  Ilist/irin,  his  principal 
work.     His  life  was  written  by  Dr.  Irvi.no,  1817. 

BUCK,  Charles,  the  never-to-be-forgotten  au- 
thor of  the  Tluoloijical  Diclionari/,  a  work  which 
has  .sold  enormously  in  Great  Britain  and  Ameri- 
ca, has  appeared  in  many  shapes,  undea-  different 
editors,  and  yet  is  so  admirably  composed  that  it 
cannot  become  entirely  antiquated.  Mr.  Buck 
was  born  in  1771  ;  labored  in  the  ministry  of 
the  Independents  of  England  until  his  death,  in 
1815.  His  Diclionari/  appeared  London,  1802, 
2  vols.  8vo.  ;  in  1821,  1  vol.  8vo. ;  edited  and 
much  improved  by  Rev.  Dr.  Henderson,  London, 
1847;  1  vol.  Svo,  pp.  788,  Philadelphia,  U.S.A., 
1869.  Another  work,  of  less  \alue,  but  of  great 
popularity,  was.  Anecdotes,  Relif/ious,  Moral,  and 
Entertidninq,  London,  1799;  6th  ed.,  corrected, 
1815;   lOth'ed.,  1842. 

BUCKMINSTER,  Joseph,  b.  at  Rutland,  Mass., 
Oct.  14,  1751;  d.  at  Portsmouth,  N.IL,  .June  10, 
1812;  studied  at  Yale  College,  and  wiis  ordained 
minister  of  the  North  Church  in  Portsmouth  in 
1779.  He  published  a  memoir  of  Dr.  McClin- 
lock,  and  some  sermons.  His  .sou,  Joseph  Ste- 
vens Buckminster,  b.  in  Portsmcnith,  May  2(5, 
1784;  d.  in  Boston,  June  9,  1812;  studied  at 
Harvard  College;  took  charge  of  the  Bruttle- 
street  Church  in  Boston  in  1805;  an<l  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  biblical  criticism  at  Harvard 
College  in  1811.  lie  published  a  volume  of  ser- 
mons, which  was  reprinted  in  Loudon.  See 
Memoirs  of  the  liurl.niinsters.  Father  and  Son,  by 
Jlrs.  I.ii;.  Boston,  1S51. 

BUDDEUS,  Johann  Franz,  b.  at  Anclam,  loni- 
erania,  .June  25,  1667;  d.  at  Jena,  Nov.  19,  1729; 
.studied  at  (ireil'swald,  and  became  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Wittemberg  in  1687,  and  at  .lemi 
in  1689;  jn-ofessor  of  (ireek  and  Latin  at  Cobnrg 
in  1()92;  profess(U'of  moral  jihilosophy  at  Halle  in 
1693;  and  ])rofessor  of  theology  at  .lena  in  1705. 
He  was  a  man  of  g(Miuiiie  piety  and  imnieuso 
learning;  .and  he  exercised  a  inccious  inthience, 
both  by  the  coneili;itory  (lositioii  he  oeenjiied 
among  the  various  theological  and  ])hilosopliieal 
schools,  and  by  the  (■learne.ss  and  case  with  which 
iu  his  writings  he  liaiidleil  eMormoMS  masses  of 
materials.     The  most  prominent  among  his  worka 


BUDDHISM. 


333 


BUDDHISM. 


;;;'•" 


DC 


are,  Elementa  Philosophkc  Practicic,  1097  ;  Iiislilu- 
tionex  T/ieolo(/i(E  Moralis,  1711,  wliich.  executed 
under  the  iiiHuenceof  Speiier,  caused  the  casuisti- 
cal elements  to  disappear  altogether  from  tlie 
Protestant  treatment  of  Christian  morals;  also 
his  Ixaqoqe  llistorica  ad  Tlieoloyiam  Unireratim, 
1727,  is  remarkable.  K.  SCIIWAUZ. 

BUDDHISM,^  the  religion  of  five  hundred  mil- 
lions of  our  race,  is  the  system  of  religious  truth 
taught  originally  by  Gautama  (or  (Jotama),  the 
son  of  Mayadevi,  the  queen  of  Suddhodana,  king 
of  Kapilavastu,  a  place  about  one  hundred  miles 
north-east  of  Benares.  lie  was  b.  probably  B.C. 
()".22  or  556,  in  the  garden  of  Lumbini,  and  d.  at 
Kusinagara,  B.C.  54;{  or  477.  Tlie  story  of  his 
life  in  its  simplest  form  is  as  follows  :  One  day 
Mayadevi,  while  dreaming,  saw  Bud<lha  descend 
from  heaven  in  the  form  of  a  white  elephant, 
attended  by  a  myriad  of  heavenly  beings,  and 
enter  her  womb.  The  incident  was  interpreted  by 
the  Brahmaus  who  had  been  summoned  by  the 
king  for  the  purpose,  as  prophesying  that  the 
future  king  would  either  be  a  world-emperor  of 
ideal  beauty  of  character,  or  else,  if  he  renounced 
his  temporal  dominion,  a  Buddha,  the  .savior  of 
the  worlds.  When  the  time  of  her  confinement 
was  near,  Mayadevi  started  for  her  parents'  house ; 
but  on  the  way,  under  a  pipal-tree  (Ficus  relir/iosa), 
her  child  was  born.  She  hastened  back  again, 
only,  liowever,  to  die.  The  boy  was  named  SiddJi- 
arlha  ("he  by  whom  all  ends  are  accomplished  "). 
His  aunt,  Mahaprajapati,  who  was  also  the  king's 
other  wife,  a  childless  woman,  brought  him  up 
tenderly.  He  was  early  married  to  his  cousin, 
the  daughter  of  the  rajah  of  Koli.  But  after  a 
time  the  splendors  and  pleasures  of  his  daily  life 
ceased  to  satisfy  him.  He  became  conscious  of  a 
far  higher  destiny  than  that  of  an  earthly  prince ; 
and  so  in  his  twenty-ninth  year  he  suddenly  broke 
loose  from  all  his  associations,  and  took  up  an 
ascetic  life.  He  first  studied  under  two  famous 
Brahmans,  Arada  and  Rudvaka;  but,  unsatisfied, 
he  went  into  the  jungle,  and  there  for  six  years, 
accompanied  by  five  disciples,  lived  so  austerely 
that  he  was  wasted  to  a  shadow.  But  when  almost 
dead  he  perceived  his  mistake,  and  at  once  took 
proper  food.  This  course  of  religious  develop- 
ment had  been  all  along  desperately  opposed  by 
!Mara,  the  demon  of  desire,  whose  temptations 
remind  us  of  those  to  which  Christ  was  subjected  ; 
but  at  last  he  conquered,  and  set  forth  to  amelio- 
rate the  woi-ld.  He  regathered  his  five  disciples, 
whom  his  renunciation  of  asceticism  had  driven 
away,  and  began  to  publish  abroad  the  deep 
things  his  meditations  had  revealed,  and  in  his 
first  discourse  propounded  "  the  four  sublime 
truths,"  —  pain,  the  eternal  fact  presented  to  con- 
sciousness throughout  the  universe ;  its  oriyin  in 
desire,  whicli  leads  to  action,  and  consequent  merit 
and  demerit;  its  prevention  tlirough  the  u-ay,  the 
law  promulgated  by  Buddha,  or  the  eightfold 
path  (rigiit  belief,  feelings,  speech,  actions,  means 
of  livelihood,  endeavor,  memory,  and  meditation). 
He  was  then  in  his  thirty-sixth  year,  possessed  of 
the  perfect  intelligence  of  a  Buddha.  He  lived 
for  forty-four  years  thereafter,  travelling  about; 
and  when  he  died  his  body  was  burned  with  im- 


'  The  maUTinIs  fur  thin  .irticle  liave  boon  derived  chiefly 
from  l*rofeH»«<»r  Cowell's  :irt.  '*  BudOliitim,"  in  8milhand  Wace, 
{IJict.  C/ir.  Biog.),  and  Uliyn  Davidti'^  Bmliihitim. 


perial  obsequies,  and  his  ashes  sent  to  eight  king- 
doms, each  of  which  built  a  monument  over  its 
portion. 

Gautama,  or,  as  he  is  commonly  called,  Sah/a 
Muni  ("  the  Sakya  sage "),  like  Socrates  and 
Jesus,  proclaimed  his  doctrines  orally,  and  wrote 
nothing:  at  least  nothing  has  been  preserved. 
But  after  his  death  five  hundred  of  his  di.sciple.f 
held  a  council,  and  each  recited  what  he  had 
heard,  and  then  tlie  whole  assembly  reiieated 
aloud  what  had  been  thus  gathered  up.  15y  a 
second  and  third  council  tlie  teachings  of  (iartta- 
ma  were  formulated;  but  it  is  not  proved  that 
any  written  statement  of  them  is  earlier  tliau 
B.C.  100-88.  It  is  yet  unsettled  whether  the 
original  language  was  Sanscrit  or  Pali,  probably 
the  latter. 

Present  Buddhism  is  a  development  of  the 
primitive  faith,  which  had  three  objects,  —  morali- 
ty, asceticism,  and  nircima.  The  cardinal  tenets 
are  the  four  truths  already  stated.  It  is  open  to 
any  thing,  even  to  a  worm,  to  become  a  Buddlia, 
provided  this  high  ottice  is  kept  steadily  in  view 
through  the  long  succession  of  births.  In  the 
past  thei-e  have  been  many  Buddhas,  and  in  tlie 
future  there  will  be  as  many.  When  at  last  one 
by  his  self-negation  and  virtue  has  become  ?i, poten- 
tial Buddha  {Bodhinatlira),  he  awaits  in  heaven  his 
final  change,  — his  birth  as  a  man,  —  for  then  he 
is  perfected.  He  is  born  either  a  male  Brahman, 
or  a  Kshatriya  (Gautama's  caste);  gains  intelli- 
gence under  the  bndlii  tree  at  Gaysi;  and  begins 
his  preaching  in  the  deer-paik  at  Benares,  and 
preaches  precisely  the  same  doctrines  as  all  his 
predecessors.  Gautama's  Buddha,sliip  was  for  five 
thousand  years.  Then  he  will  enter  nirtcnia,  an<l 
the  next  Buddha,  Maitreya,  will  appear,  and  re- 
store to  all  its  influence  the  old  docti'ine. 

The  Buddhists  divide  all  being  into  the  five 
classes:  (1)  Buddhas:  (2)  Bud/iixalta-as  (future 
Buddhas) ;  (3)  Pralyeka-tiur/dlias  (individual  Buil- 
dhas,  who  have  attained  to  perfect  knowledge,  but 
have  .sought  it  only  for  themselves,  while  tlie 
Buddha  attains  know-ledge  in  order  that  he  may 
impart  it)  ;  (4)  Ari/as  (the  saints  who  have  l>egun 
to  tread  the  road  to  nirvana),  who  are  divided  int<i 
four  clas.ses,  called  "paths,"  cacl(  of  which  is  sub- 
divided into  those  who  are  nearing  the  end  of 
their  "  path,"  and  those  who  have  ended  it.  The 
first  path  is  called  coHccr.smn,  or  "entering  upon 
the  stream;"  while  in  it  the  aspirant  "becomes 
free  successively  from  the  delusion  of  self,  from 
doubt  as  to  Buddha  and  his  doctrines,  and  from 
the  belief  in  the  efficacy  of  rites  and  ceremonies." 
The  second  path  is  that  of  those  u-lio  will  nnly 
return  once  to  tliis  world :  the  third  is  that  of  those 
who  will  never  return  to  this  world;  and  tlie  fourth 
that  of  the  Worthy  Ones,  the  Arhats,  who  are 
entirely  free  from  all  sin,  and  able  to  know  every 
thing,  to  see  every  thing,  and  to  go  everywhere, 
in  any  form.  There  is  but  one  change  more, — 
nirvana.  What  is  riiVrana  .*■  Extinction.  Annihi- 
lation is  really  all  that  awaits  the  Arhat,  accord- 
ing to  the  philosophic  writings  of  the  Buddliists. 
as  interpreted  by  many  scholars.  But  Air.  Kliys 
Davids  puts  an  entirely  different  construction 
upon  7?iVca)m,  which  he  grants  does  mean  "extinc- 
tion," but  not  the  extinction  of  a  soul.  He  says, 
"  It  is  the  extinction  of  that  sinful,  grasping  con- 
dition of  mind  and  heart  which  would  otlierwise 


BUDDHISM. 


334 


BUDDHISM. 


be  the  cause  of  renewed  individual  existence." 
In  a  word  it  is  "iioliness,"  ••perfect  peace,  good- 
ness, and  wisdom  "  (BiK/ilhisrui,  pp.  111,:2).  (5) 
■Prilliuf/jana)',  the  ordinary  disciples  wlio  content 
themselves  with  ordinary  duties,  and  do  not  aspire 
to  the  transcendental  perfections  of  the  Aryas. 
'I'hese  are,  of  course,  the  vast  majority. 

The  five  above-mentioned  gradatiojis,  however, 
mostly  belong  to  the  unseen  world.  The  visible 
tBtiddhist  communion  has  necessarily  other  divis- 
ions. The  Buddhist  "  church  "  is  called  Saiii/ha ; 
aii4  the  Iri-rafna,  or  "three  precious  things,"  — 
Buddha,  the  law,  and  the  assembly  (sant/lm), — 
are  contumally  mentioned  in  Buddhist  formulas 
and  books  ;  but  the  present  hierarchy  is  not  primi- 
tive, but  developed.  The  saiii/ha  is  composed  of 
"religious  mendicants"  (l/lilkslius),  who,  after  a 
novitiate,  take  vows  of  chastity  and  poverty, — 
vows,  however,  which  are  not  irrevocable  at  tlie 

S resent  day,  nor,  apparently,  at  any  pre\-ious  time, 
uddha  from  the  first  discouraged  all  painful  as- 
ceticism, so  prevalent  in  Brahminism,  but  laid 
great  stress  on  a  mendicant  and  celibate  life.  In 
contradistinction  to  the  devotees',  the  duties  of 
tlie  laity  are  included  in  the  three  formulas  of 
"  taking  "  refuge  (•'  I  take  refuge  in  Buddha,  in 
his  doctrine,  and  in  his  community"),  and  the  "five 
jM-dhibitious,"  i.e.,  against  tlie  sins  of  murder, 
theft,  unchastity,  lying,  and  the  use  of  intoxicating 
drinks.  The  morality  of  Buddhism  is  its  bright- 
est side.  The  purity  and  benevolence  of  Buddhist 
books  supply  tlie  want  of  poetry,  for  they  are 
usuallj'  of  little  literary  merit,  and' strongly  excite 
the  interest  of  the  reader. 

As  Buddliism  does  not  recognize  the  idea  of 
God,  it  has  properly  no  worship  or  sacrifices,  and 
originally  no  religious  ceremonies ;  but  as  it 
spread,  a  cultus  arose.  The  images  and  relics  of 
Buddha  himself  and  the  other  holy  personages 
of  the  legends  were  worshipped ;  and  the  ceremo- 
nies consisted  of  offerings  of  flowers  and  perfumes 
with  music,  and  tne  recital  of  hymns  and  prayers. 
Formulas  of  prayer  have  also  come  into  use,  al- 
though the  idea  of  a  being  who  answers  prayer 
isutterly  foreign  to  the  system.  The  prayers  "are 
supposed  to  produce  their  effect  by  a  kind  of  magi- 
cal efficacy.  Hence  the  praying-machines  of  Tibet 
and  -Mongolia  are  logical  consequences.  The  reli- 
gious connuunities  assemble  for  prayer  three  times 
a  day;  i.e.,  morning,  noon,  and  evening.  They 
publicly  confess  their  sins  on  the  days  of  the  new 
and  full  moon  ;  and  the  laity  also  attend  for  con- 
fession, and  to  listen  to  the  reading  of  some  sacred 
text.  Besides  these  days,  there  are  several  otlu^r 
fast-days  in  the  month.  The  end  of  the  Buddhist 
system  is  nirvana,  or  extinction.  In  theory  this 
is  really  what  awaits  the  faithful  disciple,  accord- 
ing to  his  creed;  but  it  can  hardly  l)e  di.sputed 
that  the  great  mass  of  Buddhist  believers  in  every 
age  have  given  to  nirmna  a  vague  meaning  of 
future  happiness. 

Buddhism  began  to  decline  in  India  in  the 
.seventh  century,  and  was  extinct  in  the  sixteenth. 
I5ut  previously  it  had  bless(!d  with  its  light  the 
nations  around.  Like  Christianity,  it  jiropagated 
itself  by  preacliing  ami  (jnii't  missionary  labors  ; 
and  .so  it  spread  to  China,  whi!re  it  is  one  of  the 
tliree  co-ordinate  religions.  (.See  Lit.  below.) 
From  China  it  liiw  sjnead  into  Coiea  and  Japan. 
Indirectly  it  has  influenced  the  West.    Gnosticism 


and  Maniclwism  were  unions  of  Buddhism  with 
Christianity;  and  so  it  made  itself  known  in  a 
perverted  way  to  the  Western  M'orld.  Stray 
references  are  found  in  Clemens  .\lexandrinus 
{Strom,  i.  15)  and  Jerome  {Adc.  Jorinianum.  i. 
i'2).  Some  suppose  that  the  halo  around  the  he;id 
of  Christ  and  his  saints  was  borrowed  from  the 
Buddhist  pictures  of  Buddlia  and  his  principal 
disciples,  in  which  it  is  found.  Rightly  to  esti- 
mate this  Buddliist  influence  on  the  world,  we 
must  remember  that  it  sprang  up  in  India. 
Nearly  all  its  tenets  were  based  on  the  immemo 
rial  belief  of  the  Hindu  mind.  It  was  the  moral 
teaching  of  Buddha,  and  his  proclamation  th.at 
the  higliest  religious  truth  w'as  open  to  all  castes 
alike,  which  formed  the  special  features  of  his 
system.  All  else  he  only  borowed  or  modified 
from  the  Brahmans  whom  he  opposed.  1  here 
were,  in  truth,  only  three  creative  national  intel- 
lects in  the  ancient  world,  —  the  Hebrew,  th3 
(ireek,  and  the  Hindu;  and  Buddhism  is  that 
product  of  the  Hindu  mind,  which,  for  good  or 
for  evil,  has  most  widely  influenced  mankind. 

In  Tibet,  Buddhism  has  developed  itself  into 
a  hierarchy,  and  acquired  temporal  power  under 
the  name  of  Lainaism.  The  form  of  ecclesiastical 
government  and  service  bears  striking  resem- 
blance to  the  Roman-Catholic.  The  .Spirit  of  the 
Buddhas  is  believed  to  be  present  in  the  cl,uluk!ii!i, 
who  occupy  a  position  similar  to  that  of  cardinal, 
and  to  be  especially  incarnate  in  the  Dalai  Lama, 
the  infallible  Head  of  the  Church,  the  Buddhi.st 
Pope,  who  is  also  the  sole  temporal  sovereign  of 
Tibet.  See  T.  W.  Rhys  Davids,  Bwlillii^in,  pp. 
2I8-'250,  for  account  of  the  service  in  Lhassa 
Cathedral. 

Rffonned  Buddhism  is  a  recent  development  in 
China  and  Japan.  It  plainly  shows  the  influence 
of  Christianity  upon  thoughtful  Orientals  who 
yet  are  not  converted.  In  China  tlie  sects  of 
Reformed  Buddhists  are  numerous;  but  they 
generally  agree  in  rejecting  polytheism,  and  in 
wor.shipping  some  one  divinity;  e.g.,  the  godde.ss 
of  mercy.  One  sect  calls  itself  (Salvation)  Witli- 
out  Workx.  Ill  Japan  more  advance  has  been 
made.  The  sect  assumes  the  title  of  Slnn-shln,  or 
tlie  true  religion.  In  Kioto  they  have  a  college, 
which  is  ^\'cste^n  in  its  arrangements  and  cur- 
riculum. 'J'lieir  creed  is,  "  Rejecting  all  religious 
austerities  and  other  action,  giving  iqi  all  idea  of 
.self-power,  we  rely  upon  Amita  (Infinite)  Buddha 
with  tlie  whole  heart  for  our  salvation  in  tlie 
future  life,  wliich  is  the  most  important  thing;  be- 
lieving, that,  >at  the  moment  of  putting  our  faith 
in  .\mita  Buddha,  our  .salvation  is  .settled.  From 
that  moiiKMit  invocation  of  his  name  is  observed,  to 
express  thankfulness  and  gratitude  for  Buddha's 
mercy.  Moreover,  being  thankful  for  the  recei> 
tion  of  his  doctrine  from  the  founder  and  suc- 
ceeding priests,  we  must  also  keep  the  laws, 
which  are  fixed  for  our  duty  during  our  whole 
life."  1'he  striking  resemblances  to  Christianity 
are:  1.  AVorship  is  rendered  to  one  Buddlia,  to 
the  exclusion  of  all  others ;  '2.  This  one  Buddha 
bears  the  title  of  Amita,  the  "  Bouiidlrss,"  or 
Infinite;  3.  The  worshipjier  renounces  all  per- 
sonal merit,  and  ]>uts  failh  in  nothing  but  the 
mercy  of  .\niita  ;  1.  The  soul  is  broiigiit  into  a 
state  of  .salvation  by  tlic  act  of  faith;  .5.  Though 
salvation  is  thenceforward  assured,  the  believer 


BUDE. 


335 


BULGARIA. 


does  not  abaiiiloii  tlie  conflict  with  sin  ;  Imt 
growth  in  liolincss  is  tlio  result,  not  tlic  cause,  of 
salvation.  Thus  Kefornied  Huddhisni  has  niad<( 
an  iiiuncnso  and  radical  advance  u|ion  the  origi- 
nal faith,  which  had  no  (!od,  no  jiraycr,  no  cheer, 
only  austerities,  and  at  last  annihilation.  Truly 
the  leaven  of  the  Gospel  is  working. 

Lit.  —  Only  a  few  titles  can  be  given.  On 
the  general  subject,  C.  F.  KOppkn  :  Die  Rtdi- 
Ijion  lies  Buddha  u.  ihre  Enlste/mni/  (18.'j7),  and 
Die  lamnische  Hierarckie  u.  Kircha  (1851)); 
Max  MUllku:  Ancient  Sanscrit  Literature  (18150), 
Chips  from  a  German  Workshop  (1868  sqij.),  and 
Lecture  on  Buddhist  NihUism;  St.  IIilaihe  :  Le 
Buuddha  et  sa  Reliyion  (18(J(J).  For  Northern 
Buddhism,  see  Buhnouf  :  Introduction  h  Vliisloire 
da  Buililhisme  Indien  (184-1),  and  Le  Lotus  de  la 
bonne  Loi  (185^);  Julien  :  Votjages  des  pe'lerins 
Bouddhistes  (1853-58) ;  Wassilief  :  Der  Buil- 
dhismus  (18(J0).  For  Southern  Buddhism,  TuR- 
KOUR :  Maliawanso  (1837);  R.  S.  IIahdy:  East- 
ern Monachism  (1850),  Manual  of  Buddhism  (18(50, 
2d  ed.,  1880),  Lef/emls  ami  Theories  of  the  Bud- 
dhists (1860);  Bishop  Bigandet:  Li/'e  of  Gau- 
da:na  Buddha  (1866,  3d  ed.,  1880,  2  vols.);  T. 
\V.  R.  Davids:  Translation  nf  Fausbolt  Collection 
of  Buddhist  Birth  Stories  (1880).  For  Chinese 
Buddhism,  Beal:  Catena  of  Bwldhist  Scriptures, 
from  the  Chinese  (1871),  and  Itomantic  Hislori/  of 
Salya  Buddha,  from  the  Chinese-Sanscrit  (1875)  ; 
Edkins:  Chinese  Buddhism  (London,  1880).  For 
Tibetan  Buddhism,  Sciiiefneu:  Eine  lihetische 
Lebensbeschreibung  Schakjamunis  (18411)  ;  Schla- 
gixweit:  Buddhism  in  Tibet  (1863);  Hodgson: 
Essays  (1874).  For  a  bibliography  complete  up 
to  18G8,  see  Otto  and  Ristneu  :  Buddha  and 
his  Doctrines  (1869,  Triibner  &  Co.,  London). 
For  complete  and  clearly  arranged  bibliogi'aphy 
of  Buddhist  and  aU  other  Oriental  literature,  see 
the  annual  Bihiiotheca  Orientalis  (1876  sqq.,  Leijv 
zig,  Paris,  London,  and  New  York),  compiled  by 
Charles  Friederici ;  an  exceedingly  meritorious 
little  work.  On  the  comparison  between  Chris- 
tianity and  Buddhism,  see  Hardwick:  Christ 
and  other  Ufasters  (ed.  by  Proctor,  3d  ed.,  London, 
1874)  ;  Marcus  Uods  :  Mohammed,  Buddha,  and 
Christ  (London,  1878)  ;  P.  Wurm  :  Der  Buddhis- 
mus,  Oder  der  vorchrislliche  Versuch  einer  erlosenden 
Unicersalreligion  (GUtersloh,  1880),  a  small  but 
excellent  pamphlet  of  50  pages;  A.  Lillie  : 
Buddha  and  Early  Buddhism,  London,  1881.  In- 
strnotive,  though  too  much  evangelized,  is  the 
poem  on  Buddhism  by  Edwin  Arnold:  The 
Light  of  Asia  (London  and  Boston,  1879).  A 
translation  of  the  Dhammapada,  and  of  the  Sutta- 
Nipata,  canonical  books  of  tlie  Buddhists,  is 
given  in  vol.  x.,  and  of  other  Suttas  in  vol.  xi., 
of  The  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  ed.  by  F.  Max 
Midler,  London,  1881.        S.VMUEL  M.  JACKSON. 

BUD^  (Budaeus),  Guillaume,  b.  in  1467;  d. 
1540;  librarian  to  Francis  I.,  and  a  man  of  influ- 
ence ;  was  secretly  in  favor  of  an  ecclesiastical 
reform,  but  afraid  of  an  open  rupture  with  the 
Church.  His  De  Asse,  Pai'is,  1514,  contains 
heavy  saicasms  on  the  clergy  and  the  Pope;  and 
in  his  De  Transitu  Hellenixmi  ad  Christianismum 
he  maintains  that  true  wisdom  is  not  to  be  found 
in  the  Pagan  literatures,  but  only  in  the  practice 
of  the  precepts  of  Christ.  By  his  will  he  forbade 
the  ceremonies   of  the  Roman  ritual  to  be  per- 


formed at  his  burial  as  mere  imitations  of  iK-ath&n 
customs.  C.  SCIIMIUT. 

BUDINGTON,  William  Ives,  D.D.,  a  beloved 
and  able  Congregatinual  minister,  b.  April  21, 
1815,  at  Ni'W  Haven,  ('(inn.;  d.  in  Brooklyn, 
Nov.  29,  1879.  He  graduated  at  Vale  College  in 
1834;  studied  theology  in  the  New-Haven  and 
Andover  Senunaries,  graduating  from  the  last  in 
1839;  and  from  April  22,  184(1,  to  1855,  he  was 
pastor  of  the  First  Church,  Cliarlostown.  On 
April  22  of  tliat  year  hi;  began  his  services  in  the 
Clinton-avenue  Congregational  Churcli,  Bi'ooklyh, 
N.Y.  In  1845  he  published  his  History  of  the 
First  Church,  Charlestown,  Mass.  Ho  was  a  fre- 
quent contributor  to  the  press,  and  issued  a 
variety  of  sermons,  etc.  He  enjoyed  the  esteem 
and  confidence  of  his  congregation  not  only,  but 
of  his  denomination  and  tlie  Christian  public  in 
high  degree. 

BUGENHAGEN,  Johann,  b.  at  Wollin,  Pome- 
rania,  June  24,  14^5;  d.  at  Wittenberg,  Ap>ril  20, 
15.j8;  studied  at  Creifswald,  and  was  hi  1504 
appointed  rector  of  the  school  of  Treptow,  which 
he  soon  brought  into  a  very  flourishing  state. 
The  writings  of  Erasmus  and  the  Humanists  had 
early  lea  him  to  understand  that  an  ecclesiastical 
reform  was  a  necessity ;  but  it  was  Luther's  book 
De  Captivitate  Babylonica  which  revealed  the  truth 
to  him.  In  1521  he  went  to  Wittenberg;  and  in 
1522  he  was  apjiointed  minister  at  the  collegiate 
church  of  that  city,  in  which  position  he  remained 
for  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  possessed  a  very 
extraordinary  talent  of  organization.  Without 
causing  any  great  disturbances,  he  established  the 
Reformation  in  Brunswick,  Hamburg,  ai.d  Lu- 
beck  ;  and  the  church  constitutions  whicli  he  gave 
these  cities  became  the  norm  and  rule  for  many 
others.  In  1537  he  went  to  Copenhagen,  where 
he  staid  to  1542,  re-organizing  the  whole  Dan- 
ish Church  and  the  University  of  Copeuhagen. 
Among  his  works  are  a  history  of  I'omerania 
written  in  Latin  in  1518,  but  not  printed  until 
1728;  Historie  d.  Leidens  und  d.  Aujerstchung  Jesu 
Ckristi,  1530,  often  rejirinted,  and  a  commentary 
on  tiie  Psalms,  which  Luther  valued  very  highly. 
His  life  has  been  written  by  Janckens,  Rostoclc, 
1757;  Enqelken,  Berlin,  1817;  Zietz,  Leipzig, 
1834;  Meurer,  Leipzig,  1862;  Vogt,  Elberfeld, 
1867.  G.  I'LITT. 

BULGARIA.  Some  fifteen  hundred  years  ago, 
there  existed  a  Bulgarian  kingdom  on  tlie  banks 
of  the  Volga.  Whence  these  Bulgarians  came, 
who  they  were,  and  wliy  they  were  called  by  this 
name,  cannot  be  certainly  known ;  but  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  they  were  of  Finnish 
origin.  About  680  A.D.  a  portion  of  the  Bul- 
garians left  the  Volga,  crossed  the  Danube,  and, 
under  the  leadership  of  the  Krai  Asparuch,  occu- 
pied the  country  as  far  as  the  Balkans.  The 
Slavic  tribes  who  occupied  this  region  submitted 
to  their  conqueror;  but,  as  ha-s  often  liappeiied 
in  these  national  migrations,  the  native  element 
proved  to  be  the  stronger.  The  Bulgarian  lan- 
guage disappeared ;  and  the  people  were  amalga- 
mated into  a  single  nation,  retaining  the  name  of 
the  conquerors,  and  but  little  else. 

This  new  Bulgarian  nation  was  converted  to 
Christianity  about  the  year  860  by  \\\o  Slavic 
apostles,  Cyril  the  theologian,  and  ]\"lethodius  the 
painter,  natives  of  Salouica.     It  was  the  skill  of 


BULGARIA, 


336 


BULL. 


the  painter  who  pictured  the  Day  of  Judgment, 
rather  than  the  ai-gunients  of  the  theologian,  which 
converted  King  Boris,  and  througli  him  tlie  na- 
tion. Tlie  capital  of  the  kingdom  at  that  time 
was  Preslava  near  Shumla.  There  is  no  con- 
nected history  of  the  Bulgarian  kingdom  or 
church ;  but  many  important  facts  may  be 
gleaned  from  Byzantine  histoi-y  and  Slavic  wTit- 
ers.  They  owe  their  alphabet  and  their  Bible  to 
CjTil  and  Methodius.  They  were  engaged  in 
constant  wars  with  the  Greeks,  often  defeated 
them,  especially  in  811,  when  King  Krum  de- 
feated and  killed  the  Emperor  Nicephorus;  in 
913,  when  Simeon,  the  greatest  of  Bulgarian 
kings,  besieged  Constantinople;  and  in  1186, 
when  King  Assen  re-established  the  kingdom, 
after  it  had  been  subjugated  for  a  hundred  and 
seventy  years.  In  1205  Ivan,  or  Calo-John  as 
he  is  known  in  Europe,  allied  himself  with  the 
(ireeks  against  the  Latins,  defeated  and  killed 
Baldwin,  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  and  Boni- 
face, King  of  Salouica.  Tlie  last  of  the  Bulga- 
rian kings  was  Ivan  Shishnian,  who  was  finally 
conquered  by  the  Turks  in  1393,  and  his  kingdom 
annexed  to  the  Ottoman  Empire.  In  1878,  after 
the  Uus.so-Turkish  war,  Bulgaria  beyond  the 
Balkans  was  constituted  a  semi-independent  prin- 
cipality, and  Bulgaria  south  of  the  Balkans,  a 
semi-independent  province  called  Eastern  Rou- 
mclia. 

The  ecclesiastical  history  of  these  centuries  may 
be  told  iu  a  few  words.  King  Boris,  after  his 
conversion,  negotiated  with  Rome  and  Constanti- 
nople, lie  got  the  best  of  advice  from  Pope 
Nicolaus  I.,  which  may  still  be  seen  in  his  letter 
preserved  at  Rome  (See  Mansi  :  Com.  Coll.  XV. 
pp.  401-434) ;  but  he  finally  accepted  an  arch- 
bishop from  Constantinople.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  tenth  century,  there  was  a  Bulgarian  Patri- 
arch at  Preslava,  independent  of  Constantinople. 
King  Sanuiel  transferred  the  Patriarch  to  Ochrida. 
The  Emperor  Basil,  snrnamed  the  "  Slayer  of 
Bulgarians,"  conquered  them  in  1019  ;  and  for  a 
linndred  and  seventy  years  they  were  imder  the 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  When  King  Assen 
re-established  the  kingdom,  he  recognized  the 
Pope,  and  received  a  Latin  archbishop  at  Tirnova. 
The  Church  again  became  independent,  under 
King  Ivan,  early  in  the  thirteenth  century ;  and 
at  the  time  of  the  Turkish  conquest  the  Patriarch 
was  again  located  at  Ochrida,  where  he  continued 
until  1777,  when  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
succeeded,  by  intrigues  with  the  Turks,  in  secur- 
ing the  abolition  of  this  see,  annexing  it  to  his 
own  jurisdiction. 

Immediately  after  the  Crimean  AVar,  the  Bulga- 
rians began  to  agitate  the  question  of  their  eccle- 
siastical indepeiulence  ;  the  Greeks  having  done 
«very  thing  in  their  jiower  to  destroy  the  Bulga- 
rian nationality,  and  to  llellenize  the  people. 
The  Roman  Catholics  took  advantage  of  this  agi- 
tation to  intrigue;  for  a  return  to  Rouk;.  In 
18l>0  they  won  over  a  Bulgarian  priest,  one  Joseph 
Sokolski,  took  him  to  Rome,  and  with  great  cere- 
mony and  display  consecrated  liim  a  Patriarch  of 
Bulgaria.  He  returned  to  Constantino]ile  mider 
French  protection,  but  soon  after  snddi'nly  dis- 
appeared, and  has  since  resided  in  Russia.  The 
movement  was  a  total  failme,  the  only  Catholics  in 
Bulgaria  being  descendants  of  tiiu  old  Paulicians. 


American  missionaries  went  to  Bulgaria  in 
1858,  and  immediately  commenced  translating  the 
Bible  into  the  modern  language.  It  has  had 
an  immense  circulation  among  the  people.  They 
also  established  schools,  and  sought  in  every  way 
to  enlighten  the  people.  They  had  no  little  in- 
fluence in  helping  on  the  rapid  development  of 
the  nation ;  and,  although  but  few  have  left  tlu; 
Bulgarian  Church  to  call  themselves  Protestants, 
the  missionaries  are  on  the  best  of  terms  with  th<! 
people,  and  the  whole  tendency  of  the  Church  it 
toward  reform.  The  missionaries  represent  the 
American  Boai-d  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 
Missions,  and  the  Methodist-Episcopal  Church  of 
America.  There  are  now  a  hundred  Bulgarian 
students  in  Robert  College  at  Constantinople. 

After  a  long  conflict  with  the  Greek  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  after  having  driven  the  Greek 
bishops  out  of  the  country,  and  lived  for  ten 
years  without  bishops,  the  Bulgarians  at  last,  in 
1870,  secured  a  firman  from  the  Sultan,  establish- 
ing a  national  Bulgarian  Church  under  an  Exarch, 
who  was  to  be  nominally  subordinate  to  the  Patri- 
arch, but  practically  independent.  The  Greek 
Patriarch  then  excommunicated  the  Exarch  and 
the  whole  Bulgarian  nation,  declaring  them  schis- 
matics from  the  orthodox  Church.  This  excom- 
munication lias  never  been  withdrawn  ;  but  it  has 
not  been  recognized  by  other  branches  of  the 
Orthodox  Church,  in  Russia,  Greece,  etc.  The 
Bulgarian  Exarch  still  resides  in  Constantinople, 
and  exercises  authority  over  Bulgaria,  Eastern 
Rounielia,  and  the  Bulgarians  in  Macedonia. 
In  Macedonia  there  is  still  a  painful  conflict  of 
authority  between  him  and  the  Patriarch,  owing 
to  tlie  fact  that  the  firman  given  by  tlio  Sultan 
has  never  been  fully  executed.  All  things  con- 
sidered, this  Bulgarian  Church  is  the  most  prom- 
ising and  most  progTessive  of  the  orthodox 
churches  of  the  East. 

See  art.  on  "  The  New  Bulgaria,"  in  Contempo- 
rary Review  of  June,  1879,  written  by  the  author 
of   this  article.  O.  WASHBURN  (Consl.intinopU). 

BULGARIS,  Eugene,  b.  in  Corfu,  171();  d.  in 
St.  Petersburg,  June  10,  1806 ;  studied  at  Janiiia 
and  Padiui;  taught  in  the  schools  of  Janina, 
Mount  Athos,  and  Constantinople;  but  went  in 
1703  to  Germany  in  order  to  escape  from  the 
persecutions  of  the  orthodox  party  in  the  Greek 
Church,  and  was  in  1776  called  to  Ru.ssia  by 
Catherine  II.,  and  made  Archbishop  of  Cher.son. 
Th<!  most  remarkable  of  his  writings  are,  besides 
a  handbook  of  logic,  still  used  in  the  (Jreek  col- 
lege.s,  a  Book  mjainM  llie  Laliiis,  Constantinojile, 
1790,  new  ed.  1818,  and  a  History  of  the  Apostolic 
A  qe,  I.*ipzig,  1805.  His  life  was  written  by  A.  P. 
ViiKTos,  Ailicns,  l.S(!0. 

BULL,  George,  1>.  at  Wells,  Somer.set.shire, 
Eng.,  March  'Jo,  1634;  d.  Feb.  17,  1710;  studied 
at  Oxford;  was  Rector  of  St.  George's,  near  Bris- 
tol, then  Rector  of  Suddington,  (iloueestershire, 
Archdeacon  of  I.landafl',  and  finally,  since  1705, 
Bishop  of  St.  David's.  His  llarmonia  Apostoliea 
(1670)  is  an  attempt  to  show  that  Paul  and 
James  were  fully  agreed  with  respect  to  the  doc- 
trine of  justification.  His  Defensio  Fiilei  Nieiiifr 
(1685)  is  a  most  learned  and  elaborate  attempt  to 
show  that  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  'I'rinitv 
existed  fully  dc'veloped  in  the  Christian  Church 
before  the  Council   of   Nice.     The   best   edition 


BULL. 


337 


BUNSEN. 


of  his  collected  works  is  that  hy  Hurloii,  Oxford, 
1827,  in  7  vols,  in  8,  containing  the  Life,  liy  Nel- 
son. 

BULL,  Papal.     See  Biukfs  and  Rulls. 

BULLINCER,  Heinrich,  b.  at  Brenigarten  in 
the  canton  of  Aargan,  .Inly  IS,  151)1;  d.  at  Zuiicli, 
Sept.  17,  1575.  He  was  edneated  in  the  scliooi  of 
Emmerich;  studied  at  Cologne,  and  was  by  the 
"  Sentences  "  of  Peter  Lombard  led  to  the  writings 
of  Augustine  and  Chrysostoni,  and  by  the  works 
of  the  Fathers  to  the  liilile  itself.  Thus  pre- 
pared, he  received  a  deep  impression  of  tlie  writ- 
mgs  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon,  and  by  Zwingli 
he  was  completely  won  for  the  cause  of  the 
Reformation.  Appointed  teacher  in  the  cloister 
school  of  (lappel  in  1522,  lie  lectured  on  ^Melanch- 
thon's  Loci  Communes,  and  in  1528  he  accom- 
panied Zwingli  to  the  disputation  of  Bern.  In 
1529  he  was  clio.sen  pastor  of  his  native  city,  and 
in  the  same  year  he  married.  After  the  battle 
of  Cappel,  however  (Oct.  11,  1.531),  in  which 
Zwingli  fell,  he  was  compelled  to  leave  lirenigar- 
ten.  He  went  to  Zurich;  and  Dec.  9,  1531,  he 
was  chosen  chief  pastor  of  Ziirich,  in  the  stead  of 
Zwingli.  With  great  energy  and  mildness  he 
filled  this  difficult  office,  and  contributed  much 
to  establish  the  Reformation  in  Switzerland.  In 
the  controversy  concerning  the  Lord's  Supper  he 
wrote  with  great  dignity  against  Luther,  and 
Butzer's  attempts  at  reconciliation  fomid  very 
little  favor  with  him.  JNIore  happily  ended  the 
dissension,  between  him  and  Calvin,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  Consensus  Tiijui-inus,  an  agreement 
on  the  doctrine  of  the  sacrajuents.  The  Second 
Helvetic  Confession,  drawn  up  by  Bullinger  in 
1560,  is  the  most  elaborate  Reformed  creed,  and 
was  adopted  in  Switzerland,  Hungary,  Bohemia, 
and  other  churches.  His  writings  are  very  nu- 
merous, and  were  highly  esteemed  in  England 
during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  The  catalogue  of 
the  city  library  of  Ziirich  mentions  about  a  hun- 
dred. But  they  have  never  been  collected.  They 
consist  of  commentaries  on  the  Bible,  sermons, 
polemics  against  the  Lutlierans,  the  Anabaptists, 
etc.,  and  dogniatical  expositions,  De  Gratia  Dei 
Juslijicantc,  De  Scripturw  Sanclce  Autoritatc,  etc. 
Many  of  his  sermons  have  been  translated  into 
English  :  One  Hundred  Sermons  on  the  Apocalypse, 
1.581;  Twentij-six  Sermons  on  Jeremiah,  1583;  Fire 
Decades  of  Sermons  (1.387),  reprinted  in  4  vols. 
(1819).  His  life  was  written  by  Carl  Pesta- 
i.ozzi,  1858,  and  Raget  CintisTOFKKL,  1875.  See 
also  G.  II.  Zni.MERMANN,  DieZHricher  Kirche  iind 
ihre  Antisles,  Ziirich,  1877.  JUSTUS  IIEER. 

BUNGENER,  Felix,  the  author  of  the  Histor;/ 
of  the  Cuuriril  of  Trent,  h.  at  Marseilles,  1814;  d. 
at  Geneva,  June  14,  1874.  He  took  his  degree  at 
Strassburg ;  was  ordained  in  Geneva ;  pursued  the 
sacred  calling  for  five  years,  but  finally  abandoned 
it  for  teaching  and  literature.  From  1853  to  tlie 
year  of  his  death  he  edited  an  annual  chronicle, 
the  Eirennes  reliyieuses,  particularly  devoted  to 
the  history  of  the  attack  on  the  Genevan  Protes- 
tants by  their  two  foes,  ultramontanism  and  sci- 
ence, "falsely  so  called."  In  1863  he  wrote  his 
pathetic  Trois  jours  de  la  mart  d'un  pere,  which 
proved  the  existence  of  a  tenderer  heart  than  he 
was  credited  with  by  many.  He  was  indited  a 
man  of  rai-e  moral  as  well  as  intellectual  quali- 
t'  yS.  The  tvorks  by  which  he  is  best  known  are 
23  —  1 


the  historical  romances,  Un  Sermon  sous  Louis 
XIV.,  1843  ("The  Preacher  and  the  King," 
Boston,  n.d.),  —  this  gave  him  a  gTeat  reputation. 
//«.<  trois  sermons  sous  Louis  A' P.,  1849,  3  vols. 
("The  Priest  and  tlie  Huguenot,"  Boston,  n.d.,  2 
vols.),  and,  above  all,  the  liistory,  Ilistoire  du  con- 
cile  de  Trenle,  1847,2  vols.  ("History  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent,"  N.  Y.,  1855).  In  1853  he  conceived 
the  idea  of  writing  a  series  which  should  oppo.s*; 
Rome  successively  to  the  Bible,  moral  philosophy, 
and  history.  In  1859  he  issued  the  first  volume. 
Home  et  la  Bihle ;  in  \S(j\,  Jionie  et  le  coeur  hinnain 
The  calling  of  the  Vatican  Coinicil  interrupted 
the  series,  and  led  him  to  write,  in  1870,  I'upe  el 
Concile  au  XIXe  siecle  ("  Rome  and  the  Council 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  Edinburgh,  1870). 
Besides  these  works  he  w  rote  Voltaire  et  son  siecle 
(2  vols.  1851) ;  Julicn,  ou  la  fn  d'un  silicic  (4  vole. 
1854)  ;  Christ  et  le  siecle  (1850)  ;  and  on  Calvin 
(1803),  Lincoln  (18G5),  Saint  Paul  (1807).  A 
volume  of  Sermons  was  published  after  his  dealli 
(1875).  He  aided  by  solid,  lasting  compositions, 
the  cause  of  Protestantism,  so  dear  to  his  heart. 
His  writings  were  very  numerous :  numy  remain 
still  impiiblished.  See  Felix  Uuur/ener,  by  JiiA.v 
G  Ai!i:i!i:i.,  in  Etrcnnc  rclii/ieusc  for  1875. 

BUNSEN,  Christian  Karl  Joslas,  b.  at  Korbach, 
ui  the  principality  of  Waldeck,  Aug.  25,  1791  ;  d. 
at  Bonn,  Nov.  28,  1800.  He  studied  theology  and 
philology  in  Marburg  and  fiottiuOTn,  1808-13; 
was  by  his  acquaintance  with  Niebuhr  and  Sil- 
vestre  de  Sacy  led  to  the  study  of  ancient  hi.slory 
and  Oriental  languages,  and  was  preparing  for  a 
journey  to  the  East,  when,  in  1818,  he  settled  in 
Rome,  first  as  secretary  to  the  Prussian  embassy, 
then  as  charye'  d'affaires  since  1823,  and  since  1827 
as  minister  resident.  In  1839  he  was  sent  as 
minister  to  Bern,  and  in  1841  to  London,  where 
he  remained  till  1854.  The  rest  of  his  life  he 
spent  a-s  a  private  citizen,  mostly  residing  at  Hei- 
delberg, and  devoting  himself  to  literary  pur- 
suits,—  philology,  history,  and  theology.  Among 
his  historical  works  are  Die  Basilihen  des  christ- 
lichen  Rams,  Munich,  1843,  and  yEyyptens  Slelle 
in  der  Weltyeschichtc,  Hamburg,  1844-57,  G  vols., 
of  which  work  is  a  shorter  but  nuich  improved 
English  edition,  Eyi/pt's  Place  in  Universal  History, 
with  notes  and  additions  by  S.  Birch,  London, 
1847-67.  Also  some  of  his  theological  writings 
have  an  historical  character,  such  as  lynatius  von 
Antiochien  tind  seine  Zeit,  Hamburg,  1847,  and 
Hippolylus  and  his  Aye,  London,  1852,  2  vols., 
which,  together  with  his  Analecta  Ante-Nicecna. 
and  Outlines  of  the  Philosophy  of  Universal  History, 
form  his  great  work,  Christianily  and  Mankind. 
London,  1854,  7  vols.  A  directly  polemical  char- 
acter have  his  Die  Verfassuny  der  Kirche  der  Zu- 
kunft  (1845)  and  Die  Zeichen  der  Zeit  (185.5),  both 
translated  into  English  under  the  titles,  7'he 
Church  of  the  Future,  and  The  Siyns  of  the  Times, 
the  latter  of  which  involved  him  in  a  sharp  con- 
troversy with  Stahl  and  Hengstenberg.  As  the 
positive  complement  to  his  polemical  and  critical 
writings  may  be  considered  his  Vollsldndiyes  Bibel- 
zverh  filr  die  Gemeinde,  9  vols.,  1858,  finished  by 
H.  Holtzmann  in  1870.  His  jl/oHo/re,  containing  • 
parts  of  his  private  correspondence,  were  published 
in  1808  by  his  widow.  His  correspondence  with 
Humboldt  appeared  in  1809,  and  parts  of  his 
correspondence   with   Friedrich  AVillielm  IV.  iu 


BUNTING. 


338 


BUNYAN. 


1873.  [Baron  von  Biinsen  was  a  Christian  noble- 
man of  comprehensive  cultiue,  broad  views,  and 
great  personal  attraction.  His  hospitable  home 
at  the  Capitol  at  Home  and  at  Carlton  Terrace  in 
London,  was  the  centre  of  literafy  celebrities 
from  all  countries.  He  was  an  interpreter  of 
German  thought  to  England,  and  an  intimate 
friend  of  Thomas  Arnold,  Archdeacon  Hare,  and 
Professor  Maurice.  He  helped  to  establish  the 
Anglo-Prussian  bishopric  at  Jerusalem,  as  a  basis 
of  a  larger  luiion  between  the  German  evangeli- 
cal and  the  Anglican  churches.  Like  his  royal 
patron  and  friend,  Frederic  William  IV.  of 
Prussia,  he  had  a  romantic  turn  of  mind,  and 
engaged  iu  fanciful  schemes.  He  entertained 
many  questionable  opinions;  but  his  heart  was 
fixed  on  Christ  as  his  divine  Sa'\-iour,  and  he  died 
in  that  faith.  His  wife  was  one  of  the  noblest 
and  most  cultured  English  ladies  of  the  age,  and 
her  memoir  of  her  husband  is  an  abiding  monu- 
ment to  botJl.]  ADOLF  KAMI'lIAUSEX. 

BUNTING,  Jabez,  a  very  influential  name  in 
tlie  English  S\'esleyan  Church,  b.  at  Jlanches- 
ter,  May  I'i,  1779 ;  d.  June  16,  1858.  Educated 
very  carefully  in  his  native  town,  and  naturally 
of  superior  mental  gifts,  a  man  of  great  sagacity 
and  power  of  administration,  from  the  time  of 
liis  becoming  a  member  of  conference  (1799)  lie 
steadily  rose  in  the  estimation  of  liis  brethren 
and  tlie  Church  at  large.  For  fiftj'-seven  years  he 
served  liis  denomination.  From  1834  to  his  death 
he  was  president  of  the  newly-established  Wes- 
leyan  Theological  Institution,  which  has  done 
much  to  elevate  the  standard  of  'W'esleyan  minis- 
terial culture  ;  was  four  times  president  of  the 
conference,  and  for  eighteen  years  secretary  of 
the  AV^esleyan  Missionary  Society,  to  whose  suc- 
cess he  so  largely  contributed.  Through  liini  the 
lay  element  was  brought  out  in  the  management 
of  the  Church.  In  every  position  IJr.  Bunting 
was  eminent.  His  word  was  law.  But  he  used 
his  influence  for  no  personal  ends,  and  withal 
kept  his  heart  pure  and  humble.  Posthumous 
Hermons,  2  vols.,  1861.  See  Memoir  bj'  his  son 
and  (i.  S.  Rowe,  Loudon,  1859-87. 

BUNYAN,  John,  the  "Immortal  Dreamer  of 
Bedl'oiil  .biil,"  1).  N'nvember,  1628,  at  Klstow,  one 
mile  from  Bedford,  Eng. ;  d.  in  London,  Aug.  31, 
1688.  He  was  a  tinker,  like  his  father  before  him, 
brought  up  to  attend  the  National  Church,  but  was, 
according  to  his  own  confession,  which  must,  how- 
ever, be  received  with  caution,  in  youth  given  to 
lying  and  swearing,  alfliougli  he  was  never  drunk, 

Eerfectly  cliaste,  and  in  truth  greatly  superior  to 
is  class.  For  a  few  niontlis  in  1645  he  was  in 
the  army,  it  is  uncertain  imon  which  side,  and 
was  present  at  the  siege  of  Leicester.  A  j'ear 
after  his  return  to  Elstow,  he  married.  He  was 
then  about  twenty  years  old.  But  with  the  set- 
ting up  of  his  home  begair  his  mental  troubles. 
He  became  a  prey  to  melancholy  upon  religion; 
and  the  wildest  delusions  seized  fiis  fertile  brain. 
His  wife  brought  him  as  her  only  portion  two  books 
which  she  iniierited  from  her  father,  —  Bishop 
Lewis  Baily's  The  Prartire  of  J'icli/,  and  Arthur 
Dent's  'J'hi;  Plain  Man's  P(tlliim>i  tn  IIi(ircn,\\\\v-\\ 
TV'as  an  allegory,  first  ]mblislied  in  1622,  —  and  in 
herself  a  living  emliodiiiient  of  the  Puritanical 
teaching.  Such  contact  ])roduced  at  tlie  liegin- 
ning  a  great  thougli  painful  impression  upon  liim. 


He  gave  up  reluctantly  but  conscientiously,  one 
after  another,  the  innocent  amusements  of  dan- 
cing, tipcat,  ringing  the  village  church-bells,  and 
reading  the  life  of  Sir  Levis  of  Southamjiton.  a 
semi-Oriental  and  absurd  romance  very  popular 
in  his  day.  But  he  thus  became  a  Pharisee,  main- 
taining a  strict  conversation,  indeed,  without  hav- 
ing a  heart  in  the  business.  God  was,  however, 
fitting  hini  in  a  wonderful  way  for  the  immortal 
book  he  was  to  write ;  and  co  he  passed  from 
formalism  to  faith  by  the  "  straight  way "  of  an 
excited,  tender  conscience.  He  was  morbidly 
sensitive  to  sin ;  he  was  tormented  by  dread  of 
reprobation  ;  he  was  tempted  to  commit  the  un- 
pardonable sin ;  he  thought  his  day  of  grace  was 
ended.  But  amid  this  spiritual  darkness  he  pros- 
pered in  business.  The  best  evidence  of  this  is, 
that  in  1653  his  name  appears  among  thirty-six 
appended  to  an  address  sent  up  from  Bedford- 
shire to  Cromwell,  approving  the  dismissal  of  the 
Long  Parliament,  and  recommending  the  country 
magistrates  as  fit  persons  to  serve  in  the  Assembly 
which  was  to  take  its  place ;  which  proves  that 
he  must  have  been  at  least  a  householder,  and  a 
person  of  consideration. 

In  the  mercy  of  God,  morning  at  length  dawned 
upon  the  sold  of  the  tinker.  He  was  converted, 
not  by  any  means  instantaneously,  for  the  meas- 
ured steps  of  his  Godward  progress  can  be  dis- 
tinctly traced,  but  slow  ly  and  thoughtfully.  1  he 
pious  w'omen  of  Bedford  whose  talk  upon  the 
"  new  birth  "  arrested  his  attention  one  day  as  he 
was  passing  carelessly  along;  the  godly  John  (iif- 
ford,  himself  a  reformed  reprobate ;  the  Baptist 
minister  in  Bedford,  to  whom  the  pious  women 
introduced  hun,  —  these  were  the  most  prominent 
of  the  human  agents  in  the  change.  At  length, 
however,  in  1653,  John  Bunyan  was  baptized  in 
the  Ouse,  and  began  the  public  life  of  a  Baptist, 
or  rather  of  a  Christian.  As  was  to  be  expected, 
very  soon  thereafter  he  became  a  Bajitist  preacher, 
if  a  denominational  name  .should  be  given  to  one 
who  was  so  catholic,  and  about  whom  the  least 
distinctive  thhig  is  his  pedobaptist  views.  Xo 
such  preacher  to  the  uneducated  English  masses 
was  to  be  found  anywhere.  He  was  a  man  of 
one  book,  but  that  book  was  the  Bible.  He  had 
had  intimate  acquaintance  with  it  since  child- 
hood. All  the  days  of  his  wandering  had  boon 
rendered  uneasy  by  his  recollection  of  the  Bible 
curses  upon  the  ungodly.  He  had  had  a  sjiiritual 
experience  of  an  exceptionable  character.  He 
had  run  the  gamut  of  soul  music :  over  his  soul, 
as  over  the  keys  of  an  organ,  the  i\Iasti'r  Hand 
had  passed,  and  from  the  deepest  bass  to  the 
higliest  treble  his  soul  had  gone.  His  theology 
was  Calvinistic.  He  preached  the  fall  with  its 
fatal  consequences,  free  will,  election,  reproba- 
tion, an  eternal  heaven  aii<l  hell. 

He  began  to  preach  wliile  a  deacon  in  ISIr.  Gil- 
ford's Cliurch,  in  1655 ;  but  so  extraordinary  was 
his  popularity,  that  in  1().")7  he  devoted  his  whole 
time  to  the  work,  rnknown  to  him,  his  taking 
up  preaching  as  his  regular  profession  was  a  link 
in  the  chain  of  wonderful  ]irovidences  by  which 
this  "Jerusalem  sinner"  was  to  be  trained  to  pro- 
duce the /'//i/r/'m'.s-  J'n>i/r(S.<.  In  ]()6()  the  Act  of 
rMit'oriiiity.  compelling  attendance  iqion  the  Na- 
tional C  liurch,  was  revived.  No  distinction  was 
made  among  Dissenters.     Tlie  harmless  Baptists 


BUNYAN. 


339 


BUNYAN. 


and  Qiialiors  were  equally  undpi-  tho  ban  ■with  tlie 
fiery  Indrpciidents  and  liigoloil  I'lvsliyterians. 
Tlie  IJedford  Ba))ti.st.s  refusud  obodiuiicc ;  and 
liunyan,  i'(jr  tlio  odiou.s  sin  of  socretly  continuini^' 
Ills  ininistry,  was  arrusl.cd,  and  committed  to 
jirison  Ijy  tlio  magistrates,  who,  however,  wc^re 
friendly  to  him,  au<l  would  liave  si)ared  him,  had 
the  law  allowed.  There  he  jiassed  the  next  twelve 
years  of  his  life.  Tra<lition,  without  ])rol)al)ility, 
))uts  him  in  the  smallest  of  the  three  jirisons  of 
Uedford. 

To  many  persons  it  seems  wholly  unnecessary 
for  him  to  have  been  imprisoned  at  all;  and  the 
extraordinary  opportunities  given  him  to  escape 
by  a  little  casuistry  show  the  unwillingness  of 
all  parties  to  keep  so  eminent  a  saint  in  durance 
vile.  But  as  Buuyan  stoutly  refused  to  attend 
the  National  Chui'ch,  or  to  give  up  preaching,  his 
case  was  hopeless.  To  such  a  man  the  separation 
from  his  family  was  very  painful.  Two  years 
before  his  arrest  his  wife  had  dii'd,  leaving  him 
with  four  small  children,  one  of  whom,  Mary,  was 
blind,  and  therefore  tlie  object  of  peculiar  affec- 
tion. VVithiu  a  year  he  had  married  a  second 
time,  aiul  to  a  young  woiuau  of  piety  and  cour- 
age. By  her  a  pardon  for  him  was  sought  through 
the  friendly  intervention  of  the  high  sheriff  in 
consequence  of  a  jail-delivery  in  honor  of  the 
coronation  of  Charles  II.,  April  23,  1661.  But, 
though  Sir  Matthew  Ilale  took  a  kindly  interest 
■in  her  and  her  cause,  the  law  had  to  be  obeyed, 
and  a  pardon  was  refused  so  olistinate  an  offender 
as  Bunyan.  At  first  his  imprisonment  was  merely 
nominal.  He  was  allowed  to  go  where  lie  pleased; 
but  he  used  his  liberty  to  resume  preaching,  and 
so  he  was  put  into  strict  confinement.  He  was 
not  formally  tried  :  if  he  had  been,  he  would  have 
been  transported.  It  was,  therefore,  not  the 
cruelty  of  his  jailers,  but  his  own  conscience, 
which  made  his  imprisonment  so  long.  "It 
might  have  ended  at  any  time,"  says  Mr.  Froude, 
whose  treatment  of  this  point  is  admirable,  "if 
he  would  have  promised  to  confine  his  addresses 
to  a  private  circle."  We  should  not  without  evi- 
dence yield  to  tlie  popular  notion  that  those  twelve 
years  were  a  bitter  struggle  against  poverty  and 
disease,  in  a  damp  and  dreary  cell,  with  his 
poor  wife  sadly  in  need,  and  his  children  lacking 
food.  No  imprisonment  is  agreeable ;  and  Bun- 
yan counted  it  a  great  affliction  to  be  debarred 
from  ministerial  labor.  But  as  he  was  an  influen- 
tial, much  respected  man,  had  many  friends,  and 
was,  so  far  as  we  can  judge,  in  (comparati\'ely) 
good  circumstances,  it  is  inconceivable  that  he  en- 
dured any  unusual  suffering.  Besides,  would  the 
Baptists  have  allowed  their  most  distingiushed 
preacher  to  starve?  We  see,  therefore,  in  Bunyan 's 
twelve  years'  imprisonment  proof  of  his  constancy, 
patience,  and  courage,  and  a  wise  Providence.  His 
library  consisted  of  the  Bible,  Concordance,  and 
Foxe's  Book  of  Martyrs.  He  used  the  enforced 
leisure  in  reading  and  writing  (tlie  Pilgrim's  Prog- 
ress was  then  begun,  without  thought  of  publica- 
tion), and  also  in  making  tags  of  boot-laces,  thus 
doing  something  to  support  liis  family.  But 
toward  the  close  of  the  twelve  years  more  liberty 
was  given  him.  In  1670  we  read  of  his  preach- 
ing in  the  woods.  In  1671  he  became  an  elder, 
and  on  L)eo.  12  of  that  year,  pastor  of  the  Bedford 
Baptist  Chapel.     Curiously,  he  was  liberated  by 


those  who  had  no  interest  in  him,  nor  sym])athy 
with  his  views.  Charlies  II.,  with  the  ultimate 
design  of  removing  disabilities  from  Itonian 
Catholics,  issued  the  Declaration  of  Indulgence 
(1672),  which  annulled  the  penal  acts  against  Dis- 
senters ;  and  so  upon  May  y  he  was  released,  and 
tho  next  day  his  license  as  jiastor  of  the  chapel 
was  issued.  Out  of  gratitude  to  Charles  II.,  he 
published  soon  afti^r  a  Discourse  ujian  Anlichrisl, 
in  which  he  innocently  credits  the  King  with  the 
most  honorable  and  pious  intentions,  and  urges 
loyalty  upon  liis  countrymen.  This  treatise  was 
afterwards  used  against  him.  The  closing  years 
of  his  life  were  laljorious  and  honored.  He 
preached  annually  in  the  Baptist  churches  of 
London ;  but  he  retained  his  charge  at  Bedford. 
His  domestic  life  was  pleasant ;  although  he 
mourned  the  loss  of  his  blind  daughter,  who  had 
died  while  he  was  in  prison.  He  seems  also  to 
have  been  most  of  the  time  in  good  health.  His 
death  was  brought  about  by  being  chilled  in  a 
rain-storm  on  his  return  from  effecting  the  recon- 
ciliation between  a  father  and  son.  The  exact 
date  of  this  event  is  unknown,  probably  Aug.  31, 
1US8. 

Character. — John  Bunyan  was  one  of  the 
noblest  of  the  many  noble  Puritans.  He  .spent 
his  life  in  devotion  to  the  highest  ideals  of  duty, 
and  his  death  fitly  followed  a  sacrifice  of  self. 
His  early  surroundings  and  occupation  explain,  if 
not  excuse,  the  sins  he  charges  himself  with,  and 
excite  our  wonder  that  he  never  committed  the 
grosser  sins  of  drunkenness  and  unchastity,  which 
were  probably  sadly  common  in  his  class.  A 
chaste  and  sober  tinker  was  a  great  rarity.  And 
the  instances  of  the  holiest  men  humbling  them- 
selves as  sinners  in  the  presence  of  an  angry  and 
perfect  God,  and  confessing  themselves  miracles 
of  saving  grace,  are  so  numerous  and  natural,  that 
we  do  not  wonder  that  Bunyan  accused  himself 
of  so  many  sins.  The  terrible  mental  trials  Bun- 
yan passed  through  before  he  found  peace  were 
due  more  to  the  artificial  notions  of  his  day  in 
regard  to  sin,  and  to  his  own  active  mind,  than 
to  any  work  of  the  Spirit.  But,  as  we  look  back 
upon  his  life,  we  see  the  rude,  profane  youth, 
under  the  tuition  of  the  Sjiirit  in  the  hard  school 
of  experience,  developed  into  the  saintly  man 
before  whose  inspired  vision  the  Heavenly  City 
stood  revealed.  Out  of  obscurity  GoA  lifted  him 
into  prominence ;  so  that  when  he  died  he  was 
mourned,  not  only  as  the  most  gifted  minister  in 
his  denomination  (his  zeal  had  won  liim  the  sou- 
briquet "  Bishop  Bunyan "),  but  as  one  of  Eng- 
land's worthies,  one  of  the  jiillars  of  the  Church. 

Writings.  —  The  one  book  which  God  ordained 
John  Bunyan  should  write  was  the  Pilgrim's 
Progress.  For  it  his  life  was  a  preparation  ;  and 
because  the  experiences  thei-ein  recorded  are 
genuine  has  the  book  become  a  world  classic. 
Every  one  can  see  himself,  at  least  in  some  phase, 
faithfully  mirrored  in  the  Pilgrim.  Two  opinions, 
from  critics  of  far  different  orders  of  mind,  de- 
serve quotation.  Coleridge  says,  "  I  know  of  no 
book  —  the  Bible  excepted,  as  above  all  compari- 
son—  which  I,  according  to  my  judgment  and 
experience,  could  so  safely  recommend  as  teach- 
ing and  enforcing  the  wliole  saving  truth  accord- 
ing to  the  mind  that  was  in  Christ  Jesus,  as  the 
Pilgrim's  Pr^iiross.     It  is,  in  my  conviction,  in- 


BUNYAN. 


340 


SURGES. 


comparably  the  best  Suiinita  Tlteologkc  Evan- 
qelicre  ever  produced  by  a  writer  not  iiiiraculoiisly 
inspired."  ]n  liis  famous  essay  upon  Bunyan, 
Wacaulay  pays  this  tribute  to  liis  genius :  "  Tliat 
wonderful  book,  while  it  obtains  admiration  from 
the  most  fastidious  critics,  is  loved  by  those  wlio 
are  too  simple  to  admire  it.  In  every  nursery 
the  Pilf/rim's  Prorjress  is  a  greater  favorite  than 
Jack  the  Giant-Killer.  Every  reader  knows  tlie 
straight  and  narrow  path  as  well  as  he  knows  a 
road  in  which  he  lias  gone  backward  and  for- 
ward a  hundred  times.  This  is  the  highest  mira- 
cle of  genius,  —  that  things  which  are  not  should 
be  as  though  they  were ;  that  the  imaginations 
of  one  mind  should  become  the  personal  recollec- 
tions of  another.  And  this  miracle  the  tinker 
has  wrought.  .  .  .  The  style  of  Bunyan  is  de- 
lightful to  eveiy  reader,  and  invaluable  as  a  study 
to  every  person  who  wishes  to  obtain  a  wide  com- 
mand over  the  English  language.  There  is  no 
book  in  our  literature  on  which  we  would  so 
readily  stake  the  fame  of  the  old  unpolluted 
English  laugviage,  no  book  which  shows  so  well 
how  rich  that  language  is  in  its  own  proper 
wealth,  and  how  little  it  has  improved  by  all 
that  it  has  borrowed.  .  .  .  Tliongh  there  were 
many  clever  men  in  England  during  the  latter 
half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  there  were  only 
two  great  creative  minds.  One  of  these  produced 
the  Paradise  Lost ;  the  other,  the  Piltjrim's  Pnxj- 
res.'i."  But,  besides  the  Pilgrim,  two  other  compo- 
sitions claim  attention,  —  the  Life  11/ Mr.  liaitnian 
(published  IGSO),  told  in  a  dialogue  between  Mr. 
Wiseman  and  Mr.  Attentive,  a  very  interesting 
story  of  a  thorough  rascal;  and  the  Iloh/  llnr 
(1682),  an  allegory  which  would  surely  have  been 
regarded  as  incomparable,  were  it  not  for  the 
Pilgrim's  Progress.  Bunyan  published,  besides, 
a  number  of  sermons,  controversial  tracts,  spir- 
itualized Sci'iptm'e  passages,  and  even  verses. 
In  regard  to  the  latter,  while  he  cannot  be  called 
a  poet  of  great  merit,  he  yet  pleases  by  his  sim- 
plicity and  directness.  Some  of  these  writings, 
notably  much  of  the  Pilgrim's  Progress,  were 
compo.sed  while  he  was  in  prison. 

BihUographii.  — There  are  several  editions  of 
his  complete  works.  The  first  complete  edition 
was  published  in  1692,  2  vols,  folio;  the  latest 
and  best,  edited  with  elaborate  notes,  a  Memou', 
etc.,  by  George  Offor,  London,  1S53,  3  vols,  royal 
8vo.  The  liiugraphy  of  Bunyan  is  best  read  in 
his  own  language  in  Grace  Abounding  to  the  Chief 
of  Sinners.  "  But  Burder  (1780),  Hawker  (1822), 
Southey  (183!)),  I'liilip  (1839),  and  Oifor  (18.50), 
have  olaborati'd  lives  of  the  great  nonconformist 
in  connection  with  editions  of  the  Pilgrim's  Prog- 
ress. Southey  dissents  from  the  common  repre- 
sentation of  Bunyan  as  an  awful  sinner,  believing 
that  tlie  language  Bunyan  employs  is  that  of 
religious  enthusiasm.  See  al.so  the  biograjihies 
by  .1.  .•V.  Kroude,  London  and  New  York,  1880, 
and  .John  Brown,  1885  (the  best). 

The  Pilgrim's  Progress.  —  In  the  Lenox  Library 
of  New-Yiirk  City  there  is  a  noteworthy,  indeed 
unique,  collection  of  editions  of  the  Pilgrim's 
Progress.  In  1879,  under  the  care  of  Dr.  S. 
Austin  Allibone,  was  i)rinted,  not  published, 
under  the  title  ('imlrihuliims  to  a  Calalngue  of  Ike 
Lenox  Litirary,  No.  JV.,  Jiuni/an's  Pilr/rim's  Prog- 
ress, Etc.,  a  neatly-arranged  list  of  this  collection, 


with  interesting  bibliographical  notes.  The  First 
Part  contains  a  long  and  valuable  "  Note  on  the 
Early  Editions  of  the  Pilgrim's  ProgTess."  It  is 
now  settled  that  the  first  edition  appeared  in 
1078.  Only  two  copies  are  known  to  exist,  —  one 
in  the  R.  S.  Holford  Collection  in  England,  and 
the  other  in  the  Lenox  Library  in  New- York 
City,  which  is  far  richer  in  editions  of  the  J^it- 
grim's  Progress  than  any  other  library.  Ihe 
Lenox  Library  has  two  hundred  and  fifty-eight 
editions  of  this  book  in  English,  and  .'^evenly-fo-.r 
of  it  in  foreign  languages ;  thus  attesting  the 
enormous  circulation  of  the  book,  which  has  been 
translated  (usually  innnediately  after  the  Bible) 
into  almost  every  literary  language.  —  The  first 
edition  is  in  foolscap  8vo,  232  pages ;  prefixed  is 
The  Author's  Apology  For  his  Book,  8  pages  (mi- 
numbered).  It  has  no  portrait  or  cuts.  The 
second  edition,  "with  Additions,"  appe.ared  the 
same  year,  in  12mo ;  and  the  thiid  edition,  with 
the  final  additions  to  the  text  of  the  First  Part, 
the  next  year  (1079),  also  in  12mo.  — The  Second 
Part  was  not  published  imtil  1084,  and  tlien 
separately:  the  First  Part  was  then  in  the  ninth 
edition.  The  two  Parts  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  combined  in  one  volume  until  1728.  —  1  here 
was  a  so-called  1  bird  Part  (London,  1693), 
author  unknown,  which  was  denoimced  upon  the" 
titlepage  of  the  authorized  (Pomider's)  edition  to 
be  an  Impostor  (sic),  but  which  was  often  re- 
printed, and  sometimes  bound  up  with  the  First 
and  Second  (there  is  an  edition  ."o  late  as  18.')2, 
Koutledge  &  Co.,  London) ;  but  it  is  not  much 
known  in  America.  It  has  often  been  noticed 
that  the  Pilgrim's  Progress  was  for  many  years 
the  household  treasure  of  the  lowly  alone ;  but  at 
length  it  became  the  delight  of  the  njiper  clas.ses. 
This  gradual  spre;ul  sulficiently  accounts  for  the 
comparative  meanness  of  the  editions  in  illustra- 
tion and  binding.  AVith  sincere  gratification  it 
is  therefore  recorded  that  at  last  the  book  appears 
in  a  worthy  make-up :  The  Pilgrim's  J'rogress. 
With  One  Ihnidreil  Jlluslralions  by  Frederick  Bar- 
nard and  Others,  London,  Strahan  &  Co.,  4to, 
1880.  Edition  de  Luxe,  on  Dutch  paper,  with 
proofs  of  the  illustrations  on  Japanese  paper. 
Only  five  hundred  copies  printed.  There  is  also 
a  cheap  edition,  with  the  same  illustrations  upon 
ordinary  but  excellent  paper.  The  illuslratidi  .s 
are  uniformly  good,  many  of  them  wortliy  of  the 
highest  praise.  B.VMUEL  M.  .T.VcksON. 

BURCES,  Cornelius,  b.  in  Somersetshire  (date 
undetermined)  ;  d.  .June  9,  Hid.").  lie  was  edu- 
cated at  Oxford  in  AVadham  and  other  colleges; 
became  vicar  of  Watford  in  llartt'ordshire  in 
1013,  also  rector  of  St.  ]\lagnus  Church  in  Lon- 
don, holding  the  two  charges  at  the  .same  time, 
and  was,  on  the  accession  of  Charles  L-ajipointed 
one  of  the  chaplains  in  ordimiry.  He  took  both 
d(!greesof  divinity  in  1027.  He  was  a]ipoint<'d  a 
member  of  the  \Veslminster  Assembly  in  1013. 
.Inly  8  ho  was  chosen  by  them  assessor  with  Dr. 
White,  and  generally  occupied  the  chair  on  ac- 
count of  the  illness  of  Dr.  Twi.sse.  He  wiis 
chairman  of  the  first  of  tlu^  three  grand  connnit- 
tees  of  the  A.s.sembly,  an<l  one  of  th(^  most  ener- 
getic niendiers  of  the  body,  being  active  especially 
in  the  di.scussion  of  Church  Ciovi-rrniient  and  the 
Directory  for  Worship.  He  was  energetic  in  po- 
litical as  well  as  ecclesiastical  alfairs.     His  chief 


BURGESS, 


341 


BURIAL. 


ivoi'ks  are  :  A  chain  of  Graces  drawn  out  at  lenr/th 
for  Reformation  of  Manners,  London,  16L'2;  Tlic 
rire  of  the  Sailctuary  jiewli/  discovered  or  a  com- 
pleat  Tract  of  Zeal,  liOiitlon,  1025;  anil  Baptismal 
lleticnenilion  of  Jilect  I nJants,{)xon.,  ltj'2i).  In  the 
latter  he  maintains  "  It  is  most  agreealilo  to  the 
Institntion  of  Christ  that  all  elect  infants  that 
are  baptizcil  (unless  in  some  extraordinary  cases) 
doe,  ordinarily,  receive,  from  Clirist,  the  Spirit  in 
Baptism,  for  their  first  soleiim  initiation  into 
Christ,  and  for  their  future  actuall  renovation,  in 
God's  good  time,  if  tlu'y  live  to  yeares  of  discretion, 
and  enjoy  tlie  ordinary  means  of  grace  appointed 
of  God  to  tins  end."  He  delivered  a  large  num- 
ber of  sermons  before  Parliament  and  other  civil 
bodies,  which  were  published  from  time  to  time. 
He  is  credited  also  with  the  paper  subscribed  by 
the  London  ministers,  entitled  A  Vindication  of 
the  ministers  of  the  Gospel  in  and  about  London 
from  the  unjust  Aspersions  cast  upon  their  former 
Actinr/s  for  the  Parliament,  as  if  theij  had  promoted 
the  Brinyitiff  of  the  Kiny  to  Capital  I'unishnicnt, 
London,  1648.  He  was  an  able  and  pious  man, 
who  was  much  abvised  subsequently  by  the  Bish- 
ops' party.  C.  A.  BRIGGS. 

BURCESS,  Anthony,  a  Nonconformist  clergy- 
man, educated  at  St.  Jolm's  College,  Cambridge, 
but  a  fellow  of  Emmanuel  College ;  held  in  16^55 
the  living  of  Sutton-Coldfield,  Warwickshire  ;  was 
a  member  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Di- 
vines ;  ejected  at  the  Restoration,  lived  after- 
wards in  retirement  at  Tamworth.  His  principal 
Works  are  :  Vindiciw  Let/is,  hondon  (IGiii);  True 
Doctrine  of  Justification  (1648);  CXLV.  Sermons 
on  John  xvii.  (16.56) ;  Spiritual  Refninrjs,  deliv- 
ered in  161  sermons  (2d  ed.,  1658) ;  Doctrine  of 
Original  Sin  (1659). 

BURGESS,  Daniel,  Dissenting  divine,  b.  at 
Staines,  Middlesex,  1645;  d.  January  26,  1713. 
He  was  graduated  at  Oxford;  in  1067  went  to 
Ireland  as  master  of  a  school  at  Charleville,  in 
1685  minister,  took  charge  of  a  congregation  in 
Brydges  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  after- 
wards in  Carey  Street.  He  was  for  a  time  tutor 
to  Henry  St.  John  (Lord  Bolingbroke).  He  was 
noted  for  wit.  He  issued  Man's  Whole  Duty, 
London,  1690,  and  other  sermons. 

BURGESS,  George,  b.  at  Providence,  R.I.. 
Oct.  31,  1809 ;  d.  on  the  passage  home  from  the 
West  Indies,  April  23,  1866 ;  was  educated  in 
Brown  University;  studied  in  Gottingen,  Bonn, 
and  Berlin;  was  made  rector  of  Christ  Church, 
Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1834,  and  the  first  Episcopal 
bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Maine  in  1847,  where  his 
memory  is  still  clierished.  He  published  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Psalms  in  English  verse.  New  York, 
1840;  Payes  of  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  New 
Knyland,  Boston,  1847 ;  The  Last  Enemy,  Pliil., 
1850;  Sermons;  Last  Journal,  tvith  Introduction  by 
Bishop  A .  Lee,  N.  Y. ;  The  Gospel  of  Luke,  with 
Azotes,  N.Y.,  1880.  See  Memoir  by  his  Brother, 
Rev.  A.  Burqess,  Phila.,  1869. 

BURGHER-SECEDER.     See  Seckders. 

BURGUNDIANS,  The,  when  first  known  to 
history,  towards  the  close  of  the  third  century, 
were  settled  in  the  regions  between  the  Oder  and 
the  Vistula.  In  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century 
they  had  moved  westwards,  and  stood  on  the 
Upper  Main ,  and  when,  in  400,  Stilicho  retreated 
with  the  Roman  legions  from  the  Khiue  in  order 


to  protect  Italy  against  tlie  West-Goths,  the  Bur- 
gundians  pushed  onwards,  and  occupied  the 
regioiis  between  Mayence  and  Strassburg.  Amal- 
gamating with  other  (iermanic  tribiw,  they  formed 
in  tlie  begiuiiing  of  the  fifth  century  a  powerful 
kingdom  between  the  Rhine  and  tlie  Rhone, 
which  lasted  till  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century, 
and  produced  the  Gond/ettes,  the  famous  Burgun- 
dian  law-book,  one  of  the  most  interesting  and 
im]iortant  monuments  of  ancient  Germanic  civili- 
zation. In  their  many  dealings  with  the  I'loman.s 
the  Burgundiiins  early  became  acc]uaiiited  with 
Christianity;  but  in  the  fifth  century  they  appear 
to  have  lajised  into  Arianisin.  TlKur  king,  (iun- 
dobad,  held  in  499  a  great  disputation  between 
the  Catholic  and  the  Arian  priests.  Avitus  offered 
a  miracle  in  proof  of  the  truth  of  the  Catholic 
faith  ;  but  the  Arians  declined  to  accept  any  tes- 
timony of  that  kind,  and  the  conference  en<led 
without  any  practical  result.  But  in  516  Giiiido- 
bad  died  ;  and  in  517  his  son  and  successoi',  Sieg- 
mund,  who  belonged  to  the  Catholic  Church, 
convened  a  council  at  Epaon,  and  quietly,  with- 
out encountering  any  serious  resistance,  estab- 
lished the  Catholic  doctrines  and  rites  among  his 
subjects.  All  sources  referring  to  the  Burgundian 
nation  and  kingdom  have  been  collected  by 
SciiUpflin  in  his  Commentalioncs  Hislnricce  el 
Crilicfc,  Bas.,  1741.  ALBliliCUT  v<j(;e[,. 

BURIAL.  I.  Among  the  Ancient  IlEiiiiEws. 
—  AVhen  life  had  fled,  the  relatives  kissed  the 
body,  and  closed  the  eyes  (Gen.  xlvi.  4,  1.  1)  :  it 
was  then  w.ashed  (Acts  ix  37),  and  wrapped  in 
numerous  folds  of  linen  (Matt,  xxvii.  59),  or  in 
grave-clothes  (John  xi.  44),  between  which  were 
laid  odoriferous  spices,  myrrh,  aloes,  etc.  (John 
xix.  39  sq.).  It  may  well  have  been  that  a  por- 
tion of  the  great  amount  (one  hundred  pounds 
weight)  brought  for  the  burial  of  .Icsus  was  in- 
tended to  be  burnt  in  his  honor,  and  another  por- 
tion to  form  a  "  bed  of  spices ;  "  for  .loseph  and 
Nicodemus  were  both  wealthy,  and  their  respect 
for  Jesus  was  great.  At  all  events,  we  find  such 
a  use  of  spices  in  the  case  of  Asa  (2  Chron.  xvi. 
14).  Fallen  warriors  were  buried  with  their 
weapons  (Ezek.  xxxii.  27).  Since,  according  to 
the  law  (Num.  xix.  11  sq.),  it  was  defilement  to 
touch  the  dead,  it  was  customary  to  bui-y  as  soon 
after  death  as  possible,  usually  on  the  same  day 
(Acts  V.  5  sq.).  The  climate  al.so  necessitated 
speedy  burial.  A  longer  period  than  a  day  must, 
however,  have  elapsed  between  the  death  of  Sarah 
and  her  burial  (Gen.  xxiii.  2,  19).  The  body 
was  borne  upon  a  bier  in  an  open  coffin,  accom- 
panied by  the  relatives  and  friends,  and  a  proces- 
sion varying  in  niunber  according  to  circumstances 
(2  Sam.  iii.  31 ;  Luke  vii.  12),  among  whom  were, 
of  cour.se,  those  most  intimate  with  the  deceased, 
as  his  sons,  spouse,  disciples,  who  were  obligated 
to  pay  the  last  respects  (Gen.  xxv.  9 ;  Judg.  x^^. 
31 ;  Mark  vi.  29).  It  was  customary  to  hire 
mourning  women  and  pipers  as  soon  as  the  person 
died ;  and  these,  sitting  among  the  mourners,  by 
their  shrill  cries,  eulogistic  dirges,  affected  grief, 
and  plaintive  strains,  kept  iip  the  giief  of  the 
really  afflicted  to  the  agonizin"-  point,  and  con- 
tinued their  services  while  the  body  was  carried 
through  the  streets  (Jer  ix.  17  sq  ;  Matt.  ix.  23; 
Mark  v.  38).  In  later  times  there  were  funeral 
feasts,  sometimes  of  great  extravagance  (Joseph. 


BURIAL. 


342 


BURIAL. 


War,  II.  1,  1,  cf.  Tob.  iv.  17 ;  Ep.  Jer.  32).  The 
passages  sometimes  quoted  as  showing  the  earlier 
Hebrews  to  have  had  this  custom  (2  Sam.  iii.  3o ; 
Jer.  svi.  5  sq.;  Ezek.  xxiv.  17;  Hos.  ix.  4)  are 
not  to  the  point,  because  they  refer  to  the  return 
of  the  mourner  to  his  usual  food  after  his  sor- 
row has  abated.  On  the  contrar}-,  the  relatives 
and  friends  sent  the  needed  food  into  the  house 
of  mourning  (Deut.  xxvi.  14,  cf.  2  Sam.  iii.  35). 
Tlie  mourning  time  lasted  seven  d<ays  (Gen.  1.  10  ; 

1  Sam.  xxxi.  13),  but  in  extraordinary  cases  thirty 
days  (Num.  xx.  29 ;  Deut  xxxiv.  8),  and  was 
characterized  by  fasting,  tearing  in  the  garments 
a  little  slit  in  front,  wearing  sackcloth,  scattering 
ashes  and  dust,  shaving  the  beard,  and  such  like 
actions  (Gen,  xxxvii.  o4;  2  .Sam.  iii.  31,  xiii.  31; 
Ezek.  xxiv.  17  sq;  Amos  viii.  10).  But  the  hea- 
then customs  of  cutting  the  flesh,  and  shaving 
the  fore  part  of  the  head  and  the  eyebrows,  were 
forbidden  (Lev.  xix.  28;  Deut.  xiv.  1). 

The  Jews  hurled,  and  did  not  burn,  their  dead. 
It  is  true  there  is  mention  of  burning;  but  it  was 
either  as  a  punishment  for  an  infamous  crime 
(Lev.  XX.  14,  xxi.  0),  or  else  rendered  necessary ; 
as  in  a  pestilence,  when  there  was  neither  time 
nor  people  enough  (Amos  vi.  In),  or  in  a  war, 
when  the  work  of  disposing  of  the  dead  must  be 
done  quickly  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  12).  Nothing  was 
considered  as  so  dishonorable  and  liorrible  as  to 
liave  to  lie  unburied,  the  prey  of  dogs,  hyenas, 
and  vvdtures ;  and  hence  the  threat  was  enougli 
to  make  the  stoutest  quail  (1  Kings  xiii.  22,  xiv. 
11;  Jer  xvi.  4;  Ezek.  xxix.  5).  It  was  a  pious 
duty  to  bury  the  dead,  and  a  meritorious  act,  the 
later  Jews  thought  (cf.  Tob.  i.  17,  ii.  3  sq.).  It 
was  obligatory  according  to  the  law  (Deut.  xxi. 
23)  to  bury  even  those  capitally  punished  before 
sunset  (Josh.  viii.  29,  x.  27 ;  Alatt.  xxvLi.  58 ; 
John  xix.  31 ;  cf.  Josephus,  War,  IV.  5,  2).  One 
of  the  most  picturesque  scenes  in  all  literature  is 
the  faithful  watch  of  Kizpah,  the  concubine  of 
Saul,  over  the  seven  slain  sons  of  Saul ;  for,  "  from 
the  beginning  of  har\-est  until  water  dropped  out 
of  heaven  (six  months),  she  suffered  neither  the 
birds  of  the  air  to  rest  on  them  by  day,  nor  the 
beasts  of  the  tield  by  night"  (2  Sam.  xxi.  10). 

The  burial-places  were  outside  the  towns  and 
cities,  as  tliey  ought  always  to  lie  (Luke  vii.  12 ; 
John  xi.  30).  Kings  and  prophets  (1  Sam.  xxv. 
1)  alone  hiul  an  intranunal  grave.  The  sepul- 
chres were  either  natural  or  artificial  caves  in 
groves  or  gardens  (Gen.  xxiii.  17  ;  1  Kings  ii.  34 ; 

2  Kings  xxi.  18,  20  ;  John  xix.  41).  They  were, 
it  would  seem,  occasioiudly  perpendicular  (Luke 
xi.  44),  though  probably  generally  horizontal,  and 
were  closed  by  a  door  or  a  large  stone  (Matt. 
xxvii.  (iO;  Jolin  xi.  38)  as  a  protection  against 
injury  from  man  or  beasts.  The  whole  country 
is  full  of  rock  tombs. 

'I'liese  rm-k  louilis  were  chambers  excavated  "  in 
the  face  of  a  precipitous  rock,  and  their  entrances 
were  .sometimes  at  an  apparently  inaccessible 
height  from  tlie  groimd.  ^Vhere  no  such  slopes 
were  available,  a  shaft  was  sunk  in  the  rock,  and 
the  tomb  excavated  in  the  side  of  the  shaft,  in 
which  a  staircase  descended.  The  tomb-cham- 
bers are  quadrangular  in  shape;  and  a  .series  of 
lliem  .sometimes  exttMids  into  the  rock  for  a  con- 
Hi<leral)le  distance.  Dr.  Tobler  has  conveniently 
classed  these  tombs  as  follows :  (1)  sunken  lomhs, 


hollowed  in  the  rock  like  modem  graves,  and 
then  closed  with  a  slab  of  stone ;  (2)  shaft  tombs, 
consisting  of  openings  five  to  six  feet  long  and  a 
foot  and  a  half  square,  usually  hewn  horizontally 
in  the  rock,  and  often  provided  with  a  gutter  in 
the  floor,  into  which  the  body  was  pu.shed,  prob- 
ably with  its  feet  foremost;  (3)  shelf  lotiibs,  or 
those  containing  shelves  or  benclies  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  dead,  about  two  feet  from  the  ground, 
and  generally  with  vaulted  roofs ;  (4)  niche 
tombs,  hewn  laterally  in  the  face  of  the  rock, 
about  two  feet  and  a  half  from  the  ground,  of 
the  length  of  the  body,  and  about  a  foot  and  a 
half  square."  —  Badekek's  Palestine  and  Syria, 
p.  116. 

Sarcophai/l  were  used  only  by  the  rich,  and 
were  decorated  with  flowers  and  leaves.  (Jlany 
of  them  are  to-day  used  in  Syria  as  fountain- 
troughs.)  But  the  usual  way  was  to  bury  with- 
out cotHns.  Not  only  kings  and  distingui-shed 
persons,  but  whoever  was  able,  liad  their  own 
hereditary  family  tombs  (Gen.  xxiii.  6  sq.),  and 
it  was  looked  iqjon  as  a  misfortune  not  to  be 
buried  with  one's  kin  ;  and  therefore,  when  possi- 
ble, the  dead  were  taken  thither  (Gen.  xlvii.  29, 
1.  5 ;  2  Sam.  xix.  37  ;  1  Kings  xiii.  22).  For  the 
poor,  for  pilgrims  and  such  like,  and  even  for 
those  in  better  circumstances,  cemeteries  became 
in  after-times  necessities  (2  Kings  xxiii.  6;  Jer. 
xxvi.  23).  The  •■  Potter's  Field,"  as  we  call  such 
a  place,  may  have  gotten  its  original  name  from 
the  lioles  out  of  which  the  clay  had  been  dug 
being  used  for  burying-places.  Over  the  graves, 
monuments  were  occasionally  built  (Gen.  xxxv. 
20;  2  Sam.  xviii.  IS).  I'pon  the  graves  of  ob- 
noxious persons  in  insult  stones  were  tin-own,  —  a 
custom  still  maintained  in  the  East  (Josh.  vii.  26, 
viii.  29).  In  the  post^exilian  days  those  tombs 
which  could  not  be  easily  recognized  from  a  dis- 
tance as  such  were  "  whited "  (^latt.  xxiii.  27) 
every  spring,  after  the  rains,  before  the  passover, 
to  warn  jiasser.s-by  of  defilement  through  a  touch 
of  the  same.  The  sepidchres  of  tlie  prophets 
were  sought  out  and  decorated  (jMatt.  xxiii  27, 
29).  The  tombs  were  believed  to  be  temmted  by 
demons  (Matt.  viii.  28),  and  were  also  u.sed  for 
superstitions  purposes  (Isa.  viii.  19,  Ixv.  4). 

The  tombs  constitute  a  remarkalde  feature 
among  the  curiosities  of  modern  Jerusalem.  They 
are  found  all  around  the  city.  But  unhappily 
the  tombs  of  the  kings,  so  often  referred  to  in  the 
Ivings  and  Chronicles,  have  not  been  foimd  as 
yet.  The  tombs  so  called  were  probably  built  by 
Queen  Helena  of  Adiabene  (.lo.seph.  Antii/.  XX. 
4,  3).  livery  time  a  king,  because  of  leprosy,  as 
Tzziah  (2  t'liron.  xxvi.  23),  or  of  an  nn\\oi'thy 
life  (2  C'ln-on.  xxi.  20,  xxiv.  25,  xxviii.  27),  or  at 
Ins  own  re(|ue.st,  was  buried  .somewhere  else,  W'as 
particularly  noticed.  .lehoiada,  the  high  priest 
m  .loash's  day.  was  buried  "among  the  kings" 
because  he  had  done  good  in  Israel  (2  Chron. 
xxiv.  1(1.)  Kt'KTSllll. 

II.  .Vmonc  the  CiinisTiANS.  —  Tlie  convic- 
tion that  the  bodies  of  tliose  who  died  in  the  Lord 
were  still  united  to  Christ  le<l  to  great  care  and 
reverence  in  handling  the  dead;  and  tlie  Emperor 
Julian  a<'knowledged  tliat  this  fact  was  one  rea- 
.son  for  the  success  of  I'hrislianily.  While  the 
Komaiis  burnt  their  dead,  tlie  Cliristians  always 
buried  them,  and  the  African  (hri.sti.ans  very  gen- 


BURIAL. 


343 


BURIDAN. 


erally  embalmed.     Euscbius  relates  liow  the  pei- 

secutors  of  the  Cliiirch  thouj^ht  to  injure  her  yet 
more  by  burning-  the  bodies  of  those'  whom  they 
had  put  to  di'uth. 

The  huridl-place  was  originally^  in  accordance 
with  .Jewish  and  Roman  law,  outside  of  the  city. 
And  at  Rome,  Na]iles,  and  Milan,  the  Christians 
availed  themselve  of  the  nature  of  the  soil  to  diy 
passages  under  the  earth  for  burial  purposes;  anil 
hence  the  catacondw.  But  when  Christianity 
became  the  religion  of  the  empire,  the  Christians 
could  bury  where  they  pleased,  and  (juite  natu- 
rally chose  to  lie  as  near  as  ]iossible  to  saints  or 
martyrs.  Hence  the  burials  in  the  churches  dedi- 
cated to  such  worthies  were  frequent,  and  umlti- 
plied  so  greatly,  leading,  perhaps,  to  indecorous 
rivalry,  that  (Jratian,  Valentinian,  and  Theodo- 
sius,  in  A.l).  380,  forbade  them.  Notwithstand- 
ing, tliey  continued,  and  were  rebuked  by  the 
Church,  as  in  the  ISth  canon  of  the  Second  Coun- 
cil of  Braga  (in  Portugal),  A.U.  563,  which  ex- 
pressly ordered  that  bodies  must  not  be  buried 
inside  the  churches,  but  outside,  by  the  church- 
walls.  (See  Hefele's  Concilientjeschichle,  vol.  3, 
p.  17.)  Inside  the  church,  however,  there  was  a 
place,  somewhat  removed  from  the  altar,  reserved 
for  the  interment  of  bishops,  .abbots,  priests,  and 
lay  per.sons  distinguished  for  sanctity.  Others 
might  be  buried  in  the  court  before  the  chief 
entrance  and  other  entrances,  and  in  the  corners 
of  the  church-walls.  J5ut  the  desire  to  be  buried 
in  "the  holy  ground"  was  too  strong  for  councils 
and  canon  laws.  Cloister  churches  often  won 
the  privilege  of  interment  within  them  for  those 
who  were  not  monks;  and  family  vaults  were 
erected  in  churches.  Tlie  regulations  upon  this 
subject,  though  numerous,  seem  to  have  been 
largely  futile.  The  law  of  Germany  forbids  such 
burials,  but  that  of  England  grants  them  on 
permission  of  the  incumbent. 

Funeral  riles  have  always  varied  according  to 
time  and  taste.  Among  the  early  Christians  they 
were  the  direct  antithe.ses  to  the  Pagan  customs, 
which  symbolized  defeat  and  sorrow ;  wliile  the 
Christian  spoke  of  victory  and  joy.  The  Pagans 
buried  by  night,  because  they  regarded  a  funeral 
as  a  thing  of  evil  omen  to  look  upon  ;  the  Chris- 
tians by  day,  although  they  retained  the  lighted 
tapers  of  the  Pagan  mode.  The  Pagans  carried 
the  funereal  cyi^ress,  and  marched  in  silence ; 
while  the  Christians  had  palm  and  olive  branches, 
and  sang  joyful  strains  as  they  went,  and  often 
sent  clouds  of  incense  toward  heaven,  and  strewed 
flowers  in  the' way.  Some  of  the  leathers  —  such 
as  Cyprian  (de  Alortal.  §  20),  who  says  that  black 
garments  sliould  not  be  taken  upon  us  here  for 
the  sake  of  the  dead,  who  are  clothed  in  white ; 
and  Augu.stine  (ile  Cunsol.  Mori.  11.  cap.  5),  who 
uses  the  case  of  David  changing  his  behavior 
when  Bathsheba's  adulterous  child  was  dead  as  a 
reason  for  Christians  looking  upon  death  as  a 
triumph  —  endeavored  to  alter  the  dress  of  mourn- 
ers from  melancholy  to  joyful  robes ;  but  doufit- 
less  the  natui'al  feeling  liad  its  way,  and  sad 
hearts  desired  sad  clothing.  It  was  customary  to 
have  appropriate  addresses,  either  in  the  church 
or  at  the  grave,  and  at  the  latter,  at  least  as  early 
as  the  fourth  century,  to  celebrate  the  Eucliarist. 
The  body  was  lowered  face  upwards,  feet  toward 
the   c<ist.     ["Prayers   for  the   dead  were  offered 


when  it  became  customary  at  the  grave  to  com- 
mend the  .souls  of  tli(!  deceased  to  God."]  In  the 
Iioman-Catholic  Church  there  are  regular  prayers 
for  the  dc^ad,  and  joined  to  them  absolution  and 
mass.  On  the  third,  seventh,  thirtieth  (or  forti- 
eth) day  afU'r  tlie  death,  and  al.so  on  the  auni- 
vcn-.sary  of  the  event,  nui.s.ses  are  said.  The  Prot- 
estant Church  has  cast  aside  all  such  superstitions 
and  extra,  if  not  anti-scriptural,  services. 

According  to  canon  law,  the  burial  ordinarily 
takes  place  in  the  churchyard  of  the  pari.sh  in 
whicli  the  deceased  received  tlu^  sacrament,  or 
where  his  ancestors  are  buried,  either  in  the  com- 
mon cemetery,  or  in  the  family  plot  or  vault. 
But  yet  the  canon  law  allows  every  one  not  a 
minor  to  choose  another  place  of  interment.  For 
minoi's  a  parent  nmst  choose.  It  is  to  be  under- 
stood tluit  the  chosen  place  is  in  every  case  conse- 
crated :  particularly  desirable  is  it  that  it  should 
be  a  place  in  which  mass  was  frequently  cele- 
brated. Protestant  State  churches  follow  pretty 
nuich  the  same  rules.  In  the  Konum,  according 
to  statute,  if  it  can  be  proved  that  tlie  choice  of  a 
burial-place  was  unduly  influenced  by  the  priest 
iu  favor  of  his  own  cliurch,  he  (the  priest)  falls 
under  the  ban  of  the  Church,  and  only  the  I'ope 
can  relea.se  him  from  it  (c.  1.  de  sepulturis  in  \  I. 
Clem.  3  in  fine,  de  pcenix  V-  8). 

The  buying  of  a  burial-place  is  denounced  as 
simony;  but  free  gifts  were  allowed.  Hence 
arose  the  so-called  "surplice  fees,"  to  which  the 
pastor  of  the  deceased  is  entitled  in  case  the  body 
is  buried  out  of  the  parish.  But  no  fees  aie 
exacted  when  a  stranger  dies  in  the  parish,  and 
is  carried  elsewhere.  The  amount  of  the  fees 
depends  upon  circumstances;  e.g.,  whether  the 
funeral  is  with  the  ringing  of  bells  {sejiultura 
solennis),  or  without  it  (gepulliira  niinnx  S(>len7iis}. 

A  church-funeral  is  refused  in  geneial  to  all 
non-believers,  and,  in  the  Roman-Catholic  Church, 
to  all  unbaptized  infants,  who  are  to  be  buried  iu 
a  particular  (unblessed)  part  of  the  churchyard, 
without  any  liturgy.  The  following  persons 
were,  according  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  also 
excluded  from  the  rites :  the  excomnnmicated, 
suicides  (in  doubtful  cases  these  were  buried  in 
silence),  those  who  fell  in  tournament  or  duel, 
usurers,  robbers,  incendiaries,  those  guilty  of 
sacrilege,  those  who  had  not  once  in  the  year 
confessed,  or  received  the  sacrament,  open  blas- 
phemers, those  condenmed,  apostates,  schismatics, 
and  heretics. 

Lit.  —  GlIjck  :  Erliiulerung  der  Pandelten, 
vol.  XI.  pp.  386-459 ;  Pkllicia  :  De  Clirisliana 
ecclef:im  poiilia.,  Tom.  II.  (ed.  Braun.,  Coloniic, 
1838)  diss  V.  de  ccemeierio  sive  caiacnmlia  Neapuli- 
lana,  Chu.  FniKi>.  Bklleumann  :  Uehcr  die  dlles- 
ten  chrisdiclien  BegrdlinissldKen,  Hamburg,  1839; 
.'VuGUSTi  :  Denkicurdifjkeiten,  Leipzig,  1816-31 ; 
BixTKiUJ[ :  Die  vorzu</lich.-!ten  Denkwurdiijkeilen 
dcr  clirislkalholischen  Kircke,  Mainz,  1821-33,  vol. 
VI.  Th.  III.  p.  360  sq.  H.  F.  J.\COBSOX. 

BURIDAN,  Jean,  b.  at  Bethune  iu  Artois  to- 
wai-ds  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century;  d.  after 
1358;  was  a  pupil  of  \V.  Occam,  and  taught  for 
some  time  with  great  success  in  the  Uuiversitj' 
of  Paris,  Imt  retired  afterwards  to  Germany, 
driven  aw.ay  by  the  Realists,  and  taught  in 
Vienna.  With  him  the  very  foimdation  of  scho- 
lasticism—  the  implicit  contidence  in  the  unity  of 


BURKITT. 


344 


BURNET. 


faith  and  knowledge,  of  religion  and  philosophy  — 
began  to  shake.  He  developed  Occam's  nominal- 
ism until  the  conflict  between  dogma  and  meta- 
physics, between  religious  and  philosophical  truth, 
became  apparent.  But  it  is  not  known  whether 
he  himself,  or  some  of  his  adversaries,  first  in- 
vented the  famous  fable  of  the  ass  starving  be- 
tween two  bundles  of  hay,  and  first  applied  it  as 
a  fit  representation  of  the  psychological  state  of 
his  scepticism.  His  works  were  published  in 
Paris,  1500,  1516,  151S,  and  at  Oxford,  1637, 
1640,  1641.  See  HauuEau  :  Philos.  Hcolust.,  H. 
p.  483.  WAGENM.A.JSIN. 

BURKITT,  William,  b.  at  Hitcham,  Suffolk, 
Eng.,  July  25,  1650;  d.  at  Dedham,  Essex,  Oct. 
24,  1703;  studied  at  Cambridge,  and  became 
rector  of  Mildeu,  Suffolk,  in  1671,  and  vicar  of 
Dedham  in  1692.  His  Expusilury  Notes  on  the 
Neio  Testament,  London,  1707,  ran  through  many 
editions,  and  are  still  reprinted,  e.g.,  N.Y.,  1865. 
These  Xoles  are  rich  in  practical  suggestions,  and 
bear  a  very  remarkable  similarity  to  those  of 
Matthew  Henry. 

BURMAH,  Independent,  a  kingdom  situated 
in  South-east  Asia,  bordering  upon  Bengal.  Area, 
a  hundred  and  ninety  thousand  square  miles; 
population,  four  million  ;  capital,  Mandalay.  The 
territory  was  much  reduced  by  British  conquest 
in  1825  and  18.52.  The  government  is  a  pure 
despotism;  the  king  dispensing  torture,  impri.son- 
ment,  or  death,  according  to  his  sovereign  discre- 
tion, held  in  check  only  by  fear  of  insurrection. 
Snch  a  thing  as  even-handed  justice  is  unknown. 
Society  is  in  a  continually  shifting  state,  owing 
to  the  absence  of  hereditary  honors,  the  absolute 
power  of  the  king  to  raise  or  depose,  and  the 
.  necessity  of  continual  bribery  to  avoid  punish- 
ment. AV'omen  have  more  apparent  liberty  than 
in  many  parts  of  the  East;  for  they  are  not  .shut 
up,  but  appear  openly  in  society,  and  have  free 
access  in  their  own  name  to  courts  of  law,  where, 
if  ill  treatment  is  proved,  divorce  is  readily  ob- 
tained. In  other  respects,  however,  they  are  ex- 
posed to  the  most  degi-ading  treatment.  They 
are  sold  for  a  time  to  strangers;  and  the  practice 
is  not  considered  shameful,  nor  the  female  in  any 
respect  dishonored.  They  are  seldom  unfaithful 
to  their  new  master,  and  are  generally  of  indus- 
trious au<l  <lomestic  habits,  and  not  addicted  to 
vice.  Tlie  Burmese  are  Buddhists ;  but  there 
are  some  Mohauunedans  in  the  country  who  have 
mosques  at  the  capital,  and  a  few  Christians. 
Foreigners  enjoy  religious  toleration;  but  attempts 
to  convert  the  luitives  to  any  foreign  faith  are 
looked  ufion  as  an  interference  with  tlieir  allc- 
giauce. 

British  Burmah,  the  country  acquired  by  the 
British  in  1825  and  1852.  Education  ha.s  not 
nuide  much  progress  under  tlie  English  plan  of 
public  instruction ;  but  the  people  have  a  wid(>- 
spread  system  of  prinuiry  education  of  their  own 
in  the  monastic  schools.  See  art.  Ijurmnh  in  En- 
cyclopfcdia  Britannica,  9th  ed.,  vol.  IV.,  whence 
tiie  above  information  has  been  taken. 

'J'he  liuman  credit  of  introducing  Christianity 
into  Burmah  belongs  to  the  Rev.  ,\doniram  Jud- 
son  (see  title),  the  able,  indi-fatigable  Bajitist 
missionary,  who  iu  1813  began  his  labors  at  Kan- 
goon.  The  early  trials  and  siift'eriiigs  of  this 
man  of  God  were  the  condition  of  ultimate  suc- 


cess. The  Baptists  have  the  field  in  British  Bur- 
mah to-day,  and  their  nussion  has  been  most 
remarkably  successful.  In  1879  the  condition  of 
the  mission  in  the  districts  of  Rangoon,  Maul- 
main,  and  Toungoo  is  thus  reported  :  83  nussion- 
aries,  100  ordained  native  ministers,  300  helpers, 
about  270  schools,  12  institutions  for  higher  edu- 
cation, 440  congregations  (of  which  SO  are  minis- 
tered to  by  ordained  native  preachers),  20,811 
communicants,  and  about  70,000  native  Chris- 
tians, 1,309  baptisms  during  1879.  See  CiiniST- 
LIEH  :  Protestant  Fin-ciijn  Missions,  Boston,  1880, 
p.  161.  The  Bible  in  Burmese  was  published  by 
Judson  in  1840.     See  art.  K.\rex"S. 

BURMANN,  Franz,  b.  at  Leyden,  1632 ;  d.  Nov. 
12,  1G79,  at  Utrecht,  where  he  was  professor  of 
theology  since  1662.  His  principal  work  is  Sy- 
7iopsis  ilieoloijice,  whicli  appeared  in  1671,  and 
attempts  a  dialectical  reconciliation  between  the 
doctrines  of  Cocceius  and  those  of  the  orthodox 
Reformed  Church.  He  also  wrote  several  devo- 
tional works  in  Dutch. 

BURN,  Richard,  a  philanthropist,  b.  at  Wiib 
ton,  "Westmoreland,  Eng.,  1709;  d.  Nov.  12,1785, 
at  Orton,  where  he  was  rector  since  1736,  and 
justice  of  the  peace.  The  combination  of  these 
two  offices  occasioned  him  to  write  his  Jxistice  of 
the  Peace  and  Parish  Officer,  London,  1755,  2  vols., 
which  was  several  times  reprinted.  Also  his 
Ecclesiastical  Law,  Loudon.  1760,  2  vols.,  attracted 
nuich  attention,  and  was  afterwards  enlarged. 
In  1764  he  published  A  History  of  the  Poor  Laio, 
and,  in  1776,  Observations  on  the  Bill  projjosed  in 
Purliametit  for  erectinq  County  ]]'orkhoi(ses. 

BURNET,  Gilbert',  b.  in  Edinburgh,  Sept.  18, 
1043;  d.  at  Salisbury,  Jlarch  17,  1715;  was  edu- 
cated at  Aberdeen  ;  travelled  in  France  and  Hol- 
land; was  ordained  minister  of  Saltoun  in  1665; 
became  professor  of  divinity  at  Glasgow  in  1669 ; 
removed  in  1673  to  Loudon,  anil  was  nuvde 
preacher  at  the  Rolls  Chapel,  and  lecturer  at  St. 
Clement's,  and  became  one  of  the  most  popular 
preachers  in  town,  but  was  dismissed  in  1684  for 
his  intimacv  with  Lord  Russell,  whom  he  attended 
on  the  .scaffold.  After  the  accession  of  James  II. 
in  1685,  he  left  England,  visited  F' ranee  and  Italy, 
and  settled  in  the  Hague,  where  he  tcok  a  vei-y 
active  part  in  the  execution  of  the  plans  of  the 
I'riuce  of  Orange.  In  1688  he  returni'd  to  Eng- 
land with  William  IL,  and  was  shortly  after 
(1689)  made  Bishop  of  Salisbury.  His  two  prin- 
cipal and  invaluable  works  are :  History  of  the 
Rffonuation  of  the  CItnrch  of  Eni/land.  of  which 
the  first  volume  appeared  in  l(i79,  the  second 
in  1681,  the  third  in  1714,  and  of  which  there  is 
a  recent,  and  the  best,  edition  in  7  vols.,  by 
Pocock,  1865;  aiul  History  if  his  own  Time,  pul>- 
lislied  in  a  somewhat  nuUilated  form  by  his  .sou 
after  his  death  (first  volume,  1724;  second,  1734), 
but  re-edited  and  rendered  conqilete  by  Dr. 
Houth,  Oxford,  1833,  0  vols.  Beside  these  two 
works,  liurnet  wrote  a  great  number  of  iiistorical, 
polemical,  and  drvotional  books,  among  which 
are:  'J'he  Life  of  William  liedill,  KiSo;  E.rposition 
of  the  Thirty-tiine  Articles,  1699,  which  iiu;urred 
the  censure  of  the  Lower  House  of  Couvocalion ; 
Memoirs  tf  the  Dukis  of  llnmilton,  Loiiilou,  1676; 
History  of  James  II..  publislied,  with  additional 
uoti's,  in  ()xf(iiil,  l.s.')2,  etc. 

BURNET,  Thomas,  b.  at  Croft  in  Yorkshire^ 


BURNETT. 


345 


BURRITT. 


Eng.,  about  lG:i5;  d.  in  London,  Sept.  L.'7,  1715; 
fellow  of  Christ's  CoUejje,  Canil)ridj;(',  11)57;  mas- 
ter of  the  Charter  House,  1(J.S5 ;  was  tlie  author 
of  several  works  which  liave  theological  liearin.u;s. 
One  —  tlie  famous  Tellurk  Thcoria  Sacra,  or  Sa- 
cred Theory  of  the  Karth,  ahrilliant,  but,  for  scien- 
tific purposes,  utterly  worthless,  work  —  appeared 
first  in  Latin,  London,  lOiSl,  in  an  English  trans- 
lation, folio,  1084-8!),  and  was  very  popular,  nm- 
ning  through  several  editions;  anotlier,  Arc/iwolo- 
yiiF.  I'/iilosii/tliicce:  she  IJuclriiia  anliqua  de  Rerum 
Oriyinihus  (l(il>2),  in  wliich  he  maintains  the  alle- 
gorical interpretation  of  the  fall  of  man,  and 
which  cost  liim  his  position  as  clerk  of  the  closet 
to  King  William  III.,  and  marred  Iiis  hojie  of  ad- 
vancement;  another  —  a  piosthunious  publication, 
De  Slalu  Morluorum  et  Resurf/cnliuin  Tractatus, 
1723  —  defended  the  doctrine  of  the  middle  state, 
the  millennium,  and  tlie  linuted  duration  of  future 
punishment.  See  IIe.^tiicotp:  :  Life  of  Jliumas 
Burnet,  D.D.,  London,  1759. 

BURNETT  PRIZES,  The,  two  tlieologieal 
prizes,  of  at  least  twelve  hundred  pounds  and  four 
hundred  pounds,  instituted  by  a  rich  merchant  of 
Aberdeen,  of  the  name  Burnett,  1729-84,  to  be 
awarded  every  fortieth  year  to  the  two  best  trea- 
tises on  the  evidences  of  the  existence  of  God. 
The  prizes  were  distributed  for  the  first  time  in 
1815,  and  for  the  second  time  in  185.5,  when  they 
were  taken  by  Rev.  Robert  Anchor  Thompson, 
and  Rev.  Dr.  John  Tulloch,  respectively.  The 
judges  were  the  ministers  of  the  Established 
Cliurch  in  Aberdeen,  and  the  principal  and  pro- 
fessors of  King's  and  Marisehal  Colleges,  and 
three  appointees  of  the  testator's  trustees.  The 
Burnett  lectureship  superseded  them. 

BURNS,  William  Chalmers,  a  famous  Scotch 
misssionary  to  China,  b.  at  Dun,  Scotland,  April 
1,  1815;  d.  at  Poi-t  of  Xieu-chwang,  China,  April 
4,  1868.  His  parents  were  persons  of  marked 
character.  His  father,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  the  very  model  of  a  Christian  pastor ;  his 
mother  was  an  angel  of  sunshine ;  both  were 
profoundly  pious.  He  was  thus  blessed  with  a 
singularly  happy  home,  amid  whose  advantageous 
surroundings  he  began  his  education  without 
thought  of  the  career  before  him,  but  rather  re- 
solved to  be  a  farmer.  When  tliirteen  years  old, 
his  uncle  took  him  to  his  home  in  Aberdeen,  and 
sent  him  to  tlie  grammar-school  there,  taught  by 
the  Rev.  Dr.  James  Melvin,  a  tliorough  scholar. 
From  the  school  he  passed  to  the  universitj', 
left  it  (1831),  determined  to  be  a  lawyer;  but, 
to  the  surprise  and  delight  of  his  parents,  he 
met  with  a  change  of  heart,  and  became  a  minis- 
ter. He  re-entered  tlie  University  of  Abei'deen, 
1832 ;  and,  as  he  was  now  a  true  Christian,  lie 
was  a  more  faithful  student,  and  attained  by  liis 
diligence  the  mathematical  scholarship,  then  tlie 
highest  attainable  distinction  in  the  university. 
He  took  his  degi-ee  in  1834,  proceeded  to  Glas- 
gow to  study  theology,  was  licensed  by  the  pres- 
bytery of  Glasgow,  March  27,  1839,  and  for  a 
time  preached  statedly  for  Mr.  ]McClieyne  during 
the  latter's  absence  in  Palestine  ;  but  on  his  re- 
turn he  became  an  evangelist,  and  held  revival 
meetings,  with  extraordinary  success,  not  only 
throughout  Scotland,  but  in  England,  Ireland, 
and  Canada  (1844-46).  But,  although  greatly 
blessed  in  this  peculiar  work,  Mr.  Burns  was  a 


missionary  at  Iieart,  and  only  waited  the  Master's 
hint  to  go.  At  last  tlu^  intimation  was  jilainly 
given;  and,  having  been  ordained  as  a  missionary 
by  the  same  pi'esl)yti'ry  of  the  English  I'resVjyte- 
rian  Chuich  which  had  sent  out  Morrison  (see 
title),  he  sailed  .lune  9,  1847,  to  take  cliai-ge  of 
their  mission  in  China.  To  the  astonishment 
of  his  home  friends,  he  began  to  speak  in  Chinese 
within  two  months  of  his  arrival,  having  dili- 
gently studied  the  language  while  on  the  voyage. 
He  made  himself,  indeed,  in  a  very  short  time,  as 
much  a  Chinaman  as  practicalile,  dressing  and 
living  after  their  mode,  simply  because  he  thought 
in  this  way  the  most  advantageously  to  labor. 
He  lived  in  Hong-Kong,  Canton,  Amoy,  Shang- 
hai, Peking,  and  Nieu-chwaiig.  In  18.5.3,  while 
at  Amoy,  he  printed  his  translation  into  Chinese 
of  the  first  part  of  Bunyan's  PUyriin's  Proyress. 
He  afterwards  issued  the  second  part  with  cuts, 
which  represented  the  persons  of  the  immortal 
allegory  as  Chinamen.  It  was  his  lot  to  sow 
the  seed  for  future  harvests,  and  yet  not  alto- 
gether to  be  without  the  joy  of  the  reapers. 
His  linguistic  ability,  common  sense,  indomitable 
piu'pose,  godly  conversation,  and,  withal,  great 
kindliness  of  manner,  won  for  him  universal 
respect  and  confidence.  It  lias  been  remarked, 
that  if  he  had  staid  longer  in  some  one  district 
of  country,  instead  of  pursuing  so  desultory  a 
course  of  labor,  he  might  have  been  more  useful ; 
but  he  was  so  close  a  student  of  his  Master's 
will,  that  these  frequent  removals  were  probably 
really  divinely  ordered.  Mr.  Burns  never  mar- 
ried, and  so  was  much  freer  in  his  movements. 
^V'hen  it  is  asked  what  he  did,  the  answer  must 
be,  "He  lived."  He  was  one  of  those  rare  men 
who  are  rather  an  "influence  than  an  agency." 
"  Reckoned  by  the  number  of  conversions  under 
his  direct  preaching,  the  results  are  small.  Meas- 
ured by  the  effect  of  his  personal  influence,  the 
results  are  gi-eat.  From  the  nature  of  his  work, 
that  of  pioneer,  he  could  not  expect  to  reap  the 
fruits  himself."  But  everybody  in  China  knew 
him,  and  long  will  it  be  before  the  consecrating 
power  of  his  holy  life  ceases  to  be  felt.  The 
mention  of  his  name  to-day  to  one  wlio  has  lived 
there  brings  a  smile  and  a  word  of  praise.  See 
the  delightful  Memoir  oi  tliis  remarkable  man  by 
Rev.  Islay  Burns,  D.D.,  6th  ed.,  New  York,  1871. 

BURNS,  James  Drummond,  a  Presbyterian 
minister  and  Christian  poet,  b.  at  Edinburgh, 
Feb.  18,  1823;  d.  at  Mentone,  Nov.  27,  1864. 
Educated  at  the  L^niversity  of  P^dinViurgh.  he  be- 
gan pastoral  labors  in  1845  in  the  Free  Church, 
Dunblane,  Scotland,  failed  in  health,  and  com- 
pelled to  go  to  Madeira  (1847),  where  he  preached 
for  nearly  six  years,  and  then  settled  in  Hamp- 
stead.  He  married  in  1859.  In  1856  he  issued 
his  first  volume  of  poetry,  Tlie  Vision  of  Prophecy, 
and  other  Poems.  His  religious  poems,  scarcely 
known  among  us,  are  in  England  much  admired. 
A  few  of  his  hymns  have  found  their  way  into 
American  collections. 

.See  Hamilton:  Memoir  and  Remains  of  the 
Rev.  James  D.  Burns,  M.A.,  2d  ed.,  London,  1869. 
The  volume  contains  many  poems  and  hymns, 
besides  sermons,  etc. 

BURNT  OFFERINGS,     See  SAfRiFicEs. 

BURRITT,  El ihu,  "the  learned  blacksmith,]' a 
Christian  philanthropist  and  remarkable  linguist. 


BURROUGHES 


346 


BURTON. 


h.  in  New  Britain,  Conn.,  Dec.  8,  1810;  d.  there 
March  6,  1879.  His  fatlier  was  a  farmer-me- 
chanic, once  a  common  tj-jie  iu  Kew  England ; 
<iud  it  was  at  the  forge  that  Burritt  .studied,  first 
malhemalks,  and  tlien  languages,  in  wliicli  he  won 
unexpected  success.  lie  taught  an  academy  for 
a  year,  to  the  detriment  of  his  health,  and  so 
went  into  business,  in  which  he  had  varied  for- 
tunes. Jleanwhile  he  kept  adding  to  his  linguis- 
tic stores.  In  A\'orcester  (1S.37)  he  went  back  to 
liis  forge  for  liis  support.  His  fame  as  a  linguist 
had  spread:  and  in  1811  he  was  asked  to  lecture, 
and  proved  himself  eminently  qualified  for  the 
work,  through  his  command  of  a  vigoi-ous,  racy 
style,  great  natural  eloquence,  and  kindling  en- 
thusiasm. Henceforward  he  was  prominent  be- 
fore the  public  as  lecturer,  orator,  editor,  and 
philanthropist.  Antislavery,  peace,  temperance, 
self-cultivation. —  these  were  the  objects  of  his 
lifelong  advocacy.  Mr.  Burritt  never  married, 
and,  for  the  better  accomplishment  of  his  plans, 
spent  tlie  greater  part  of  his  life  in  England.  In 
1817  he  first  developed  the  idea  of  the  ocean 
penny  postage,  i.e.,  a  pienny  to  be  added  to  the 
inland  rate  of  any  letter.  This  proposition  ex- 
cited great  interest.  He  was  very  active  in  or- 
ganizing the  first  Peace  Congress,  which  was  held 
in  Paris  in  1819,  and  in  promoting  similar  gath- 
erings. He  took  a  prominent  place  in  "  The 
National  Compensated  Emancipation  Company," 
which  was  organized  at  Cleveland,  O.,  iu  Au- 
gust, IS-JG ;  and  into  this  cause  he  threw  himself 
with  his  accustomed  energj-.  From  1SG.5  to  1809 
he  was  consular  agent  of  the  United  States  at 
Birmingham,  Eng.  The  latter  part  of  his  life 
was  quietly  spent  at  New  Britain. 

Mr.  Burritt's  popular  reputation  among  us 
rested  upon  his  knowledge  of  a  great  number  of 
languages,  some  forty  indeed;  but  he  served  his 
generation  to  the  measure  of  his  ability  in  many 
ways,  and  few  public-spirited  men  have  been 
privileged  to  see  so  many  of  their  plans  realized. 
Slavery  met  its  death-blow  in  the  civil  war ;  the 
international  postal  card  was  an  actual  ocean 
penny  jiostage ;  the  Genevan  Congress  of  1865 
helped  efficiently  the  cause  of  peace ;  the  treaty 
rtf  Washington  (December,  1871)  was  a  striking 
l)roof  of  the  lienefit  of  arbitration  ;  and  the  total- 
abstinence  rau.He  was  never  in  such  favor  as  now. 

Mr.  Burritt  published  in  1818  S/iarlcs  from  the 
Anvil;  in  18.53,  O/ivc-Lcares,  a  series  of  brief  es- 
says on  philanthropic  topics,  which  have  liad  an 
extensive  circulation  in  .several  languages;  in 
1854,  Tlioiirjhis  on  Thiiir/x  at  Home  and  Abroad ;  in 
180.5,^  Walk  from  John  o' Groat's  to  Land's  End; 
in  1869,  Lectures  and  Speeches;  in  1876,  A  San- 
skrit Ihindhook  for  the  Fireside;  in  1878,  Chips 
from  mnni/  filocks.  See  Ciiaules  Noutiiend  : 
/,//>  anil  I.alini:<  of  FJihu  linrritt,  N.  Y.  1879. 

BURROUGHES,  Jeremiah,  an  eminent  Puri- 
tan, b.  159!) ;  d.  Nov.  M,  1016.  Ho  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  but  was  obliged  to  leave  the  uni- 
versity on  account  of  nonconformity;  was  a.ssist^ 
iint  at  Bury  St.  Ednnmds,  then  rector  of  Titshall ; 
but,  under  the  pressure  of  Laud's  jiersecution,  lie 
left  the  kingd(jm  (16:58),  and  settled  as  teacher  of 
thi;  Cliurcli  in  UotUirdam.  He  "  afterwards  be- 
came a  famous  preacher  to  two  of  (he  largest 
congregations  about  London,  viz..  Stepney  and 
tripplegate."    He  was  a  distinguished  Independ- 


ent. His  great  work,  exliibiting  his  learning 
and  piety,  was  A  n  Exposition  of  Hosea :  In  Divers 
Lectures,  London,  1643-51,  4  vols,  folio,  reprint, 
London,  ISfJS,  8vo. 

BURROUGHS,  George,  was  imprisoned  in 
Boston,  Jlay  8,  1692  ;  brought  to  trial  for  witch- 
craft, Aug.  3,  and  executed  Aug.  19.  The  date 
and  place  of  his  birth  are  unknown ;  but  he  was 
ordained  pastor  of  Salem  in  1680,  resigned  the 
position  in  1685.  and  lived  at  Falmouth  (now 
Portland),  ]\Ie.,  until  the  destruction  of  that  place 
by  the  Indians  in  1090. 

"  BURTON,  Asa,  b.  at  Preston  (now  Griswold), 
Conn.,  Aug.  25,  1752;  d.  at  Thetford.  A^t.,  May 
1,  1836.  having  been  ordained  pastor  there  in 
1779  ;  published  Essays  on  some  of  the  First  Prin- 
ciples of  Metaphysics,  Ethics,  and  Tlieokir/i/,  1824. 

BURTON,  Edward,  b.  at  Shrewsburv,  Eng., 
Feb.  13,  1794 ;  d.  at  Oxford,  Jan.  19,  1836  ;  be- 
came professor  of  divinity  in  the  University  of 
Oxford  in  1829,  and  published:  Inijuiry  into  the 
Heresies  of  the  Apostolic  Age,  1829;  Testimonies  of 
the  An'e-JS'icene  Fathers  to  the  Divinity  of  Christ, 
1826;  Testimonies  of  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers  to 
the  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  the  Divinity  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  1831 ;  Lectures  on  the  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory of  the  First  Three  Centuries,  1833;  a  Greek 
New  Testament  with  English  notes  (a  meritorious 
work),  Oxford,  1831,  2  vols.,  subsequent  editions 
in  1  vol.  His  Works  have  been  collected  and 
published,  witli  a  memoir,  Oxford,  5  vols. 

BURTON,  Robert,  b.  at  Lindlev,  Feb.  8,  1576; 
d.  at  Oxford,  ,Ian.  25,  1639.  He  'studied  at  Ox- 
ford, entered  the  Church,  and  became  rector  of 
Segrave,  1636.  He  w;us  a  good  mathematician,  a 
thorougli  classical  scholar,  an  omnivorous  reader, 
and  a  merry  companion.  His  famous  Anatomy 
of  Melancholy  appeared  in  1621,  and  has  been 
plagiarized  by  many  a  wit  besides  Laurence 
Sterne.  The  character  of  the  book  has  been 
thus  felicitously  and  humorously  described  by 
Taine  in  his  History  of  English  Literature,  Bk.  ii., 
c.  1 :  "  He  (Burton)  read  on  for  thirty  years,  put 
an  encyclopaedia  into  his  head,  and  now,  to  amuse 
and  relieve  himself,  takes  a  folio  of  blank  paper, 
twenty  lines  of  a  poet,  a  dozen  lines  of  a  treatise 
on  agriculture,  a  folio  column  of  heraldry,  the 
patience,  the  record  of  the  fever-fits  of  liii'pochon- 
dria,  the  history  of  the  jiarticle  >/ne,  a  scrap  of 
metaphysics,  —  this  is  what  passes  tlnough  his 
brain  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  It  is  a  carnival 
of  ideas  and  plirases  —  (Jreek,  Latin,  German, 
French,  Italian,  philosophical,  geometrical,  medi- 
cal, jioetieal,  astrological,  pedagogic  —  heai>ed  one 
on  tlie  other,  an  enormous  medley,  a  prodigious 
ma.ss  of  jund)led  quotations,  jostling  thoughts, 
witli  the  vivacity  and  the  transport  of  a  least 
of  unrea,son.  .  .  .  He  is  never-ending.  Words, 
plir;ises,  overflow,  are  heaped  up,  rejieated,  and 
rtow  on,  carrying  the  reader  along,  deafened,  wea- 
ried, half  drowned,  unable  to  touch  ground  in  the 
deluge.  Burton  is  inexhaustible.  'I'liere  are  no 
ideas  wliich  he  does  not  iterate  under  fifty  forms. 
When  he  has  ex]iended  his  own,  he  poms  out 
upon  us  other  men's,  —  the  classics,  liie  rarest 
authors,  known  only  by  .savants,  autliors  rarer 
.still,  known  only  to  the  learned.  He  borrows 
from  all.  I'liderncatli  these  deeji  caverns  of  eru- 
dition and  science  then-  is  one  bl.icker  aiul  more 
unknown  than  all  the  others,  filled  with   forgot- 


BUSCH. 


347 


BUSHNBLL. 


ten  authors,  witli  crack-jaw  iianios,  —  Bcsler  of 
Nurcmburn',  Ailru'oniius,  Liuscliotcn,  Hiocanfe 
Bredenbacliiiis.  Ainiilst  all  these  antediluvian 
monsters  bristling  with  Latin  terminations,  he  is 
at  his  ease.  He  sports  with  them,  laughs,  ski|)s 
from  one  to  the  other,  drives  them  all  at  once. 
He  is  like  old  Proteus,  the  bold  runner,  who  in 
•one  hour,  witii  his  team  of  hi|i]i(ii)otaini,  makes 
the  circuit  of  the  ocean."  Burton's  PliildSopliusN/r 
.and  Pdi'iiiala  were  jiublislied  by  the  Koxliurglie 
Club,  London,  bSfi'.'. 

BUSCH,  Johannes,  b.  at  Zwolle,  l:5!»!l;  d.  at 
•Sulfa,  147!) ;  was  educated  in  the  flourisliing  school 
of  his  native  city,  and  entered  the  neighboring 
monastery  of  AVindesiieim  in  1416;  was  made  a 
canon  in  1 119,  and  a  presbyter  in  14'24,  and  was 
apiioinled  sub-prior  of  ^\'ittenburg  in  1435,  and 
prior  of  Sulfa  in  1440.  He  wrote  a  life  of  Jo- 
hannes of  Kempen,  the  brother  of  Thomas,  a 
Chronicon  Windesimense,  edited  by  Herib.  Ros- 
weydus,  Antwerp,  1628,  and  four  books,  De  Re- 
Jbrmalione  Monaslerioriim  Quorundaiii  Saxonkc, 
published  in  Script,  lirunsric.  11.,  p.  476  sqq. 
But  the  principal  work  of  his  life  was  the  practi- 
cal reform  which  he  carried  out  in  the  monasteries 
of  Holland,  Friesland,  Hanover,  Lower  Saxony, 
and  Westphalia,  on  the  basis  of  the  maxims  of  the 
Brethren  of  the  Connuon  Life.  In  connection  with 
the  abbots  of  Minden  and  Bursfeld,  he  founded 
the  Congregation  of  Bursfeld,  for  the  purpose  of 
enforcing  the  monasticuil  vows  and  rules  in  their 
original  purity,  and  at  his  death  se\enty-five  mon- 
asteries had  entered  the  congreg.ition.  S(!e  K.vui. 
Grubk:  Juhannes  Btisrii,  AiKjHstuicr/jrojisl  ;«  llil- 
deslicbn,  Freiburg,  ISSl. 

BUSENBAUM,  Hermann,  b.  at  Xottelen,  West- 
phalia, 1600;  d.  at  Munster,  Jan.  31,  1668;  en- 
tered the  order  of  the  Jesuits  in  1610 ;  tauglit 
theology  in  Cologne,  and  was  ajipointed  rector  of 
tlie  College  of  Hildesheim,  and  finally  confessor 
to  the  prince-bishop  of  MUnster.  His  Medulla 
Theologice  Moralis,  which  first  appeared  in  1645, 
was  often  republished,  and  introduced  in  most 
schools  of  the  order ;  but  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury it  was  twice  condemned  to  be  burnt  by  the 
Parliaments  of  Paris  and  Toulouse,  on  account 
of  the  views  it  propagated  concerning  murder 
(esjiecially  of  a  king)  ;  and  in  the  troubles  which 
overtook  the  Jesuits  under  Choiseul  it  played  a 
conspicuous  part. 

BUSH,  George,  Bible  commentator,  b.  at  Nor- 
wich, Vt.,  June  17,  1796;  d.  at  Rochester,  N.Y., 
JSept.  19,  1858.  He  was  educated  at  Dartmouth 
College  and  Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  and 
ordained  (1824)  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  church 
in  Indianapolis.  He  resigned  in  1829,  and  in 
J831  became  profassor  of  Hebrew  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  the  City  of  New  York.  He  began  in  1840 
the  publication  of  his  Notes,  wliich  covered  the 
Pentateuch,  Joshua,  and  Judges,  and  have  been 
widely  circidated.  A  new  edition  appeared  Bos- 
ton, 1870,  6  vols.  Mr.  Spm'geon  (^Couimentiny 
<ind  Commentaries,  Engt  ed.,  p.  49)  accuses  him 
of  gross  plagiarism  in  his  Notes  on  Genesis,  but 
grants  his  independence  and  value  in  the  other 
volumes.  Mr.  Bush  showed  a  marked  leaning 
towards  mystical  speculations,  embraced  Sweden- 
borgianism  (1845),  and  ardently  defended  its 
tenets.  Besides  the  Notes,  he  published  a  He- 
brew Grammar,  1835,  2d  ed.,  1838;  Anastasis,  or 


the  Dortrine  nf  the  Resurrection  nf  the  Body,  184.5, 
and  (-'diteil  the  Anr/lo-Amcrican  New  Cliurch  Re- 
posilori/.  See  Feknald  :  Memoirs  mid  Reminis- 
cences (if  the  Late  Professor  Ucori/c  Hush,  Boston, 
lH(i0. 

BUSHNELL,  Horace,  one  of  the  great  spiritual 
foi<:es  of  the  cenlin-v,  b.  at  Litchfield,  Conn., 
April  II,  1S02;  d.  iii  Hartford,  Conn..  Feb.  17. 
1876.  II(!  was  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1827, 
and  after  a  brief  experience  of  school-leiu'hing, 
and  ten  months  of  most  valuable  editorial  work 
upon  the  Journal  of  Commerce  in  New  York,  he 
entered  tlie  New-Haven  Law  School.  When  he 
hud  tiinshed  a  half-year  there,  he  accepted  a 
tutorshiji  at  Yale  College  ;  and  so  he  taught  and 
studied  for  two  years.  He  was  ready  to  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar;  but  in  the  winter  of  1831  he 
was  converted,  and  exchanged  law  for  theologj'. 
He  resigned  his  tutorship,  and  in  the  autumn 
entered  the  Divinity  School  of  Yale  College.  In 
February,  1833,  he  went  as  temporary  supply  to 
the  North  (now  Park)  Congregational  Church  of 
Hartford,  Conn.,  biut  Jlay  22  was  ordained  its  pas- 
tor. In  September,  1839,  he  delivered  an  address 
on  "  Revelation  "  before  the  Society  of  Inquiiy  at 
Andover,  Mass. ;  and  in  it  he  broached  a  heresy 
upon  the  Trinity,  and  thus  began  his  troubled 
lite  as  a  religious  teacher.  In  tlie  spring  of  1840 
he  declined  the  presidency  of  Middlebury  College. 
In  1845  he  visited  Europe,  and  was  gone  a  year. 
Previously,  as  well  as  subsequently,  he  was  inter- 
ested in  the  Christian  Alliance,  an  anti-Romanist 
organization,  and  published  pamphlets  and  ser- 
mons, and  made  addresses,  in  its  behalf.  His 
book  on  Cltristian  Nurture  (1846)  "emphasized 
the  uryanic  life  of  the  family."  Meanwhile  he 
had  been  full  of  anxious  longing  for  a  higher 
Christian  life  ;  and  in  February.  1848,  all  at  once 
— "  not  as  something  reasoned  out,  but  as  an 
inspiration,  a  revelation  from  the  mind  of  God 
himself  "  —  there  came  to  him  the  knowledge  of 
the  true  way,  and  this  conception  lie  embodied  in 
his  work  God  in  Christ.  He  addressed  the  Har- 
vard Divinity  School  (l"nitarian)  in  July,  184S, 
on  the  Atonement ;  delivered  the  Concio  ad  Cle- 
rum  at  Yale  College  in  August  on  the  Divinity 
of  Christ,  and  spoke  at  Andover  in  September 
on  Dogma  and  Spirit.  These  addresses,  with  an 
introductory  Dissertation  on  Lanr/va(/e  as  related  to 
Thought,  made  up  the  volume  God  in  Christ,  pub- 
lished in  February,  1849,  which  was  the  occasion 
of  his  trial  for  heresy.  The  charges  against  him 
were  "his  contemptuous  denial  of  any  Trinity 
beyond  the  lilankest  Sabellianism,  and  his  char- 
ging those  who  lield  to  a  proper  tri-personality 
in  the  Godhead  witli  being  heretics ;  that  he  re- 
duced it  to  a  mere  instrumental  revelation  of 
God,  in  terms  sometimes  suggestive  of  its  mani- 
festing Him  by  a  sort  of  pantheistic  evolution,  in 
which  the  so-called  persons  are  merely  the  rfro»«7- 
^is /jer4-o»(E  for  dramatizing  God  to  us."  It  must 
be  confessed,  that  by  his  independent,  bold,  and 
original  language,  he  laid  himself  open  to  just 
such  charges,  however  erroneous  they  may  seem 
to-dav,  when  his  books  are  read  in  sober  quiet 
and  liy  a  later  generation.  Such  expressions  in 
his  God  in  Christ  as  —  "Conceive  Him  (God)  now 
as  creating  the  worlds,  or  creating  \\orlds,  if  you 
please,  from  eternity.  In  so  doing.  He  only  rej> 
resents,  expresses,  or  outwardly  produces   Him- 


BUSHNBLL. 


34s 


BUTLER. 


self.  He  bodies  out  His  own  thouglits.  AVhat 
we  call  t)ie  creation  is  in  another  view  a  revela- 
tion only  of  God.  —  his  first  revelation  ;  and  it  is 
in  this  view  that  the  ^^'ord,  or  Logos,  elsewhere 
called  Christ,  or  the  Son  of  God.  is  represented  as 
the  creator  of  the  worlds  "  (p.  140)  ;  and  "  They 
(the  Trinity)  are  instrumentally  three  '"..."  if 
(jod  has  been  eternally  revealed,  or  revealing  him- 
self, to  created  minds,  it  is  likely  always  to  liave 
l>een,  and  always  to  be,  as  the  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Ghost" — cei-tainly  do  not  have  the  orthodox 
ring.  In  June,  181!),  his  book  was  placed  on  the 
docket  of  business  by  the  Hartford  Central  Asso- 
ciation ;  and  a  committee  of  five  then  appointed 
reported  at  a  special  meeting  held  in  Septenibei', 
upon  its  alleged  errors.  Three  of  the  committee 
deemed  its  errors  not  fundamental;  and  this  was 
the  ultimate  verdict  of  the  association  after  Dr. 
Bushnell  had  made  his  defence  before  them,  and 
he  was  therefore  not  presented  for  trial.  Tliis 
action  did  not  settle  the  matter.  On  complaint 
of  the  Association  of  Fairfield  West  it  came  up 
before  the  General  Association  of  Connecticut, 
ineeting  at  Litchfield  in  June,  18.30;  but  that 
body  refused  to  interfere.  Efforts  made  to  influ- 
ence the  Hartford  Central  likewise  failed.  In 
April,  18.51,  his  Christ  in  Theulogij  appeared.  The 
same  attempt  to  bring  liim  up  for  trial  was  made, 
and  as  vainly.  The  General  Association  at  Dan- 
bury  in  June,  lS.'y2,  again  declared  it  '-was  not  a 
legisliitive  or  judicial  body,"  and  would  not  sum- 
mon him  before  them.  The  private  position  of 
Dr.  Bushnell's  church  had  long  been  very  un- 
pleasant, owing  to  the  alleged  heresy  of  the  pas- 
tor; and  accordingly  it  was  unanimouxl y  \oteA  on 
Sunday  evening,  June  27,  18.52,  to  withdraw  from 
the  North  Consociation  of  Hartford  County,  and 
henceforth  to  be  a  true  Congregational  Cinn'ch, 
whose  minister  was  amenable  to  no  external  au- 
thority. This  action  was  taken  without  the 
advice  or  in.stigation  of  the  pastor.  During  18.55 
and  1850  he  w-as  compelled  by  his  health  to  take 
a  leave  of  absence,  and  travelled  in  the  Soiith  and 
Far  West.  He  took  an  active  jiart  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  University  of  California,  and  was 
otTered  the  presidency.  Into  the  revival  of  reli- 
gion wliich  immediately  followed  the  financial 
crisis  of  the  fall  of  1.S.57,  Dr.  Bushnell  entered 
lieartily,  and  for  the  first  time  preaclied  extempo- 
raneously. But  the  excitement  and  extra  labor 
told  upon  him;  and  he  was  obliged  to  insist  upon 
the  acceptance  of  his  resignation  in  April,  and 
spoke  his  parting  words  July.  185!1.  Tlius  termi- 
nated a  ])astorate  of  twenty-six  years,  often  inter- 
rujited  towards  its  close,  Lut  still  a  quart(;r-cen- 
tury  of  love  and  labor  among  one  people.  He 
gave  them  liis  freshest,  rijiest  thought ;  he  filled 
them  with  <Mithusia.sm  for  the  things  of  Christ; 
lie  taught  them  knowledge.  Afterthis  time  he 
took  no  other  charge,  but  began  iiis  "ministry  at 
large."  And  how  u.seful  a  mini.stry !  His  it  was 
to  clieer  during  tlie  war  by  his  great  hojiefulness  ; 
his  it  wa-s  to  impress  the  city  of  his  residence 
with  tlie  stamp  of  his  .s])irit ;  his  it  was  to  write 
books,  tainted,  indeed,  by  what  is  styled  heresy, 
but  instinct  with  heavenly  piety  and  the  noblest 
thouglit.  In  180<!  apix'ared  Ids  much-debated 
book,  Tlie  Vicnrii/iis  Siicri/ice,  ijrimniliil  in  J'riii- 
rijiles  of  Universal  Ohliyatiun.  In  this  he  .sets  forth 
that  "  moral  theory  "  of  the  atonement  wliicli  is 


always  associated  with  liis  name.  The  volume 
liad  been  long  preparing.  It  taught  that  "  Christ's 
object  is  theliealing  of  souls.  He  is  to  he  God's 
moral  power  in  working  such  a  souI-c\ire.  His 
life  and  sacrifice  are  what  he  does  to  become  this 
saving  power."  Late  in  the  spring  of  1874  ap- 
peared his  last  work.  Forgiveness  and  Lnir.  which 
modifies  somewhat  the  ]'icarious  Sacrifice,  of 
which  it  is  now  published  as  the  second  volume. 
It  is  worthy  of  note,  that,  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  he  was  writing  upon  Inspiration ;  its  Modes 
and  Uses:  but  he  finished  only  a  few  chaptej-s. 
Dr.  Bushnell  was  not  only  a  theologian,  but  also 
a  public-spirited  citizen,  alive  to  all  about  him. 
The  city  of  Hartford  owes  to  him  her  Bushnell 
I'ark,  and  indirectly  the  present  site  of  the  Capi- 
tol ;  for  by  his  advocacy  the  park  was  made,  and 
by  his  opposition  the  original  site  was  not  used,. 
but  another  and  better  bought. 

His  chief  published  works  are  :  Christian  JViir- 
liire  (1847)  ;  God  in  Christ  (1849,  new  ed.,  1877)  ; 
Christ  ill  Theology  (1851)  ;  Sermons  for  the  i^em 
/^//b  (18-58)  :  yat lire  and  the  Snpernaturat  (ISoS)  ; 
Worl:  and  P/f/// (1864)  ;  Christ  and  his  Salration 
(18C4)  ;  The  Vicariuiis  Sacrijice,  grounded  in  Prin- 
ciples of  L  'ii  irersid  Oliligation  (1866);  Moral  Uses 
of  Dark-  Things  {iS&.t):  Woman  Suffrage,  the  Re- 
form against  Nature  (186!))  ;  Sermons  on  Liring- 
Suhjccts  (1872)  ;  Fnrgirencss  and  Law  (1874).  A 
j  new  edition  of  his  select  woi'ks  in  8  vols,  ap- 
;  peared,  X.Y.,  1876-77.  and  in  1881  three  volumes 
of  liis  miscellanies  entitleil  Wurk  and  Play:  Moral 
Uses  of  Dark-  Things:  and  Building  Eras  in  Religion, 
the  last  not  pre\-iously  published  in  >>ook  form.  See 
Life  and  I^etters  of  Horace  Bushnell  (edited  by  his 
daughter).  X.Y.,"]880.      samI'EL  M.  J.\CKs6n. 

BUTLER,  Joseph,  Bishop  of  Durham;  author 
of  the  famous  Analogi/:  h.  at  A\'antage,  near 
Oxford   in    Berkshire,' Kno-.,  ]May   18,    i6!)2;    d. 


17 


He  was  the 


at  Bath,  Tuesday,  June  16, 
youngest  of  eight  children.  His  father,  Thomas 
Butler,  a  retired  linen-draper,  and  a  stanch 
Presbyterian,  intended  him  for  the  ministry  of 
his  church  ;  but  after  he  had  been  educated,  first 
at  the  school  of  the  Rev.  Philip  Barton  of  the 
Established  Church  at  Want.age,  and  then  at  the 
Dissenting  Academy  of  that  remarkable  man 
Samuel  Jones,  at  (tloucester  (later  removed  to 
Tewksbury),  his  mind  underwent  a  change,  and 
he  signified  his  preference  for  the  ministry  of  the 
Established  Churdi.  His  father  generously  con- 
sented, .ind  .sent  him  to  Oriel  College,  Oxford, 
March  17,  1714.  He  was  ordained  deacon,  Oct. 
'20,  and  priest,  Dec.  21,  1718,  and  that  year  w'a.s^ 
appointed  |ireacher  at  the  Cha|)el  of  the  Rolls, 
i.e.,  the  chapel  in  the  Rolls  Court,  Chancery  Lane, 
London,  the  place  used  for  keeping  records  in 
chancery, . —  a  position  of  more  honor  than  emolu- 
ment, wliich  li(!  owed  to  the  kind  offices  of  Dr. 
Samuel  Clarke  and  l\Ir.  Talbot  his  friend,  son 
of  Bishop  Talbot  of  Salisbury.  The  audience 
consisted,  in  the  main,  of  lawyers:  hence  Butler's. 
publislii>d  Sermons  at  the  Rolls  are  abstruse,  and 
totally  miadapted  to  a  popular  audience.  In 
1721  he  was  ajipointed  by  Bishop  Talbot  to  the 
living  of  Houghton,  but  was  transferred  by  the 
same  in  1725  to  the  wealtliy  rectory  of  Stanhope, 
I  and  in  1726  h<'  resignecl  his  preachi'rship.  Seven 
I  years  were  iias.sed  in  seclusion  and  study.  This 
i  was  providentially  beneficent:  lie  was  preparing 


BUTLER. 


349 


BUTLER. 


himself  for  his  fjreat  work.  lUit  tliat  his  frioiids 
<li'eine(l  it  a  yivat  loss  to  tho  world  that  so  jiro- 
foiiiiil  a  thinker  should  liide  his  light  for  so  lopg 
;v  time  is  shown  hy  the  answer  th(i  Arehhishop  of 
York  made  to  the  question  of  (^iieen  Caroline, 
•■  Is  Mr.  Butler  dead?  "  —  "  Nti,  madam  ;  but  he  /.v 
/inrir'il."  It  is  not  therefore;  sur])risiiigf  that  in 
IT.i-i  ]5utler  was  appointed  chajilain  of  tlie  lord 
ehancellor,  in  170(J  a  prehend  of  llochester,  and 
later  in  the  same  year  clerk  of  the  closet  to  the 
queen,  —  an  office  which  recpiired  him  to  spend 
every  eveninj;'  from  seven  to  nine  with  the  queen 
in  devotional  exercises  aiul  theological  discus- 
sion. At  the  court  lie  found  a  brilliant  circle  of 
wit  and  beauty;  but  he  bore  himself  not  only  as  a 
jihilosopher,  but  pre-eminently  as  a  Christian,  and 
maintained  a  reputation  for  piety.  It  was  while 
there,  insited  thereto  by  the  conversation  he 
heard  at  court,  that  he  issued  his  Aiialor/i/,  wliich 
he  dedicated  to  the  queen.  On  the  death  of  his 
roy;il  ]iatroness,  he  was  ajipointed  by  the  king  to 
the  bishopric  of  Bristol,  the  poorest  see  in  tiie 
kingdom,  worth  only  four  hundred  jiounds  per 
annum.  Butler  felt  the  ajipointment  as  a  slight. 
In  17-10  the  king  made  him  dean  of  St.  Paul's, 
and  in  1746  clerk  of  the  closet  to  the  king. 
When  the  king  came  to  know  Butler,  he  found 
liim  exceptionally  adapted  to  any  post,  however 
eminent:  accordingly  he  offei'ed  him  in  1717  the 
primacy;  but  Butler  declined,  saying  that  "it 
was  too  late  for  him  to  try  to  support  a  falling 
church."  In  17.50  he  was  transferred  to  the  .see 
of  Durham,  the  richest  in  England ;  but  he  lived 
only  twenty  months  in  his  new  position. 

Character.  —  Butler  was  of  a  serious  and  de- 
sponding disposition;  and  this  inherent  bent  was 
confirmed  when  he  saw  how  deeply  the  infidel 
spirit  held  tlie  brightest  minds  of  his  day,  and 
how  little  was  done  to  improve  the  morals  of 
the  community;  yet  for  himself  he  lived  close 
with  (iod,  unsettled  by  doubts.  lie  was  a  very 
liberal  man,  simple,  even  abstemious,  in  his  per- 
sonal habits,  but  lavish  almost  to  a  fault  upon 
others.  lie  discharged  the  duties  of  his  various 
positions  conscientiously;  though  one  so  shy,  sen- 
sitive, modest,  and  retiring,  must  have  been  natu- 
rally unfitted  for  the  highest  success  as  a  pastor. 
He  never  married.  But  it  was  as  a  un-ilcr,  more 
than  as  a  man,  that  Butler  made  himself  felt; 
and  to  this  day  he  is  esteemeil  as  not  only  one  of 
tlie  most  distinguished  of  English  authors  on 
theology  and  ethics,  but  also  as,  on  the  whole,  the 
man  of  greatest  intellectual  power  in  the  Church 
•of  England  during  the  eighteenth  century.  It 
may  be,  indeed,  a  question  whether  the  Analoyi/ 
■will  always  possess  the  reputation  it  has  enjoyed 
for  w'ell-nigh  a  hundred  and  fifty  years ;  but  the 
fact  that  it  has  lost  popularity,  not  because  of 
any  discovered  weakness  in  its  contents,  but 
simply  because  of  the  shift  in  the  grounds  of 
unbelief,  is  sufficient  proof  of  the  commanding 
genius  of  its  author.  See  Bishop  Duller  and  the 
Zeit-Gehl,  in  Last  Essays  on  Church  and  Religion, 
by  Matthew  Arnold,  London,  1877. 

Writings.  — ■  When  twenty-one  years  old,  while 
at  the  academy  in  Tewksburj',  lie  addressed  a 
series  of  anonymous  letters  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Sam- 
uel Clarke,  upon  some  of  the  positions  assumed 
in  the  latter's  celebrated  Demonstration  of  the 
Being    and   Attributes  of  God    (Boyle    Lectures, 


1701  ;  pub.  1705).  To  these  Dr.  Clarke  re|)lied, 
and  pulilished  the  correspondence  in  sub.sequent 
editions  of  his  book.  This  shows  tin,'  estimate 
early  put  upon  Butler  by  those  conqictent  to 
appi'cciate  him.  1.  The  first  publication  of  his 
own  was  the  Fifteen  Sermons  preached  at  the  llolls 
C'tiapel,  London,  17:20.  The  book  tn.ade  no  sensa- 
tion. It  took  three  years  to  sell  the  first  edition, 
but  it  has  had  a  steady  sale  ever  since.  In  1749 
the  fourth  edition  appeared,  enlarged  by  the  addi- 
tion of  Six  Sermons  on  Public  Occasions.  It  has 
long  been  a  text-book  upon  moral  philosophy,  as 
at  tlie  University  of  Oxford;  and  the  first  three 
sermons  of  the  volume.  On  Ihunan  Nature,  have 
been  accepted  as  a  precious  legacy  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  to  all  time.  They  were  epoch- 
making,  for  they  mark  a  decided  advance  in 
ethics  in  these  two  points:  (1)  the  distinction 
between  self-love  and  the  particular  desires,  upon 
which,  however,  it  is  dependent;  and  (2)  the 
proved  co-existence  of  self-love  and  disinterested 
benevolence,  and  the  discussion  of  their  relations. 
Butler  also  emphasizes  conscience,  the  "  princi- 
ple of  reflection,"  which  takes  a  view  of  motives, 
approves  or  disapproves  them,  impels  to  or  re- 
strains from  action.  2.  The  Analog;/  of  Religion, 
Natural  and  Revealed,  to  the  Constitution  and  Course 
of  Nature,  London,  1730  (4to,  Messrs.  Kuapton). 
Butler  had  been  often  engaged  in  controversy 
with  the  wits  of  Queen  Caroline's  philosophical 
tea-parties  ;  but  such  unsatisfactory  fragmentary 
discussion  was  the  occasion  of  his  bringing  out 
at  that  time  the  results  of  twenty  years'  continu- 
ous thinking  as  a  final  and  complete  answer  to 
the  "  loose  kind  of  deism  "  then  prevalent.  The 
style  of  the  book  is  very  concise ;  it  could  hardly 
be  otherwise,  for  what  a  man  has  been  formulafc- 
ing  through  many  years  he  will  express  concisely: 
but  it  is  not  obscure.  The  book  demands  and 
repays  attentive  study.  Very  briefly  put,  the  ar- 
gument is  this  :  He  begins  with  the  premises  of 
the  existence  of  God,  the  known  course  of  na- 
ture, and  the  necessary  limitation  of  our  knowl- 
edge. He  thus  takes  the  ground  of  the  deists 
whom  he  would  convince.  He  then  argues,  that, 
inasmuch  as  the  difficulties  in  Scripture  are  not 
different  from  those  which  we  find  in  the  opera- 
tions of  nature,  we  should  not  only  reject  all 
arguments  against  the  Scriiitures  which  are 
founded  upon  these  difficulties,  but  also  infer 
that  probably  both  jiroceed  from  the  same  au- 
thor. The  book  has  thus  a  narrow  scope:  it  is 
in  no  sense  a  philosophy  of  religion ;  it  seeks 
rather  to  remove  objections  to  it.  It  is  very  re- 
markable that  the  book  contains  no  quotations, 
and  very  few  references :  at  the  same  time  he 
meets  fairly  a  host  of  objections  which  were 
commonl)' brouglit  against  Christianity;  and  this 
fact,  and  not  its  originality,  has  given  it  lasting 
fame.  Butler  was  an  omnivorous  reader,  and  uo 
one  could  accuse  liim  of  ignorance.  The  Analogy 
did  a  noble  work  for  his  generation.  It  rendered 
Christianity  less  despicable  to  its  foes,  and  more 
reasonable  to  its  friends :  nor  has  it  ceased  to  be 
serviceable.  It  has  long  been  a  text-book  in  our 
colleges,  and  may  retain  its  place  still  longer. 
But  even  if  it  ceases  to  be  thus  used,  it  will 
always  be  a  quarry  from  which  apologists  can 
derive  arguments,  a  discipline  by  which  mental 
strength  can  be  increased.     To  the  Analogy  are 


BUTLER. 


350 


BUTZER. 


usually  appended  two  dissertations,  Of  Personal 
Identiti/,  and  0/  tlie  Xattire  of  Virtue.  3.  The 
only  charge  of  Bishop  Butler  which  has  come 
down  to  us  is  one  to  the  Durham  clergy,  On  the 
Uxe  and  Importance  of  External  licliifwn.  It  was 
this  charge,  together  with  his  erection  of  a  plain 
cross  in  his  Episcopal  chapel  at  Bristol,  which 
gave  color  to  the  rumor  that  Butler  died  a  secret 
Roman  Catholic.  So  low  was  the  tone  of  piety  in 
his  day,  and  yet  so  blind  was  tlie  prejudice  against 
Romanism,  that  attention  to  tlie  details  of  public 
worship  smacked  of  superstition,  and  to  set  up  a 
cross  was  to  be  a  Papist !  The  calumny  against 
Butler  is  beneath  criticism. 

Editions.  —  The  Complete  Edition  of  Butler  is 
in  2  vols.  Svo,  Oxford,  1S44.  Edward  Steere, 
LL.D.,  of  University  College,  London,  issued 
Some  Remains  (hitherto  unpubli-shed)  of  Joseph 
Butler,  LL.D.,  .tome  time  Lord  Bishop  of  Durham, 
London,  185^5,  which  have  been  repi'inted  by  Pro- 
fessor Pa.ssmore  in  his  edition  of  Bishop  But- 
ler's Ethical  Di.tcourses,  Philadelphia,  1855.  The 
.'Sermons  anil  the  Analor/i/  have  often  been  edited. 
They  are  readily  accessible  to  all.  There  are  so 
many  editions,  that  selection  is  difficult.  We 
have  used  Professor  Passmore's  edition  of  the 
former,  which  is  recommended  by  its  long  and 
full  biographical  preface,  the  large  size  of  the 
type  in  tlie  body  of  the  volinne,  and  the  appen- 
dix mentioned  above  ;  and  the  Rev.  Br.  Howard 
Malcom's  edition  of  tlie  Analor/ij,  which  has  good 
notes  and  the  usual  apparatus  of  introduction, 
analysis,  iiulex,  etc.  See  also  W.  Lucas  Collins  : 
iJH(/e/-,  London,  1881.  SAMUEL  M.  JACKSON. 

BUTLER,  Alban,  b.  at  Northampton,  Eng., 
1710;  d.  at  St.  Omer,  May  V<,  177:i ;  was  edu- 
cated at  Douay ;  labored  for  some  time  in  the 
Roman-Catholic  mission  in  Staffordshire ;  held 
several  positions  as  tutor,  and  became  finally 
president  of  the  English  College  of  St.  Omer. 
His  Lives  of  the  Saints,  the  product  of  thirty  years' 
labor,  was  first  published  in  London,  175tJ-59,  4 
vols. ;  later  editions,  and  reprints.  It  is  a  com- 
pendious and  popular  reproduction  of  the  Ada 
Sanctorum.  His  own  Life  was  written  by  his 
nejiliew,  Charles  Butler,  Edinburgh,  18(10. 

BUTLER,  Charles, b.  in  London,  1750;  d.  there 
•lurie  2,  1832;  was  educated  at  Douay,  and  prac- 
tised law  in  London.  Of  his  numerous  writings 
the  most  prominent  are :  Hone  Bihlirte,  1797 ; 
Booh  of  the  Uoman-Catliolic  C7(H)-<7i,  1826  ;  llemi- 
nisccnces,  1821-27;  Lives  of  Bossuet,  Feiielon, 
Alban  Butler,  his  uncle,  etc.  A  selection  of  his 
works  was  i>ul>lished  in  5  vols.,  London,  1817. 

BUTLER,  William  Archer,  b.  at  Annerville, 
Ireland,  IM  1  ;  d.  in  Dublin,  July  .5,  1848;  studied 
at  the  University  of  Dublin,  and  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  moral  jjliilosopliy  in  1837.  His  Letters 
on  Development  of  Christian  Doctrine,  in  re])Iy  to 
J.  II.  Newman's  Essay,  were  first  publislied  in 
the  Irish  Ecclesiastical  Journal,  181.J,  and  reprinted 
in  book  form  in  Dublin,  1850.  His  Sermons  were 
imblished  in  2  vols.,  181()-50,  with  a  I'ifetnoir  hy 
Woodward.  Ili.s  Lectures  on  the  Ilistori/  of  A  ncienl 
Philosophy  were  edited  by  W.  IIe]>wortli  Tliomp- 
.son,  and  appeared  in  2  vols.,  1S5(J.  His  Letters 
on  Romanism  appeared  Cambiidge,  1858.  Very 
lat<;iy  there  lias  been  a  revival  of  interest  in  his 
valuable  works.  A  second  edition  of  his  lectures, 
in  one  volume,  appeared  in  Loudon,  187'L     His 


sermons  and  his  lectures  were  reprinted  in  New 
York,  1879.  Butler  was  a  brilliant  and  profound 
thinker.  He  died  early,  never  having  had  time- 
to  give  his  works  a  final  finish :  and  therefore  it 
is  all  the  more  remarkable  that  his  hm'ried  com- 
positions should  have  such  power. 

BUTTLAR,  Eva  von,  b.  at  Eschwege,  Hesse, 
1670 ;  d.  in  Altona  after  1717 ;  received  a  loose 
and  godless  education ;  married  in  1G87  a  French 
dancing-master  at  Eisenach,  and  glided  gradually 
from  the  frivolities  of  a  court  life  into  the  most 
hideous  aberrations  of  religious  excitement.  She 
left  her  husband,  and  with  her  seducer,  the  theolo- 
gian Winter,  and  her  victim,  the  young  physician 
Appenfeller,  constituted,  as  she  blaspliemously 
claimed  (1698),  the  Holy  Trinity.  She  formed 
in  1702  a  "Christian  and  Phihidelpliian  Society'* 
at  Allendorf  in  Hesse,  and  became  the  head  of 
one  of  those  abominable  conventicles  into  which 
the  Collei/ia  Pielatis  of  the  Pietists  sometimes  de- 
generated. Expelled  from  Allendorf,  the  society 
sought  refuge  at  L'singen,  in  the  Wittgenstein 
domain ;  but  here  they  were  brought  into  court, 
and  escaped  sentence  only  by  flight.  Having 
embraced  Romanism  at  Cologne,  they  settled  at 
Pyrmont  in  the  county  of  Lippe,  and  here  their 
scandals  reached  the  point  of  culmination.  They 
were  convicted  of  the  most  unnatural  excesses 
of  blasphemy  and  licentiousness.  AVinter  was 
condemned  to  death ;  Appenfeller  and  Eva,  to 
flogging  and  perpetual  exile  :  but  once  more  they 
escajied.  They  assembled  again  at  Wetzlar,  and 
finally  in  Altona,  where  the  traces  of  them  finally 
disappear.  See  M.  Goebel  :  Geschichle  des  christ- 
lichen  Lehens  in  der  rhein.-weslphdl.  erani/.  Kirche, 
Coblenz,  1852,  11.  pp.  728-809.  where  all  sources 
to  the  history  of  tliis  peculiar  phenomenon  are 
given.  '       FRAXZ   niBELIUS    (M.  GOEBEL). 

BUTZER,  or  BUCER  {Bucerus),  Martin,  b. 
1491  at  Schlettstadt,  Alsace;  d.  at  Cambridge, 
Feb.  28,  1551 ;  wa.s  educated  in  the  Latin  school 
of  Udenheim,  and  conceived  a  great  passion  for 
learning  and  study:  but,  having  no  other  means 
than  the  Church  or  the  monastery  afforded  to  pur- 
sue this  object,  he  entered  in  1506  the  Domini- 
can order.  By  the  favor  of  his  prior  he  was 
sent  to  the  L'niversity  of  Ifeidelberg;  and  here 
he  heard  Luther's  disputation,  April  26,  1518, 
which  made  a  powerful  impression  .on  him.  He 
felt  the  decisive  ditfereiice  between  Erasmus  and 
Luther,  and  hesitated  not  a  moment  in  making 
his  choice.  But  the  tendenev  of  his  studies  and 
sympathies  was  soon  disco\'ered,  and  persecution 
began.  In  1521  he  sought  refuge  with  Franz 
von  Siekingeii ;  and  in  the  same  year  he  obtained 
a  papal  dispensation  from  his  monastical  vow, 
and  was  transferred  to  the  secular  clergy.  In 
1522  Franz  von  Sickingen  made  him  pastor  of 
Landsluhl;  and  he  married  a  nun,  tlius  breaking 
absolutely  and  forever  with  the  Roman  Church. 
The  desjierate  circumstances,  liowever,  of  Franz 
von  Sickingen,  did  not  allow  Butzer  to  remain 
in  Landstulil.  In  1523  he  went  to  Sirassburg; 
and  in  1524  he  was  apjiointed  minister  of  the 
Chureli  of  St.  .\nrelian,  in  which  ]i()sition  lie 
labored  for  twenty-five  years,  ]>romiiient  not  only 
among  the  Reformers  of  .\lsaee,  but  among  the 
leaders  of  the  whole  movement  in  Switzerland 
and  (iermany.  ( )n  the  question  of  tlie  Lord's 
Supper  he  .stood  nearer  to  Zwingli  and  the  Swiss 


BUXTORF. 


351 


BYFIELD. 


reformers  tliau  to  Lutlier;  but  tlic  great  ol)ject 
of  his  life  was  to  effcet  a  reconciliation,  or  at 
least  to  prevent  an  open  breach.  But  in  this 
he  succeeded  only  )iartially-  The  Conference  of 
Marburg,  Oct.  1,  l.Viit,  failed  so  far  as  a  final 
formula  conconlid'  was  not  arrived  at;  lint  it  had 
some  influence  on  Luther's  conceptions,  or  at 
least  on  his  temp(>i'.  Butzer  saw  it,  and  went  on 
with  his  work,  wliicli  finally  resulted  in  tin-  "  Wit- 
tenberger  Konkordie,"  drawn  up  by  Melanch- 
thon  at  the  conference  in  Wittenberg,  15;5G.  The 
firnnie.ss  with  which  Butzer  opposed  the  intro- 
duction of  the  liilerun  in  Strassburg  caused  his 
dismissal  in  l.Wt).  He  went  to  England  on  the 
invitation  of  C'ranmer,  and  was  made  professor 
of  tlieology  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.  lie 
aided  Cranmer  in  the  preparation  of  the  Articles 
of  Religion,  aiul  tlie  Book  of  Comriwn  Prayer. 
Of  his  works,  a  collected  edition  was  begini  at 
Basel  in  l.")?"  ;  but  only  the  first  volume  ap- 
peared, containing,  besides  a  life  of  him,  most 
of  what  he  wrote  in  England,  whence  its  name, 
Tomus  Anr/liranus.  See  J.  W.  Baum  :  Capito 
und  Bulzerl  Elberfeld,  1S60.  W.  KRAFFT. 

BUXTORF  is  the  name  of  a  family  which 
throngli  four  generations  held  the  professorship 
of  Hebrew  in  the  University  of  Basel,  and  con- 
tributed much  to  make  this  study  a  useful  and 
important  liranch  of  Protestant  theology.  —  I. 
Johannes  Buxtorf,  b.  at  Camen  in  Westphalia, 
Dec.  25,  1504;  d.  at  Basel,  Sept.  1?,,  1620;  studied 
at  Marburg,  Herborn,  Basel,  Ziirich,  and  Geneva, 
under  Piscator,  Gryn<eus,  Bullinger,  and  Beza, 
and  was  in  1501  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew 
in  Basel.  Of  all  Protestant  theologians,  he  was 
possessed  of  the  most  comprehensive  and  accurate 
knowledge  of  rabbinical  literatiu-e  ;  and  he  applied 
his  knowledge  of  Jewish  traditions  and  Jewish 
views  with  great  acuteness  to  the  interpretation 
of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament.  Not  only 
did  he  make  it  more  easy  to  learn  Hebrew,  but, 
by  his  stanch  defence  of  the  Massoretic  text,  has 
rendered  Protestant  theology  a  great  service,  as 
the  Romanists  claimed  superiority  in  accuracy 
and  reliability  for  the  Greek  translation  and  the 
Vulgate.  His  principal  works  are  :  Maimale  He- 
hraicum  el  Chaldaicum  (1602)  ;  Synarjocja  Judaica, 
first  published  in  German  (1603),  then  in  Latin 
(1604);  Lexicon  Hebraic(B  et  C/ialdaicce  (1607)  ;  De 
Abbrevialuris  Hebraicis  (1613) ;  Biblia  Hebraica 
cum  Paraphr.  Cliald.  et  Commentariis  Rabbinoriim, 
4  vols.  (1618-19)  ;  Tiberias  sire  Commentarius  Ma- 
sorethicus  (1620).  A  complete  list  of  his  works 
is  given  in  Alhenee  Rauricee,  Basel,  1778,  p.  447. 
E.  IvAUTScn  :  Johannes  Buxtorf  der  jEltere,  Basel, 
1879  (45  pp.).  There  have  been  lately  published 
new  editions  of  two  of  Buxtorf's  works,  which 
were  originally  finished  by  his  son,  and  published 
at  Basel,  1632  and  1639  respectively:  Concordan- 
tiie  Bibliornvi  Ilebraicce  et  Clialdaicce,  ed.  Bern. 
Baer,  Berlin,  1863,  4to  ;  Lexicon  Chaldaicum  Tal- 
mudicum  et  Rabhinicum,  ed.  Ph.  B.  Fischer,  Leip- 
zig, 1866-74,  2  vols.  4to.  — 11.  Johannes  Buxtorf, 
son  of  the  preceding,  b.  at  Basel,  Aug.  13,  1590; 
d.  there  Aug.  17,  1664 ;  studied  under  his  father, 
and  at  Heidelberg,  Dort,  and  Geneva;  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Basel  in  1630. 
It  became  his  office  to  defend  the  views  which 
his  father  had  propounded,  attacked  as  they  were 
by  Cappellus ;   and  in  this  protracted  and  often 


V)itter  controversy  lie  wrote,  De  Litternrum  Ilehr. 
Genuina  Anlir/uilale  (1643)  ;  De  Punctorum  Origiife 
(1648);  /ln^i'c;-(V(rti  (1653),  etc.  The  influence  he 
exercised  is  noticeable  in  the  Formula  Consensus 
Helvetica,  whose  second  canon  is  directly  pointed 
against  Cappellus.  A  comjiN'te  list  of  liis  work.s 
is  found  in  Atlana'  Raurica,  pp.  47  and  448. — 
III.  Johann  Jakob  Buxtorf,  son  of  the  preceding, 
b.  at  Basel,  .S,.pt,.  1,  1015;  d.  there  April  1,  1704; 
was  appointed  assistant  to  his  father  in  June, 
1604;  visited  in  the  following  years  Holland  and 
England,  and  assumed  the  full  responsibility  of 
his  professorship  in  1069.  He  has  given  im- 
proved editions  of  the  Tiberias  and  the  Synar/oga 
Judaica  of  his  grandfather,  but  wrote  nothing 
himself.  —  IV.  Johann  Buxtorf,  nephew  of  the 
preceding,  b.  at  r.asd,  Jan.  8,  1663;  d.  there 
1732;  was  first  pireaclier  at  the  Mark  near  Basel, 
and  succeeded  his  uncle  in  1704.  His  principal 
work  is  Catalecta  Philologico-Theologica  cum  Man- 
tissa Epistolar.  Viror.  Claror.  ad  J.  Buxtorfium 
Scriploriim,  1707.  A  complete  list  of  his  works 
is  given  in  Alhencc  Raurica;  p.  454.  [G.  Schne- 
DERM.\NN  :  Die  Controrerse  d.  L.  Capcllus  mil  den 
Buxtorfen  iiber  das  Alter  <ler  kebrdischen  Puuctation, 
Leipzig,  1879.]  E.  bertiieau. 

BYBLUS,  an  alteration,  from  the  Greek  epoch, 
of  ancient  name  Gebal  (which  survives  in  the 
modern  Jubeil),  Guba-lu  upon  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions.  It  was  celebrated  for  its  temple  of 
Baaltis,  and  the  birtli  and  worship  of  Adonis. 
Thus  it  had  a  sacred  character,  and  iiilgriinages 
were  made  to  it.  Movers  maintains  that  the 
Giblites  were  not  pure  Plioenicians,  but  rather  a 
mixed  population,  in  which  the  Hebrew  element 
predominated.  And  it  is  true  that  the  inscrip- 
tions discovered  have  a  more  Hebraic  style  than 
the  ordinary  Phcenician.  The  Bible  speaks  of 
the  Giblites  as  famous  stone-cutters  (1  Kings  v. 
18)  and  calkers  (Ezek.  xxvii.  9).  Very  recently 
a  stele  from  the  temple  of  Byblus  has  been  dis- 
covered, translated,  and  published  by  M.  df. 
VogI'e:  Stele  de  Yehawmelek,  Paris,  1875. 

BYFIELD,  Nicholas,  h.  in  Warwickshire  in  1579: 
d.  1022.  He  was  educated  at  Exeter  College, 
Oxford ;  was  for  seven  years  pastor  of  St.  Peter's 
Church  at  Chester,  when  (1615)  he  became  vicar 
of  Isleworth  in  Middlesex,  where  he  remained 
until  his  death.  William  Gouge  describes  him 
as  "  a  man  of  a  profound  judgment,  strong  memo- 
ry, sharp)  wit,  quick  invention,  and  unwearied 
industry."  His  works  were  numerous,  and  greatly 
esteemed.  His  Man-ow  of  the  Oracles  of  God, 
London,  1620,  containing  six  treatises  jireviously 
pulilished  apart,  reached  an  eleventh  edition  in 
1040.  Tlie  Principles  or  the  Pattern  of  Wholesome 
Words,  dedicated  in  1018,  reached  a  sixth  edition 
in  1637,  and  is  a  valuable  compend  of  divinity. 
His  expository  sermons  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Colossians  were  published,  London,  1615,  and 
several  series  on  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter  at 
various  times,  finally  collected  and  enlarged  in  a 
Commentary  upon  the  Whole  First  Epistle  of  St. 
Peter,  London,  1637.  The  Rule  of  Faith,  or  an 
Exposition  of  the  Apostles'  Creed,  was  issued  by  his 
.sou  Adoniram,  after  his  death,  London,  1626,  and 
is' an  able  and  instructive  work.  He  must  be 
numbered  among  the  Presbyterian  fathers  in 
England.  C.  A.  BRIGGS. 

BYFIELD,  Adoniram,  was  son  of  Nicholas  By- 


BYFIBLD. 


35S 


BYN^US. 


field,  date  of  birth  unknown ;  d.  in  1660.  He 
was  educated  at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge, 
and  chosen  chaplain  to  a  regiment  of  Parliament's 
army  in  1642.  In  1643  he  was  appointed  one  of 
the  scribes  of  the  A^'estminster  Assembly.  The 
manuscript  minutes  of  that  body,  now  in  the 
AVilliams  Library,  Grafton  Street,  London,  are 
probably  in  his  handwriting.  He  also  edited,  by 
authority  of  Parliament,  the  various  papers  in 
the  controversy  between  the  Westminster  As- 
sembly and  the  Dissenting  Brethren,  publislied 
London,  1648,  including  Reasons  presented  by  the 
Dissenting   Brethren   against    Certain    Propositions 


concerning  Presbyterian  Gorernment,  Tlie  Anstcct 
of  Assembly  of  Dicines,  Papers  for  Accumulation, 
and  Tlie  Papers  and  Answers  of  the  Dissenting 
Brethren  and  the  Com.  of  the  Assembly  of  Dicines. 
He  became  rector  of  Fulham  in  Jliddlesex,  and 
subsequently  minister  of  Collingboru-Ducis  in 
Wiltshire.  C.  A.  briggs. 

BYN/EUS,  Anthony,  b.  at  Utrecht,  Aug.  6, 
1634 ;  d.  at  Deventer.  Nov.  8,  1G98 ;  was  one  of 
the  most  eminent  Oriental  scholars  of  his  time, 
and  wrote  De  Calceis  Hebra:orum,  Dort,  1682 ; 
Explicatio  Hist.  Ecang.  de  Kaliritate  Christi,  Dort, 
1688;  De  MorteJesu  Christi,  1689. 


CAB. 


353 


CABALA. 


c. 


CAB  (hollow),  a  Hebrew  measure,  one-third  of 
an  oilier,  variously  pstiniatod,  perhaps  best  as 
three  ami  oiie-third  li(iuid  pints,  two  and  five- 
sixths  dry  pints. 

CABALA,  tlie  title  of  the  system  of  Jewish 
theosophy,  denotes  primarily  "  reeeption,"  then 
"a  doctrine  received  by  oral  tradition."  The 
term  is  thus  in  itself  nearly  equivalent  to  "trans- 
mission," or  "tradition."  Thus  we  read  in  Pirke 
Abolh  I.  1,  "Moses  received  the  law  on  Mount 
Sinai,  and  transmitted  it  to  Joshua."  I5y  this 
indefinite  title  we  are  reminded,  that  among  the 
.Jews,  as  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  East, 
human  knowledge,  whetlier  historical  or  scientific, 
rested  principally  on  a  sort  of  succession  ;  and 
the  best  claim  for  its  reception  was  an  unliroken 
chain  of  traditionary  evidence.  Hence  the  care 
with  which  Judaism  established  the  succession  of 
the  custodians  of  truth,  from  Moses,  through 
Joshua  and  the  so-called  elders,  to  the  prophets, 
thence,  through  Ezra  and  the  so-called  Great  Syn- 
agogue, to  the  teachers  of  later  times,  subdividing 
at  length  into  the  various  schools  or  periods  of 
particular  sages  and  their  follo\\ers.  AV'hile, 
therefore,  the  truth  was  gradually  exhibited  in 
the  writings  of  the  Law,  the  Prophets,  and  the 
Talmud,  the  Cabala  indicates  the  verbal  exposi- 
tion of  these,  orally  transmitted  along  with  the 
Scriptures,  and  not  generally  known  to  the  peo- 
ple, but  containing  a  deeper  or  more  thoroughly 
initiated  mode  of  instruction.  In  this  manner  the 
word  "  cabala  "  ultimately  became  the  expression 
of  a  particular  tlieologico-philo.s.ophical  system, 
that  arose  and  established  itself  in  the  bosom  of 
Judaism,  yet  in  a  measure  independent  of,  or 
rather  supplementary  to  it,  which  finally  received 
a  more  general  signification  through  some  Chris- 
tian thinkers.  As  all  instruction  in  .Judaism  was 
principally  verbal,  and  founded  on  memory,  this 
philosophical  instruction  became  ultimately  a 
mystery,  at  least  in  the  view  of  posterity :  hence 
the  history  of  the  Cabala  or  of  .Jewish  metaphy- 
sics is  still  a  matter  of  scientific  controversy  ;  and 
both  are  entitled  to  a  hearing, — tho.se  who  ascribe 
to  it  a  high  antiquity,  or  those  who  regard  it  as  a 
product  of  the  middle  ages.  It  is  true  that  the 
Talmud  (treatise  Char/iga  passim)  speaks  of  a 
doctrine  which  was  communicated  to  only  a  few 
and  selected  persons ;  but  what  this  doctrine  was 
we  are  at  loss  to  know.  The  only  works  which 
can  with  any  propriety  claim  to  emliody  the  ear- 
liest views  of  this  theosophy  are  the  following 
two  (a  third  cabalistic  treatise  entitled  the  iSi'phcr 
Bahir,  edited  at  Amsterdam,  16.31,  and  ascribed 
to  a  certain  Rabbi  Nechonja  ben  Hakana  of  the 
first  century,  has  long  ago  been  generally  regarded 
as  fictitious,  although  a  cabalistic  work  of  the 
same  title  is  already  mentioned  in  the  fourteenth 
century) : — 

Tlie  first  of  these  works  is  the  Sepher  Yetzira, 

or  the  "  Book  of   Creation,"  often   printed  and 

edited :   thus  by  Steph.   Rittangel,  Amst.,  16-12, 

with  a  Latin  translation  and  commentary ;  by  J. 

24  —  1 


F.  Meyer,  with  a  German  translation  and  com- 
mentary, Leipzig,  1830  [by  I.  Kali.sch,  with  a  poor 
English  translation,  New  York,  bsTT].  'I'radi- 
tion  ascribes  it  to  Rabbi  .\kiba  (d.  l"i(l).  It  is  a 
short  treati.se,  in  oracular  sentences,  the  language 
of  which,  more  obscure  in  import  than  in  form, 
resembles  the  Hebrew  of  the  Mislina.  As  the 
(ieniara  already  mentions  a  book  under  a  like 
title,  which  was  commented  uiion  by  R.  Saadja 
of  Fayum  in  the  tenth  century,  its  antiquity  was 
traced  liack  to  tliat  period.  The  other  work  is 
the  famous  "  Book  of  Splendor,"  or  Hrp/icr  JI<i- 
zohar  (so  called  from  Dan.  xii.  0),  first  [iriuted  at 
Cremona  and  Mantua,  lo.'iO,  arid  often  since 
[latest  at  Brody,  3  vols.,  1S73].  Tradition  as- 
cribes it  to  a  contemporary  of  Rabbi  Akiba, 
namel}'.  Rabbi  Simeon  Ijen  Yochai.  Incredulous 
criticism  has  declared  it  to  be  a  production  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  the  time  of  its  first  appear- 
ance in  the  history  of  literature,  and  ascribed  it 
to  a  Spanish  Jew,  Moses  of  Leon.  A  more  con- 
siderate disquisition  recommends  a  middle  way, 
tracing  back  its  doctrines  in  the  main  features  to 
Rabbi  Simeon  of  the  second  century,  and  its 
completion  in  the  East  in  the  eighth  century ; 
whilst  it  became  known  in  the  AVest  at  a  later 
period. 

In  general  the  Zohar  seems  to  be  a  commentary 
on  the  Pentateuch.  Interspersed  tiiroughout  it, 
eitlier  as  parts  of  the  text  with  special  titles,  or 
in  separate  columns  with  distinct  superscriptions, 
are  the  following  pieces,  known  under  special 
names:  Siphra  Detzniulha,  or  "The  Book  of  Se- 
crets ;  "  hlra  Rabha,  or  "  The  Great  Assembly  ;  " 
and  Idra  Sula,  or  "The  Small  Assembly." 

In  examining  these  original  documents  of  the 
Cabala  we  must  be  careful  not  to  interchange 
the  contents  of  both ;  for,  although  the}'  have 
the  same  idea  underlying  their  system,  yet  they 
must  be  distinguished  as  for  their  matter  and 
method.  The  book  Yelzini  opens  with  the  enu- 
meration of  the  thirty-two  ways  of  wisdom,  or 
the  thirty -two  attributes  of  di\ine  mind,  as  they 
are  demonstrated  in  the  founding  of  the  universe. 
The  book  shows  why  there  are  just  thirty-two  of 
these.  Bj'  an  analysis  of  this  number  it  seeks  to 
exhibit,  in  a  peculiar  method  of  theosophical 
arithmetic,  on  the  assumption  that  figures  are  the 
signs  of  existence  and  thought,  the  doctrine  that 
God  is  tlie  author  of  all  things,  the  universe  being 
a  development  of  original  entity,  and  existence 
being  but  thought  become  concrete :  in  short, 
that  instead  of  the  heathenish  or  popular  Jewish 
conception  of  the  world  as  outw  ard,  or  co-existent 
with  Deity,  it  is  co-equal  in  birth,  having  been 
brought  oiit  of  nothing  by  (iod,  thus  establishing 
a  Pantheistic  system  of  emanation,  of  which, 
principally  because  it  is  not  an.vwhere  designated 
by  name,  one  would  think  the  writer  was  not  him- 
self quite  conscious.  The  followmg  sketch  will 
illustrate  the  curious  proof  of  this  argumentation  : 
the  number  32  is  the  sum  of  10  (the  number  of 
digits)  and  22  (the  number  of  the  letters  of  the 


CABALA. 


354 


CAB  AT.  A. 


Hebrew  alphaliet),  this  latter  being  afterwards 
further  resolved  into  3  +  7  +  12.  The  first  chap- 
ter treats  of  the  decade  and  its  elements,  which 
are  called  figures  in  contradistinction  from  the 
22  letters.  This  decade  is  the  sign-manual  of 
the  universe.  The  existence  of  divinity  in  the 
abstract  is  really  ignored,  though  not  formally 
denied.  Thus  tlie  number  1  is  its  spirit  as  an 
active  principle,  in  which  all  worlds  and  beings 
are  yet  enclosed;  2  is  the  spirit  fi-oni  spirit,  i.e., 
the  active  principle  in  so  far  as  it  has  beforehand 
decided  on  creating ;  3  is  water ;  4,  tii'e,  these  two 
being  the  ideal  foundations  of  the  material  and 
spiritual  worlds  I'espectively ;  while  the  six  re- 
maining figures,  5-10,  are  regarded  severally  as 
the  signs-manual  of  height,  depth,  east,  west, 
north,  and  south,  forming  the  six  letter.s,  sides  of 
the  cube,  and  representing  the  idea  of  form  in  its 
geometrical  perfection . 

We  see,  however,  that  this  alone  establishes 
nothing  real,  but  merely  expounds  the  idea  of 
possibility  or  actuality,  at  the  same  time  estab- 
lishing the  virtuidiler  as  existing  in  God,  the  foun- 
dation of  all  things.  The  actual  entities  are 
therefoi'e  introduced  in  the  subsequent  chapters 
under  the  twenty-two  letters.  The  connection 
between  the  two  series  is  evidently  the  Word, 
which,  in  the  first  Sephira  (number)  is  yet  iden- 
tical in  voice  and  action  with  the  spirit ;  but  after- 
wards these  elements,  separating  as  creator  and 
substance,  together  produce  the  worlds,  the  mate- 
rials of  which  are  represented  by  the  letters,  since 
these,  by  their  manifold  combinations,  name  and 
describe  all  that  exists.  Xext,  three  letters  are 
abstracted  from  the  twenty-two  as  the  three 
mothers  ;  i.e.,  the  universal  relations  of  principle, 
contrary  principle,  and  balance,  or  in  nature,  fire, 
water,  air ;  in  the  world,  the  heavens,  the  earth, 
air;  in  the  seasons,  heat,  cold,  mild  temperature  ; 
in  humanity,  the  spirit,  the  body,  the  soul ;  in  the 
body,  the  head,  body,  breast ;  in  the  moral  or- 
ganization, guilt,  innocence,  law,  etc.  These  are 
followed  by  seven  doubles,  i.e.,  the  relations  of 
things  which  are  subject  to  change  (oiijiosition 
without  balance),  ,as  life  and  deatli,  liappiness  and 
misery,  wisdom  and  insanity,  riches  and  poverty, 
beauty  and  ugliness,  mastery  and  servitude,  fruit- 
fulness  and  barrenness.  At  the  same  time  these 
.seven  also  designate  the  material  world ;  namely, 
the  six  ends  (siiles  of  the  cube)  and  the  palace  of 
holiness  in  the  middle  (the  immanent  deity)  which 
supports  it;  also  the  seven  planets,  the  .seven 
heavenly  si^heres,  the  seven  days  of  the  week,  the 
seven  weeks  (from  Pa.ssover  to  Pentecost),  the 
seven  portals  of  the  soul  (i.e.,  the  eyes,  ears,  nose, 
mouth),  etc.  This  theory  further  has  express 
reference  to  the  fact,  that  from  the  condiination 
of  the  letters  results,  with  mathematical  certainty, 
a  quantity  of  words  so  great  that  the  mind  can- 
not emnn(;rate  them  ;  thus,  from  two  letters,  two 
words  ;  from  three,  six  ;  from  four,  I  wenty-four, 
etc.,  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  letters,  whether 
spoken  as  results  of  breath,  or  writtiui  as  elements 
of  words,  are  I  lie  ideal  foundation  of  all  things, 
rinally,  the  twelve  single  hitters  show  the  rela- 
tions of  tilings  .so  far  as  they  can  be  apprehended 
in  a  universal  category.  Their  geomi'trical  rejv 
resentalive  is  the  regular  twelve-sided  polygon, 
such  as  that  of  which  the  horizon  consists.  Their 
representation  in  the  world  gives  the  twelve  signs 


of  the  zodiac  and  the  twelve  months  of  the  lunar 
year;  in  human  beings,  the  twelve  parts  of  the 
body  and  twelve  faculties  of  the  mind  (these 
being  very  arbitrarily  determined).  They  are  so 
organized  by  (iod  as  to  form  at  once  a  province, 
and  yet  be  ready  for  battle,  i.e.,  they  are  as  well 
fitted  for  harmonious  as  for  dissentious  action. 

Different  from  the  system  as  exhibited  in  the 
book  Yeizira  is  that  of  the  Sohar,  because  the 
more  difficult,  since  it  not  only  speculates  con- 
cerning the  cosmos,  but  also  concerning  the  es- 
sence of  (iod  and  the  relations  of  men  :  in  other 
words,  it  treats  also  on  theology,  cosmogony,  and 
anthropology.  Starting  from  the  idea  of  the 
Supreme  ISeing  as  boundless  in  his  nature, —  which 
necessarily  implies  that  he  is  an  absolute  unity 
and  inscrutable,  and  that  there  is  nothing  without 
him,  —  God  is  called  En  Soph,  i.e.,  "endless," 
"boundless."  In  this  boundlessness  God  cannot 
be  comprehended  by  the  intellect,  nor  describevl 
in  words;  for  there  is  nothing  which  can  grasp 
and  depict  him  to  us,  and  as  such  he  is  in  a  cer- 
tain sense  not  existent,  because,  as  far  as  oiu' 
nnnds  are  concerned,  that  which  is  perfectly  in- 
comprehensible does  not  e.\i.st.  To  make  his- 
existence  perceptible,  and  to  render  himself  com- 
prehensible, the  En  Soph  made  his  existence 
known  in  the  creation  of  the  world  by  means  of 
attributes,  or  ten  Sephirolh,  or  intelligences,  ema- 
nating from  the  boundless  one,  and  which,  in  their 
totality,  represent  and  are  called  the  Prhnordiat  or 
Archil i/pal  Man.  This  figurative  presentation, 
which  is  also  called  the  cabalistic  tree,  is  as 
follows :  — 

1.  Crown. 
.■).  Intelligence.  '2.  Wisiiom, 

5.  Justice.  i.  Love. 

6.  Beauty, 
8.  Splendor.  7.  Firmness. 

0.  Foundation. 
10.  Kingdom. 

The  first  Sephira  is  denonnnated  the  Crown, 
and  is  expressed  in  the  Bible  by  the  divine  name 
Ehejeh,  or  "  I  am."  It  is  also  called  the  Ai/ed,  or 
the  Lon</  Face  [Macroprosopon].  From  the  first 
Se/ihira  proceeded  a  masculine  or  acti\e  ]iotency 
designated  Wisdom,  represented  in  the  Bible  by 
Jah,  and  an  opposite,  i.e.,  a  feminine  or  passive 
potency,  denominated  Inletliijence,  represented  by 
the  name  Jehovah.  These  two  opjiosite  potencies 
are  joined  together  by  the  first  potency,  and  thus 
yield  the  first  triad  of  the  Stjdiirolh.  From  the 
junction  of  the  foregoing  opposites  emanated 
again  the  masculine  or  active  potency  denomi- 
nated Mercif  or  Loce,  represented  by  El :  and 
from  this  again  emanated  the  fenunine  or  passive 
potence  Juslice,  represented  in  the  divine  name 
Eloha.  From  this  again  emanated  the  uniting 
potency  Beatdi/,  represented  by  the  divine  name 
Elohim.  AVe  have  thus  the  second  trinity  of  the 
Sc/ihiroth. 

The  medium  of  union  of  the  second  trinity,  i.e., 
licaiili/,  or  the  sixth  Sephira.  beamed  forth  the 
mascidine  or  active  potency  Firmness,  correspond- 
ing to  the  divine  name  Jeliorali  Sal/nolh,  and  this, 
again,  gave  rise  to  the  fenunine  or  passive  potency 
S/il('n</cn;  answering  the  divine  name  Eioiic  Saha- 
olh  ;  from  it,  again,  emanated  Fotnula/ion,  or  the 
Kl  Chai,  thus  yielding  the  third  trinity  of  ,'^ephi- 
rolh.  From  the  ninth  Se/ihira  emanated  the  tenth, 
railed  Kinydum,  represented  by  the  divme  name 


CABALA, 


CABASILAS. 


Adnnni,  and  also  called  Sht-rllnnh.  Those  ten 
Sc//liirolh,  also  called  the  Wiirlil  nf  Emanations, 
save  birtli  to  thne  worlds  in  i\w  following  order : 
1.  The  World  of  Craalion,  or  the  Ilrialic  World 
and  the  T/inini;  which  is  the  aluxle  of  jmre  spir- 
its, and  when!  the  angel  Metatroii  reigns;  '2.  The 
World  of  Formation,  or  the  Vf^tzlrativ  ]\'ortd,  the 
haliitation  of  the  angels.  '■^.  The  third  world 
is  called  the  World  of  Action  and  the  World 
of  Mailer,  which  emanated  from  the  iireceding 
world,  the  ten  Scjiliirolh  of  which  are  made  uji  of 
the  grosser  elements  of  all  th(!  former  three 
worlds.  They  I'epresent  in  the  first  three  degrees 
the  Toliu,  Valiohu,  and  Darkness,  whereupon  fol- 
low seven  infernal  halls,  the  prince  of  which  is 
Samuel  ("angel  of  poison  or  of  death  ").  lie  has 
a  wife  called  the  Harlot;  but  they  are  both  gen- 
erally represented  as  united  in  the  one  name  of 
the  Bea.it.  As  to  the  nature  and  destiny  of  man, 
according  to  these  nietaphj'sical  ideas,  according 
to  his  soul  and  body,  he  represents  the  univer.se, 
the  body  being  merely  a  garment  of  the  soul. 
Like  God,  man  has  a  unity  and  a  trinity,  the 
latter  I'epresented  liy  the  .tpiril,  the  sonl,  and  the 
life  The  fii'st  represents  the  inlellcclwd  ivorld ; 
the  second,  the  sensuous  world ;  the  third,  the 
material  irorld.  As  to  the  soids,  they  are  pre- 
existent,  and  are,  without  an  exception,  destined 
to  inhabit  human  bodies,  and  pursue  their  course 
upon  earth  for  a  certain  period  of  probation. 
Hence  all  souls  are  subject  to  transmigration,  till 
at  last  they  return  to  God  to  be  united  in  the 
Palace  of  Love  with  him  by  a  loving  kiss. 

The  most  famous  Cabalists  are  Moses  ben 
Nachman,  author  of  Faith,  and  Hope ;  Jose  of 
Castile,  author  of  Gales  of  Li</hl ;  ^ioses  of  Cor- 
dova, author  of  the  Garden  of  Pomeyranales , 
Isaac  Liu'ia,  author  of  the  Book  of  Melenipsi/chosis ; 
Chajini  Vital,  who  wrote  the  Tree  of  Life,  Clir. 
Knorr  von  Rosenroth  has  collected  most  of  these 
and  other  writings  in  his  Kahhala  denudata,  Sulz- 
bach,  1077,  sq.  3  vols. 

In  the  hands  of  the  younger  disciples  of  the 
Cabalists,  the  secret  knowledge  was  not  only 
.studied  in  its  philosophical  bearing,  but  also,  and 
even  rather,  under  two  new  aspects  not  previ- 
ously mentioned  ;  namely,  the  practical  application 
and  the  hermeneutical  method.  Passing  over  the 
first,  which  amounts  to  saying  that  a  true  Caba- 
li,st  nuist  also  be  a  sorcerer,  we  come  now  to  the 
second,  because  of  more  interest  to  the  theologian. 
The  pi-inciple  of  the  mystic  interpretation  is  very 
old,  and  not  peculiar  to  the  Cabalistic  schools, 
as  may  be  seen  from  church-history,  and  even 
from  file  history  of  Greek  literature,  '\^'e  find  it 
in  Philo,  in  the  Xew  Testament,  in  the  writings 
of  the  Fathers,  in  tlie  Talmud,  and  in  the  .Sohar ; 
and  the  more  the  latter  departs  from  tlie  spirit  of 
the  sacred  text,  the  more  had  it  to  be  brought  to 
its  suppoi't  by  distortions  of  its  meaning.  For 
such  operation,  there  are  no  known  rules  except 
the  exigencies  of  the  case  and  the  capacity  of  the 
mystic  interpreter.  In  the  mean  time,  tjie  Jews 
had  already,  by  the  arbitrary  character  of  tlieir 
aliihaliet,  arrived  at  all  manner  of  subtleties,  of 
whicli  we  have  already  isolated  examples  in  earlier 
writings,  but  which  were  especially  established 
as  a  virtuosoship  in  post-Soharic  times.  Thus  we 
have,  1.  The  Gematria,  i.e.,  the  art  of  discovering 
tlie   hidden   sense   of   the  text  by  means   of  the 


numerical  equivalents  of  th(>  letters ;  2.  The  Nn- 
larikon,  i.e.,  tin-  art  of  forming  a  new  word  from 
each  letter  of  the  woi'd ;  3.  The  Temura,  the 
anagram,  of  two  kinds.  The  simple  is  a  mere 
tran.sposition  of  the  letters  of  a  word :  the  more 
ingenious  kind  is  that  by  which,  according  to 
certain  established  rules,  each  letter  of  tlu'  alpha- 
bet acquires  the  signification  of  another;  as  Alepli 
that  of  'J'ar,  Beth  that  of  Sliin,  etc.  ;  or,  again, 
letters  may  be  read  forward  and  liackward.  or  the 
first  letter  of  the  alpliabet  is  connected  with  the 
twelfth,  the  second  with  the  thirteenth,  etc. 

Among  Christians  the  Cal)ala  was  cultivated 
as  early  as  in  the  thirteenth  century.  I'aymond 
Lully  is  the  first  who  provi^s  him.self  at  home  in 
this  branch  of  science.  I'esides,  we  must  mention 
John  Picus  di  Mirandola  and  John  lieuchlin,  not 
to  speak  of  such  converted  Jews  as  Paul  Ricci, 
physician  to  Emperor  ^Maximilian,  and  Juda  ben 
Isaak  Al>r;ibanel  (Leo  llebriius),  son  of  the  fa- 
mous connnentator,  and  author  of  Dialotjhi  de 
amore,  and  others,  who  initiated  many  Christian 
scholars  into  this  theosophy. 

[The  literature  on  the  Cabala  is  very  large,  and 
convenientlv  arranged  in  Fi.'ust:  Bibliolheca  Ju- 
duwa,  vol.  'ill.  pp".  32!J-3:!.5,  Leipzig,  1863.  In 
the  French  language  we  have  Ai>.  Franck  :  La 
Kahhale,  ou  la  philosophic  reliijieusc  des  hebreux, 
Paris,  1813  (tian.slated  into  German  by  Ad. 
Jellinek,  Die  Kahhala,  oiler  die  lieli(jions[)hilophie 
der  Hehrder,  Leipzig,  1844)  ;  the  art.  Cubale  in 
Lichtenberger's  Encijclo]ie<He  des  Sciences  Reli- 
(jieuses,  Paris,  1878,  vol.  II.  pp.  497  sq.  ;  and  S. 
MuNK  :  Me'lanr/es  de  Philo.tojihie  Juice  et  A  rahe,  pp. 
461-511.  A  .short  survey  on  the  Cabala  is  also 
given  by  Gougenot  des  Mousseau.x,  in  his  work, 
Le  Juif,  pp.  .509  sq.,  Paris,  1869.  In  the  English, 
language  may  be  consulted,  besides  the  arts,  ia 
Kitto,  and  !McClintock's  and  Sti'ong's  Ci/clops.  on 
the  Cal/ala,  and  the  art.  by  K.  Pick,  ou  the  Zohar, 
in  the  latter  work,  Milmax  :  History  of  the  Jews, 
II.  p.  421,  III.  pp.  438-444,  New  York.  1870; 
UEiiEinvEG:  Llislori/  of  Philosophy,  I.  p.  417,  ib. 
1872;  Longfellow:  Dante's  Dicine  Comedy,  IIT. 
pp.  456  sq.,  wliere  the  Cabalistic  alphabet  is  given, 
but  more  especially  Ginsburg  :  The  Kahhalah :  its 
Doctrines,  Development,  and  Literature,  London, 
1865.]  ED.   KEUSS  (B.   PICK). 

CABASILAS  is  the  name  of  two  prominent 
bishops  of  Thessalonica  during  the  fourteenth 
century.  Thessalonica  was  at  that  time,  next  ta 
Constantinople,  the  most  important  see  of  the 
Byzantine  Church,  and  the  principal  object  of  the 
contest  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  Church. 
Both  the  Cabasilas  were  decidedly  anti-Roman  ; 
and  for  this  reason  the  writings  of  the  elder, 
Nilus,  who  occupied  the  see  about  V'AO.  were 
entirely  unknown  in  Western  Europe  until  the 
Reformers  called  attention  to  them.  His  De 
T'rimatn  Paper  was  edited  by  M.  Flacius  Illyricus, 
Frankfort,  1555.  The  younger,  Nicolaus  Cabasi- 
las, occupied  the  see  about  1354,  succeeding 
Pa.samas.  He  was  originally  a  monk  ;  and  in  the 
Hesychast  controversy  he  took  the  side  of  the 
monks  of  Athos  against  Barlaam  and  Nicephorus 
Gregoras.  He  wrote  rhetorical,  liturgical,  and 
dogmatical  works,  also  polemics  against  Rome, 
most  of  which,  however,  liave  remained  unprinted. 
But  his  principal  work  is  T-.ife  in  Christ  {Ucpi  r^f  ev 
XfiiaTu  iuTic).     It  was  much  read  and  often  copied 


CABRAL. 


356 


C^RULARIUS. 


in  earlier  times.  A  Latin  translation  by  .Tacob 
Pontanus  was  published  at  IngolstaJt  in  KJOi. 
\  critical  edition  of  the  Greek  text  has  recently 
been  given  by  Gass.  The  book  is  interesting  as 
a  striking  instance  of  that  mysticism  -which  grew 
up  in  the  Eastern  Church  parallel  with  but  inde- 
pendent of  the  mysticisn:  of  the  Western  Church. 
See  Gass  :  Die  Mi/^iik  des  Nikolaus  Kubasi/as  com 
Leben  in  Clirislo,  Greifswald,  1849. 

CABRAL,  Francois,  b.  at  Caviltaa,  Portugal, 
15-2>i  :  d.  at  Gua.  April  16,  1609  ;  entered  the  '"So- 
ciety of  Jesus  ;  labored  as  a  missionary  in  India, 
Japan,  and  China;  baptized  in  1575  the  King  of 
Bungo,  who  had  previously  been  \'isited  by  Fran- 
cis Xavier,  and  was  in  1571  appointed  director  of 
the  House  of  the  Professed  at  Cloa. 

C/ECILiA,  St.,  suffered  martyrdom,  according 
to  an  old  legend,  in  2-H\,  under  Alexander  Severus. 
According  to  a  legend  which  dates  from  the  four- 
teenth century,  she  sang  hymns,  and  accompanied 
herself  on  the  organ,  immediately  before  her 
death ;  and  this  circumstance  has  made  her  the 
patroness  of  church-music.  Her  festival  falls  on 
Xov.  '2'2.     See  Butler  ;  Lii-es  of  Saints,  Xov.  22. 

C/ECILIANUS.     See  Donatists. 

C/EDMON,  the  first  Christiau  poet  of  Eng- 
land, was  a  monk  of  the  Abbey  of  Streaneshalch 
in  Xorthumbria,  who  lived  in  the  seventh  centu- 
ry. It  is  related  of  him  by  Bede  {Eccl.  Ilisl.  iv. 
24),  that,  before  taking  upon  himself  the  monas- 
tic vows,  he  was  on  one  occasion  at  a  feast  where 
all  were  in  turn  called  upon  to  sing.  Feeling  his 
inability  to  comply,  he  left  the  hall,  and  betook 
himself  to  rest  in  the  stable,  M'here  he  was  that 
night  to  watch  the  animals.  In  his  sleep  he  be- 
came aware  of  a  person  who  stood  over  him,  and 
connnanded  him  to  sing  of  the  creation,  which 
he  thereupon  was  enabled  to  do,  repeating  verses 
which  he  had  never  heard.  On  awaking,  he 
remembered  the  poetry  of  his  dream,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  add  nuich  more  of  the  same  purport. 
Being  brought  before  the  Abljess  Hilda,  he  related 
his  vision,  and,  at  the  rec^uest  of  the  learned  men 
there  present,  translated  certain  passages  of  Scrip- 
ture, which  they  repeated  to  him,  into  excellent 
ver.se.  Thereupon  he  was  received  into  the  mon- 
astery, and  instructed  in  the  biblical  histories, 
large  portions  of  which  he  subseciuently  versified. 
Among  these  were  the  creation  of  the  world,  the 
origin  of  man,  and  tlie  whole  history  of  Genesis ; 
the  departure  of  the  children  of  Israel  out  of 
Egypt,  and  their  entrance  into  the  land  of  prom- 
ise;  the  incarnation,  passion,  resurrection,  and 
ascension  of  Christ;  the  coming  of  the  Holy 
Ghost;  and  the  ])reaching  of  the  apostles.  His 
death  took  place  about  the  year  080,  and  the  man- 
ner of  it  was  in  com])l(^te  accord  with  his  devout 
and  tranquil  life. 

The  poems  which  have  been  attributed  to  Ca'd- 
mon  were  first  ])nblished  in  1055  by  Francis  Ju- 
nius, from  a  manuscript  now  in  the  possession  of 
the  Bodleian  Library.  They  are  known  as  tiie 
(jenesis.  Exodus,  Daniel,  and  Christ  and  .Satan. 
At  present  it  is  geni'rally  conciMlc<l  that  only  the 
first  of  the.se  (loems  has  any  claim  to  be  considered 
as  the  production  of  Ciedmon,  and  even  (his  has 
been  transmitted  to  us  in  an  interpolated  and 
Consideral>ly  modified  form. 

Cicdinon's  alliterative  ])araphrase  is  bold  and 
vigorous ;  and  in  sublimity  he  is  surpassed  by  no 


writer  in  the  language,  excejit,  perhaps,  ISIilton. 
The  striking  resemblance  between  parts  of  the 
Genesis  and  of  Paradise  Lost  has  been  pointed  out 
by  DTsraeli,  Amenities  of  Literature,  I.,  32-44. 

Lit.  —  Ctedmonis  monachi  jiaraplirasis  poetica 
Genesios  ac  jircecipuarum  S(,icra:  Par/ince  llistoria- 
rum,  ahhinc  annos  mlxx.  Ant/lo-Saxonice  conscripta, 
et  nunc  primuin  editn  a  Fr.\xcisco  Jrxio,  Am- 
stelodami,  1055  ;  B.  Thorpe  :  Ciedmon  s  Metrical 
Paraplirase  of  Parts  of  tlte  Ihibj  Scripture  in  Am/lo- 
Saxon,  with  an  Enr/lish  Translation,  etc.,  London, 
1832;  K.  W.  Bouterweic  :  Cadmons  des  An- 
f/elsachsen  hililisclte  Dichtunijen,  Giitersloh,  1854 ; 
C.  W.  JI.  (Jrei.N'  :  DUiliotliek  der  angelsiichsisclien 
Poesie,  erster  Band,  Gbttingen,  1857;  the  same: 
Dichlunt/en  der  Anyehaclisen  slabrtunend  iibersetzt, 
Cassel  uud  Gbttingen.  1857-59  ;  W .  H.  F.  Bos.^.n- 
Ql'ET  :  The  Fall  of  Man,  or  Paradise  Lost  of  Cied- 
mon, translated  in  verse  from  the  An</lo-Saxon,  etc., 
London,  1860;  J.J.  Coxvbe.\re  :  Jllnstration  of 
Anijlo-Saxon  Poetr)/,  London,  1826;  E.  Guest: 
Ihstorij  of  -Enijlish  lihi/thms,  London,  1838;  Tiios. 
Wright:  BiiKjraphia  Britannica  Literaria,  An//lo- 
Saxon  Period,  London,  1842;  L.  Ettmi'ller  : 
Enijla  and  Seaxna  Scopus  and  Boce'ras,  Qnedlin- 
burg  and  Leijizig,  18.50;  S.  G.  Saxdrar  :  De 
carminibus  Ani/lu-Saxonicis  Ceedmoni  adjudicalis 
disf/uisitio,  Paris,  1859 ;  H.  jMorley  :  Enijlish 
TFnVens  vol.  L,  Part  I.,  London,  1867:  E.  SiK- 
■\'ERS  :  Per  lleliand  unit  die  ani/ilsiichsische  Genesis, 
Halle,  1875  ;  B.  Tex  Brink  :  Oeschichte  der  cni/- 
llschen  Litcratur,  er.ster  Band.  Berlin.  1877;  J.  j\L 
H.\UT :  A  Si/llabus  of'  ani/lo-Saxon  Literature, 
adapted  from  Bernhard  'I'en  LSrink's  Geschichte  der 
Eniiliscian  Literatur,  Cincinnati.  1881 .    A.  S.  COOIC. 

C/ERULARIUS,  Michael,  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople 1043-59,  made  complete  the  breach 
between  the  Greek  and  the  Latin  churches,  which 
had  been  so  well  prepared  by  Photius.  The 
strife  was  at  rest  since  the  days  of  the  Patriarch 
Sisinnius  (d.  999).  when  Michael,  in  comiectiou 
with  the  Bulgarian  metropolitan.  Leo  of  Achrida, 
arbitrarily  abolished  the  Latin  liturgy  in  use  in 
some  Bulgarian  churches  and  monasteries,  and, 
by  a  letter  to  the  Bishop  of  Trani  in  Apulia, 
formally  declared  vvarag;vinst  the  Roman  Church 
(Canisins:  Lection.  Antit/ua;  ('dited  by  Basnage, 
HI.  p.  281).  The  complaints  were  the  old  ones, — 
the  use  in  the  Latin  Church  of  unleavened  bread 
in  the  Lord's  .Supper,  the  omission  of  the  Halle- 
lujah during  the  fast,  the  introduction  of  the 
word  Pihoipie  in  the  creed,  etc.  ;  but  the  tone  was 
more  violiMit  than  ever.  The  Emperor  Con.stan- 
tine  Monomachus  was  very  much  displeased  with 
the  letter;  ami  when  Pope  Leo  IX.  .sent  his  am- 
bassadors to  Constantinople  to  attempt  to  settle 
the  ipu'stions,  the  emperor  received  them  veiy 
graciously.  But  Micliael  defended  his  views 
very  cunningly  (Canisins,  p.  283)  ;  the  enijieror 
began  to  waver;  ami  the  papal  amba.ssadors 
departed  abruptly  from  the  city,  leaving  on  the 
altar  of  the  Church  of  St.  Soiiliia  a  formal  bull 
of  exeomnumication  (Canisins.  p.  308).  iMichai-l 
inaintaine<l  himself,  both  under  Cimstantine  ami 
under  Theodora;  and  thongli  the  Emperor  Isaac 
Conmenus,  in  1(159,  banished  jiim  fiom  his  si'C, 
the  .schism  between  tlie  (ireck  and  Latin  churches 
was,  nevertheless,  unremediably  elTeeted.  Be- 
sides some  letters  given  by  Canisius,  there  al.so 
e.\ist  some  decretals  of  I\ln  maei.:  De  Episcoporum 


C^SAREA. 


357 


CAIAPHAS. 


Jtidiriis,  T>e  Nuplils  in  Scplimo  Oradii  von  Conlni- 
/((■«(^>,  etc.,  given  by  Corr.r.Kiurs :  l^atrcs  A/mn- 
loL,  I.  p.  87.  [See  also  the  elaborate  work  of 
I'lclil.Kl! :  Onscliirlile  dcr  kircldirht'n  TrennMivj 
:ifl.<rliin  dnn  Oriiid  ii.  Ocridiiil,  MiuicIk'H,  ISGl, 
2  vols.  (vol.  i.  jip.  I'.M  s.i.|.)]  (iA.SS. 

C/ESARE'A  and  OESARE'A  PHILIP'PI.^  Two 
cities  of  Palestine  mentioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  which  are  to  be  distinguished  from 
one  another.  1.  Caesarea,  originally  called  Stra- 
to's  Tower,  later,  Cai'sarea  Palestin;p,  or  Pales- 
tina,  lay  on  the  Mediterranean,  between  Jopjia 
and  Dora,  and  owed  its  celebrity  and  name,  in 
lionor  of  Augustus,  to  llerod  the  Great,  who  spent 
vast  sums  of  money  in  its  adornment,  and  provided 
it  with  an  extensive  and  secure  harbor  B.C.  10 
(Josephus:  Aniiq.,  XVI.  5,  1;  War,  I.  21,  5-8). 
Vespasian  was  declared  emperor  there,  and  made 
it  a  Roman  colony,  and  released  it  from  capitation 
and  ground  taxes.  There  lived  Cornelius  and 
Philip  the  Evangelist  (.\cts  x.  1,  viii.  40,  xxi.  8). 
there  died  Herod  Agrippa  (Acts  xii.  19,  23),  Paul 
visited  .and  spent  two  years  in  prison  (Acts  ix. 


30,  xviii.  22,  xxi.  8,  xxiii. 


xxiv.  27).     The 


contest  between  the  heathen  and  Jewish  inhabit- 
ants of  the  place  in  regard  to  their  equal  right 
to  the  privileges  belonging  to  citizens  was  the 
beginning  of  the  Jewish  war,  which  resulted  in 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  (Josephus:  Anl'iq., 
XX.  8,  7).  After  the  latter  event,  C';esarea 
became  the  chief  city  of  Palestine,  and  the  seat 
of  a  bishopric,  to  which  Jerusalem  was  subordi- 
nate until  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (453)  raised 
Jerusalem  into  a  patriarchate,  spiritual  lord  of 
Csesarea.  Among  its  liishops,  Eusebius  the  histo- 
rian is  best  known.  Councils  were  held  there  190, 
331,  and  357.  During  the  crusades,  Caisarea  was 
taken  by  Baldwin  (1101),  retaken  and  destroyed 
by  Saladin  (1187),  retaken  by  the  Christians,  re- 
built, again  devastated,  and  finally  destroyed  by 
the  Sultan  Baibar,  and  in  this  condition  remains 
to-day.     The  modern  name  is  Kaiaariijeh. 

2.  Caesarea  Philippi  (probably  the  Old-Testa- 
ment "  Baal  gad  "),  the  Greek  Paneas,  from  Pan- 
ion,  the  sanctuary  of  Pan,  now  called  Banias,  is  a 
town  at  the  base  of  ]Mount  Ilermon,  forty-five 
miles  south-west  of  Damascus.  Beautified  by 
Philip  the  Tetrareh,  he  gave  it  his  name,  along 
with  Caesar's.  Our  Lord  visited  it;  and  in  its 
neighborhood  the  memorable  confession  of  Peter 
was  made,  and  Christ  was  transfigured  (Matt. 
xvi.  16  ff.,  xvii.  1,  2).  Ancient  tradition  in.ade 
it  the  home  of  the  woman  called  Berenice, 
who  had  the  issue  of  blood  (Matt.  ix.  20-22). 
Herod  Agrippa  11.  called  it  Neronias,  to  flatter 
Nero  (Josephus,  Aniiq.,  XX.  9,  4).  Titus  com- 
pelled captive  Jews,  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem, 
to  fight  one  another  in  the  games  lie  instituted 
tljere  {War,  YII.  2  and  3).  The  place  has  had 
a  somewhat  similar  history  to  Ciesarea  Palestina. 
It  has  been  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  t.aken  ami 
retaken  during  the  crusades;  it  then  dropped  out 
of  sight  until  1S:»6,  when  Burckhardt  visited  it. 
The  present  popidation  is  about  fifty  families. 
Two  remarkable  objects  of  interest  are  in  the  im- 
mediate neighborhood, — the  cave,  the  Grotto  of 
Pan,  from  whence  flows  one  of  tlie  sources  of  the 
Jordan  (Herod  the  Great  built  a  marble  temple 
by  it) ;  and  the  old  and  strong  ruined  castle,  which 
commands  a  view  of   the  whole  country  round, 


and  is  the  finest  ruin  of  its  kind  in  Palestine. 
Stanley  calls  Banias,  on  account  of  its  situation 
and  Ihe  picturesciue  views  it  commands,  a  "  Syrian 
Tivoli." 

C/ESARIUS  OF  ARLES  (Arehitem^h).  b.  at 
Chulons-sur-Marne  {('(diilonum)  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  fifth  century;  d.  at  Aries,  Aug.  27,513; 
was  educated  in  the  celebratcil  monastery  of 
Lerins  (Z^ormum),  and  succeeded  in  502  his  nda- 
tive  Anouius  in  the  ejiiscopal  chair  of  Aries.  A.s 
a  bishop  lie  introduced  many  good  reforms;  tried 
to  make  the  sermon  a  more  effective  jiart  of  the 
ser\'ice;  compelled  the  congregation  to  join  in 
the  singing,  instead  of  whisiiering  and  gossiping; 
ordered  that  no  one  should  be  ordained  a  deacon 
till  he  had  read  the  Bible  four  times  through,  etc. 
In  the  dogmatical  controversies  of  the  day  he 
aI,so  participated;  and  at  the  synod  of  Arausio, 
the  present  Or.ange  (.529),  he  defended  the  doc- 
trines of  Augustine  against  the  Semipelagians. 
ISut  his  book,  Be.  Gratia  ct  Libern  Arbitrio,  has 
not  come  down  to  us.  Perhaps  the  greatest  in- 
fluence he  exercised  by  his  Ucrjuhv  Diia:,  altera  ad 
Mojiachos,  altera  ad  Virylnnt,  which  were  often 
adopted  by  founders  of  monastic  institutions 
before  the  rides  of  Benedict  came  into  general 
use.  Baluze  edited  sixteen  of  his  sermons,  Paris, 
1G49 ;  the  rest,  forty-six,  is  given  in  Max.  Bihl. 
Patr.,  VIII.  His  life  is  found  in  Mabillon  :  Act. 
Sand.  O.  S.  B.,  I.  pp.  ,059-677.  See  also  Lon- 
gueval :  Hlstoire  de  l'E(;lise  Gallicane,  II.  p.  2G2; 
Oudin:  Diss.  d.  Vita  et  Scriptis  S.  Ctcsarii  Archi- 
c/n.^copi.  n.\.GENPACH. 

OESARIUS  OF  HEISTERBACH,  b.  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century  ;  d.  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  thirteenth ;  was  educated  in  Cologne, 
and  spent  about  thirty  years  in  the  Cistercian 
monastery  of  Heisterbach  near  Bonn,  as  a  monk 
and  as  prior ;  but  the  date  and  the  place  of  his 
death,  like  those  of  his  birth,  are  unknown.  His 
theological  wTitings,  sermons,  liomilies,  etc.,  were 
edited  by  Coppenstein,  Cologne,  1015,  under,  the 
title  of  Fascicidi  Moralilatis,  and  have  interest  as 
specimens  of  the  rhetorical  art  of  the  time.  But 
much  greater  importance  must  be  ascribed  to  liis 
historical  writings :  Vita  S.  Eiujelberti,  printed  at 
Cologne,  1633;  Catalot/us  Eplscoporum  Cohmien- 
sium,  published  in  the  second  volume  of_  Pontes 
lierum  German.;  and  Dialogus  Magnus  Visionum 
et  Miraculorum,  first  printed  at  Cologne,  1591, 
and  recently  edited  critically  by  Jos.  Strange, 
1851.  The  last-mentioned  work  is  a  dialogue 
lietween  Csesarius  and  Apollonius,  de  cnnrcrsione, 
contorlione,  confesnione,  etc.,  best  elucidating  the 
subjects  by  anecdotes,  historical  narratives,  obser- 
vati(jns  from  actual  life,  and  thereby  furnisliing 
much  precious  material  for  the  characterization 
of  the  period.  See  Alex.  Kait.-m.wn  :  Casarius 
von  III  ixterbaeh.  Cologne,  1350. 

CA'IAPHAS  (oppressor),  the  surname  of  the 
high  priest  who  condenmed  Jesus  Christ  to  death 
(Matt.  xxvi.  57-08),  in  full,  Jo.seph  Caiaphas 
(■Toiseph.  Ant.  18,  4,  3);  the  fourth  high  priest 
appointed  by  the  Procurator  Valerius  Gratus,  the 
predecessor  of  Pontius  Pilate,  within  three  or  four 
years  after  the  deposition  of  Ananus  or  Annas 
ben  Seth.  Caiaphas  was  high  jiriest  for  eighteen 
years  (A.T).  18-30),  of  which  the  last  ten  years 
were  under  Pilate.  In  religious  bias  he  belonged 
to  or  favored  the  Sadducees  (Acts  v.  17),      ^■■ 


In 


CAIN. 


358 


CAJBTAN. 


character  lie  was  hard,  coarse,  brutal,  yet  adroit 
and  crafty  (Matt.  xxvi.  3,  4;  John  xi.  49,  50. 
xviii.  14)."  He  w.is  son-in-law  of  Annas  (John 
x\-iii.  13).  In  Luke  iii.  2  Annas  and  Caiaphas 
are  spoken  of  as  "  high  priests,"  and  in  Acts  iv.  6 
Annas  is  called  "high  priest."  Very  probably 
Annas  was  president  of  the  Sanhedrin ;  and,  as  he 
had  five  sons  high  priests,  he  retained  the  office 
very  largely  in  his  own  hands,  and  was  to  all  in- 
tents and  purposes  the  high  priest  himself.  The 
expression  Caiaphas  was  high  priest  "  that  same 
year"  (John  xi.  49)  means  "the  memorable 
year  of  our  Lord's  sufferings,"  and  not  that  the 
office  was  annual.  He  was  deposed  by  Vitelliu.s, 
and  nothing  more  is  known  of  him  (Josejih.  Am. 

18,  4,  3).  FU.   W.   SCIIULTZ. 

CAIN  AND  THE  CAINITES.  The  name  of  the 
first-born  in  the  world  is  usually  interpreted  '•  a 
gotten  one  "  (Gen.  iv.  1);  but  it  also  resembles 
the  Hebrew  for  "spear,"  "smith."  "lamentation," 
"dirge,"  all  of  which  words  describe  different 
turns  in  the  Cainitic  history.  It  is  also  interest- 
ing to  observe  that  the  two  elements,  the  good 
and  the  bad,  which  were  found  united  in  Adam, 
seem  to  have  been  divideil  between  his  sons;  Cain 
receiving  the  bad,  and  Abel  the  good.  Again  : 
the  curse  which  God  imposed  upon  the  ground 
(Gen.  iii.  17)  was  after  his  murder  repeated  upon 
Cain  himself  (iv.  12).  That  sacrifices  and  wor- 
ship were  found  in  tliat  early  time  demonstrates 
their  naturalness  and  reasonableness.  The  recog- 
nized privileges  of  primogeniture  point  to  an 
ordered  state.  Cain's  dread  of  being  killed,  his 
journey  to  the  land  of  Xod,  his  marriage,  and 
his  establishment  of  a  city,  have,  on  tlie  one  hand, 
been  laughed  at  as  silly  tales,  and,  on  the  other, 
been  quoted  as  proofs  of  the  existence  of  other 
races  than  the  Adamic.  The  language  may, 
however,  mean  no  more  than  that  the  relater 
used  the  language  of  a  later  day  to  describe 
the  very  beginnings  of  history,  i.e.,  Cain  might 
well  have  dreaded  meeting  a  son  of  his  brother's. 
His  wife  was  his  sister :  tradition  calls  her  a  twin- 
sister  named  Save  (Epiphanius,  Ilrrr.  XXXIX. 
cap.  VL  [vol.  2,  Pt.  1,  p.  529,  ed.  (Elder]),  or  his 
oldest  sister,  Azron  or  Aznra  (Malala,  p.  2).  The 
country  to  which  he  went  received  its  name  after- 
wards ;  and  the  "city"  was  a  few  of  the  rudest 
huts.  The  descendants  of  Cain  were  enterprising, 
industrious,  and  made  far  more  rapid  progress  in 
civilization  than  tlie  line  of  Setli.  But  if  they 
weretlie  first  to  us(!  musical  instruments,  to  work 
in  iron,  and  to  surround  themselves  with  luxu- 
ries, they  were  true  to  their  parentage  in  invent- 
ing or  beginning  sins.  Lamech  was  the  first  to 
use  offensive  weapons.  He  was  also  the  fir.st 
bigamist,  i)roving  that  woman  had  alreaily  been 
degraded  in  man's  eyes,  and  polygamy  was  not 
far  off.  The  poem  Lamech  composed  on  the 
occasion  of  his  killing  of  .some  one  is  bloodthirsty 
and  brutal  in  its  tone,  and  seems  to  defy  (jod,  as 
Herder  says:  "What  is  God's  power,  compared 
to  my  sword?  "  The  race  of  Cain  was  entirely 
destroyed  in  the  Deluge.  Too  much  has  been 
made  of  the  superficial  similarity  between  the 
genealogy  of  Cain  (iv.  10-21)  and  tliat  of  .Setli 
(v.).  The  differences  are  greater  than  the  agree- 
ments. I5ut,  even  if  they  were  less,  the  similarity 
would  not  prove  that  the  lists  were  really  the 
same.     The  Jewish  legends  of  Cain  are  found  in 


ElSEXMESGER  :  Entdecktes  Judenthum,  I.  402,  471, 
832,  830  ;  the  Arabic  in  Hottingeu,  llistoria  ori- 
enlttlia,  p.  25.  See  Kuktz  and  Ewald  in  loco. 
C.  W.  Eduard  NaGelsbach:  Der  Gottmenscb, 
NUrnberg,  1853. 

In  Judg.  XV.  57  there  is  mention  of  a  city 
called  Cain,  which,  however,  is  not  to  be  connected 
with  the  Cainites,  but  with  the  Kenites,  a  Ca- 
naanitish  tribe.  fk.  w.  SCIIULTz. 

CAIUSi  Eusebius  names  six  of  this  name 
(//.  E.,  5,  12,  2;  10,  22;  7,  11,  22;  32.  1)  ;  but 
the  only  one  of  interest  is  Cains,  a  writer  of  the 
Chm-ch  of  Rome,  who  flourished  between  180  and 
235.  Eusebius  calls  him  "an  ecclesiastical  man," 
who  was  born  about  the  time  of  Zephyriniis, 
Bishop  of  Rome,  and  twice  speaks  of  his  work 
against  Proclus,  the  leader  of  the  Phrygian  sect, 
entitled  The  DiKpuiation,  2,  25,  0,  cf.  0,"20,  3;  3, 
28,  1,  and  31,  4.  There  is  no  proof  tliat  he  was 
a  clergyman.  Eusebius  Is  really  the  source  of 
all  the  information  we  possess  about  Caius;  that 
which  is  said  by  Jerome,  Theodoret,  and  Photius, 
is  mere  repetition,  with  more  or  less  blundering. 
Indeed,  a  Caius  myth  has  grown  up,  and  many 
modern  scholars  have  sanctioned  tliese  mistakes. 
The  true  Caius  was  one  of  the  prominent  and 
learned  defenders  of  the  Catholic  faith  against 
Chiliasm  and  Montanism.  The  fictitious  Caius 
was  the  author  of  the  Labyrinth,  or  the  tenth 
book  of  the  Philosiijihunienn,  or  Refutation  of  all 
Heresies;  of  the  Philosophumena;  of  the  Little  Labi/- 
rinlh  ;  of  On  tlie  Substance  of  the  Unicerse;  of  the 
Mnratorian  canon.  Further,  he  was  a  presbyter 
of  Rome  under  Victor  and  ZeplnTinus ;  conse- 
crated by  them  "  bishop  of  the  nations  (or  Gen- 
tiles)," wrote  a  special  treatise  against  Cerinthus, 
whom  he  held  to  be  the  author  of  the  Apocah/pse 
of  John.  See  Buxsex  :  lIippol>/tus  and  his  Times, 
London,  1852,  2  vols.;  WoiinswoRTii  :  i'(.  Hip- 
polijtus  and  the  Church  of  lionw,  2d  ed.,  London, 
1880. 

CAJETAN,  Cardinal, b.  at  Gaeta,  July  25, 1470; 
d.  in  Rome,  Aug.  9,  1534.  His  true  name  was 
Jacob  de  Vio.  The  name  Thomas  he  assumed  in 
honor  of  Thomas  Aquinas  :  that  of  Gaetano  (Caje- 
tan)  was  derived  from  his  birthplace.  In  1480 
he  entered  the  Dominican  order,  in  1508  he  was 
chosen  its  general,  and  in  1517  he  was  made  a 
cardiiuil.  The  most  remarkable  event  in  his  life 
was  the  conference  with  Luther  in  Augsburg, 
1518.  He  luid  come  to  (iermany  as  legate  a  latere, 
on  account  of  the  war  with  the  Turks  ;  and  <luring 
his  stay  there  he  received  orders  fiom  Kiime  to 
sunnuon  I>uther  to  his  presence,  and  compel  him 
to  retract.  In  this  he  failed  utterly;  but  the  con- 
ference was  not  without  a  certain  influence  on 
him.self.l  He  felt  how  far  superior  Luther  was  to 
liimself  and  the  theologians  of  the  reigning  .school 
with  respect  to  true  knowledge  of  thi'  Bible;  and 
he  inuncHliately  went  to  work  to  fill  u|)  this  gap, 
undaunted  of  his  lack  of  linguistic  and  historical 
(puUifieations.  In  his  youth  he  liad  studied  the 
schoolmen  with  great  zeal,  and  he  was  generally 
considered  tlu^  real  head  of  the  Thomistie  school. 
Ho  now  became  an  exegete  ;  and  as  such,  though 

I  <  Cajptan  bore  wltncBfl  to  Lmhcr'A  abtltty  when  he  ci- 

rliitincii,  "  Ejfo  nolo  nmpliuH  cum  liac  lM'Nti:i  "olloqul :  hnb<<t 
culm  profimdoH  ocuIoh  ct  mlriitillcn  epcculiitioncM  in  cnpitoiiuo." 
n  ilo  not  witnt  to  liiive  nny  further  parley  willi  tliat  beoat;  for 
lie  butt  Hliurp  eyea  and  wonderful  apeculatlona  In  hla  head.)] 


CALAMON. 


359 


GALAS. 


^le  never  left  the  track  of  the  tradition,  he  occu- 
pies a  iiivich  freer  position  than  his  predecessors 
with  respect  to  tlie  Fatliers ;  and  tlie  allegorical 
nietho<l  he  altogether  abandoned,  'i'lu;  ]irof;r(!ss 
he  thus  made  met  with  great  opposition  within 
his  own  order  from  the  Donnnican  Anihrosiits 
C'atharinus;  and  in  the  collected  edition  of  his 
works,  Lyons,  Klli!),  many  passages  have  luider- 
gone  mitigating  modifications.  There  is  a  sepa- 
rate collection  of  his  writings  against  Luther, 
Lyons,  1530.  See  U.  Simox:  Hisloire  Crilii/ue  liu 
Nouveau  Tattameiil.  1089  ;  ,1  aceh  :  Ciijrlinis  Kumpf 
qegen  die  Inllierhchc  Lehrform  in  ZcUxclirift  f.  d. 
hist.   Tlieoliii/if.  1,S.')S,  p.  430.       C.  WEIZS.iCKER. 

CALAMON.     See  Svcamina. 

CALAMY,  Benjamin,  b.  in  London,  June  8, 
1642;  hm'ied  there,  Jan.  7,  1686;  fellow  of  Cath- 
arine Hall,  t^anibridge,  1608;  minister  of  St. 
Mary's,  .Aldermanlniry,  London,  1677  ;  king's  chap- 
lain and  O.IJ.,  1()8();  vicar  uf  St.  Lawrence  Jewry, 
1683;  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's,  168.5.  Unlike  his 
father,  he  was  a  High  Churchman,  and  very  active 
in  dissuading  Dissenters.  He  published  many  ser- 
mons, which  are  still  worth  reading,  "  as  well  for 
the  beauty  of  the  language  as  for  the  excellent  sen- 
timents." His  sermon  on  Luke  xi.  41,  Of  a  Scru- 
2>ijlous  Conscience,  preached  in  1683,  and  ))ublished, 
made  a  great  sensation.  It  was  directed  against  the 
Dissenters  and  called  forth  a  reply  from  Thomas 
de  Lauue.  ( )ther  sermons  were  popular.  Sermons 
preached  vpon  Sinrat  Occasions,  5th  ed.  (includes 
Dean  .Sherlock's  funeral  senuou),  London,  1715, 

CALAMY,  Edmund,  b.  in  London,  Februarv, 
1600 ;  d.  tliere  Oct.  2ft,  1666 ;  educated  at  PenV 
broke  Hall,  Cand.>ridge ;  became  vicar  of  St. 
Mary's  in  Swati'ham  Prior,  Cambridgeshire;  thence 
removed  to  St.  Edmund's  Bury  in  Suffolk,  where 
lie  remained  ten  years  or  more,  until  compelled  to 
retire  on  account  of  the  Book  of  Sports,  thereby 
identifying  iiimself  witli  the  Puritan  part}'.  He 
accepted  fi'om  tlie  Earl  of  AVarwick  the  rectory 
of  Kochford  in  Essex,  where  he  remained,  until 
in  1639  he  was  chosen  pastor  of  Aldi-rmanbury 
Church  in  London,  wiiere  he  labored  imtil  the 
Restoration.  He  conipo.sed  with  others  "An  An- 
swer to  a  Bool:  entitled,  An  Ilmnhle  Ucmonstrance 
in  which  the  original  of  Liturgy  and  Episcojiaci/  is 
(liscnssed :  and  Queries  proposed  concerning  both. 
The  Parilij  of  Bishops  §■  Presbyters  in  Scripture 
ilemonstrated.  The  occasion  of  their  Imparity  in 
Antiquity  discorered.  The  Disparity  of  the  Ancient 
Sf  our  modern  Bishops  manifested.  The  Antiquity 
of  Ruling  Elders  in  the  Church  vindicated.  The 
Prelatical  church  bounded.  Written  by  Smec- 
tvninus  [e.g.,  S(tephen)  M(arshall),  E(dmund) 
C(alamy),  T(homas)  Y(oung),  M(atthew)  \(ew- 
conimen),  and  W(illiani)  S(purstow)].  This  re- 
Jily  to  .Joseph  Hall's  Ilumlile  Remonstrance  ]'ec'd,me 
the  platform  of  the  Presbyterians,  as  that  became 
tlie  platform  of  the  Episcopal  party,  each  side 
claiming  Jure  divino.  Several  other  tracts  were 
issued  in  the  controversy  pro  and  con.  Calamy 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Westminster  A.s.sem- 
bly  of  Divines,  and  took  <an  active  part  in  its 
proceedings,  being  moderate  in  doctrinal  position, 
and  inclined  to  a  union  with  both  Independents 
and  Episcopalians  in  .some  comprehensive  polity. 
He  also  became  one  of  the  most  energetic  mem- 
bers of  the  Provincial  Assembly  of  London  ;  took 
gait  in  the  composition  of  the  Vindication  of  the 


Presbyterian  Gorernment  and  Ministry,  164!) ;  was 
the  author  of  the  Jus  iJivinum  Ministerii  Kcan- 
f/elici,  1654,  lioth  adopted  l)y  that  body.  He  was 
active  in  restoring  Charles  II.  to  th(^  kingdom  in 
1659;  was  one  of  the  divines  .sent  to  Holland  to 
treat  with  him.  At  the  Restoration  in  1660  he 
was  madt!  one  of  the  King's  chaplain's,  and  offered 
a  bishopric,  which,  however,  he  declined.  With 
Baxter,  Reynolds,  and  others,  he  gave  Ids  ener- 
gies for  a  comprehension  of  Presbyterians  and 
Episcopalians  through  a  revision  of  the  Liturgy, 
and  a  reduction  of  Episcopacy  on  Archbishop 
U.ssher's  model.  He  took  part  in  drawing  up  the 
E.rc''eptions  against  the  Liturgy,  and  reply  to  the 
Reasons  of  the  Episcopal  clergy.  He  was  a  gi-eat 
[ireacher.  frequently  delivering  sermons  before 
Parliament  and  tlie  Lord  Mayors  on  public  occa- 
sions ;  and  his  lectures  were  fi-eqnented  by  the  best 
peojile  of  London.  A  number  of  these  have  been 
jiublished.  His  most  popular  work  is.  The  Godly 
Mans  Ark,  3d  ed.,  1001,  IStli  ed.,  1700.  lie  was 
a  practical  man  of  affairs,  rather  than  a  scholar 
and  writer.  He  was  ejected  for  nonconfonnity 
in  1602,  and  imprisoned  for  a  short  time.  But 
the  king  interpo.sed,  on  account  of  gre.at  public 
indignation,  and  he  w,as  released.  For  further 
infornuUion,  .see  the  Nonconformist's  Memorial,  2d 
ed.,  1802,  I.  p.  70;  Reid's 'j/emo/r.s-  of  the  West- 
minster Dirines,  ISU,  I.  165.  C.  A.  BRIGGS. 

CALAMY,  Edmund,  grandson  of  Edmund,  b.  in 
London,  April  5, 1671 ;  d.  tliere  .June  3,  1732.  On 
his  return  from  the  Utrecht  University  (1691),  he 
studied  divinity,  joined  the  Nonconformists,  was 
unanimously  chosen  assistant  to  JNIatthew  Sylves- 
ter at  Blackfriars,  I^ondon,  1092,  and,  after  .several 
changes,  pastor  of  a  church  in  \\'estminster,  Lon- 
don, 1703.  He  was  the  author  of  fourteen  ser- 
mons on  The  Insjiiration  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  London,  1710,  and  other  collections; 
but  his  principal  service  is  as  an  historian  of  Xon- 
coiiformity.  In  1696  he  conducted  Baxter's  i/«- 
lory  of  His  Life  and  Times  through  the  press ; 
furnished  it  with  an  index  and  table  of  contents. 
In  1702  he  pidilished  an  abridgment  of  Baxter, 
but  added  a  history  of  those  ministers  ejected 
for  nonconformity  down  to  1091.  Bishop  Hoad- 
ley  having  criticised  his  Historij,  he  replied  in 
.4  Defeni:e  of  Moderate  Nonconformity,  London, 
1703-05,  3  vols.  In  1713  he  published  the  second 
edition  of  his  Abridgment  oj  Baxter's  Life,  in  which 
he  carried  the  iioiie<niformist  history  through  the 
reigns  of  William  III.  and  Anne;  and  in  1727  he 
closed  his  labors  in  this  deptirtmentof  special  study, 
bringing  down  the  story  still  farther  Calamy 
was  well  qualified  by  his  moderation  and  catholicity 
to  be  the  fair-minded  historian  of  nonconformity. 

See  An  historical  account  of  my  own  life  IVithsome 
reflections  on  the  times  I  hare  iired  in  (1671-1731). 
Bv  Edmuxd  Calamy,  D.D.  Now  first  printed. 
Edited  liy  John  Towill  Rutt,  London,  1829,  2  vols. 

CALAS,  Jean,  a  Protestant  merchant  of  Tou- 
lou.se,  whose  son,  JIarc-.Vntoine,  hung  himself  in 
a  fit  of  melancholy  in  the  house  of  his  father, 
Oct.  13,  1761.  A  "rumor  arose  tlnat  the  young 
Calas  was  going  to  embrace  Romanism  the  very 
next  day,  that  the  father,  from  fanaticism,  had 
killed  tiie  .son,  etc.  ;  and  the  Roman-Catholic 
clergy  did  all  in  tlieir  powei-  to  rouse  the  passions 
of  the  populace.  The  old  Calas  was  arrested, 
found  guiltv  of  the  murder  of  his  son,  and  exe 


CALATRAVA. 


360 


CALENDAR. 


ciited  on  the  -wheel,  Maicli  9, 1672.  The  property 
of  the  family  was  confiscated,  and  the  family 
itself  fled  to  Geneva.  But  the  case  was  now 
taken  up  by  Voltaire,  Elie  de  Beaumont,  and 
Loiseau  de  Mauleons ;  and  ^larch  9,  1075,  the 
Parliament  of  Paris  completely  reversed  the  ver- 
dict of  the  Parliament  of  Toulouse.  The  old 
C'alas  was  declared  innocent,  the  property  of  the 
family  wa.s  re.stored,  and  the  king  gave  the  widow 
a  present  of  thirty  thousand  francs ;  but  neither 
the  instigators  of  tliis  hideous  process,  nor  the 
judges,  were  pimislied.  The  acts  in  full  are 
found  in  De  la  ^'II,I.E  :  Continuation  ties  Causes 
Celehres,  I'aris,  177(t.  torn.  I.  See  also  ^'oltaire's 
Traitc  sur  la  Toh  rome.  I'uris.  171!:!. 
■  CALATRAVA,  THE  KNIGHTS  OF,  a  military 
order  founded  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, for  the  purpose  of  defending  the  city  of 
Calatrava  against  the  Moors,  and  confirmed  in 
1104  by  Alexander  ITT.  The  knights  fought 
witli  great  success  in  the  beginning,  and  the 
order  flourished;  but  in  1197  they  lost  Calatrava, 
and  retired  to  Salvatiera.  In  14S7  tlie  grand- 
mastership  was  annexed  to  the  crown  of  Sjiain ; 
and  since  1808  the  order  lias  become  simply  an 
order  of  merit.  Also  the  nuns  of  the  order,  insti- 
tuted in  rill),  liave  been  .secularized. 

CALDERWOOD,  David,  the  liistorian  of  the 
Scottisli  Clnuch,  b.  l.J7o;  d.  at  Jedbm'gh,  Oct. 
29,  lOoU.  lie  took  the  degree  of  jNIaster  of  Arts 
at  Edinburgh,  I-jSS  ;  in  1004  became  minister 
of  Crailing,  near  .Jedburgh,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  opposition  to  King  James's  scheme 
of  prelatiziug  the  Church  of  Scothuul.  AVhen 
in  1617  .lames  visited  Scotland,  Calderwood 
presented  liim  a  remonstrance  signed  by  the 
Presbj-terian  clergy,  but  refused  to  deliver  up 
the  roll  of  signatures  to  it ;  for  which  conduct, 
joined  to  other  acts  of  insubordination,  he  was 
imprisoned,  and  oidy  released,  notwithstanding 
the  interference  of  influential  persons,  ujion  con- 
dition that  lie  would  banisli  himself ;  and  on 
Aug.  27,  1019,  he  sailed  for  Holland.  .So  cpiiet 
and  obscure  was  his  life  there,  that  at  one  time 
he  was  supposed  to  be  dead ;  and  one  Patrick 
Scot  fabricated  a  recantation,  which  was  i>uli- 
lished  un<ler  the  title  CaUleriromt's  Recantation, 
directed  to  Such  in  Scotland  as  refuse  Conjhnniti/  to 
the  Ordinances  of  the  Church,  London,  1022.  Tie 
remained  in  Holland  till  the  death  of  .lames 
in  102"),  when  lie  returned  to  Scotland;  and  in 
1040  he  was  appointed  minister  of  Pencaitland, 
in  the  County  of  Haddington,  Scotland.  He 
gradually  came  again  into  prominence.  It  is 
noteworthy  that  it  was  he  who  introduced  in 
1649  tjie  practice,  now  conunon,  of  requiring  a 
dissent  from  the  (ieneral  Assendily  to  be  re- 
corded. In  1648  the  General  A.ssembly  urged 
him  to  complete  his  Ilistori/  of  the  Kirk' of  Scot- 
land, and  voted  him  a  yearly  ])ension  of  .SISOO 
(Scots),  or  £00  Vis.  -id.  (sterHng)  ;  but  he  died 
ere  the  jtublication  liegan,  if,  indeed,  it  was  con- 
templated. The  ///.sVocy  remained  in  manuscript, 
and  in  tliree  forms, —  the  original  in  the  ISritisli 
Museum,  a  copy  in  the  Library  of  the  I'liiversity 
of  Glasgow,  another  in  tlie  Library  of  the  Churcii 
of  .Scotland,  —  until  1842,  when  the  Wodrow 
Society  began  its  publication,  finished  1849,  Kdin- 
burgh,  8  vols,  (,'alderwood  jirepared  an  abri<lg- 
jnent  of  Iiis  own  work,  entitled  A  true  hislory  of  the 


Church  of  Scotland,  from  the  beginnlnr/  of  the  Refor- 
mation unto  the  end  of  the  Reigne  of  King  Jamett 
VI..  published  1678.  The  historical  works  are  of 
great  value  as  materials  for  history,  collected  N\ith 
(liligenee  and  fidelity.  In  1021  he  [iublished  The  .4 1- 
tar  of  Damascus,  or  the  Pattern  of  the  Englisli  Ilierar- 
chi/  an<l  Church  obtruded  upon  the  ( 'hurch  of  Scotland. 
in  1023  tran.slated  into  Latin,  Allare  Damasannm, 
etc..  and  much  enlarged,  best  ed,  Leiden.,  1708. 

CALEB,  the  son  of  .lejiluinneh  of  the  trilie  of 
.Tudali  ^Xiuii.  xiii.  0),  Imt  called  the  Kenezite.  or 
son  of  Kenez  (Xum.  xxxii.  12;  Josh.  xiv.  0,  14). 
The  reconciliation  of  these  accounts  is  either  to 
suppose  that  that  division  of  the  tribe  of  Judah 
which  Caleb  headed  had  so  intermingled  itself 
with  the  Kenezites,  a  tribe  of  Southern  Palestine, 
that  lie  could  be  reckoned  a  Kenezite,  or  that 
Caleb  was  the  head  of  the  Kenezites,  who  had 
been  absorbed  by  .Judah.  He  was  sent  to  spy 
out  the  land,  and  with  .loshua  rendered  a  ti'ue 
rejiort,  and  encouraged  the  people  to  make  the 
attack.  For  this  fidelity  he  was  richly  rewarded  ; 
for  he  was  permitted  to  enter  the  Promised  Land 
as  a  conqueror,  and  given  possession  of  Hebron 
and  its  neighborhood ;  and,  when  the  city  w  as  set 
apart  for  the  Levites,  he  yet  retained  the  land 
and  villages  about.  In  D.avid's  time  mention  is 
made  of  the  '■  .South  of  Caleb,"  a  considerable 
district  inhaliited  by  his  descendants,  and  of  a 
place  calletl  Culeh-Ephralha.  which  must  have 
been  near  Bethlehem  (Kphratah)  (1  Sam.  xxx. 
14  ;  1  Chron.  ii.  24).  'I'hese  references  show  the 
increased  importance  of  the  family.     RUETBCHI. 

CALENDAR,  Hebrew.  The  Hebrew  calendar 
dates  from  the  creation.  Tlie  year  is  semi-lunar, 
consists  of  twelve  or  thirteen  lunar  months,  each 
of  which  has  twenty-nine  or  thirty  days.  Thus 
the  year  has  either  three  hinidicd  and  fifty-four 
or  three  hundred  and  eighty-four  days.  In  either 
'  case  it  is  sometimes  made  a  day  more  or  a  day 
less  in  order  that  certain  festivals  may  fall  on 
proper  days  of  the  week  for  their  due  observance. 
The  civil  year  begins  in  the  autumn  ;  the  sacred, 
in  the  spring.  The  Jews  had  calendars  wherein 
were  recorded  tlie  festivals  and  saints' days;  but 
none  of  those  now  extant  are  old.  The  oldest  is  Me- 
gillath  Taanith  ("  the  volume  of  atfiietion  "),  w  liich 
contains  the  days  of  feasting  and  fasting  hitherto, 
bill  nut  now.  olisciNcil  by  the  Jews.     See  yi-:.\n. 

Ecclesiastical,  Origin  of.  The  ecclesiastical 
calendar  existed  in  very  early  times.  Originally 
it  was  arranged  not  for  one  year,  but  every  year, 
and  was  in  reality  nothing  else  than  a  Christian 
adaptation  of  the  calendar  in  coniiuon  use  among 
(ireeks  and  Konians.  Xumerous  exanqiles  of  the 
Konian  Pagan  calendar  exist.  Some  had  a  merely 
local  value,  but  otliers  were  adapted  to  a  country. 
They  contain  astronomical  data  (the  (ireek  calen- 
dars were  particularly  rich  in  these),  the  religious 
fe.'ists.  and  civil  festivities,  —  either  bound  up 
with  religion,  as  many  of  the  pulilic  games,  or 
in  meniory  of  some  historic  event,  as  a  victorj'. 
\'ery  remarkable  is  it  to  find  Christian  inlluence 
exliiliiled  in  two  cali'iidars  from  tlie  middle  of  the 
fourth  and  fifth  centuries:  indeed,  tlii-y  really 
mark  the  transfer  from  I'aganism  to  Christianity 
so  conimoiilv  made  by  the  people.  The  frst, 
from  A.I).  :VJ1.  i.iiblishi'd  by  Kollar  {Anal.  Vindo- 
Inin,  vol.  I.  p.  !l()l  S(|q.),  contains  the  usual  astro- 
nomical and  astrological  data,  but  omits  the  cus- 


CALENDAR. 


861 


CALENDAR. 


tomary  Pagan  sacrificial  and  temple  feasts,  apjiar- 
ently  m  (leferenci;  to  Christian  feeliiij;,  altliouKli 
it  does  not  mention  any  Cln'istian  feast.  Anotlier 
trace  of  Clnistian  influence  is  in  tlie  setting  of 
the  Christian  week  side  by  side  with  the  Pagan  : 
thus  the  ymir  beginning  .Ian.  1  is  divided,  on  the 
one  hand,  in  I'agaii  style,  by  the  letters  A-II, 
i.e.,  into  divisions  or  weeks  of  eight  days;  wliile, 
on  the  other,  the  letters  go  from  A-(i,  i.e.,  seven 
days.  Christian  style.  The  second  dates  from 
448,  published  by  the  IJollandists  {Ada  Saiii-l/i 
Jan.  T.  VII.  p.  176),  is  arranged  quite  evidently 
in  the  Pagan  style,  but  yet  gives  the  first  recogni- 
tion of  Christian  festivals,  for  it  contains  five 
festivals  of  Christ,  and  six  of  martyrs.  'J'he 
earliest  known  pure  Clirislian  calendar  is  of 
Gothic  origin,  from  Thrace  in  the  fourth  century. 
It  exists  now  as  a  fragment,  merely  thirty-eiglit 
days;  but  it  contains  mention  of  .seven  saints, — 
two  from  tlie  New  Testament,  three  from  the 
Church  Uni\'ersal,  and  two  from  tlie  Goths.  See 
Krafft,  Kirc/ienyi'schichle  der  ijermaiufchenViilker, 
Bd.  I.,  Alth.  1,  pp.  an,  385-387.  There  were 
lists  of  saints'  days  arranged  chronologically,  but 
not  in  a  calendar.  The  earliest  known  are  a 
Roman  one  from  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century, 
and  a  catalogue  of  the  Carthage  Church  from  the 
end  of  the  fifth  century.  Each  contains  bishoji 
and  martyrs'  days,  mostly  of  local  interest. 

The  Medkdual  Calendar.  —  Since  originally  the 
martyrs  were  celebrated  only  where  they  suffered, 
each  church  had  its  own  calendar;  but  in  the 
middle  ages  the  Roman  calendar  spread  through 
the  Western  Church.  Thus  the  .separate  churches 
materially  iiicrea.sed  tlieir  list  of  saints  and  mar- 
tyrs. From  the  eighth  century  many  such  com- 
bined calendars  were  made,  and  they  are  found 
in  great  numbers.  'I'hey  are  all  designed  to 
suit  all  times,  are  supplied  with  means  to  ascer- 
tain the  movabla  feasts,  especially  Easter,  of  eacli 
year,  and  differ  from  those  named  above  in  that 
they  contain  not  alone  the  letters  A-G  to  mark 
the  days  of  the  week,  but  also  the  numerals  L- 
XIX.  to  mark  the  new  moons,  which,  in  each 
year  of  the  lunar  cycle,  occur  on  that  particular 
day  of  the  montli  corresponding  with  that  num- 
ber. A  monthly  calendar  thus  arranged  is  called 
a  perpetual  (Julian)  calendar,  because  one  can 
find  from  it  the  day  of  the  week  of  each  date,  and 
all  the  new  moons  through  the  year,  as  soon  as 
the  Dominical  letter  of  the  year  is  known.  See 
F.  Piper,  Kirchenreehnumj,  Berlin,  1841,  p.  VI. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  middle  ages  tlie  calen- 
dar, which  had  hitherto  been  in  Latin,  makes  its 
appearance  in  the  vernacular  of  the  different 
lands.  An  Anglo-Saxon  one  dates  from  the  tenth 
century ;  one  in  French,  from  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury ;  and  quite  a  number  of  German  calendars, 
from  the  fourteenth  century.  Manuscript  calen- 
dars were  frequently  decorated,  as  with  the  signs 
of  the  Zodiac  and  pictures  from  church-history : 
e.g.,  famous  for  its  ornamentation  is  the  calendar 
in  the  prayer-book  of  Anna,  wife  of  Louis  XII., 
now  in  Paris.  Particularly  curious  is  a  Russian 
calendar,  dating  from  the  second  half  of  tlie 
seventeenth  century,  painted  on  wood  in  tlie  form 
of  a  Greek  cross,  preserved  in  the  A'atican  Libra- 
ry, and  known  as  the  Capponi  tables,  after  the 
Marchioness  Capponi,  wlio  presented  it.  The 
four  anus  of  the  cross  contain  a  complete  monthly 


calendar;  the  table  in  the  middle,  the  movable 
feasts  from  the  fourth  Sunday  before  J>ent  to  the 
Sunday  after  Pentecost;  and  each  day  has  its  pic- 
ture, with  the  name  of  the  saint  or  the  Sunday 
written  in  Slavonic  underneath.  See  As.semanni, 
Kfdettdaria  ecdesuE  Slarkce  sire  Gnecu-Mosc/ioe, 
Rome,  17-55.  The  earliest  prinled  calendars  natu- 
rally followed  in  arrangement  the  written.  They 
were  carved  in  wood,  and  engraved  on  copiier; 
e.g..  Calendar  of  Johannes  de  (jamundia,  pub. 
lislied  14(j8.  These  were  all  perpetual  calenclars. 
The  first  calendar  for  particular  years  was  pub- 
lished at  Niirnberg,  in  German  and  Latin,  Jo- 
liamies  Regiomontanus,  1475,  and  arranged  for 
1475,  1494,  1513;  i.e.,  for  the  first  years  of  three 
successive  nineteen-year  cycles,  yet  so  that  the  cal- 
endar could  by  calculation  be  made  iLseful  from 
1475  to  1531  inclusive. 

Tlie  Gregorian  Ueform  of  the  Calendar  took 
place  under  Gregory  XIIl.  in  1.582;  was  occa- 
sioned by  the  long-felt  unsatisfactory  method  of 
calculating  the  time  of  Easter,  and  was  the  out- 
come of  several  attempts  at  a  change.  The 
Julian  Calendar,  which  was  introduced  by  Julius 
Ca\sar,  had  in  course  of  time  proved  itself  to  be 
inaccurate;  for  it  made  the  year  305^  days,  and 
intercalated  a  day  every  four  years,  whereas  the 
year  is  in  reality  more  than  11  minutes  shorter; 
so  that  in  128  years  one  whole  day  is  apparently 
lost.  Moreover  the  vernal  equinox  was  reckoned 
according  to  the  XIX.  year  cycle  of  235  months, 
i.e.,  19  X  365^  =  (},939|;  but  in  reality  tlie  cycle 
is  too  short  by  more  than  a  month  (in  310  years  a 
day's  difference),  and  the  full  moon  was  put  so 
much  too  late.  So  it  came  to  pass,  that,  whereas 
in  Julius  Caesar's  day  the  vernal  equinox  corre- 
sponded with  the  25th  of  March,  in  (Gregory's 
day  it  had  retrograded  to  the  11th.  In  obedience 
to  the  Council  of  Trent,  by  a  bull  of  Feb.  24, 
1.582  [traiislat«d  in  Mr.*  Lewis  A.  Scott's  pam- 
phlet, Act  and  Bull,  privately  printed,  Phila., 
1880]  Gregory  made  the  Calendar  of  Aloysins 
Cilius  in  his  Compendium  novfe  rationis  restituendi 
calenilarium  obligatory  upon  the  Church.  Agree- 
ably to  the  new  plan  ten  dajs  in  the  calendar  were 
dropped  (this  restored  the  vernal  ecpiinox  to 
March  21,  the  day  on  which  it  fell  at  the  time  of 
the  Council  of  Nice  in  325),  and  a  new  rule  of 
intercalation  adopted,  which  was,  every  year 
whose  number  is  divisible  by  4  is  a  leap-year, 
excepting  the  centesimal  years,  which  are  only 
leap-years  when  divisible  by  four  after  suppress- 
ing the  two  zeros.  The  length  of  the  mean  year 
thus  fixed  is  365  days,  5  hours,  42  minutes,  12 
seconds,  which  exceeds  the  solar  year  by  25.95 
seconds,  —  an  error  which  amounts  only  to  one 
day  in  3,325  years.  For  an  account  of  the  Gre- 
gorian Calendar  see  Ideler,  Handb.  d.  Chronologie, 
Bd.  II.  pp.  301-321.  As  was  to  be  expected,  the 
new  calendar  was  received  at  once  in  all  Roman- 
Catholic  countries;  but  the  Protestant  states 
continued  to  use  the  Julian.  Germany  and  Den- 
mark, how'ever,  made  the  change  in  1700,  and 
England  in  1752.  The  Rassians  use  the  Julian 
Calendar  still. 

One  other  reform  remains  to  be  effected :  the 
calendar  should  be  purged  of  its  obscure  saints 
and  martyrs,  and  in  their  stead  be  put  the  tnily 
great  names  of  all  branches  of  the  Church  Univer- 
sal.    As  an  attempt  to  rectify  the  existing  state 


CALENDAR. 


362 


CALF-WORSHIP. 


o£  tilings,  see  the  Eeanqellfclie  Kalender  of  Di". 
F.  riper,  canied  on  for  twenty  years  (1850-70) 
in  connection  with  brief  popnlar  yet  original  biog- 
laphies,  and  finally  p^^bli^shed,  after  a  revision, 
under  the  title.  Die  Zeuf/en  der  Warht'U  Lehenx- 
bilcler  zuin  ecan(jelischen  Kalender  aufal/e  Taye  des 
Jahres,  Leipzig  (Tauchnitz),  1874-75,  4  vols. 
These  volumes  contain  the  revised  calendar,  and 
biogi'apliies  of  all  persons  mentioned.  Rev.  Dr. 
H.  AI.  Maccracken  published  in  1871)  a  transl.ation 
of  parts  of  it,  with  important  ailditions,  imder 
the  title.  Lives  of  the  Leaders  u/mtr  Church  Utiii-er- 
.lul.  [The  original  volumes  contain  three  hundred 
and  ninety-nine  liiograj)hies,  contributed  by  one 
hundred  and  twenty-nine  writers  ;  the  translation, 
one  hundred  and  twenty-five;  but  thirty-three  of 
tlie  writers  are  Americans,  and  the  work  lias  been 
taken  up  by  several  denominational  publication 
boards.]  FEKDI.\.\.ND  PIPER. 

CALENDAR  BRETHREN  {fralres  Calendarii). 
a  society  which  arose  apparently  in  .Saxony,  but 
.spread  quiekh-  over  Northern  and  Central  Ger- 
many, and  to  Hungary  and  France.  The  name 
comes  from  their  original  custom  of  meetings  on 
the  Kalends,  or  first  d.ay  of  every  month.  They 
are  first  spoken  of  in  1220,  as  in  the  Monastery  of 
Ottberg.  In  idea  the  fraternity  was  good,  — partly 
beneficent  and  partly  devotional.  Particular  at- 
tention was  given  to  the  care  of  their  sick,  and  the 
burial  of  their  de.ad  members  or  families,  likewise 
to  masses  for  their  souls.  The  membership  was 
not  limited  to  any  class  or  sex.  The  piesident 
was  called  dean :  imder  liim  there  w.as  a  treasiu'er. 
It  was  not  a  monastic  order,  but  was  under  the 
authorization  and  oversight  of  the  diocesan  bishop, 
and  not  of  the  Pope.  The  monthly  meetings  were 
closed  by  a  meal,  paid  for  out  of  the  society's 
'  funds.  As  the  society  increased  in  wealth  through 
bequests,  it  degenerated :  the  monthly  meeting 
became  an  occasion  for  carousal  and  vice.  The 
reformatory  zeal  of  the  sixteenth  century  swept 
the  society  almost  entirely  away.  The  Caland  of 
Brunswick  is  the  only  one  now  existing.  See 
.1.  Fkllku  :  Dins,  de  frulrih.  Kalend.,  Francof, 
1692;  BuMliKltc  :  Ueherd.  Ca!an(/s/iriider,Cht;ni- 
iiitz,  1721  ;  l^KDKiu'it,  ill  vol.  iv.  of  the  MiirLisehe 
Fvrschttmien,  Berlin,  18.")0.  II.  MERZ. 

CALF  (the  golden),  CALF-WORSHIP.  The 
fir.st  mention  of  calf-worship  (or,  more  correctly, 
bull-worshi]i,  since  not  only  does  the  word  em- 
ployed mean  a  bull  jus  well  as  a  calf;  but  among 
the  other  Sheinitic  peoples,  and  also  among  the 
Egyptians,  not  a  calf,  but  a  bull,  was  worshipped 
as  an  idol)  is  Exod.  xxxii. ;  cf.  Deut.  ix.  l(i,  the 
episode  in  the  wilderness.  The  next  mention  of 
the  worship  is  1  Kings  xii.  28-33;  cf,  2  Kings  x, 
29,  xvii.  1() ;  llos.  vii'i.  5  tf.,  x.  5,  xiii,  2;  2  Chr. 
xi.  15.  But,  when  Aaron  set  up  the  steer-image, 
he  revived  an  old  .Semitic  religions  rite.  That  he 
did  not  borrow  it  from  the  Egyptians,  plausible 
and  near-at-Iiand  ,as  the  theoi-y  is,  is  proven  by 
the  fact  tliat  that  i)eo]ile  did  not  worshi])  imnr/cs 
of  animals,  but  the  living  animals.  Apis,  repre- 
Beiited,  it  is  true,  by  a  small  bull-image  in  their 
processions,  was  a  black  bullock,  sacredly  guarded 
from  injury;  for  in  him  the  god  Osiris  Wius  be- 
lieved to  \)c  incarnated  ( Wilkinson's  Manners 
nnd  Customs  nf  the  Aneient  E(/i/iitians,  new  (^d., 
l.oudon,  1878,  vol.  III.  pp.  8fi-9.-),  3(t(i  If.).  It  is 
true   that   .Jeroboam   set   up  the  golden  bulls  at 


Bethel  and  Dan  ;  but  his  long  residence  in  Egypt 
is  at  most  only  presumptive  evidence  that  he  bor- 
rowed the  idea  thence;  and  it  is  very  improbable 
that  he  would  seek  to  strengthen  his  uncertain 
authority  by  introducing  a  foreign  cultus,  where- 
as he  would  really  strengthen  himself  by  substi- 
tuting for  the  rigorous  Jehovah-worship  the  laxer 
bull-worship,  if  it  was  indigenous.  That  such  w  or- 
sliip  was  indigenous  is,  of  coiu'se,  not  easy  to  provi! 
directly;  but  we  know  that  the  great  and  mighty 
of  the  earth  are  often  represented  in  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  under  the  figure  of  a  bull;  and  esjie- 
cially  is  the  horn  of  the  bull  the  symbol  of  power, 
—  a  .symbol  even  used  of  the  divine  power  and  of 
the  outgoing  salvation.  The  twelve  oxen  which 
supported  Solomon's  sea  of  brass  may  have  been 
Phcjenician  in  suggestion,  and  so  the  various 
animals  in  Ezekiel's  visions  may  have  been  Baby- 
lonian. If  the  trace  of  the  old  Hebrew  bull-wor- 
ship is  faint,  the  proof  of  its  existence  among  the 
neighboring  nations  is  abundant.  In  the  Baby- 
lonian-.^.ssyrian  religion,  and  in  the  Syro-Phoeni- 
cian,  the  bull  represented  the  masculine  divinity, 
as  wa.s  natural  to  a  people  who  were  graziers. 
The  old  Aryan  explained  the  heavenly  phenomena 
by  comparisons  dr.awu  from  the  life  of  their 
herds.  In  the  Zendavesta  we  find  mention  of 
the  first  bull.  The  bull  represents  power  and 
strength;  to  the  Sheinite  the  destroying,  at  the 
same  time  the  reproductive,  omnipotence  of  the 
sun,  which  was  worshipped  in  all  the  different 
forms  of  Baal  (see  Ba.'Il).  It  may  be  that  the 
gold  of  the  Hebrew  bull-idols  represents  the  glit- 
ter of  the  sun's  rays.  We  pos.sess  pictures  of  the 
.Syrian  Baid  of  Doliche,  which  was  transported  to 
Rome,  representing  him  standing  upon  a  bull  (see 
Fel.  Ilettner,  De  love  Dolicheno  disserlatio  phiUt- 
iof/ica,  Bonn,  1877).  The  Jupiter  of  Hieropolis  in 
Syria  was  pictured  sitting  upon  a  bidl.  The  chu--- 
sical  I  ale  of  the  seduction  of  Europa  is  a  form  of 
the  Baal  myth,  in  which  the  god,  in  the  shape 
of  a  bull,  journeys  with  Astarte  to  Crete.  Tli<! 
sacrcdness  of  cattle  among  the  Philistines  is 
demonstrated  by  the  story  of  the  sending  home 
the  ark  (1  Sam.  vi.).  [It  is  not  jirobable  that 
-Varon's  golden  bull  was  solid;  rather  it  x\as  a 
rude  wooden  image  covered  with  gold.  Thus  it 
co\ild  be  burnt,  and  the  gold  be  powdered.] 
AVht^n  deroboam  si^t  up  his  bulls,  and  ordained  his 
non-levitical  priesthood,  he  did  not  pretend  lo  do 
more  than  return  to  the  Jehovah-worship  of  (lie 
pa.st.  That  lie  did  thus  return  is  proved  by  his 
success.  When  Jehu  destroyed  (he  Baal-worshi[), 
he  did  not  touch  the  bulls,  —  a  clear  proof  of  the 
distinction  to  be  made  between  the  two  worshiiw 
(2  Kings  X.  29),  The  one  was  foreign  and  de- 
basing: the  other  was  domestic  and  orderly. 
Hosea  is  the  only  one  of  the  jirophets  who  al- 
ludes to  the  bull-worship;  and  to  him  the  worship 
of  an  image  is  the  same  as  the  worship  of  an  idol. 
Lit. — Si;li>i-;.\  :  De  d'ls  Si/ris  (lOng,  trans,  by 
W.  A.  llauser,  'J'he  FahnUms  Cods  denonnred  in 
the  liihle.  Philadeli)liia,  18S0,  chap,  iv.)  ;  GuA>r- 
llKIiC:  Krilisclie  Ccsrhichle  der  /lclii/i<nisldecii  des 
alien  Testaments,  Berlin,  1829,  3(),  2  parts;  Vatkk  : 
BiUische  'J'henloijie,  Berlin,  1835:  MovKHs:  J)n- 
Phiinlzier,  1841;  I)k  WKrrK. :  Ifehraish-jUdisrhe 
Areh<iolo<jie,  4th  ed.  by  Raebiger,  Lei])zig,  18(il; 
Ewai.d:  Geschichtr.  des  Volkis  Israel,  vol.  III,, 
Coltiiigoii,  1800,  3d  ed.   (ICng.  trans,,  London,  5 


CALHOUN. 


363 


CALIXTUS. 


vols.);  Kuenkn:  GodstlienM  van  /srac/,  IlaarliMii, 
180!)  (KiiK-  trans.,  Tlie  Jielii/ion  d/  Isnirl,  Loiuioi), 
1874,  3  vols.)  ;  IvKir, :  Ili/i/isc/te  Arc/inoloi/le,2ded., 
Fraukfuitraiu-Maiii,  187:");  Au(i.  Kiiiii.Krt:  Lekr- 
hiicli  ilt:r  liUiiixchcn  Gcsc/iichln  ilex  Allen  TesUiiiicnlf, 
Eriangen,  187.'j;  Duii.M  :  Die  Tlieoloi/ie  ilcr  J'rupli- 
els,  1875;  Paul  Scholtz  :  Giitzcndiensl  u.  Ziiu- 
lierioesen  bei  den  alien  Ilehrdern,  llegeiislmrg, 
1877.  WOLF  nAubissiN'. 

CALHOUN,  Simeon  Howard,  Aiiicrican  iiiis- 
sionary,  h.  in  Boston,  Aug.  15,  1801;  d.  at  Buf- 
falo, Dec.  II,  1876.  He  was  graduated  at  Williams 
College  in  18lii);  studied  law;  was  converted,  and 
came  back  to  his  Alma  Maler  as  tutor.  In  1837 
he  went  to  the  Levant  as  agent  of  the  American 
Bible  Society,  biit  in  1844  became  a  missionary 
under  the  American  Board,  subsequently  imder 
the  I'resbyterian  Board.  His  field  of  operation 
was  the  seminary  at  Abeih  on  the  slopes  of  Leba- 
non. He  returned  home  in  1874.  Mr.  (Jalhoun 
was  a  most  devoted  missionary;  and  tlie  epithet 
he  bore,  the  "Cedar  of  Lebanon,"  proves  how  he 
was  regarded.  He  was  rarely  gifted,  yet  content 
to  spend  his  life  in  comparative  obscurity.  He 
published,  in  Arabic,  Scripture  Helps,  Beirut,  '2d 
ed.,  1809,  pp.  048. 

CALIXTINES,  The,  one  of  the  two  great  fac- 
tions into  which  tlie  Hussites  divided  in  1420, 
derived  their  name  from  calix  ("  the  chalice  "), 
because  the  cup,  ;is  an  essential  element  of  the 
Sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  was  the  point  to 
which  they  held  unswervingly  fast,  while  in  other 
respects  tliey  showed  themselves  much  more  trac- 
table than  the  Taborites.  See  Bohe.mia  and 
Hussites. 

CALIXTUS  I.,  Bishop  of  Rome  under  Helio- 
gabalus  and  Alexander  Severus.  The  history  of 
this  bishop  has  assumed  a  new  and  quite  different 
aspect  since  the  discovery  of  the  work  of  Hippoly- 
tus,  Ilefutalion  of  all  Heresies.  I'reviously  notliing 
certain  was  known  of  him.  The  magnificent 
church  Santa  Maria  Traslerere  was  ascribed  to 
him ;  but  the  custom  of  dedicating  churches  to 
special  saints  is  of  much  later  date.  The  cele- 
brated Cemetery  of  the  Martyrs  bears  his  name  ; 
but  it  was  always  considered  doubtful  whether  he 
really  built  it.  Two  decretals  of  his,  regulating, 
among  other  things  also,  the  four  great  annual 
fasts,  the  Qnatember  fasts,  are  spurious.  His 
martyrium  is  very  improbable.  The  acts  are 
fabulous  from  beginning  to  end ;  though  they 
must  be  old,  since  extracts  from  them  occur  in 
the  martyrologium  of  Bede.  Such  is  the  Calixtus 
of  tradition,  and  such  the  trustworthiness  of  the 
tradition. 

Quite  otherwise  the  report  of  Hippolytus  (IX., 
11 ),  though  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  Hippoly- 
tus was  a  violent  adversary  of  Calixtus.  Accord- 
ing to  this  report,  there  lived  in  Rome  during  the 
reign  of  Commodus  (180-192)  a  Christian  of  the 
name  Kallistus,  who  was  the  slave  of  a  Christian 
official  called  Karpophorus.  From  his  master  he 
obtained  a  considerable  sum  of  money,  and  es- 
tablished a  banking-business  in  the  fish-mavket. 
Much  money  was  intrusted  to  him  also  liy  widows ; 
but  he  conducted  the  business  ill,  and  lost  all. 
Afraid  of  being  called  to  account  by  his  master, 
he  sought  refuge  in  flight,  and  was  just  about  to 
set  sail  for  some  foreign  port,  when  Karpophorus 
appeared   in   the  harbor.     He  jumped  into  the 


water,  but  was  caught,  delivered  over  to  the  mas- 
ter, and  shut  up  in  the  treadmill.  Released  after 
some  time,  he  liad  a  scullle  with  the  Jews  in 
Rome,  on  account  of  which  ho  was  publicly 
whijiped,  and  sent  to  work  in  the  mines  of  Sar- 
dinia. By  the  inllui^nce  of  Marcia,  the  concubine 
of  Commodus,  he  regained  libcity  ;  and,  alter  his 
return  to  Rome,  he  ingratiat<;d  hini,self  so  well 
with  1'o]h;  Zephyrinus  that  he  was  made  director 
of  the  great  cemetery  which  aft<!rwards  camo  to 
bear  his  name.  But  here  an  insoluble  enigniu 
jiresents  itself ;  for  how  could  such  a  man  be 
ordained  i)riest?  and  how  could  he  be  placed  on 
the  episcopal  chair  of  Rome  ?  The  fact  that  he 
could  be  throws  a  very  peculiar  light  on  the 
moral  state  of  the  Roman  Church  at  that  period. 
The  conflict  with  Hippolytus  began  already  in  the 
lifetime  of  Zephyrinus.  Hippolytus  accused  Kal- 
listus of  patripassianisni,  and  Kallistus  accused 
Hippolytus  of  ditheism.  But  the  controversy  be- 
tween them  was  not  merely  doctrinal.  Hippoly- 
tus had  adopted  the  maxim  which  the  Novatians 
afterwards  vindicated  in  all  its  rigor,  —  that  those 
who  had  coinniitted  a  deadly  sin  could  never. 
again  be  admitted  into  the  church.  Kallistjis 
defended  the  milder  piactice  of  the  Roman 
Church.  He  even  taught  that  a  bLshop  should 
not  be  deposed  on  account  of  a  deadly  sin. 
There  were  good  reasons  for  his  mildness.  See 
UoLLiNGEii :  Hippolytus  and  Kallistus,  Regens- 
burg,  18.53.  [Eng.  trans.,  E<linburgh,  1870.  Crin. 
WouDSWOKTn:  St.  Hi;>piili/lus  and  the  Church  of 
Home,  2d  ed.,  London,  1880.  Dr.  Dollinger  de- 
fends the  chai'acter  of  Kallistus  again.st  the 
charges  of  Hippolytus.  On  the  other  hand. 
Bishop  AWjrdsworth  accepts  them,  and  explains 
(p.  140)  the  severity  of  the  language  and  the  , 
freedom  of  the  handling,  on  the  ground  that  Hip- 
polytus did  not  recognize  Kallistus  as  a  legitimate 
bishop  of  the  church,  because  he  was  an  abetter 
of  heresy.  The  dates  for  the  bishopric  of  Kallis- 
tus are  218-223.  His  heresy  consisted  in  his 
view  that  the  Son  was  merely  the  manifestation 
of  the  Father  in  human  form;  the  Father  ani- 
mating the  Son  as  the  spirit  animates  the  body, 
and  suffering  with  him  on  the  cross. 

[Besides  heresy  in  doctrine,  Kallistus  is  accused 
of  greatly  relaxing  the  terms  of  re-admittance 
into  the  chui-ch ;  of  allowing  married  men  to  be 
ordained,  and  ordained  men  to  marry ;  of  bring- 
ing the  marriage-laws  of  the  Church  into  conflict 
with  those  of  the  State ;  and,  finally,  of  allowing 
repetition  of  baptism,  probably  as  a  substitute  of 
the  severe  penance  required  of  grievous  sinners. 

[The  largest  of  the  Roman  catacombs  is  the 
Cemetery  of  St.  Calixtus ;  and  De  Rossi  says  it 
was  the  first  common  cemetery,  given  to  the  Pope 
by  some  noble  family  for  the  use  of  the  whole 
Christian  community.  Thirteen  out  of  the  next 
eighteen  popes  after  Zepliyrinus  are  said  to  have 
been  buried  there.]  HERZOG. 

CALIXTUS  is  the  name  of  two  other  popes.— 
Calixtus  II.  (Feb.  2,  1119-Dec.  13,  1124)  de- 
scended from  the  royal  house  of  Burgundy,  and 
was  received  with  applause  by  the  whole  of  Chri»- 
tendom  when  elected  Pope  by  the  cardinals  aa- 
sembled  at  Clugny,  because  several  of  his  imme- 
diate predecessors  were  men  who  had  risen  to  the 
papacy  from  the  monastic  state,  and  by  their 
narrow  stubbornness  made  the  long  strife  with  the 


CALIXTUS. 


364 


CALLING. 


German  emperors  concerning  the  investiture  a 
tedious,  dangerous,  and  inextricable  entangle- 
ment. Even  Henry  V.  declared  himself  hopeful 
of  a  reconciliation.  Nevertheless,  at  the  Council 
of  Rheims  all  negotiations  failed;  and  Henry, 
together  with  Pope  Burdinus  (Gregory  VHI.), 
was  once  more  excommunicated  (Oct.  30,  1119). 
By  the  aid  of  Duke  William  of  Calabria,  Calixtus 
.succeeded  in  1121  in  seizing  Burdinus,  and  shut 
him  up  in  the  Monastery  of  Cava,  near  Salerno, 
to  do  penance.  This  victory  made  the  Emperor 
a  little  meeker,  and  at  the  same  time  there  arose 
among  the  German  princes  a  party  which  decid- 
edly wished  to  put  an  end  to  the  strife.  At  the 
Diet  of  Worms  an  agreement  was  at  last  arrived 
at  (Sept.  8,  1122);  and  Sept.  23  the  famous  Con- 
cordat of  ^Vorms  was  solemnly  read  to  the  mul- 
titudes assembled  in  the  plains  outside  of  Worms. 
The  principal  point  of  the  agreement  was,  that 
the  bishops  and  abbots  of  the  German  Empire 
should  receive  the  regalia,  as  temporal  feudatories 
of  the  realm,  from  the  Emperor,  but  the  ring  and 
staff,  as  spiritual  servants  of  the  Church,  from  the 
Pope.  The  letters  of  Calixtus  are  given  by 
Jatfe,  Regesla  Pontif.  Rom.:  the  sources  of  his 
life,  by  Watterich,  Pontif.  Roman.  ViUe,Tom.  II. — 
Calixtus  III.  (April  8,  14y5-Aug.  6.  1458)  was  a 
Spaniard  by  birth,  and  Bishop  of  Valencia.  His 
true  name  was  Alonso  de  Borja,  Italian  Borgia. 
He  was  seventy-seven  years  old,  weak,  good-na- 
tured, and  incapable  of  energy,  except  for  the 
elevation  of  his  own  nephews,  and  for  a  grand 
crusade  against  tlie  Turks.  In  the  latter  under- 
taking he  failed  utterly,  though  the  mendicant 
orders  as  alms-gatherers,  and  a  swarm  of  crusade- 
preachers  with  loads  of  indulgences,  sent  immense 
sums  of  money  into  the  papal  treasury.  But  the 
fleet  he  equipped  did  nothing ;  and  the  tithe  which 
he  proposed  to  levy  on  the  clergy  caused  rebellious 
murmurs,  both  in  France  and  Germany.  He  suc- 
ceeded better  in  providing  for  his  nephews ;  for, 
though  they  all  found  it  advisable  to  leave  Rome 
as  soon  as  he  died,  they  were  able  to  return  after 
a  short  time.  See  Platixa,  Vita  Calixli  III., 
Venice,  117!).  G.  VOIGT. 

CALIXTUS,  Ceorg,  b.  at  Medelby,  a  village 
of  Sleswick,  Dec.  14,  I'jSG;  d.  at  Ilelmstadt, 
March  19,  165G ;  was  educated  in  the  school  of 
Flensburg;  studied  philology,  philosophy,  and 
theology  at  the  University  of  Helmstiidt,  1603-09  ; 
travelled  in  Holland,  England,  and  France,  1609- 
13,  and  was  in  1614  appointed  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Helmstiidt.  He  was  in  the  seventeenth 
century  the  most  prominent  and  most  influential 
representative  of  the  school  of  Melanohtlion. 
With  a  large-hearted  conception  of  that  which  is 
true  in  all  Christian  denominations,  he  labored 
to  prepare  the  way  for  a  general  reconciliation  of 
Christendom  by  ttie  extinction  of  all  minor,  more 
or  le.ss  individual  differences.  But  liis  labor  fell 
in  the  period  of  tlie  Thirty- Years'  War ;  and  its 
result  was  an  isolated  position,  attacked  from  all 
sides.  The  orthodox  Lutherans  very  early  sus- 
pected him  of  lukewarnmess  or  looseness.  His 
De  Immorlalitalc  Animcr  el  Resiirrectinne  Mortno- 
rum,  1610,  was  supjiressed  by  the  censor,  because 
his  exegetical  exi>lanationH  deviated  from  Lu- 
ther's translation ;  and  his  Epitome  '/'lii-olof/iie, 
1819,  was  ransacked  like  a  i)lague-8tricken  vessel. 
While  his  Theologia  if  oralis  (1634)  and  De  Arte 


Nova  Nihusii  were  considered  by  the  Roman- 
Catholic  theologians  as  the  heaviest  blows  aimed 
against  their  system  for  a  long  time,  among  the 
orthodox  Lutherans  they  occasioned  an  open  ac- 
cusation of  crj-pto-papismus  (1640).  The  situa- 
tion became  still  more  involved  and  precarious 
after  the  conference  at  Thorn  (1645).  Calixtus 
hoped  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation  between 
the  Lutherans  and  the  Reformed,  but  succeeded 
only  in  being  vehemently  attacked  as  a  crypto- 
Calvinist.  He  never  gave  up,  however,  to  work 
for  the  great  idea  of  his  life,  all  the  while  defend- 
ing himself  as  best  he  could.  Desiilerium  et  titti- 
(lium  Concordiie  Ecclesiaslicce  and  Wiederlegnng  iler 
Verleumdungen  are  among  his  last  works.  Of 
his  writings,  many  of  which  were  several  times 
reprinted,  there  is  no  collected  edition ;  but  a 
complete  list  is  given  in  Moeller's  Cimbria  Lilerata 
III.  pp.  121-210,  together  with  a  description  of 
his  life.  See  E.  L.  Th.  Henke:  Calixtus'  Brief- 
wechsel,  Halle,  1833,  with  two  continuations, 
Jena,  1835.  and  Marburg,  1840;  Georg  Callixttis 
xtnd  seine  Zeit,  by  the  same  author,  Halle,  18.i3 ; 
H.  Schmid:  Geschichle  der  .•iynkretislischen  Slreilig- 
keitcn,  in  der  Zeit  des  Georg.  Calixtus,  Erlangen, 
1846;  W.  Gass  :  Calixt.  vnd  der  Synlcreti.wiiis, 
Breslau,  1846.  E.  L.  Tn".  henke. 

CALLENBERG,  Johann  Heinrlch,  b.  at  Gotha. 
Jan.  12,  1694;  d.  at  Halle,  July  16,  1760;  studied 
theology  and  Oriental  languages  at  Halle,  and 
became  professor  there,  first  in  philosophy,  1727, 
then  in  theology,  1739.  He  founded  in  1728  the 
so-called  Jewish  Institution,  —  a  school  for  the 
education  of  missionaries  among  the  Jews  and 
Mohammedans;  printed  the  New  Testament,  Lu- 
ther's Catechism,  etc.,  in  Arabic;  gave  an  intro- 
duction to,  and  dictionary  of  the  corrupt  Hebrew 
which  the  German  Jews  speak  among  themselves; 
and  jiublished  lierichte  von  einem  Ven^uch  das 
Jildische  Volh  zur  Erkentniss  des  ChristUchen  auzu- 
leiten,  3  vols.,  1728-36,  and  De  Conversione  Mo- 
knmmvdanornm,  17.33. 

CALMET,  Augustine,  b.  at  Mesnil-la-Horgue, 
in  the  diocese  of  Toul,  Feb.  26,  1672 ;  d.  at  Se- 
nones,  Oct.  25,  1757;  was  a  Benedictine  monk  of 
the  Congregation  of  St.  Vannes,  and  became 
Abbot  of  St.  Leopold  at  Nancy,  1718,  and  of  Se- 
nones,  1728.  He  was  a  very  prolific  writer.  The 
most  remai'kable  of  his  works  are  :  Dictionnaire  de 
la  Bible,  Paris,  1722,  with  a  supplement,  1728, 
4  vols,  fob,  often  reprinted  witli  additions  or 
abridgments;  e.g.,  Calmet's  Dictionarg  of  the 
Holy  Bible,  as  jnd/listieil  by  the  Late  Mr.  Charles 
Taylor,  revised,  with  Large  .Additions,  by  Lydicard 
Robinson,  Boston,  1852;  Commrnlaire  littcral  ct 
critique  de  la  Bible,  Paris,  1707  sqq.,  23  vols., 
trans,  and  ed.  Taylor,  London,  1847,  5  vols. ;  Ilis- 
toire  ecclesiasti/jue  et  civile  de  Lorraine,  Nancy, 
1728,  4  vols.,  etc.  See  FANcfe:  Vie  de  Calmet, 
1763,  containing  a  complete  list  of  his  works. 

CALLING  is  in  theological  as  in  popular  reli- 
gious speech  the  first  phenomenon  in  conversion. 
(The  word  is  not  so  used  in  the  Old  Testament, 
and  in  tlu^  New  chiefly  by  Paid.)  It  conies 
from  (iod  as  tlie  carry mg-init  of  a  purpo.so  of 
salvation  formed  from  all  eternity  (Rom.  viii. 
28,  29).     (Jod  knows  his  own  (Cor.  viii.  3;  (ial. 


iv.  9).    Yet  it  is  ' 


•lit  tliat  tlie  calling  is  wider 


than   the  salvation:  "Many  are  called,  but  few 
chosen"  (Matt.  xx.    16).     The  fact  is,  that  the 


CALOGERI. 


365 


CALVIN. 


desire  of  God's  heart,  as  testified  to  by  his  Word 
(1  Tim.  ii.  4;  2  Pet.  iii.  !);  cf.  Ezelc.  xxxiii.  11), 
is  the  salvation  of  all ;  but  against  this  wisli  men 
set  tliemselves,  so  that  tlie  fault  is  not  God's.  Init 
man's  (Matt,  xxiii.  37;  Acts  xiii.  40).  There 
is  therefore  in  salvation  a  co-operation  of  man 
with  God.  The  calling  comes  tlirough  tiie  usual 
means  of  grace,  particularly  the  Word  as  pro- 
chiimed  by  the  preacher  (Rom.  x.  14).  Paul's 
fruitful  ministry  was  not  exceptional.  God  has 
in  every  age  as  abundantly  blessed  liis  messen- 
gers. The  assertion  that  the  call  is  general 
means  simply  tliat  the  call  is  given  to  all  who 
liear  the  gospel  preached,  and,  if  obeyed,  leads 
to  their  salvation ;  for  God's  love  takes  in  the 
world  (John  iii.  18),  and  he  has  put  upon  his 
Church  tlic  duty  of  proclaiming  to  all  tliis  bound- 
less love,  and  promised  his  presence  in  the  work 
(Matt,  xxviii.  19,  20).  [Calvinistic  theologians 
distinguish  between  the  external  and  the  internal 
call.  The  former  is  addressed  to  all,  elect  and 
non-elect  alike;  the  latter,  only  to  the  elect,  and 
is  an  effectual  calling.  It  is  thus  defined  in  the 
Westminster  Shorter  Catechism,  q.  31 :  "  Effectual 
calling  is  the  work  of  God's  Spirit,  whereby,  con- 
vincing us  of  our  sin  and  misery,  enlightening 
our  minds  in  the  knowledge  of  Christ,  and  renew- 
ing our  wills,  he  doth  persuade  and  enable  us  to 
embrace  Jesus  Christ,  freely  offered  to  us  in  the 
gospel."]  D.    V.  BURGER. 

CALOGERI  ((/ood  old  men).     See  Athos. 

CALOVIUS,  Abraham,  b.  at  Mohrungen,  East 
Prussia,  1012;  d.  at  Wittenberg,  Feb.  25,  lOSO; 
studied  tlieology  at  KiJnigsberg;  was  rector  of  the 
gymnasium  of  Dantzig  1043-50,  and  became  in 
the  latter  year  professor  of  theology  at  Witten- 
berg. His  Sijslema  Locorum  Theolor/icorum,  12 
vols.,  1655-77,  is  the  most  compact  and  comjire- 
hensive  representation  of  Lutheran  dogmatics, 
—  the  true  exemplar  of  what  has  been  called 
Lutheran  scholasticism.  His  essential  character, 
however,  was  not  dogmatical,  but  polemical. 
Even  his  chief  exegetical  work,  B'M'ia  lllustrala, 
4  vols.,  roots  in  a  polemical  interest.  It  is  a  refu- 
tation of  the  Commentaries  of  Grotius.  And  the 
conspicuous  position  which  he  occupied  in  the 
theological  world  of  the  seventeenth  century  he 
owed  to  his  violent  polemics  against  Calixtus, 
and  that  reconciliating  tendency  whicli  was  rep- 
resented by  the  University  of  Ilelrasfadt,  and 
which  generally  went  under  the  name  of  syncre- 
tism. His  jirincipal  writings  in  this  line  are: 
Prolegomena  Jnxlitutionum  Tlieolo/iicarum,  1049  ; 
Di(/ressio  de  Nova  Theolor/ia  IIelm^ladio-Iie(/io- 
montanorum  Syncrelislarum,  1051;  Ilannonia  Ca- 
lixtino-hceretica,  1055,  etc.  At  last,  however,  he 
overreached  himself.  His  Historia  Stjncrelistica, 
1682,  was  suppressed.  He  was  six  times  married. 
See  J.  F.Ekdmann,  Lebensbeschreibungen  der  Wil- 
tenb.  Professoren,  1804;  Tiioluck:  Der  Gei.il  der 
lutherischen  Theologen  Wittenbergs,  Hamburg  u. 
Gotha,  1852.  tholuck. 

CALOYERS,  the  name  given  to  monks  in  the 
Greek  Church. 

CALVARISTS,  or  PRIESTS  OF  CALVARY,  a 
monastic  association  founded  at  Bethorani  in  the 
diocese  of  Auch,  France,  in  1633,  l)y  Hubert 
Charpentier,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  back 
Beam  into  the  Roman  Church.  On  the  instance 
of  Louis  XIII.  the  association  established  a  house 


near  Paris  on  the  Mont  Valerien,  which  after  that 
time  was  called  Colline  de  (.'alruire.  There  were 
also  I'fiic'dictine  nuns  of  tli(!  Colline  de  Calcairc. 

CALVARY.     Si-i!  lIoi.Y  Si;i'iii.cMiiti;. 

CALVIN  (  Latinized  form  of  Cauvin  or  Caulvin), 
John,'  b.  at  Noyon  in  Picardy,  some  seventy 
miles  north-east  of  Paris,  July  10,  1.509;  d.  at 
Geneva,  May  27,  1564. 

1.  Ilis  Life.  —  His  father,  Gerard  Cauvin,  was 
apostolic  notary,  fiscal  attorney  of  the  county,  and 
secretary  to  tiie  Bishop  of  Noyon.  His  motlier, 
Jeanne  Lefranc  of  Cambray,  was  noted  for  her 
personal  beauty,  as  also  for  great  religious  fervor 
and  strictness.  Ilis  father  was  ]>oor;  but  his  influ- 
ence secured  his  son  the  best  educational  advan- 
tages at  home,  and  when  only  twelve  years  old 
the  chapilaincy  of  the  Chapel  de  la  Gesine  :  so 
Calvin  received  the  tonsure,  althougii  he  was 
never  ordained.  lu  1523  lie  was  sent  to  Paris  to 
prepare  for  the  priestliood.  He  was  then  noted 
for  Ilis  extraordinary  ability,  and  also  for  astem- 
ness.of  chai'acter  whicli  gave  him  his  sobriquet, 
the  Accusative  Case.  His  support  while  a  student 
was  derived  from  cliurch-preferments.  He  held 
successively  his  chaplaincy,  and  then  the  curacy 
of  Marteviile  (1527)  and  of  Pontl'Eveque  (1529). 
In  1527,  on  the  advice  of  his  father,  he  turned 
his  attention  to  law,  and  attended  lectures  at 
the  universities  of  Orleans,  and,  the  next  year, 
Bourges.  His  career  was  brilliant.  At  Orleans 
he  frequently  lectured  to  the  class  in  the  absence 
of  the  jirofessor,  and  received  the  complimentary 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Law  (which,  however,  he 
never  used).  In  Bourges  he  was  a  favorite  pupil 
of  Andreas  Alciati,  then  the  most  distinguished 
law-professor  in  Europe,  and  studied  Greek,  and 
Protestantism  as  well,  under  Melchior  VVolmar 
(see  Beza),  although  he  probably  was  already 
inclined  to  the  new  faith.  On  May  26,  1531,  his 
father  died ;  and  that  summer  he  returned  to 
Paris  and  to  theology.  In  April,  1532,  he  pub- 
lished, with  a  commentary,  Seneca's  De  dementia 
(On  Mercy).  He  had  assumed  the  cost  of  publi- 
cation, and  apparently  was  pecuniarily  embar- 
rassed by  it;  for  he  sold  at  this  time  his  slender 
patrimony.  But,  if  poor  in  purse,  he  was  rich  in 
honors.  God  had,  however,  better  things  in  store 
for  him,  and  was  pleased  by  a  "sudden  conver- 
sion "  to  subdue  him,  making  him  willing,  as  he 
says,  "to  know  llie  truth."  The  change  was 
radical  and  permanent,  like  Paul's.  This  was  in 
the  latter  part  of  1532.  But  he  did  not  break  at 
once  with  his  studies,  although  he  made  the  Bible 
more  of  a  te.xt-book  than  ever. 

The  Reformation  was  making  lieadway  in 
France  under  Francis  I.;  and  Calvin  preached 
frequently  in  the  meetings  of  the  Evangelical 
party,  commonly  closing  w  ith  the  words  :  "  If  God 
be  for  us,  who  can  be  against  usV  "  His  friend 
Nicholas  Cop,  a  learned  physician  of  Basel,  wa« 
elected  rector  of  the  University  of  Paris  ;  and  at 
his  request  Calvin  prepared  for  him  an  inaugural 
address  on  Christian  ]ihilosopliy  (see  Calvin's 
Opera  in  the  Corpus  Reformalorum,\ol.  X.),  which 
Cop  delivered  on  All-.Saints'  Day  in  1533  in  the 
Church  of  the  Maturins,  before  a  large  assembly. 
Calvin  had  made  the  address  a  plea  for  the  reform 


1  This  article  is  based  upon  Dr.  Hcrzos:'s,  with  additions 
from  different  sources,  especiaiiy  from  Scbal)'*8  OreedSt  vol.  L 


CALVIN. 


366 


CALVIN. 


of  the  Church  on  the  liasis  of  the  pure  gospel. 
The  consequence  of  this  bold  act  was  the  compul- 
sory flight  of  Calvin  to  the  south  of  France.  The 
next  two  years  were  spent  in  wandering  as  a  fugi- 
tive under  a.ssuraed  names,  all  the  wliile  sowing 
the  seed  of  the  kingdom.  For  some  time  he 
was  at  Angouleme  with  his  learned  friend  the 
A-oung  canon  Louis  du  Tillet,  who  subsequently 
joined  the  Protestants,  using  his  excellent  library, 
.ind  preparing  his  Institutes.  Then  he  was  at  tlie 
court  of  Margaret  of  Navarre,  the  sister  of  Fran- 
cis I.  ;  at  Noyon  (May,  1534),  where  he  parted 
with  his  ecclesiastical  benefices ;  at  Poitiers,  where 
he  celebrated  witli  a  few  friends,  for  the  first 
time,  the  Lord's  Supper,  according  to  tlie  evan- 
gelical rite,  in  a  cave  near  the  town,  called  to  tliis 
<i:iy  "Calvin's  Cave;"  at  Orleans,  where  he  pub- 
lished (\ii-ii)  his  first  theological  work,  Psi/c/io- 
punnychia,  confuting  from  the  Scriptures  the  Ana- 
baptist doctrine  of  the  sleep  of  souls  between 
deatli  and  resurrection;  and  finally  again  in  Paris 
(the  close  of  1534),  where  he  met  for  the  first 
time  Michael  Servetus,  and  challenged  him  to  a 
debate  on  the  Trinity.  The  outbreak  of  perse- 
cution compelled  his  flight  to  Strassbnrg.  Thence 
he  went  to  Basel,  and  there  published  in  Latin 
(153G),  when  ho  was  twenty-seven  years  old,  his 
immortal  Institutes.  (The  French  edition  was 
made  subsequently,  and  is  a  translation.)  The 
dedication  to  Francis  I.  is  a  model  of  manly  elo- 
quence, lie  revisited  Koyon,  won  a  brotlier  and 
sister  to  the  Reformed  faith,  and  then  returned 
to  Switzerland,  witli  the  intention  of  settling 
down  to  a  studious  life  at  Basel  or  Strassburg. 

On  Aug.  5,  1536,  he  arrived  in  Geneva,  being 
compelled  by  tlie  wars  to  go  round  that  way,  and 
intended  to  leave  the  next  day ;  but  William  Farel 
threatened  liini  witli  tiie  curse  of  God  if  he  pre- 
ferred his  studies  to  the  work  of  the  Lord.  "  Tliese 
w'ords,"  says  Calvin,  in  tlie  preface  of  his  Com- 
mentary on  the  Psalms,  "terrified  and  shook  nie 
as  if  (iod  from  on  liigh  had  stretched  out  his  hand 
to  sto])  me;  so  that  I  renounced  the  journey  I  liad 
undertaken."  The  timid  scholar  was  forced  to 
become  a  preacher  at  a  stormy  time.  He  and 
Farel  laViored  to  introduce  reforms  into  Geneva, 
and  by  tlie  severity  of  their  discipline  won  the  ill 
will  of  tlie  leaders;  and  on  Easter  Monday  (Ajiril 
23),  153«,  they  wore  dejiosed,  and  expelled  from 
the  city,  by  the  Council  of  the  Two  Hundred. 
Banishment  meant  freedom;  and  for  three  years 
(1538-41)  he  (luietly  pursued  his  studies  in  Strass- 
burg, and  at  the  same  time  ministered  to  the 
French  Church  tliere.  In  Sei)teniber,  1540,  he 
married  Idelette  de  Bures,  or  Van  Buren,  the 
widow  of  Johannes  Stonier,  an  Anabaptist  wliom 
he  had  converted.  By  her  lie  had  three  children, 
all  of  whom  died  in  infancy.  Calvin's  married 
life  was  otherwise  very  happy,  but  lasted  only 
nine  years.  During  his  stay  in  Strassburg  lie 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Melanchthon  ;  and  the 
"theologian,"  iis  the  Germans  called  Calvin,  and 
the  "  preceptor  of  Germany,"  were  quickly  firm 
friends. 

Meanwhile  (Jeneva  was  by  no  means  forgotten. 
When  Cardinal  Sadolet  tried  to  win  it  to  Konie, 
Calvin  came  boldly  to  its  defence  ;  and  often  did 
ho  give  his  former  flock  his  timely  counsel.  At 
length  magistrates  and  jieople  united  in  urgently 
and  repeatedly  recalling  him,  us  the  only  unu 


who  could  stop  the  disorders  that  had  arisen  ;  and 
very  reluctantly  he  came.  On  Sept.  13,  1541,  he 
made  his  entrance.  The  council  gave  him  a 
house  with  a  garden  to  live  in,  and,  for  salary, 
five  hundred  florins,  twelve  measures  of  wheat, 
and  two  tubs  of  wine.  From  that  time  on,  (jeneva 
was  his  lionie  and  his  parish,  his  centre  of  ac- 
tivit}',  but  by  no  means  circumference  of  influence. 
Under  his  iron  rule  the  city  assumed  a  new  ' 
aspect.  Immorality  of  every  sort  was  sternly 
suppressed.  It  was  well  for  the  success  of  this 
system  that  Geneva  was  a  refuge  for  the  per- 
secuted in  every  land.  Hollanders,  English, 
Italians,  Spaniarils,  and  more  particularly  French- 
men, settled  in  the  town,  and  readily  lent  their 
aid  in  maintaining  Calvin's  peculiar  methods. 
But  not  refugees  alone  came:  his  lectures  and 
those  of  Beza  attracted  many  thousands  of  stu- 
dents, and  thus  spread  their  fame  far  and  wide. 
But  incessant  study,  a  vast  correspondence,  "  the 
care  of  all  the  churches,"  his  sedentary  life, — 
these  conspired  to  make  him  the  victim  of  dis- 
ease, and  at  fifty-five  years  of  age  he  breathed 
his  last.  He  had  lived  abstemiously,  been  most 
generous  in  his  gifts,  and  left  behind  him  in 
money  onh'  about  a  hundred  and  seventy  dollars, 
but  an  incalculable  fortune  in  fame  and  conse- 
crated influence;  and  from  him  Geneva  inherited 
faith,  education,  government,  brave  citizens,  and 
pride  in  an  honoreil  name. 

2.  His  Fundamental  Ideas.  —  He  based  his  sys- 
tem upon  the  Apostles'  Creed,  and  followed  its 
lines.  Ethics  and  theology  were  handled  in  the 
closest  connection.  Calvin's  reformation  in  the- 
ology was  pre-eminently  a  practical  affair.  Even 
the  doctrine  of  piedestination  was  developed,  not 
as  a  speculation,  but  as  a  matter  of  practical  con-  . 
cern.  By  the  extraordinary  emphasis  put  upon  | 
it,  the  Genevans  were  taught  to  consider  it  almost  ( 
the  corner-stone  of  the  Christian  faith,  ta  oinio-  ' 
sition  to  the  lax  views  of  sin  and  grace-wuich  , 
the  Roman  Church  inculcated,  he  revived  the 
Augustinian  doctrine  in  order  by  it  to  conquer 
Rome.  In  so  doing  he  was  one  with  Zwingli, 
fficblampadiiis,  Luther,  and  Melanchthon.  Jiut 
iuJiis  supra-lapsarian  views  ho  stood  alone  iimoug 
the  Reformers.  His  views  of  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority and  di.seipline  are  also  important.  Xlo 
allowed  to  the  Church  a  greater  authority  than 
any  other  Reformer.  Here,  again,  the  influence 
of  Augustine  is  seen.  He  says,  "  Thc^  ('hurch  is 
our  mother  "  (fiislitules,  Bk.  IV.  chap.  i.  1).  Out- 
side of  the  Church  tlu're  is  no  salvation,  ller 
ministry  is  divinely  constituted,  and  to  it  believera 
are  bound  to  pay  deference.  ller  authority  is 
absolute  in  matters  of  doctrine;  but,  when  civil 
cases  arise,  she  hands  tin;  offenders  over  to  the 
State  for  punishment.  State  and  Church  have 
therefore  separate  and  exclusive!  jurisdiction;  yet 
thej'  exist  side  by  side,  and  co-operate.  They 
mutually  sujijiort  each  other. — The  ideal  govern- 
ment embraced  a  democracy,  an  aristocracy,  and 
a  king  or  autocrat.  Hc>  taught  obedience  to  the 
]ioweis  that  be.  In  this  si-henn^  he  had  in  mind 
the  Israelites.  Ho  aimed  at  a  tlieocracy.  (Salvia 
bowed  before  the  majesty  of  the  righteous  .Judge. 
His  fear  of  God  led  him  to  unquestioning  sub- 
mission. In  a  sense  it  was  his  very  breath;  and 
so  in  his  system  justice  is  more  prominent  than 
love.     God    as    the   ruler,    ratiiur   than    as    tho 


CALVIN. 


367 


CALVIN, 


lover,   of   all    in   Christ,  was   the   object   of   his 
reverence. 

3.  //«  }!cform.s.  — In  accordance  with  liis  ]ir)U- 
ciples  was  his  work.  Diirinjj  his  fust  rcsich'neo 
in  Geneva  lie  showed  liis  (h'terniination  to  sejia- 
rate  Church  and  State;  and  tiierefore  he  and  his 
fellow-preachers  protested  against  the  interfer- 
ence of  tlie  State  in  the  matter  of  the  nse  of  fonts, 
of  nnleavened  bread  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  in 
the  celebration  of  the  churcli-festivals,  as  these 
were  properly  within  the  ecclesiastical  province. 
When,  also,  he  refused  the  Euciiarist  unto  tiie 
city,  because  of  its  immorality,  he  asserted  for 
the  Church  freedom  from  the  civil  authority. 
Thi.s  determined  stand  cost  him  temporarily  his 
jiosition  ;  but,  when  he  resumed  his  work  in  Gene- 
va, he  and  the  citizens  knew  that  his  power  was 
_  henceforth  absolute.  The  reforms  he  instituted 
'  are  famous,  and  often  condemned  as  infamous. 
'  They  are,  however,  not  only  defensible,  but  com- 
mendable, if  judged  by  the  standard  of  that  age. 
We  cannot  withhold  our  admiration  of  the  moral 
courage,  the  self-forgetfulness,  the  stern  morality, 
and  the  micompromising  zeal,  with  which  Cal- 
vin addressed  himself  unto  the  apparently  hope- 
less task  of  curbing  the  pa.ssions  of  the  loose 
jiopulace,  and  gaining  tlie  cordial  co-operation  of 
the  upper  classes.  lie  succeeded.  Geneva  came 
to  be  regarded  as  a  normal  school  of  religious 
life.  Religion  was  the  life  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  inhabitants.  With  a  correct  insight  into  the 
necessities  of  the  case,  Calvin  declared  immedi- 
ately after  his  victorious  entry  that  he  could  not 
take  up  work  without  a  re-organization  of  the 
Church,  viz.,  by  the  formation  of  a  ehia-ch-court, 
which  should  have  full  authority  to  maintain  dis- 
cipline. On  Kov.  20,  lo41,  at  a  popular  meeting, 
the  scheme  he  drew  up  was  ratified.  This  pro- 
vided for  a  conisislnri/,  composed  of  six  city  minis- 
ters and  twelve  elders, —  one  of  the  latter  to  be 
a  syndic  and  their  president, — which  met  every 
Thursday,  and  put  under  church-discipline,  with- 
out respect  of  persons,  every  species  of  evil-doers. 
The  rigor  and  vigor  of  this  administration  quickly 
awakened  natural  indignation,  in  part  even 
among  those  who  on  the  whole  favored  Calvin. 
His  life  was  at  times  in  danger.  Some  showed 
their  terrified  contempt  for  him  by  naming  their 
dogs  after  him.  In  a  city  like  Geneva,  full  of 
refugees  of  every  description,  there  were  many 
who  looked  upon  all  restraint  as  oppression,;  others 
who  objected  to  Calvin's  measures  as  going  too 
far,  or  criticised  its  methods.  In  order  still  fur- 
ther to  increase  the  authority  of  the  cliurch-court, 
Calvin  secured  (15o.j)  an  important  modification 
of  the  city  government,  whereby  the  consail  f/i'rw'ra/ 
(the  General  Council),  the  highest  law-making 
body,  was  only  called  twice  a  year,  —  in  February 
to  elect  syndics,  and  in  November  to  fill  some 
minor  offices,  and  fix  the  price  of  wine.  But 
nothing  might  be  discussed  in  this  meeting  which 
had  not  been  previously  determined  upon  in  the 
Council  of  Two  Hundred;  nor  in  the  hitter  which 
the  Council  of  Sixty  did  not  approve  of;  nor 
could  this  council  take  up  any  thing  not  previ- 
ously agreed  to  in  the  highest  council,  which 
thus  practically  governed  the  State.  The  General 
Council  became  in  this  way  a  superfluity,  without 
the  power  of  initiative.  It  had,  however,  accom- 
plished its  mission,  —  accepted  the  Ueformation. 


Most  prominent  among  the  means  Calvin  used 
to  reform  the  city  was  preaching.  Kvery  other 
week  he  preached  every  day  in  i)lain,  direct,  con- 
vincing fashion,  without  elorpience,  but  still  iri'e- 
sistibly  ;  and  the  life  the  preaclier  led  constituted 
his  strongest  claim  uiiou  their  attention.  Our 
reports  of  his  sermons  are  probably  from  notes 
made  by  his  hearers;  which  was  the  easier  done, 
Ijecause,  being  asthmatic,  ho  si'oke  very  slowly. 
Every  Friday  the  so-called  "Congregation  "  was 
held,  in  which  questions  were  answered,  and  de- 
bates even  carried  on.  Minors  were  carefully 
instructed  in  a  catechism  originally  prepared  by 
Calvin  in  Latin,  1545.  In  loJiU  he  had  i.ssued 
a  French,  and  in  1538  a  Latin,  catechism,  which 
was  a  mere  abridgment  or  syllabus  of  his  Insli- 
lutes,  and  was  not  in  the  form  of  question  and 
answer;  but  the  catechism  of  1515  was  in  the 
usual  form. 

Calvin  has  the  credit  of  first  introducing  con- 
gregational singing  into  the  worship  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  in  Geneva.  The  first  songs  were 
some  of  his  own  metrical  renderings  of  the 
Psalms. 

4.  IIlx  Opponents.  —  Like  Zwingli  and  Luther, 
Calvin  had  his  dilficulties  witli  tlie  Anabaptists, 
towards  whom  he  adoj)ted  the  same  tactics.  He 
met  them  in  public  debate  IMarch  18,  1537,  and 
so  effectually  disposed  of  tiieir  arguments,  that 
he  was  not  troubled  again. 

But  he  had  personal  controversies — (1)  first 
with  Peter  Caroli,  a  French  refugee  and  ]);«tor 
ill  Lausanne,  a  religious  chameleon,  whose  latest 
hue  was  that  of  a  stickler  for  orthodoxy.  Calvin 
was  very  indifferent  to  the  terminology  of  the- 
ology, so  long  as  the  truth  was  expre.s.sed.  In 
discussing  the  nature  of  the  Godhead  during  his 
first  residence  in  Geneva,  he  avoided  using  the 
words  "  Trinity  "  and  "Person,"  although  he  had 
no  particular  objection  to  them  ;  and  so  they  did 
not  occur  in  the  Confession  of  Faith  which  he 
drew  up,  and  to  which  Hie  citizens  of  Geneva 
were  compelled  to  assent;  nor  did  the  Geneva 
Church  subscribe  formally  to  the  Athanasiau 
Creed.  Caroli  accused  Calvin  and  his  fellow-  ( 
divines  of  Arianisin  and  Sabellianism ;  and  so; 
plausible  w'as  the  charge,  that  Calvin  was  greatly  > 
troubled.  However,  in  the  synod  of  1537,  held 
in  Bern,  the  Genevan  divines  fully  cleared  them- 
selves, and  Caroli  was  deposed  and  banished. 
{'2)  Berthelier,  the  son  of  a  martj'r  for  freedom. 
iSerthelier  was  forbidden  the  commnnion  (1553) 
by  the  consistory.  The  council  absolved  the 
liann.  Calvin  from  the  pulpit,  two  days  before  tho 
September  Communion  (out;  of  the  four  yearly 
occasions),  declared  tliat  he  would  die  sooner  than 
give  the  Lord's  holy  things  to  one  under  condem- 
nation for  despising  (!od.  Perrin.  who  was  then 
syndic  for  the  second  time,  ordered  Berthelier  to 
.stay  away  from  communion,  and  .so  ended  a  dis- 
pute from  which  the  enemies  of  Calvin  had  hoped 
a  great  deal.  (3)  Bolsec  (see  title),  whose  pro- 
sumption  in  denying  predestination,  and  abusing 
the  ministers  at  a  conr/rcr/iifinn,  drew  upon  him, 
not  only  Calvin's  indignant  reply  at  the  time, 
but  also  imprisonment  and  banishment  (1551). 
(4)  But  by  far  the  most  famous  of  all  Calvin's 
opponents  was  Seixtius  (see  title  for  fuller  dis- 
cussion), who  seems  to  have  been  a  rather  tlippant 
person.     It  is  said  he  desired  Calvin's   banish- 


CALVIN. 


368 


CALVIN. 


ment  in  order  that  lie  might  be  installed  in  his 
place.  To  this  end  he  accused  Calvin  of  perfidi- 
ous, tyrannical,  and  unchristian  conduct.  It  is 
110  wonder,  therefore,  that  Calvin  treated  him 
harshly.  It  is  idle  to  shield  Calvin  from  the 
charge  of  bringing  about  Servetus'  death,  al- 
though it  is  true  that  the  mode  adopted  (burn- 
ing) did  not  meet  with  his  approval ;  but  at  the 
I  .same  time  it  is  easy  to  excuse  him  on  the  ground 
i  of  the  persecuting  spirit  of  his  age.  Strange  as 
-it  may  seem,  the  Protestants  who  had  felt  the 
persecution  of  Rome  were  ready  to  persecute  all 
who  followed  not  with  them.  The  burning  of 
Servetus  (Oct.  '27,  1.5.33)  for  the  crime  of  heresy, 
specifically  antitrinitarianism,  was  approved  by 
the  Helvetic  C.Hurch,  and,  what  is  more  re- 
markable, by  the  mild  Melanchthon ;  but  it 
failed  even  then  to  win  universal  approval,  and 
now  it  is  usually  considered  a  sad,  ineffaceable 
bl-ot  upon  Calvin's  character.  Many  who  know 
nothing  else  of  either  Calvin  or  Servetus  are  very 
indignant  over  the  tragedy,  and  apparently  reject 
Calvinism  because  of  it.  We  ought  rather  to 
mourn  than  to  censure.  Servetus  knew  the  dan- 
ger he  braved  in  coming  to  Geneva.  He  had  as 
early  as  lo34  been  in  debate  with  Calvin,  although 
they  did  not  personally  meet.  On  his  intimating 
an  intention  to  visit  Geneva,  Calvin  gave  him 
fair  warning,  that,  if  he  came,  he  would  prosecute 
him  to  the  death.'  While,  therefore,  we  hold 
Calvin  responsible  for  Servetus'  death,  we  clear 
him  of  the  charges  of  having  allured  Servetus 
to  Geneva,  and  of  rejoicing  in  his  death  on  per- 
sonal grounds.  See  art.  Seuvktus  ;  K.  AVillis  : 
Sercclus  and  Calcin,  London,  1877;  H.  Tollin: 
Sercet.  u.  die  olieiidndischen  Rcjhnnaloroi,  1.  Bd. 
Servet.  u.  Butzer,  Berlin,  1880. 

No  good  came  of  the  execution,  only  evil, — 
ridicule  from  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  the  ad- 
verse criticism  from  many  friends.  It  likewise 
failed  to  check  the  antitrinitarian  heresy.  Calvin 
defended  himself,  and  Beza  aided  him;  but  no 
defence  could  excuse  the  facts. 

5.  His  Ecclesiastical  Iiiflaencc.  — By  his  lectures 
he  attracted  students  from  every  quarter.  He 
often  had  as  many  as  a  thousand :  therefore  his 
influence  was  constantly  spreading.  As  was  natu- 
ral, it  was  must  formative  in  France,  whence 
most  of  his  pui>ils  came,  and  to  whose  Protes- 
tants Calvin  was  le.ader  and  spiritual  father. 
But  in  other  lands  he  exerted  his  power.  In 
Italy  he  came  to  the  aid  of  the  troubled  Duchess 
of  Ferrara.  To  England  he  sent  his  Commen- 
tary on  Isaiah,  with  a  dedication  to  the  youthful 
Xing,  Iviward  VI.  To  Cranmer  he  wrote  letters; 
and  through  Knox  he  moulded  Scotland.  lie 
counselled  the  Moravian  Brethren.  He  helped 
the  Poles  in  the  Trinitarian  controversy,  and 
likewise  the  Reformed  cause  in  Hungary.  He 
also  prepared,  in  his  way,  the  present  interest  in 
foreign  missions  by  his  unfortunate  mission  to 
lirazil  (loj.3).  .See  Vim.kgaioxox  ami  Staiie- 
i.ix,  Jolianncs  C<dcin,  vol.  ii.  pp.  231-238. 

Calvin's  relations  with  .Switzerland  and  Ger- 
many were  niipleasaut.  He  strove  most  earnestly 
to  unite  the  different  branches  of  the  Protestant 
Church.      But   unhappily   ho  was  suspected  by 


•  *'  Xfim  «1  modo  vnlcnt  men  niitorltaH  vlvum  fxire  luinqimm 
p.illnr  (I  (.hail  iK-vcr  ix-rmlt  lilin  lo  dciuirt  iilivo  If  my  nutbority 
la  grcai  cnouuh)."  — C'ALViN  to  Fabbl,  Feb.  13,  IWO. 


many  Swiss  of  Lutheran  views  on  tire  Lord's 
Supper,  —  for  this  was  the  controverted  point, — 
and  by  many  Germans  of  too  much  Zwinglian- 
isra  ;  so  that  he  made  but  an  iiidiiferent  mediator. 
He  had  high  hopes  of  the  "  Consensus  Tigurinus  " 
(Consensus  of  Zurich,  1549),  which  harmonized 
the  Swiss  churches;  but  the  controversy  with  the 
Lutherans  was  violently  renevi-ed  by  Ilesshusius. 

6.  His  Personal  Character.  — The  common  con- 
ception of  Calvin  is  erroneous.  He  was  not  the 
stony-hearted  tyrant,  the  relentless  persecutor, 
the  gloomy  theologian,  the  popular  picture  repre- 
sents him  to  have  been.  Men,  by  a  blessed  incon- 
sistency, are  often  kinder  than  their  creeds.  So, 
at  all  events,  was  Calvin.  To  the  superficial 
observer  he  is  not  attractive  -,  but  it  is  the  opinion 
of  every  one  who  has  studied  him  that  he  im- 
proves upon  acquaintance.  Gr.anted  that  he  was 
constitutionally  intolerant;  that  he  did  draft  and 
sternly  carry  out  regulations  which  were  vexa- 
tious and  needlessly  severe;  that  he  knew  no 
other  stand-point  in  government,  morals,  or  the- 
ology than  his  own.  —  he  had  other  qualities 
which  entitle  him  to  respect  and  admiration. 
He  was  refined,  conscientious,  pure,  faithful,  hon- 
est, humble,  pious.  His  otYeriiig  to  God  was  a 
bleeding  heart.  He  attnacted  men  by  the  strength 
of  his  char.acter,  the  loftiness  of  his  aims,  and  the 
directness  of  his  eii'orts.  He  had  the  common 
human  affections.  He  loved  his  wife,  and  mourned 
her  death.  He  grieved  over  his  childlessness. 
He  took  delight  in  his  friends;  and  they  were 
the  noblest  in  the  Protestant  Church.  Somewhat 
of  the  forbidding  aspect  of  his  life  may  perhaps 
be  accounted  for  by  the  unnatural  life  he  was 
forced  to  lead.  He  desired  to  spend  liis  days  in 
study;  whereas  he  was  fprceil  to  incessant,  mul- 
tifarious, and  mo.st  prominent  labor.  Experience 
shows  there  is  no  harder  master  than  a  timid  man 
compelled  to  lead.  Again  :  his  ill  li<'alth  must  be 
taken  into  account,  ije  was  a  walking  husiiilal. 
Such  men  are  not  apt  to  Tie  gentle,  'riii-  wi.nd.T 
rather  is  that  he  showed  no  patient  a  .spirit,  'llie 
popular  verdict  has  been  given  against  him  ;  but 
vox  populi  is  not  always  vox  del.  AVliat  Beza,  his 
biographer,  wrote  is  nearer  truth :  "  Having  been 
an  observer  of  Calvin's  life  for  .sixteen  years,  I 
may  with  perfect  right  testify  that  we  have  in 
this  man  a  most  beautiful  example  of  a  truly 
Christian  life  .and  death,  which  it  is  easy  to  ca- 
lumniate, but  diilicult  to  imitate."  Ernest  Renan 
finds  the  key  to  his  influence  in  the  fact  that  he 
was  "the  most  Christian  man  of  iiis  generation" 
(Studies  of  lieli(ji(iu^  Hislorif  and  Criticism,  N.Y., 
181)1,  pp.  28(i  S(iq.).  I'rofessor  Dorner  says, 
"  Calvin  was  ccpially  great  in  intellect  and  char- 
acter, lovely  in  social  life,  full  of  tender  synipathy 
and  faithfulness  to  friends,  yielding  and  forgiving 
towards  penional  olTenees,  but  inexorably  severe 
when  he  saw  the  lionor  of  God  obstinately  and 
malignantly  attacked"  (6'e.vc/i.  d.  I'rol.  Theot. 
pp.  374,  370). 

7.  His  Personal  Appearance. — He  w.as  of  mid 
die  stature,  and,  through  feeble  health,  of  meagre 
and  emaciated  frame.  He  had  a  thin,  pale,  linely- 
chi.selled  face,  a  well-formed  mouth,  a  long,  jiointeil 
beard,  black  hair,  a  prominent  nose,  a  lofty  fore- 
head, and  flaming  eyes.  He  was  modest,  plain, 
and  scrupulously  neat  in  dress,  orderly  and  me- 
thodical in  all  his  habits,  temperate,  and  even 


CALVIN. 


369 


CALVINISM. 


abstemious,  allowing  himself  scarcely  food  aiui 
sleep  enouy;h  for  vigorous  work.  (The  fatuous 
portrait  by  Ary  Scheffer  is  too  much  i(li'alizi;il.) 

8.  His  LUerat-!/  Labors.  —  Leaving  out  of  view 
his  correspoiuieiice,  the  writings  of  Calvin  divide 
themselves  into  the  theological  and  the  exegetical. 
In  regard  to  the  latter,  it  suffices  now  to  say  that 
they  have  never  been  excelled,  if,  on  the  whole, 
tliey  have  been  equalled.  He  possessed  all  the 
requisite  qualifications  for  an  excgete,  —  knowl- 
edge of  the  original  tongues,  good  common  sense, 
and  abundant  piety.  His  expositions  are  brief, 
pithy,  au<l  clear.  His  theological  writings  are 
remarkable  for  their  early  maturity  and  their  un- 
varying consistency.  Besides  his  minor  writings, 
we  possess  that  masterpiece  of  Protestantism,  tlie 
l7>slilutes  of  the  Christian  Religion,  which  came 
fully  grown  into  the  world,  like  ISIinerva  from  the 
brain  of  Jupiter.  He  really  produced  at  twenty- 
six  a  book  in  which  he  had  nothing  to  change  at 
fifty-five.  The  repeated  enlargements  were  mere 
developments  of  its  germinal  ideas.  The  first 
edition  (Basel,  1536)  contained  only  six  chapters, 
and  was  intended  merely  as  a  brief  apology  of 
the  Reformed  doctrine:  1.  Of  law,  with  an  expo- 
sition of  the  Decalogue ;  2.  Of  faith,  with  an 
exposition  of  the  Apostles'  Creed ;  3.  Of  prayer, 
with  an  exposition  of  the  Lord's  Prayer ;  4.  Of 
the  sacraments  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Suj> 
per;  5.  Of  the  other  so-called  sacraments ;  G.  Of 
Christian  liberty,  church  government  and  disci- 
jiliiie.  The  French  translation  made  by  Calvin 
liimself  appeared  in  Basel,  154L  The  final  form 
was  given  to  the  Institutes  in  the  Latin  edition  of 
Geneva,  1559,  when  it  was  made  into  a  treatise 
of  four  books,  divided  into  a  hundred  and  four 
chapters.! 

Lit.  —  Calvin's  writings.  Joannks  Calvinus: 
Opera  qua;  supersunt  omnia,  ed.  G.  Baum,  E.  Cu- 
NiTz,  K.  Reuss.  Brunsvigas  (liraunschweig),  1803 
sqq.  30th  vol.,  1886.  This  edition  supersedes  all 
others  (Geneva,  1617, 12  vols,  fob  ;  Amster.,  1671, 
9  vols,  fol.,  etc.).  1'here  is  an  Knglish  translation 
of  Calvin's  works  by  the  "  Calvin  Translation 
Society,"  Edinburgh,  18-12-53,  52  vols.  There  is 
an  edition  of  those  works  originally  written  in 
French,  (Euvres  Fran<;ois  dc  J.  Calvin,  rccueillcs 
pour  la  premiere  fois  (Preceddes  de  sa  vie  par 
Theod.  de  Beze,  et  d'une  notice  bibliographique, 
par  P.  L.  .Jacob,  bibliophile),  Paris,  1812,  12ino. 
The  Braunschweig  edition  includes  Calvin's  Let^ 
ters,  which  are  numerous  and  important.  An 
English  translation  from  the  previous  edition  of 
Bonnet  is  published  in  4  vols,  by  the  Presb.  Board 
of  Pub.,  I'hiladelphia.  See  also  A.  L.  Hkumin- 
JARD :  Correspondance  des  reformateurs  dans  les 
pays  de  lanr/uefranfaise,  Geneve  et  Paris,  1806  sqq. 

Biographies  of  Calvin. — Tn.  de  Bezk  :  His- 
toire  de  la  vie  et  la  morl  de  J.  Cahnn,  Geneve,  1564 ; 
2d  French  ed.  enlarged  by  N.  Colladon,  1565, 
republished  by  A.  Franklin,  Paris,  1864;  Latin 
ed.  by  Beza,  Geneva,  1575  (the  chief  material, 
along  with  his  Letters,  for  an  authentic  biography); 
Hieron.  Bolsec  :  Histoire  de  la  vie  de  Jean  Calvin, 
Paris,  1577  (Geneve,  1835,  Lyon,  1875)  ;  in  Latin, 


1  Tn  C-ilvin's  life  the  following  editions  of  the  oricinni  L-itin 
appeared  mider  his  supervision  •  at  Basel,  153fi;  at  Slrassburi;, 
1539,  I.^43,  l.i4o;  at  Geneva,  1650,  1653,  1564,  1560  (from  which 
the  ordit:ary  trantilations  are  made).  See  J.  THOMAS  :  Histoire 
de  I'instit.  hhrdtienne  dc  J,  Catv.,  Blrasb.,  1859, 

26  —  1 


Coloniie,  1.580  (a  mean  libel;  a  reply  to  it,  entitled 
yl»((7W.s-eci(s,  appeared  at  Cleves,  1622);  Dkei.in- 
couitT  :  La  defense  ile  Calvin,  Geneve,  1667  (a  refu- 
tation of  Bolsec);  PailHenuy:  Das Lehen  lohann 
Calvins,  ILamliurg,  1835-44,  3  vols.,  abridged  in 
one  vol.,  Hamburg,  1846;  English  tiaiislation  by 
Stebbing  (defective,  omits  most  of  Henry's  notes, 
and  all  his  appendix),  London  and  New  Yoik, 
1854,  2  vols,  (much  valuable  but  ill-digested  ma- 
terial);  AuDix  (K.  C.) :  Histoire  de  la  vie  de 
Calvin,  Paris,  1841,  5th  ed.,  1851,  2  vols.,  also  in 
English  and  German  (bitter  and  scurrilous,  full 
of  misrepresentations  and  blunders)  ;  T.  H. 
Dyek  :  Life  of  Calvin,  London,  1849  (valuable 
and  impartial)  ;  Felix  Bungeneu  :  Calvin,  Paris, 
1862;  English  translation,  Edinb.,  1863  (popular 
but  trustworthy)  ;  E.  Stahelin  :  Joliannes  Calvin, 
Elberfeld,  1863,  2  vols,  (on  the  whole,  the  best 
biography,  full,  and  well  arranged,  yet  needing 
modification  on  some  j)oints) ;  F.  W.  Kamp- 
SCIIULTE  :  Jottann  Calvin,  seine  Kirvhe  und  sein 
Staat  in  Gerif  Ijcipzig,  1869,  vol.  I.  (all  published, 
extends  to  1546,  able  and  siiigulaily  impartial, 
author  died  an  Old  Catholic  in  1871);  Thomas 
McCrie  :  The  Earlij  Years  of  John  Calvin,  Lon- 
don, 1880  ;  B.  FoNTANA  :  Documenti  circa  il  soggi- 
orno  di  Catvino  a  Ferrara,  Home,  1885. 

Essays  upon  Calvin  and  his  work.  —  JI.  Ml- 
gnet  :  Memoire  sur  I'e'tablissciuent  de  la  rcfomie  et 
sur  la  constitution  du  Calvisme  a  Genlve,  Paris, 
1834 ;  E.  Renax  ;  Jean  Calvin,  in  Etudes  d'kistoire 
religeuse,  5th  ed.,  Paris,  1862  ;  English  translation 
by  O.  B.  Frothingham,  Studies  of  Religious  His- 
tory and  Criticism,  N.Y.,  1804;  Amad.  Roget: 
I^'eglise  et  I'etat  a  Geneve  de  virant  Calvin,  Geneve, 
1877  (this  little  book  corrects  the  common  im- 
pression of  Calvin's  rule  in  Geneva,  and  shows 
that  the  civil  authority  meddled  too  much  with 
ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  once  even  exhorted  Cal- 
vin to  fulfil  his  duties  better)  ;  GuizoT  :  St.  Louis 
and  Calvin,  London,  1868 ;  P.  Lobstein  :  Die 
Etkik  Calvin's  in  ihren  Grundziigen  entxvorfen, 
Strassburg,  1877. 

General  works.  ■ — Meule  d'Aubione:  History 
of  the  Reformation  in  Europe  in  the  Time  of  Calvin 
(translated  from  the  French),  N.Y.,  1863-79,  8 
vols.;  G.  P.  Fisher:  The  Reformation,  New 
York,  1873  (pp.  192-241).  For  an  .ampler  bib- 
liography see  bcHAFF  :  Creeds  of  C/irislendom,  vol. 
I.  pp.  421,  422.  HERZOG  (S.  M.  JACKSON). 

CALVINISM  is  a  term  used  to  designate  the 
doctrinal  system  of  Calvin.  But  the  doctrines 
are  far  older  than  the  man.  The  system  was 
known  originally  as  Augustinianism,  from  its  ear- 
liest champion,  St.  Augustine  (353-430).'  Cal- 
vinism is  the  term  for  its  developed  and  Protestant 
form,  which  finds  its  definition,  not  alone  in  the 
writings  of  Augustine  and  Calvin,  but  in  the 
published  confessions  of  those  churches  which 
h.ave  professed  this  form  of  doctrine,  and  in  their 
standard  theological  writincs. 


'  [Tt  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  Angustine  also 
taught  sunie  of  the  leading  doctrines  of  the  Koman-Catboiic 
Church,  which  still  regards  him  as  the  greatest  authority 
among  the  fathers.  Calvinism  is  a  development  of  the  anti- 
Pelagian  Augustinianism,  and  at  the  same  time  an  advance 
tipon  it,  with  many  new  features  never  dreamed  of  by  the 
Bishop  of  Hippo.  In  other  words  Calvit),  and  Luther  before 
him,  followed  Augustine,  only  in  the  doctrines  on  sin  and 
grace,  and  oii  predestination,  but  dilfered  from  him  on  jnstifi- 
cation.  on  the  rule  of  faith,  on  the  church,  and  many  other  im- 
portant points.  —  £d.J 


CALVINISM. 


370 


CALVINISM. 


)C»* 


r 


A.  A  Statemkxt  of  the  Principles  of 
Calvinism.  — I.  The  Relation  of  the  Creator  tn  the 
Creation.  —  Calcinism  teaches  Cliristian  Theism. 
It  emphasizes  at  once  the  tmnsieiice  of  God  be- 
yond, and  tlie  immanence  of  God  within,  the 
world.  He  remains  ever  a  conscious  personal 
Spirit,  witliout  and  above  tlie  world,  able,  in  the 
exercise  of  his  free  volitions,  sovereignly  to  exer- 
cise a  supernatural  influence  upon  any  part  of 
that  s}-steni  of  nature  which  he  has  established, 
ordinarily  working  through  second  causes,  ''yet 
free  to  work  without,  above,  and  against  them,  at 
his  pleasure."  At  the  same  time  his  creatures 
are  momentarily  dependent  upon  the  energy  of 
his  will  for  substance,  and  for  the  possession  of 
the  powers  comnuinicated  to  tliem  as  second 
causes  in  all  their  exercises. 

But  this  is  common  ground  for  all  Christians. 
Calvinism,  or  Augustinianism,  just  here  opposes 
itself  to  Pelagianism  (see  title)  in  that  it  teaches, 
that,  prior  to  apostasy,  the  spirit  of  man  depended 
for  spiritual  life  and  moral  integrity  upon  the 
concurs^  (concurrence)  of  tiie  Spirit  of  God,  the 
withdrawal  of  which  is  the  immediate  cause  of 
spiritual  death  and  moral  impotence.  This  divine 
influence,  in  one  degree,  and  in  one  mode  or 
another,  is  common  to  all  creatures  and  all  their 
actions;  and  it  is  called  "  (/cnce,"  when,  as  an  un- 
deserved favor,  it  is  in  a  supernatural  manner 
restored  to  the  souls  of  sinful  men,  with  the  de- 
sign of  ailecting  their  moral  character  and  action. 

II.  7'he  Design  of  God  in  Creation  is  declared 
in  the  Scriptures  to  be  the  manifestation  of  his 
own  glorious  perfections;  and  Calvinism  seizes 
this  principle,  and  applies  it  to  the  interpretation 
of  all  God's  dealings  with  man,  and  of  all  man's 
duties  to  God. 

III.  The  Eternal  Plan  of  God  ai»l  the  Actual 
Succession  of  Ecents  in  Time  is  set  forth  thus:  1. 
This  eternal  and  immutable  plan  of  God  has 
constituted  man  a  free  agent,  and  consequently 
can  never  interfere  with  the  exercise  of  that  free- 
dom of  which  it  is  itself  the  foundation  ;  '2.  This 
created  free  will  is  not,  however,  independent, 
but  ever  continues  to  have  its  ground  in  the 
conserving  energies  of  the  Creator  ;  3.  In  the  case 
of  an  infinitely  wise,  powerful,  and  free  Creator 
of  all  things  out  of  nothing,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  certain  i'oi-eknowledge  of  all  events  from  the 
ab.solute  beginning  virtually  involves  the  prede- 
termination of  each  event  without  exception;  for 
all  the  causes  and  consequences,  direct  and  contin- 
gent, which  are  foreseen  in  creation,  are,  of  course, 
determined  by  creation  ;  4.  Since  all  events  con- 
.stitute  a  single  system,  the  Creator  nnist  embrace 
the  system  <is  a  wholes,  and  every  infinitesimal 
element  of  it,  in  one  all-comprehensive  intention; 
ends  more  or  less  general  nnist  be  determined  as 
ends,  and  means  and  conditions  in  all  their 
several  relations  to  the  ends  wliich  are  made 
dependent  uj)on  them  :  hence,  while  every  event 
remains  dependent  n]K>n  its  causes,  and  contin- 
gent upon  its  conditions,  none  of  (iod's  purposes 
can  possibly  be  contingent,  because,  in  turn,  ev(M\y 
cause  and  condition  is  determined  in  that  i)ur- 
l)ose,  as  well  as  the  ends  which  are  suspen<l(^d 
upon  them :  all  the  decrees  of  God  are  hence 
called  absolute,  because  they  are  ultimately  de- 
t.ennined  always  by  "the  counsel  of  his  own 
will,"  and  never  by  any  thmg  exterior  to  him 


which  has  not  in  turn  been  previously  determined 
by  him  ;  5.  -This  determination,  however,  instead 
of  interfering  with,  maintains  the  true  causality 
of  the  creature,  and  the  free  seU'-determination  of 
men  and  angels.  Since  the  holiness  of  the  cre- 
ated moral  agent  is  conditioned  upon  the  in- 
dwelling of  divine  grace,  and  its  turning  from 
grace  is  the  cause  of  sin,  it  follows  tliat  all  the 
good  in  the  volitions  of  free  agents  is  to  be  re- 
ferred to  (iod  a.s  its  positive  som-ce ;  but  all  the 
evil  (which  orirjinutes  in  defect,  privation)  is  to  be 
referred  simply  to  his  permission.  In  this  view 
all  events,  without  exception,  are  embraced  in 
God's  eternal  purpose ;  even  the  primal  aposta- 
sies of  Satan  and  of  Adam,  as  well  as  all  those 
consequences  which  have  flowed  from  them.  The 
charge  of  fatalism  so  often  made  does  not  really 
lie  against  Calvinism;  for  the  energizing  will 
of  the  personal  Jehovah,  at  once  perfect  Light 
and  Love,  is  very  different  from  fate.  It  is  one 
thing  to  be  borne  along  by  irresistible  yet  utterly 
blind  force,  and  quite  another  to  be  led  by  our 
heavenly  Father's  hand. 

IV.  God's  liencvulcnce.  Justice,  and  Grace  in 
the  Scheme  of  Redemption. — Justice,  as  well  as 
benevolence,  is  an  essential  and  ultimate  prop- 
erty of  the  divine  nature,  and  hence  lies  back 
of,  and  determines  the  character  of,  the  divine 
volitions.  By  the  perfection  of  God's  nature  he 
is  always  benevolent  to  the  innocent,  and  just  as 
certainly  is  he  determined  to  p)unish  the  guilty. 
In  the  gospel,  God  has  sovereignly  separated  the 
sin  from  the  sinner  in  certain  cases,  in  the  vica- 
rious penal  sufferings  of  his  Son  ti'eating  the  be- 
lieving sinner  as  a  righteous  person  ;  that  is,  as  a 
person  with  regard  to  whom  all  the  demands  of 
justice  are  fully  satisfied.  Hence  he  has  exer- 
cised both  justice  and  benevolence,  —  justice  to 
the  sin  and  to  the  law,  benevolence  to  the  sinner; 
wliich  benevolence  to  the  imdeserving  is  sovereign 
grace.  Calvinism,  wliile  admitting  the  general 
benevolence  of  God,  emphasizes  his  justice  and 

GliACE. 

V.  The  Effect  of  Adam's  Apostasi/  tipnn  his 
Poslcritij. — I'he  entire  soul  with  all  its  constitu- 
tional faculties  and  acquired  habits  is  the  organ 
of  volition,  the  agent  willing.  It  possesses  the 
inalienable  property  of  self-determination,  the 
moral  character  of  which  always  depends  upon 
the  indwelling  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  it  needs, 
therefore,  divine  help  to  will  rightly.  Adam  was 
created  in  fellowship  with  (!o(l,  and  hence  with  a 
holy  tendency  of  heart,  with  full  ])ower  not  to 
sin,  but  also,  for  a  limited  )ieriod  of  jirob.ation, 
with  power  to  sin;  and  when  he  sinned  the  Holy 
Spirit  w,as  withdrawn  from  the  race,  and  he  and 
his  descendants  lost  the  original  power  not  to  sin, 
and  gained  the  necessity  to  sin;  in  other  words, 
total  moral  inability.  But  this  theological  doc- 
trine is  to  bo  carefully  <lislingnislied  from  the 
metaphysical  one  of  "jihilosophical  necessity." 
The  phrases,  the  "  bondage?  of  the  will,"  etc.,  are 
intended  to  apply  only  to  the  corrupt  sjiontani^ous 
tendency  of  fallen  man  to  evil,  which  can  be  re- 
versed only  by  a  new  creating  energy  from  above. 
At  the  same  time,  every  Calvinist  holds  devoutly 
to  the  free  self-determination  of  the  soul  in  ev('ry 
moral  action,  and  is  at  liberty  to  give  whatcvei 
jisychological  ex]^lan.ation  of  tliat  fact  may  .'eenv 
toliim  most  reasonable.    Ilenco  Calviuists  hold,  -~ 


CALVINISM. 


371 


CALVINISM. 


First  as  to  original  guilt:  (1)  Human  sin,  hav- 
ing originated  in  tlio  free  apostatizing  act  of 
Adam,  deserves  (iod's  wratli  and  curse ;  and  im- 
inutal)le  justice  demands  tlieir  iniliction.  (2) 
Sucli,  moreover,  was  the  relation  subsisting  be- 
tween Adam  and  his  descendants,  that  God  right- 
eously regards  and  treats  each  one  as  he  comes 
into  being  as  worthy  of  tlie  punislnuent  of  that 
sin,  and  conseiiuently  withdraws  liis  life-giving- 
fellowship  from  him.  The  whole  race,  therefore, 
and  each  individual  it  embraces,  is  under  the  just 
condemnation  of  God;  and  hence  the  gift  of 
Christ,  and  the  entire  scheme  of  redemption  in 
its  conception,  execution,  and  application,  are 
t,hroughout  and  in  every  sense  a  product  of  sov- 
ereign grace.  God  was  free  to  provide  it  for  few 
or  many,  for  all  or  none,  just  as  he  pleased  ;  and 
in  every  case  of  its  application  the  motives  deter- 
mining God  cannot  be  found  in  the  object,  but 
only  in  tlie  good  pleasure  of  the  will  of  the  di- 
vine Agent. 

Secondly  as  to  original  sin :  (1)  Since  evei-y 
man  thus  comes  into  the  world  in  a  condition  of 
ante-natal  forfeiture,  because  of  Adam's  apostasy, 
he  is  judicially  excluded  from  the  morally  quicken- 
ing energy  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  hence  begins 
to  think,  feel,  and  act  without  a  spontaneous  bias 
to  moral  good.  (2)  But  since  moral  obligation 
is  positive,  and  the  soul  is  essentially  active,  it 
instantly  develops  in  action  a  spiritual  blindness 
and  deadness  to  divine  things,  and  a  positive  in- 
clination to  evil.  This  involves  the  corruption 
of  tlie  whole  nature ;  and  the  absolute  impoteiicy 
of  the  will  to  good  is,  humanly  speaking,  without 
remedy,  and  necessarily  tends  to  the  indefinite 
increase,  both  of  depravity  and  guilt.  It  is  there- 
fore said  to  be  total. 

VI.  The  Nature  and  Necessity  of  Recjeneratiiirj 
Grace.  —  Grace  is  free,  sovereign  favor  to  the  ill- 
deserving.  Calviiiists  distinguish  (1)  "common 
grace,"  or  the  moral  and  suasory  influence  on  the 
.soul  of  the  Spirit  acting  through  the  truth,  as  the 
result  of  Christ's  work,  which  tends  to  restrain 
its  evil  passions,  but  which  may  be  resisted,  and 
is  always  prevailingly  resisted  by  the  unregeiier- 
ate, from  ("2)  "effectual  calling,"  which  is  a  single 
act  of  God,  changing  the  moral  character  of  tlie 
will  of  the  subject,  and  implanting  a  prevail- 
ing tendency  to  co-operate  with  future  grace  in 
all  forms  of  holy  obedience.  By  reason  of  this 
new  creative  energy  within  it,  the  soul  spontane- 
ously embraces  Christ,  and  turns  to  God.  (o) 
Afterwards  this  same  divine  energy  continues  to 
support  the  soul,  and  prepare  it  for,  and  to  con- 
cur with  it  ill,  every  good  work.  This  gi-ace  is 
now  prevailingly  co-operated  with  by  the  regener- 
ated soul,  and  at  times  resisted,  until  the  status 
of  gi-ace  is  succeeded  by  the  status  of  glory. 

VII.  The  Application  of  the  Plan  of  Itedemption. 
—  Predestination,  or  the  purpose  of  God  to  secure 
the  salvation  of  some  men,  and  not  of  all,  has 
been  popularly  regarded  as  the  distinguishing 
feature  of  Calvinism,  and  one  most  revolting  to 
the  moral  sense.  Some  Calvinists,  reasoning 
downward  from  the  nature  of  God  as  absolute, 
and  developing  this  doctrine  in  a  strictly  specula- 
tive manner,  have  made  it  the  foundation  of  their 
system.  These  have  necessarily  conceived  of  it 
in  the  high  and  logically  coherent  suprahipsarian 
sense  (election  before  creation ;  the  decree  to  cre- 


ate, and  jiermit  men  to  fall,  in  order  to  carry  out 
their  predestined  salvation  or  perdition),  which 
has  been  rejected  by  the  great  body  of  the  Re- 
formed tlieologians  as  unscriptural,  and  revolting 
to  the  moral  sense.  Tlu;  vast  majority  of  (,'alvin- 
ists,  however,  are  influenced  by  i>iaclical,  and  not 
speculative,  considerations,  and  therefore  hold  to 
the  infralapsarian  (election  after  creation)  view, 
(iod,  they  say,  elects  his  people  out  of  the  mass  of 
guilty  sinners,  and  provides  redemption  for  them, 
thus  securing  for  them  faith  and  rei)entance 
whereby  th(;y  may  be  saved.  These  gifts  cannot, 
therefore,  be  conditions  of  salvation,  as  Arniiiiians 
hold  ;  rather  they  are  its  predetermined  and  gra- 
ciously effected  I'esults. 

Gottschalk  (808-8(58)  taught  a  double  predesti- 
nation,—  the  elect  to  salvation,  and, the  reprobate 
to  damnation.  But  this  theory  is  not  tauglit  in 
the  recognized  standards  of  Calvinism.  God 
elects  of  free  grace  all  those  he  purposes  to  save, 
and  actually  saves  them ;  while  those  wliom  he 
does  not  elect  ai'e  simply  left  under  the  operation 
of  the  law  of  exact  justice,  whatever  that  may  be. 
All  infants,  idiots,  and  all  believers  in  Christ,  are  — 
saved  by  gTace.  All  others  are  left  to  the  opera- 
tion of  pure  justice.  It  is  obvious  that  all  do  not 
believe,  that  all  are  not  saved.  Calvinistic  "  par- 
ticularism "  admits  the  actual  results  of  salvation 
in  their  widest  scope,  and  refers  all  to  the  gracious 
purpose  and  power  of  God,  but  does  not  restrict 
it  one  iota  within  the  limits  determined  by  the 
facts  themselves. 

B.  The  History  of  Calvinism.  ^  The  East- 
ern division  of  the  Church  had  from  the  first,  in 
re-action  from  prevalent  Gnosticism,  emphasized 
the  autonomy  of  the  human  will.  While  the 
triitli  of  human  free  agency  was  on  all  sides  ad- 
mitted, a  tendency  to  give  proportionate  consid- 
eration to  the  correlaj^ive  facts  of  the  controlling 
influence  of  character  over  action,  of  original  sin, 
and  of  moral  impotency,  is  first  traced  in  the  Latin 
or  Western  Church,  in  the  writings  of  Tertullian 
of  Carthage  (220  A.D.),  Hilary  of  Poictiers 
(;j6S),  and  Ambrose  of  Milan  (397).  But  the 
characteristic  principles  of  the  system  now  called 
Calvinism  were  first  fully  developed  by  Augustine, 
Bishop  of  Hippo  (32-i-4oO).'  His  great  opponent 
was  Pelagius  (Morgan),  —  a  British  monk,  a  stu- 
dent of  the  Greek  fathers,  a  man  of  pure  life,  moral 
earnestness,  and  -n'ide  familiarity  with  different 
parts  of  the  C'lmrch,  —  assisted  by  Coelestius,  a 
Konian  advocate,  and  Julian,  an  eloquent  deposed 
bishop.  The  opinions  of  Pelagius  were  unani- 
mously condemned  by  the  whole  Church,  Eastern 
and  Western,  at  the  Councils  of  Cartilage  (407- 
41G),  IMileve  (410),  and  Ephesus  (431),  and  by 
Popes  Innocent  and  Zosimus,  —  a  sure  proof  that 
they  were  not  in  accordance  with  the  original 
faith  of  the  Church.  And  up  to  the  present  time  '. 
Pelagianism  has  never  been  adopted  into  the  ', 
public  creed  of  any  ecclesiastical  body  except  that 
of  the  Socinians  of  Poland  (Racovian  Catechism, 
1605).  Afterwards  the  doctrines  of  Augustine 
triumphed,  in  their  conflict  with  Semi-pelagianism, 
at  tlie  Synods  of  Orange  and  Valence  (•")29),  and 
by  the  decrees  of  Popes  Gelasius  (496)  and  Boni- 
face (530).  Henceforth  a  moderate  Augiistiniau- 
ism  became  the  legally  recognized  orthodoxy  of 

•  [See  footnote  on  page  369.] 


CALVINISM. 


372 


CALVINISM. 


"Western  Europe,  and  actually  tinctured  the  lead- 
ing minds  and  events  of  that  great  community 
for  several  centuries.  Bede,  Alcuiu,  and  Claudius 
of  Turui,  and  afterwards  the  best  and  greatest 
of  the  schoolmen,  —  Anselm  (910),  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux  (lUO).  Hugo  St.  Victor,  Thomas  Aqui- 
nas (1:247),  and  Thomas  Bradwardine  (134S), — 
were  all  of  the  school  of  Augustine.  The  same 
is  true  of  all  the  "  Reformers  before  the  Reforma- 
tion," —  Wycliffe  (1324-84),  John  llus  (1369- 
141d),  the  Waldenses  of  Piedmont,  John  ^Vessel 
(1419-Sa),  John  of  Goch  (1475),  Savonarola 
(1493),  John  Reuchlin,  and  Staupitz,  the  spiritual 
father  of  Luther. 

The  Reformation  was  a  re-action  from  the  glow- 
ing Semi-pelagianism,  as  well  as  from  the  idolatry 
and  tyranny  of  the  Papal  Church.  It  was  in  all 
its  leaders,  Luther  as  decidedly  as  Calvin,  and  in 
all  its  centres,  England  and  Germany  as  well  as 
Scotland,  Holland,  or  Geneva,  an  Augustinian 
movement.  Although  Calvin  was  not  the  first  to 
formulate  the  system  which  goes  by  his  name, 
to  him,  nevertheless,  justly  belongs  the  praise  of 
presenting  to  the  world  the  first  and  grandest 
work  of  systematic  divinity,  —  of  recasting  Augus- 
tinianism  in  its  Protestant  form,  and  of  handing 
it  to  the  modern  world  stamped  with  its  great 
author's  name.  By  him  Calvinism  and  its  cor- 
relatives —  Presbyterianism  in  the  Church,  and 
Republicanism  in  the  State  —  were,  though  not 
invented,  advocated  and  disseminated  with  tran- 
scendent ability  and  success.  From  him  his  doc- 
trines passed  to  that  "  apostolic  succession  "  of 
Bullinger,  Turrettin,  Witsius,  John  Owen,  and 
Jonathan  Edwards;  to  the  Synod  of  Dort  (1618- 
19)  and  the  Westminster  Assembly  (1638);  and 
so  to  the  churches  of  France,  Switzerland,  Hol- 
land, England,  and  Scotland ;  to  the  Independents, 
the  Baptists,  and  to  the  Presbyterians  in  all  lands. 
The  Episcopal  Church  of  England  and  America, 
whatever  may  be  the  teachings  of  its  different 
leaders,  was,  beyond  controversy,  in  the  intention 
of  its  founders,  and  in  the  first  century  of  its 
history,  and  is  yet  in  its  doctrinal  articles,  essen- 
tially Augustinian. 

Thus  Calvinism  exhibits  its  life  by  the  very 
varieties  it  presents.  In  Germany  it  has  been 
rendered  less  thorough  and  definite  through  the 
influence  of  tlie  compromising  school  of  Melanch- 
thon.  In  Holland,  En"land,  and  Scotland  it  has 
been  modified  in  form  by  the  "  Federal  Sciieme," 
introduced  by  Cocceius  and  the  Westminster 
divines.  In  America  it  lias  been  coerced  through 
more  radical  and  more  transient  transformations, 
in  the  sjiecnlations  of  Hopkins,  the  younger  Ed- 
wards, Emmons,  N.  AV.  Taylor,  and  others  of  the 
New-Englaii<l  school. 

C.  TiiK  Pkacticai,  Effect  of  Calvinism 
is  the  best  possible  refutation  of  the  charges 
often  brought  against  it.  1.  It  has  uniformly 
raised  the  moral  standard  of  both  individuals  and 
communities  by  exalting  the  sovereignty  of  (iod, 
and  empliasizing  the  moral  law.  Compare  the 
Waldensians  with  tiie  oilier  Italians;  (ieneva 
under  Calvin's  rule  with  its  condition  before  or 
since;  the  Huguenots  with  their  Homan-Catholic 
fellow-citi/.ens ;  the  Janscriists  with  the  Jesuits; 
the  English  Pnritans  with  tin;  courtiers  of  Charles 
II. ;  and,  finally,  all  tiiose  sections  of  America 
settled  by  tlie  Puritans  and  the  Presbj-terians  of 


Scotland,  France,  and  Holland,  with  those  settled 
by  men  of  other  faiths ;  North  America  with  South 
America.  Calvinism  makes  giants  _of,inen.  Wil- 
liam tlie  Silent  and  Cromwell,  Knox  and  Bunyan, 
were  Calvinists.  The  Shorter  Catechism  fought 
through  successfully  the  Revolutionary  War. 
2.  As  in  personal  cliaractcr,  so,  of  course,  in  gov- 
ernment, both  in  Church  and  State.  It  promotes 
political  freedom  ;  it  establishes  religious  liberty. 
Its  principles  strip  the  ministry  of  all  sacerdotal 
powers.  They  make  all  men  and  all  Christians 
equal  before  God.  Tliey  make  God  absolute,  and 
supreme  over  all,  and  the  immediate  Controller 
and  Disposer  of  human  affairs.  Hence  all  churches 
accepting  Calvinism,  unless  prevented  by  external 
conditions,  have  immediately  adopted  popular  con- 
stitutions, —  Presbyterian  or  Independent.  The 
republic  was  established  at  the  same  time  with 
presbytery  at  Geneva.  The  ^lecklenburg  Decla- 
ration (May  20,  1775)  was  adopted  by  twenty- 
seven  delegates,  nine  of  whom,  including  the 
president  and  secretary,  were  ruling  elders ;  and 
one  was  a  Presbyterian  minister.  The  simple 
enumeration  of  the  names  of  the  great  represen- 
tative Calvinistic  nationalities  —  the  Waldenses, 
the  Swiss,  the  Huguenots,  the  Hollanders,  the 
Puritans,  the  Covenanters,  tlie  New-England  and 
Scotch-Irish  Americans  —  proves  this  point  be- 
yond question. 

3.  The  relation  of  Calvinism  to  education  is 
no  less  conspicuous  and  illustrious.  The  little 
republic  of  Geneva  became  the  sun  of  the  Euro- 
pean world.  The  Calvinists  of  France,  notwith- 
standing all  their  embarrassments,  immediately 
founded  and  sustained  three  illustrious  theologi- 
cal schools,  —  at  Moiitauban,  Saumur,  and  Sedan. 
The  peasantry  of  Scotland  excel  in  intelligence 
those  of  other  European  peoples,  thanks  to  the 
parish  schools.  In  this  country,  it  has  been  said, 
for  the  first  two  hundred  years  of  our  history, 
"almost  every  college  and  seminary  of  learning, 
and  almost  every  academy  and  connnon  school 
even,  had  been  built  up  and  sustained  by  Calvin- 
ists." With  Calvinism  goes  the  teacher;  with 
Romanism,  the  priest. 

4.  While  it  is  true  that  every  religion  and  reli- 
gious party,  however  impure  its  creed,  or  tem- 
porary its  success,  may  boast  its  martyrs,  it  is 
nevertheless  a  fact  equally  certain  and  significant, 
that,  beyond  all  others  put  together,  the  Calvin- 
istic churches  have  furnished  the  martyrs  to 
Christianity  since  the  Reformation.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  niention  the  AV'aldeiises,  the  victims 
of  the  Inquisition  in  Italy  and  Spain,  the  Mas- 
sacre of  St.  Bartholomew,  the  Revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  the  victims  of  Philip  and  Alva 
in  llolland,  of  "  Bloody  Mary  "  and  of  the  "  High 
Commission  "  and  of  the  "  Bloody  Assizes  "  in 
England,  the  Puritans  and  Covenanters,  and  vic- 
tims of  Claverhouse,  and  the  "  Killing  Time"  in 
Scotland. 

5.  And,  lastly,  Calvinism  is  the  friend  of  mis- 
sions. But  in  this  it  is  not  alone.  No  church 
of  Christ  can  forget  his  command  to  "  disciple 
all  nations."  But  this  can  be  fairly  claimed  on 
behalf  of  the  Calvinistic  chnrches.  They  have 
been  alike  in  priority  and  in  extent  of  enterprise 
and  devotion,  —  l<'ailcrs  in  this  great  woik.  'I'liey 
have  also  excelled  in  the  thoroughness  of  their 
mission    educational   organizations,   and   in    the 


CALVINISM. 


373 


CAMALDULES. 


manly  and  Christian  type  of  character  they  have 
formed  in  tlie  converts  they  have  gathered  of  all 
races  and  in  all  lands. 

D.  Lit.  —  Aikjustini  Opera  Omnia,  Henedic- 
tine  edition,  Paris,  18:!G-39 ;  Works  of  Aurolius 
Augustine,  Bishop  of  Hippo,  a  new  translation, 
edited  by  ]{ev.  Mahcus  Dods,  15  vols.  8vo, 
Edinburgh,  T.  &  T.  Clark,  1871-70;  S.  Thomas 
Aquin-^tis  Summa  Theoloijica,  ed.  nova,  8  vols. 
8vo,  I'arisiis,  18S0  ;  Joannis  Calvini  Opera  Om- 
nia, in  norem  toniii.i  digesta,  folio,  !J  vols.,  Ainstelo- 
dami,  IGUT-'l  ;  the  Works  of  John  Calvin  in  51 
vols.  8vo,  translated  and  published  by  the  CaMn 
Translation  Society,  Edinburgh,  1814-5U ;  Letters 
of  John  Calvin,  compiled  by  Jules  Bonnet,  Phila- 
delphia, Presbyterian  Board,  18G4;  Corxklius 
Jansex  :  Au</uslinu.i  S.  doctrina  Aufjustini,  3  vols, 
fob,  Paris,  1011 ;  MosKS  Amyualdus  :  De  Pre- 
deslinatione,  Saumur,  1058;  Bi:itxii.\R»ixi  de 
Mooit:  CommenlariusperpeluuninJohannisMarckii 
Compendium  Theologice  Christiana:,  7  vols.  4to, 
Lugduni  Batavorum,  1701-74  ;  Institulio  Theolo- 
gies Eleucticce,  Aulhore  Francisco  TuiiRETnxo, 
3  vols.  4to,  Geneva,  1079 ;  JoHX  IIexrici  IIei- 
DEGGERi  Corpus  Theoloniee  Christiance.,  Tignri, 
1700;  77ie  (Economy  of  the  Covenants  hetteeen  God 
and  Man,  by  Herman  Witsius,  D.D.,  2  vols.  8vo, 
London,  1840;  Works  of  Jonx  Owex,  D.D., 
edited  by  Rev.  William  H.  Goold,  Edinburgh,  10 
vols.  8vo,  Xew  York,  Robert  Carter  &  Bro.,  185:5 ; 
Baxter  :  Defence  of  Christ  anrf  Free  Grace 
nr/ainst  the  Antinomians  (crisp),  8vo,  1090;  also 
Treatise  on  Unicersal  Reitemption,  8vo,  1094 ;  the 
works  of  President  Edwards,  4  vols.  8vo,  Xew 
York,  Carter  &  Brothers,  1809 ;  Systematic  The- 
ology, by  Charles  Hodge,  D.D.,  3  vols.  8vo, 
New  York,  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  1872 ;  Col- 
lectio  Confessionum  in  ecclesiis  Reformatis  Puh- 
licatorum,  edidit  Dr.  II.  A.  Niemeyer,  LipsicC, 
1840;  Comparative  View  of  the  Doctrines  and  Con- 
fessions of  the  Various  Communities  of  Christendom, 
by  Dr.  George  Benedict  Wixer,  translated  and 
edited  by  Professor  William  B.  Pope,  Edinburgh, 
T.  &  T."  Clark,  1873;  Creeds  of  Christendom,  by 
Dr.  Philip  Schaff,  3  vols.  8vo,  New  York,  Har- 
per &  Brothers,  1877  ;  History  of  Christian  Dogmas, 
by  Dr.  Augustus  Neaxder,  translated  by  J.  E. 
Ryland,  M.A.,  2  vols.  12mo,  London,  George  Bell 
&  Sons,  1857 ;  History  of  Christian  Doctrines,  by 
Dr.  K.  R.  Hagenbach,  translated  from  fifth  and 
last  German  edition,  Edinburgh,  T.  &  T.  Clark, 
1880;  AVigger's  Historical  Presentation  of  Aupus- 
tinianlvn  and  Pelagianism,  translated  by  Ralph 
Emerson,  Andover,  1840;  General  History  of  the 
Christian  lleligion  and  Church,  by  Dr.  Augitstils 
Neaxder,  translated  according  to  the  last  edition 
by  Joseph  Torrey,  11th  American  edition,  revised, 
corrected,  and  enlarged,  5  vols.  8vo,  Boston, 
Crocker  &  Brewster,  1872;  History  of  the  Christian 
Church,  by  Philip  Schaff.  D.D.,  new  edition. 
New  York,  Charles  Scribner,  3d  vol.,  1807; 
The  Augustinian  Doctrine  of  Predestination,  by  J. 
B.  Mozley,  B.D.,  London,  John  Murray,  1855; 
History  of  Christian  Doctrine,  by  Rev.  Williaji 
G.  T.  Shedd,  D.D.,  2  vols.  8vo,  New  York, 
Charles  Scribner,  1863 ;  Historical  Theology,  2 
vols.  8vo,  by  Principal  William  Cunningham, 
D.D.,  Edinburgh,  T.  &  T.  Clark,  1803;  The  Re- 
formers and  the  Theology  of  Ike  Reformation,  by 
Principal  William  Cunningham,  D.D.,  Edin- 


burgh, T.  &  T.  Clark,  18G2  ;   W.    M.  Paxton: 

The  Mission  of  the  Presbyterian  Chnrch  (.Sermon 
before  the  Second  Council  of  the  Alliance  of  the 
Reformed  Churches),  N.Y.,  1880. 

A.   A.   nODUK    (from  llie   autlior's  nrtidfi   In   Johnson's 
Cyctopirdia,  ubridK^'fli  Jidfiptc-d,  iind  Lit.  HUi)pl».'rni!ntc-d). 

CAMALDULES  (CamrUdulani,  Camaldulenses). 
The  founder  of  this  order  was  Roniualdus,  b.  at 
Ravenna,  950 ;  d.  at  Val  de  Castro,  June  18,  1027. 
In  Ids  twentieth  year  he  entered  the  Monastery 
of  Classe,  near  Ravenna;  but  monastic  life  did 
not  fully  satisfy  him.  Aspiring  to  a  higher  state 
of  holiness,  he  left  Classe  in  970,  and  became  an 
anchoret.  After  wandering  about  for  several 
years  in  various  directions,  he  .settled  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Ravenna;  not  for  a  long  time, 
though,  in  the  same  place.  He  easily  gathered  a 
circle  of  followers  around  him ;  and,  whenever 
the  organization  of  such  a  circle  into  a  monastic 
community  was  finished,  he  removed  into  another' 
place.  Thus  at  Val  de  Castro  he  founded  a 
flourishing  establishment.  In  1000  Otho  III. 
visited  him  in  the  Island  of  Pereo.  On  his  wan- 
derings he  reached  as  far  as  the  frontier  of  Hun- 
gary ;  but,  feeling  no  .special  calling  for  missionaiy 
work,  he  returned  to  Italy.  In  lOlS  he  formed  a 
small  establishment  at  Campus  Maldoli,  at  Arezzo, 
in  the  Apennines.  In  1022  Henry  II.  visited  him 
at  Sitrien,  near  Saxoferato.  A  few  yeai's  after- 
wards he  retired  to  Val  de  Castro,  and  shut  himself 
up  in  his  cell.  It  was  not  wholly  incidental  that 
Campus  Maldoli,  Camaldoli,  though  one  of  the 
smallest  of  the  establishments  of  Romualdus,  be- 
came the  centre  of  the  whole  movement.  The 
spirit  of  seclusion  and  asceticism  was  kept  purer 
here  than  in  any  of  the  other  establishments. 
Camaldoli  became  the  model  institution ;  and  its 
moral  pre-eminence  naturally  led  to  social  superi- 
ority. Meanwhile  the  movement  itself  was 
steadily  spreading.  Petrus  Damiani  wrote  the 
life  of  Romualdus  about  1040  ;  and  at  his  death 
(1072)  there  existed  an  order  of  Camaldules,  not 
as  a  reformed  branch  of  the  order  of  the  Bene- 
dictines, but  as  an  independent  association  of 
anchorets.  The  prior  was  called  "major."  The 
members  lived  in  separate  huts,  where  they  slept 
and  ate.  At  certain  hours  they  met  in  the  prayer- 
house,  and  recited  (not  sang)  the  liturgy.  They 
fasted  often.  Bread  and  water  was  their  conmion 
diet :  meat  was  not  allowed.  But  the  principal 
command  was  silence.  The  fourth  major,  Rudolf, 
was  the  first  who  put  down  the  rules  in  writing 
(1102),  at  the  same  time  mitigating  them  some- 
what. A  conmion  table  was  introduced,  wine  was 
allowed,  etc.  He  also  established  Camaldule  nun- 
neries (1086).  In  1212  the  anchorets  were  invited 
to  Venice.  Here  they  became  cenobites,  and  their 
establishments  became  regular  ablieys.  But,  as 
the  order  grew  rich,  its  history  developed  the 
common  stages  through  which  all  religious  orders 
have  run  —  deviation  from  the  severe  rules  of  life  ; 
gi-adual  decay  of  order,  moral  and  social ;  at- 
tempts at  reform  ;  separations,  etc.  In  1476  the 
Congregation  of  St.  Michael  of  Murano  was 
formed,  independent  of  the  authority  of  Camal- 
doli ;  and  the  celebrated  monasteries  of  Classe, 
Val  de  Castro,  and  Fonte  Avellana.  were  incorpo- 
rated with  this  congregation.  Other  independent 
congregations  existed  in  Northern  Italy,  in  France, 
and   iu  Austria.     During   the  lattei-  part  of  the 


CAMBRIDGE  PLATFORM. 


374 


CAMERARIUS. 


eighteentli  century,  when  great  troubles  befell  the 
monks  almost  in  all  countries,  the  Camaldules 
fared  better  than  their  brethren.  The  order  was 
abolished  in  Austria  in  1782,  afterwards  also  in 
France  and  Italy;  but  the  monks  were  nowhere 
treated  witli  harshness.  In  1822  the  order  was 
restored  in  Naples.     Gregory  XVI.  belonged  to  it. 

Lit.  —  The  life  of  Eoniualdus,  by  Petrus  Danii- 
ani,  is  given  by  Mabillon  in  Aim.  Ord.  ileticdicl., 
111.  and  I\'.  The  history  of  the  order  is  found 
in  IIelyot  :  Ilisioire  des  Ordre.i  Mon.  lid.  el  Mil., 

CAMBRIDGE   PLATFORM,     ^ee   Co.ngkixia- 

TIO.NAI  1--M. 

CAMBRIDGE    PLATONISTS.       See    Pi.ato- 

NISTS,    t'A.MlilMDC.K. 

CAMEL.  Of  the  two  distinct  varieties,  the 
one-huriiped  and  the  two-humped,  only  the  first 
is  found  in  Bible  lands.  It  is  a  ruminant  ani- 
mal. Its  second  stomach  is  divided  into  hex- 
.agonal  cells,  wliioh  receive  and  retain  for  gradual 
use  the  water  which  is  drunk ;  so  that  it  can  go 
for  three  or  four  days  without  drinking  any  (and 
even  for  twenty  or  thirty  days  in  the  spring,  pro- 
vided that,  at  starting,  it  had  a  full  supply),  if  it 
can  get  the  dew  upon  the  lierbs  it  eats.  But  tliis 
is  only  one  of  the  wonderful  pro\isions  of  God 
which  fit  it  for  great  usef  idness.  Its  foot  is  large, 
broad,  cushiony,  covered  with  a  tough  sole,  so  it 
is  insensible  to  the  heat  of  the  sand,  and  well-nigh 
incapable  of  slipping,  or  of  sinking  in  it ;  callosi- 
ties protect  its  breast  and  legs  from  cuts  when 
kneeling  upon  stones;  its  nostrils  cU)se  like 
valves,  so  it  can  breathe,  though  the  air  be  full  of 
sand ;  its  horny  mouth  is  covered  by  a  divided 
upper  lip,  so  tliat  it  can  eat  the  thorniest  shrubs ; 
its  hump  is  a  mass  of  fat,  sometimes  to  the 
amount  of  thirty  pounds,  and  upon  this  carbon  it 
can  live  for  a  wliile  if  other  food  fall  .short,  so 
that  often,  at  the  end  of  a  journey,  the  animal 
has  no  hump.  No  wonder  that  the  camel  is 
highly  prii;ed.  To  own  one  is  for  the  Bedawy  to 
be  well  off:  to  have  several  is  to  be  rich.  It  is 
carefully  looked  after,  and  celebrated  in  song. 
But,  although  a  domestic  animal,  the  ordinary 
camel  is  not  noted  for  docility.  Travellers  tell 
many  stories  about  its  vicious  temper,  liow  it 
everlastingly  snarls  and  groans.  This  is  true : 
but,  as  any  one  wlio  has  seen  it  will  testify,  the 
back  of  tlie  poor  cauud  is  oftentimes  one  mass 
of  sores ;  and  thc;refore  it  is  no  wonder  it  com- 
plains when  tlie  heavy  loads  are  put  upon  it. 
The  .speed  of  the  camel  is  two  miles  and  a  lialf 
an  hour,  kept  up  for  fourteen  hours,  and  more 
if  need  be.  Blood  camels,  commonly  known  as 
dromedaries,  will  make  a  hundred  miles  a  day. 
The  daily  load,  equally  distributed  on  each  side,  va- 
ries from  tliree  hundred  to  eight  hundred  pounds: 
if  the  distance  be  short,  oi'  the  animal  exce])tiona- 
bly  strong,  like  the  canteen  camel  of  Kastern 
tourists,  it  can  carry  from  one  thousand  to  twehe 
hundred  pounds.  It  usually  goes  along  at  a  slow, 
swinging  gait,  to  which  the  rider  soon  becomes 
accustomed,  and  even  leanis  to  like.  It  is  of  no 
trouble  to  drive,  since  it  will  follow  the  trail  :  tlie 
most  tlie  Bedawy  does  is  to  walk  in  advance  of  it, 
with  the  roj^e  from  the  animal's  neck  over  his 
shoulder.  When  he  is  riding,  lie  guides  it  by 
striking  his  foot  against  the  side  of  the  neck 
opposite  to  that  he  wants  it  to  go,  and  controls 
it   by  hig  voice.     Obedient   to   peculiar  guttural 


sounds,  which  the  tr.aveller  soon  learns,  the  camel 
rises,  or  kneels.  In  fact,  there  is  no  animal 
easier  controlled  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
nor  more  agi-eeable  to  ride.  The  camel  saddle  of 
tlie  Bedawy  is  a  pair  of  cross-trees,  with  a  skin 
underneath  and  a  cloth  above  :  on  each  side  often- 
times is  a  basket  or  bag.  The  women  and  ciiil- 
dren  of  the  rich  sometimes  ride  in  palanquins, 
provided  with  .seats  and  curtains,  balanced  upon 
the  back  of  a  camel,  and  strongly  fastened  from 
the  sides.  For  the  natural  history  of  the  camel, 
see  TiiiSTRAM  :  The  Natural  Hi.'^torij  of  the  Bible, 
London,  18(37. 

The  Bible  picture  of  Eastern  life  of  couree 
includes  the  camel.  The  name  comes  from  the 
Hebrew  (jamal,  probably  meaning  bnrd en-bearer, 
and  occurs  tif  ty-three  times  in  the  Old  Testament. 
The  Hebrew  for  the  racing  camel  is  the  (female) 
"dancer"  (Isa.  Ixvi.  20),  swift  beasts,  because 
under  the  influence  of  music,  of  which  it  is  very 
fond,  its  movements  have  a  sort  of  rhythm.  The 
camel  figures  in  patriarchal  times  (Gen.  xii.  16, 
xxiv.  10,  xxiv.  04,  xxxi.  34 ;  .lob  i.  3)  more 
frequently  than  in  the  later  periods,  because  the 
camel  was  not  properly  a  domestic  animal  among 
the  Hebrews.  It  is  essentially  the  property  of  the 
nomad.  It  came  witliin  the  provisions  of  the 
Jlosaic  law,  which  condemned  it  as  unclean,  on 
the  ground,  that,  while  it  chewed  the  cud,  it  did 
not  divide  the  hoof ;  and  therefore  forbade  to  eat 
its  flesh,  or  to  touch  its  carcass.  In  the  New 
Testament  there  is  mention  of  camel's-hair  cloth, 
which  John  the  Baptist  wore  (Matt.  iii.  4),  as  did 
former  prophets  (2  Kings  i.  8;  Zeeh.  xiii.  4).  It 
]U'obably  was  tlie  coarser  variety  (Matt.  xi.  8). 
There  is  no  further  reference  to  the  animal,  ex- 
cejit  in  tlie  two  proverbs,  "  to  strain  out  a  gnat, 
and  swallow  a  camel"  (iMatt.  xxiii.  24),  i.e.,  to 
be  very  particular  about  little  insignificant  points, 
and  indilferent  about  morality  and  religion  ;  and, 
it  is  "  easier  for  a  camel  to  enter  in  through  a 
needle's  eye  than  for  a  rich  man  to  enter  into  the 
kingdom  of  (iod"  (Luke  xviii.  25),  an  expression 
for  the  impossible.  A  similar  one  is  in  the 
Koran  and  in  the  Talmud,  of  the  elephant:  there- 
fore there  is  no  need  to  take  the  word  "camel" 
in  any  other  than  its  literal  sense.       KiiETSCIII. 

CAMERARIUS,  Joachim,  b.  at  Bamberg,  April 
12,  ].">00;  d.  at  Leipzig,  April  17,  1574;  descended 
from  a  noble  family  of  the  name  of  Liebhard ; 
studied  philology  and  tlieology  at  Leijizig,  Erfurt, 
and  Wittenberg,  where  he  formed  an  intimate 
friendship  with  Melanchthon ;  was  appointed 
teacher  of  (ireek  in  the  gymnasium  of  Nunuuberg 
in  1520,  professor  at  Tubingen  in  1535,  and  at 
Leipzig  in  1541.  In  tlic  last  place  he  contributed 
very  much  to  the  firm  establishment  of  the 
Kelormation,  but  wa.s,  novertheles.s,  expcsed  to 
har.sh  attacks  on  .account  of  his  willingne.ss  to 
make  concessions  with  respect  to  tlu'  Interim. 
Also  on  tlie  general  coursi;  <jf  the  Kelormation  lie 
exercised  considerable  influence,  both  by  )iis  theo- 
logical writings  —  exegetii'al,  liistorical, systemati- 
cal, and  ]iractical  —  and  by  liis  great  zeal  for  the 
study  of  the  chussieal  languages  and  literatures, 
especially  Greek.  The  l)est  known  of  liis  works 
is  liis  A'arrallo  <le  I'hilippi  Melanclitlioiiin  orlti, 
lotinn  vitic  currirulo  el  viorte,  etc.,  Lei])zig,  1500, 
giving  an  outline  of  iho,  whole  liistory  of  tiie 
Keformation.       His    edition    of    Mel.inchthon's 


CAMERO. 


375 


CAMISARDS, 


letters,  lOGO,    is   not    considered    perfectly  reli- 

abli'.  K.   KCIIWARZ.      a.   I'LITT. 

CAMERO,  or  CAMERON,  John,  b.  in  Glii.sp)W 
about  l.')77  ;  d.  at  Montauban,  I()25;  studicKl  jilii- 
lology  and  philoso]iliy  ill  Glasgow ;  went  in  KiOO 
to  Bordeaux,  and  l)ecanie  professor  of  pliilosopliy 
at  Sedan  ;  studied  tlieology  for  four  years  in  I'aris, 
Geneva,  and  llei<lelberg',  at  tlie  expense  of  tiio 
Reformed  congri'nation  of  ISurdeaux,  and  became 
its  pastor  in  lli()8;  was  appointed  professor  of 
theology  at  Saumur  in  lOlS,  and  at  Montauban 
in  lG2-i,  but  was  here,  by  his  doctrine  of  passive 
obedience,  lirought  in  conflict  with  the  fanatical 
(spirit  of  resistance  prevailing  in  the  place,  and 
died  from  injurii^s  received  in  a  riot.  Amyraldus, 
Placa!us,  and  (Ja[)))ellus  were  his  pupils ;  and  the 
whole  theological  school  of  Saumnr,  with  its  predi- 
lection for  the  doctrines  of  Tiscator,  with  its 
views  of  the  intellect  as  the  priviux  motor  of  the 
win,  in  short,  with  its  mitigated  Calvinism,  has 
its  roots  in  him.  lie  was  not  an  Arminian,  how- 
ever, as  is  proved  by  his  Arnica  CnUaiio  cum  Tilcuf, 
Leyden,  16:21,  and  his  Defenaio  ile  Gratia  et  Libera 
Arbilrio,  Saunuir,  Ki-'l.  After  his  death,  his  works 
were  collected  and  pnblished  in  (ieneva  at  the 
expense  of  the  national  synod.       A.  SCUWEIZER. 

CAMERON,  Rev.  Andrew,  D.D.,  was  born  in 
Edinburgh,  Scotland,  1822,  and  died  at  St.  Kilda, 
Melbourne,  lb77.  lie  was  educated  at  the  high 
school  and  university  of  his  native  city,  where  he 
acted  as  reporter  for  the  WilJiess  newspaper,  which 
was  edited  by  Hugh  Miller.  Karly  impressed  by 
the  want  of  attractive  religious  literature,  espe- 
cially for  sabbal  h  reading,  he  projected  and  carried 
out  the  Christian  Treasuri/ in  1845,  which,  proving 
successful,  may  be  regarded  as  the  precursor  of 
the  numerous  serials  of  this  class  with  wliich  we 
are  now  supplied.  He  afterwards  organized  and 
edited  the  Free  Church  Hlar/a:ine,  the  British  and 
yoreign  Erangelical  Jiericic,  and  the  Fa/iiili/  Treas- 
ury. After  long  delay  tln'ough  jmlmonary  weak- 
ness, he  at  length  entered  on  the  work  of  the 
ministry  at  Maryton,  Fifeshire,  whence,  in  1S70, 
he  accepted  a  call  to  IMelbourne,  Victoria.  Shortly- 
after  his  arrival  in  that  colony  he  received  the 
degree  of  "L).l)."from  Princeton.  It  was  as  a 
religious  journalist,  that,  in  Australia  as  in  Scot- 
land, he  did  his  greatest  work.  He  established, 
and  till  his  death  edited,  the  Southern  Cross,  an 
undenondnational  weekly  religious  newspaper  of 
high  tone,  and  extensive  influence  in  those  colo- 
nies. Dr.  Caineron  has  been  called  the  "  Prince 
of  Editors,"  a  name  not  undeserved,  as  he  led  the 
way  in  a  most  important  department  of  literature, 
.and  conducted  thi^  various  jiublications  with  which 
he  was  connected  witii  singular  ability  and  judg- 
ment.    He  was  also  distinguislied  in  the  pulpit  and 

in  church  courts.  R.   S.    DUFF    (of  Taemnniu). 

CAMERONIANS.  The  name  •;iven  to  a  body 
of  Presbyterians,  who,  however,  repudiate  it, 
and  call  themselves  "Reformed  Presbyterians." 
Richard  Cameron  was  one  of  the  .authors  of  the 
Sanquhar  Declaration,  puV)lished  in  KiSO,  in  which 
Charles  II.  was  decl.ared  to  have  forfeited  allegi- 
ance, in  consequence  of  liis  tyranny,  and  his  disre- 
gard of  the  constitution.  Cameron  was  killed  in 
the  battle  of  Airdmoss.  Those  who  followed  him 
were  united  in  "societies,"  which  h,ad  become 
somewhat  numerous  before  the  revolution.  The 
societies  welcomed  King  William;  but  they  did 


not  approve  of  the  revolution  settlement,  and  did 
not  join  the  Established  Church.  They  objected 
to  the  church,  which  Inid  made  many  unworthy 
compiomises ;  were  disjileased  at  the  want  of 
recognition  of  the  covenants;  did  not  consider 
th.at  the  independence  of  the  church  was  secured; 
and  generally  believed  that  God  was  not  suffi- 
ciently honored  in  the  new  settlement.  They 
objected,  too,  to  the  recognition  of  Krastianisin 
in  England.  In  1700  Rev.  .lohn  M.acmillan  of 
Ralmagliie  joined  the  societies,  and  was  their 
first  minister.  In  1743,  another  minister  having 
joined  them,  they  constituted  "  the  Reformed 
Presbytery."  In  1774  a  simil.ar  piesbytery  was 
formed  in  the  United  States.  A  presbytery  was 
constituted  likewise  in  Ireland.  About  186"J 
most  of  the  Scotch  synod  came  to  be  of  opinion 
that  there  was  nothing  in  their  principles  requir- 
ing them  to  abstain  from  countenancing  the  politi- 
cal institutions  of  the  country,  e  g.,  from  voting 
for  a  memlier  of  Parliament;  but,  a  small  minority 
having  a  different  opinion,  a  disruption  took  place. 
In  1870  a  union  took  place  between  the  larger 
body  and  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland. 

See  Act,  Declaration,  and  Testimony,  1761;  Hi.i- 
lorical  Part  of  the  Testinioni/,  Naismvtii  •  Histori- 
cal SIcetch  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Scotland,  etc.  "w.  G.  BLAIKIE 

CAMISARDS  (from  camise,  a  jacket  which  the 
inhabitants  of  tlie  Cevennes  used  to  put  on  when 
fighting)  is  the  name  generally  applied  to  those 
French  Protestants,  who,  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV.,  rose  in  arms  in  Languedoc,  and  waged  a 
bloody  war  (1702-05)  for  the  purjiose  of  restoring 
their  Church.  Neither  the  dragonnades  nor  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Xantes  succeeded  in 
destroying  Protestantism  in  France  ;  but,  though 
private  worship  was  never  forbidden,  new  laws 
were  steadily  enforced  which  made  it  more  and 
more  difiicult,  and  at  last  almost  impossilile,  for  a 
French  citizen  to  adhere  to  the  Reformed  confes- 
sion. In  1086  the  gatherings  in  the  desert  were 
forbidden,  and  fines,  confiscations,  the  donjon,  tlie 
galleys,  and  the  rack,  were  employed  as  punish- 
ments. Nevertheless,  with  the  pressure  grew  the 
power  of  resistance.  Religious  meetings  were 
held  during  night  in  secluded  places,  presided  over 
by  simple  people,  but  fervent  in  prayers  and 
exhortations ;  and  distinguished  men,  such  as 
Claude  Brousson,  Isaac  Homel,  and  others,  en- 
coiu'aged  this  passive  resistance  by  a  perseverance 
unto  martyrdom. 

As  was  natural,  the  miseries  of  the  present 
forced  up,  as  a  necessary  counterbalance,  a  corre- 
sponding hope  of  the  future ;  and  books  like  .In- 
rieu's  L  Accomplissement  des  Prophilies,  Rotterdam, 
1686,  and  Suite  de  i Accomplissement,  1687,  in 
wliich  he  predicted  the  speedy  downfall  of  the 
P.apacy,  contributed  to  give  shape  and  direction 
to  this  unconscious  movement.  A  certain  Guil- 
laurae  du  Serre  appeared  as  prophet  in  Dauphine 
in  1688.  (Jther  prophets  arose  in  Vivarais.  The 
number  increased  r.apidly.  Women  and  children 
became  "possessed  by  the  spirit."  In  the  trance, 
when  seized  by  convulsions,  they  saw  the  troops 
from  the  far-off  garrisons  come  inarching  towards 
the  pl.ace,  they  singled  out  those  among  their 
comrades  who  should  fall  m  the  encounter,  tliey 
recognized  the  traitors  among  them,  etc.  ;  and 
tlie.se  predictions,  sent  forth   intermingled   witli 


CAMISARDS. 


376 


CAMPANELLA. 


words  of  penitence,  prayer,  and  exhortation,  were 
always  accepted  with  reverence  and  confidence, 
and  often  tliey  proved  true.  Tliere  was  disease 
in  all  this,  —  a  kind  of  mental  epidemic.  But 
there  was  also  a  heightening  and  intensification 
of  the  religious  life,  which  attracted  the  wondering 
but  s\^npathetic  attention  of  the  whole  Protestant 
world,  and  which  ought  to  be  sheltered  from  any 
coarse  imputation.  At  all  events,  if  this  psj^cho- 
X)gical  fact  is  left  out  of  view,  the  enthusiasm 
and  obstinacy  of  the  Camisards  is  unintelligible. 
The  movement,  however,  of  1688-89,  was 
speedily  suppressed ;  but  when  the  expectations 
of  the  Protestants  were  completely  disappointed 
by  the  peace  of  Ryswick  (1697),  the  fermentation 
began  again.  The  Roman  priests  noticed,  with 
much  chagrin,  that  the  newly-converted  staid 
away  from  the  churches,  and  took  to  the  desert. 
Francois  de  Langlade  du  Chayla  undertook  to 
punish  the  refractory.  At  his  parsonage  at  Pont 
de  Montvert,  in  the  present  department  of  Lozere, 
he  built  a  donjon,  in  which  he  shut  up  his  guilty 
parishioners,  and  tortured  them  as  best  he  could. 
On  the  instigation  of  the  prophets  Seguier,  Cou- 
derc,  and  JIazel,  the  Camisards  assembled,  and 
in  the  night  of  July  23,  1702,  they  surrounded 
the  house,  stormed  the  donjon,  while  chanting 
their  hymns,  liberated  the  prisoners,  and  burnt 
the  parsonage,  and  slew  the  priest.  Baville,  the 
intendant  of  Languedoc,  and  a  man  as  heartless 
as  a  millstone,  felt  a  particular  satisfaction  in 
pursuing  the  guilty.  Seguier  was  caught,  and 
burnt  at  the  stake  Aug.  12 ;  but  the  rest  escaped 
among  the  mountains,  where  they  soon  were  re- 
enforced  by  new  throngs  formed  by  Castanet,  Cati- 
nat,  Roland,  and  others.  In  Jean  Cavalier  the}' 
found  an  able  leader.  He  was  born  in  1680  at 
Ribaute,  in  the  present  department  of  Gard,  —  a 
small  and  plain-looking  fellow,  but  full  of  courage 
and  deternunation,  a  baker  by  profession,  but  of 
decided  military  talent.  Baville,  with  the  stake 
and  the  gibbet,  the  rack  and  the  galley,  was  un- 
able to  finish  the  affair.  But  in  February,  1703, 
Marshal  Montrevel  arrived  at  the  spot  with  a 
regular  army-corps.  He  beat  the  Camisards  re- 
peatedly, —  at  La  Jonguiere,  March  6 ;  at  La  Tour 
de  Belot,  Ajiril  29.  He  was  etfectively  aided  by 
loose  bands  of  "  crusaders "  summoned  to  work 
by  a  bull  of  Pope  Clement  XL,  May  1,  1703.  He 
employed  such  means  as  razing  all  the  single 
houses  and  minor  villages  in  the  Upper  Cevennes, 
whereby  he  made  seven  thousand  persons  house- 
less. Nevertheless,  he,  too,  was  unable  to  put  down 
the  rebellion.  The  Camisards  never  numbered 
more  than  five  thousand,  and  they  had  no  military 
organization.  But  they  fought  wilh  desjiair,  sal- 
lying forth,  wilh  the  agony  of  revenge  in  their 
heart-',  to  burn  the  church(^s,  and  hang  the  priest; 
and  they  fought  with  entliusiasm  too,  marching 
into  the  battle?  with  the  I'salins  on  their  lips.  In 
their  camps  they  lived  as  in  a  church,  preaching, 
]iraying,  and  fasting;  and  many  brilliant  victories 
they  won,- — the  most  brilliant  at  Sainte  Chatte, 
March  1.5,  170L  But  in  .\|>ril  of  tliat  year  Mar- 
.shal  Moiitri'vcl  was  replac('d  by  Marshal  V'illars. 
Before  Villars  liegan  active  operation  he  first 
surrounded  the  whole  district  with  a  line  of 
strong  military  posts,  thus  cutting  off  all  com- 
nninication  between  the  rebels  and  the  out.sido 
world ;  and  then  he  offered  pardon  to  all,  who. 


within  a  certain  term,  laid  downi  arms,  and  surren- 
dered. Cavalier,  who  saw  that  further  resistance 
was  useless,  left  the  country,  fought  afterwards 
against  his  countrymen  in'lIoUand,  Italy,  and 
Spain,  and  settled  finally  in  England.  There  he 
became  Governor  of  Jersey,  and  died  at  Chelsea, 
May  18,  1740.  Roland  fell  Aug.  14,  1704.  Cas- 
tanet, Catinat,  Joanni,  etc.,  fled  to  Geneva.  AVith- 
out  leaders,  the  Caniisard  army  gradually  melted 
away.  Towards  the  close  ot  1705  peace  and 
order  were  restored  ;  but  desolation  and  destitu- 
tion had  in  the  mean  time  spread  over  one  of  the 
richest  and  most  fertile  provinces  of  France. 

Sources.  I.  Roman-Catholic.  —  C.  J.  de  la 
Baume  :  Relation  HiMorique  de  la  Rcrolte  des  Ca- 
misards, edited  and  annotated  by  Goiffon,  Xlmes, 
1874,  2d  edit.  ;  Louvreleuii.  :  Le  Fanalisme  Re- 
nouvele,  Avignon,  1704-07 ;  Brueys  :  Ifistoire  du 
Fanatisme  de  Kuire  Temps,  Utrecht,  1709-13  (un- 
reliable) ;  Lcttres  choisics  de  Ftv'chier  avec  une  Re- 
lation des  Fnnaliques  du  ]'ifarez,  Paris,  1715; 
Menioires  de  Villars,  The  Hague,  1734  (very  short)  ; 
Memoires  de  Bdcille,  Amsterdam,  1734  (valuable). 
11.  Protestant. — M.  Missox:  Le  7'liedtre  Sacre' 
des  Cei-cnnes,  London,  1707  (very  interesting,  but 
not  altogether  reliable) ;  Cavalier:  Memoi}-s  of 
the  Wars  of  the  Cevennes,  London,  1712  (very 
inaccurate)  ;  the  Bulletin  de  la  Socic'tc  de  t'llistoire 
du  Protest.  Fran,  contains  Le  Camp  des  Enfants 
de  Dieu,  1867,  p.  273,  and  the  memoirs  of  Mon- 
lionnnux,  1873,  p.  72 ;  the  Bibliotheque  Unii-ersetle, 
March-May,  1866,  contains  the  Memoires  de  Ros- 
scl  d'Aif/aliers  sur  les  Derniers  Troubles. 

Lit. — A.  Court:  Uistoire  des  Troubles  de 
Cevennes,  Yillefranche,  1760,  new  edition  by 
Alais,  1819  (rich  and  reliable) ;  N.  PEyR.\T :  Uis- 
toire des  Piislcurs  du  Desert,  Paris,  1842  (vivid  and 
elaborate,  but  inaccurate)  ;  Frostervs  :  Les  In- 
surges  Protestatits  sous  Louis  XIV.,  Paris,  1868; 
Bonnejif.re:  Histoire  de  la  Guerre  des  Camisards, 
Paris,  1869;  I.  C.  K.  Hoffmaxx:  Geschichte  des 
Aufruhrs  in  den  Sevennen,  Kbrdlingen,  1837  (an 
excellent  work).  VoV  rOLENZ. 

CAMPANELLA,  Thomas,  b.  at  Stilo.  Calabria. 
Sept.  5,  1568 ;  d.  in  Paris,  March  21,  1639 ;  entered 
the  Dominican  order  in  his  sixteenth  year,  but 
devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  study  of  pliiloso- 
phy ;  was  kept  in  prison  for  twenty-seven  years 
by  the  Spanish  Government  of  Najiles,  on  .account 
of  certain  social  and  political  speculations,  but 
was  finally  rescued  by  the  Pope,  Urban  VIII. ; 
lived  for  some  time  in  Rome,  but,  not  feeling  safe 
there,  repaired  in  1634  to  France,  where  Cardinal 
Richelieu  gave  him  a  pension.  Strongly  opposed 
to  Aristotle,  on  account  of  the  discrepancy  he 
found  between  th.at  which  Nature  herself  showed 
and  that  which  the  scliool  taught,  his  idea  was  to 
produce  an  .altogether  new  jihilosophy ;  but  this 
new  philosophy  should  at  no  point  come  in  con- 
flict with  Scripture,  or  the  cliurch,  or  theology. 
On  the  contr.ary,  though  a  bold  innovator  in  jilii- 
losophy,  he  was  very  conservative,  almost  ultra- 
montane, in  theology.  The  Reformat  inn  was  to 
him  an  abomination.  Of  Ids  numeious  writings, 
those  which  best  char.acterize  Ids  jiosilion  in 
jihilosophy  and  theology,  and  with  respect  to  the 
Reformation,  are  iJnirers<dis  I'hdosophitc  .  .  . 
Paries  Tres,  De  Gentilismo  non  Retinendo,  and 
Atheismus  Triumphatus  seu  reductiu  ad  rcligioncm 
per  scicnliam  veritatis. 


CAMPANAS. 


CAMPBELL. 


CAMPANUS,  Johannes,  h.  at  Maeseick,  in  the 
ilioci'se  of  Liege,  in  thi;  iK-i^iiniiiij^  of  the  six- 
teenth century ;  d.  1574 ;  studied  at  Cologne ; 
came  to  Wittenberg  in  lOliH ;  was  present  at  tlie 
Conference  of  Marburg,  but  could  gain  no  liear- 
ing  for  his  peculiar  conception  of  tlie  Lord's 
Supper,  differing  ecjually  much  from  the  Kefornied, 
the  Lutheran,  and  the  Roman-Catholic  ;  was  for 
some  time  during  his  stay  in  Saxony  iin])risoned 
on  suspicion  of  anti-trinitarian  and  anabaptistic 
heresies;  repaired  to  Julicli,  whei-e  he  caused 
great  excitement  among  the  peasants  by  j)reaching 
that  the  end  of  the  world  was  speedily  approach- 
ing; was  again  imprisoned,  and  died  insane. 
His  anti-trinitarian  and  anabaptist  views  he  de- 
veloped in  two  works,  yVider  (die  Wi'li  nach  den 
A/Hislclii,  and  Goldiche  uiul  licilii/e  Scliriji,  of  which 
the  former  is  lost,  lie  held  there  were  ouly  two 
divine  persons. 

CAMPBELL,  Alsxander,  founder  of  the  Disci- 
ples OF  Christ;  b.  near  Ballyniena,  in  county 
Antrim,  Ireland,  Sept.  IL',  1788;  d.  at  liethany. 
West  Va.,  March  4,  1866.  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Glasgow,  and  came  to  America  as  a 
licentiate  of  the  Seceder  Church,  Scotland.  His 
father,  a  minister  of  the  same  denomination,  had 
been  for  two  years  settled  in  Western  Pennsyl- 
vania. Young  Campbell  had  expected  opposition 
to  his  changed  views  in  theology,  but  found  his 
father  altered  and  liberalized;  confirmed,  probably, 
in  the  new  direction,  because  of  an  ecclesiastical 
trial  he  had  stood  for  inviting  to  the  communion- 
table members  of  other  Presbyterian  churches, 
(aider  him  he  continued  his  studies,  and  preached 
his  first  sermon  July  15,  1810.  He  rapidly  be- 
came widely  popular.  Many  regarded  the  views 
of  father  and  son  as  both  novel  and  objectiona- 
lile :  hence  they  and  the  few  who  at  first  sided 
with  them  formed  an  isolated  congregation,  called 
"  The  Oiristiau  Association,"  organized  as  the 
'•  Brush  Run  Church,"  with  Thomas  Campbell 
(176;5-lS5i)  the  father,  as  its  elder,  several  dea- 
cons, and  Alexander  Campliell  as  its  licensed 
preaclier.  The  main  points  of  this  teaching  in 
the  early  stages  of  the  movement  were :  "  Chris- 
tian union  can  result  from  notliing  short  of  the 
destruction  of  creeds  and  confessions  of  faith, 
inasnuich  as  human  creeds  and  confessions  have 
destroyed  Christian  union  ;  "  "  Nothing  ought  to 
be  received  into  the  faith  and  worship  of  the 
churcli,  or  be  made  a  term  of  conniiunion  among 
Christiau.s,  that  is  not  as  old  as  the  New  Testa- 
ment, nor  ought  any  thing  to  l)e  admitted  as  of 
divine  obligation  in  the  church  constitution  or 
management,  save  what  is  enjoined  by  the  au- 
thority of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  his  apostles 
upon  the  New  Testament  church,  either  in  ex- 
press terms  or  by  approved  precedent."  The 
Bible  and  nothing  else  was  their  confession  of 
faith  or  creed.  Mr.  Campbell's  marriage  in  1812 
with  the  daughter  of  a  Presbyterian  tm-ned  his 
attention  to  an  examination  of  the  Scripture 
mode  of  baptism,  which  was  determined,  after 
careful,  earnest  discussion,  to  be  that  of  immer- 
sion. Consequently,  he  and  his  fatlier,  ami  the 
majority  of  the  members  of  his  church,  with  their 
families,  were  immersed  on  June  I'J,  181"J,  by 
Elder  Loos,  a  Baptist  minister,  to  whom  he  said, 
"  I  have  set  out  to  follow  the  apostles  of  Christ, 
and  their  Master,  and  I  will  be  baptized  only  into 


the  primitive  Christian  faith."  Next  the  conr/rena-r 
tiiiri,  acting,  as  they  believed,  in  accordance  witli 
the  New  Testament,  ordained  him  to  the  ministry. 
He  organized  several  churches,  which  joined, 
thougli  openly  acknowledging  their  peculiar  view 
of  the  Binle,  the  Baptist  denomination.  But  in 
1827  they  were  fornuilly  excluded;  and  from 
that  date  the  Disciples  uf  Chrisl,  or  the  C'amjibel- 
liles  as  they  are  popularly  called,  sjircad  very 
rapidly  as  an  independent,  simple,  and  earnewt 
body  of  Christians.  In  182:i  I\Ir.  Campbell  ex- 
tended his  labors  from  the  limited  region  round 
about  his  home  in  West  Virginia  into  Teinie.sseo 
and  Kentucky,  and  on  July  4  of  the  same  year 
started  a  monthly  entitled  T/ie  ('lirixtimi  Ilii/Uist, 
printed  on  his  private  press  at  home.  The  peri- 
odical was  successful  far  beyond  expectation ; 
but  in  1830  it  was  merged  in  'J'Jie  MUleimwl  Har- 
binger, which  was  continued  until  his  death.  In 
1810  he  founded  at  Bethany,  W.  Va.,  Bethany 
College,  in  wliich  tlie  Bible  was  made  a  text^ 
book.  JIi'.  Campbell  was  a  famous  debater :  in- 
deed, l)y  his  first  public  debate  he  may  be  said  to 
have  called  public  attention  to  the  existence  of  his 
denomination.  This  was  at  Mount  Pleasant,  O., 
in  1820,  with  the  Rev.  John  Walker  of  Ohio,  a 
Presbyterian,  on  the  subject  of  baiitisin.  Again, 
upon  the  same  subject,  he  debated  in  182.5  at 
W'ashington,  Ky.,  with  the  Rev.  William  McCalla, 
another  Presbyterian  ;  in  1828,  at  Cincinnati,  with 
Roliert  Owen,  on  the  Truth  of  Christianity;  in 
18.30  with  Archbishop  Purcell  of  Ohio,  in  the 
same  city,  on  the  Infallibility  of  the  Church  of 
Rome;  and  in  1843,  with  the  Rev.  Dr.  N.  L. 
Rice,  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  on  the  distinctive  pointH 
of  ills  communion.  Mr.  Campbell  was  gifted 
with  a  fine  presence,  great  ease  and  skill  of  utter- 
ance, and  possessed  considerable  information. 
His  private  life  was  stainless,  and  full  of  ChrLs- 
tian  grace.  He  was  the  author  of  Tlie  Christian 
Si/stem  (often  reprinted);  Hemisswn  nf  l^in,  3d  ed., 
1846,  Memoirs  of  Thomas  Camphell,  Cincinnati, 
1861.  See  Richardson  :  Memoir  of  A.  Campbell, 
Philadeli)hia,  1868.     See  Disciples  ok  Christ. 

CAMPBELL,  George,  b.  at  Aberdeen,  Dec.  25, 
1719;  d.  April  6,  1796.  He  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh;  licensed  in  1746; 
and  after  a  pastorate  in  the  country  in  1757  he 
became  one  of  the  ministers  of  Aberdeen.  He 
took  great  interest  in  philosophical  questions, 
founded  in  1758  a  society  for  their  discussion, 
and  at  last  (1759)  found  a  more  congenial  field  of 
labor  in  the  principalship  of  MarLschal  College. 
In  1762  he  published  his  celebrated  Disserlaliun  on 
Miracles,  a  criticism  of  Hume's  sceptical  position. 
In  1771  he  was  elected  professor  of  theology  at 
M.arischal  College.  In  1776  his  Philosophy  of 
Rheloric,  a  much  admired  and  widely  used  book, 
appeared.  These  two  works  have  jiermanent 
value.  In  1778  he  issued  The  Four  Gospels, 
translated  from  the  Greek  (3d  ed.  Aberdeen,  1814, 
4 vols.;  reprinted  Andover,  1837,  2  vols.), —  awork 
which  derives  its  value  from  the  preliminary 
dissertations  and  accompanying  notes,  critical 
and  explanatory.  In  1795  his  feeble  health  com- 
pelled his  resignation ;  and  on  his  retirement  he 
received  a  pension  of  three  hundred  pounds  from 
the  King.  He  is  considered  "the  acutest  and 
most  cultivated  theologian  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land has  iiroduced." 


CAMPBELL. 


378 


CAMP-MEETINGS. 


His  Lectures  on  Ecclesiastical  History  were  post- 
Iiiimously  printed :  tlicre  is  an  edition,  London, 
1840.  His  works  liave  been  issued  in  a  complete 
and  imiforni  edition  in  G  vols. 

CAMPBELL,  John  M'Leod,  b.  May  4.  1800,  at 
Ardmaddy  House,  near  Kilninver,  Argyllshire, 
Scotland ;  d.  in  the  parish  of  Rosneath,  Feb.  27, 
1872.  His  father  was  the  minister  of  Kilninver, 
and  an  excellent  Latin  scholar :  so  his  son  re- 
ceived good  earlj'  training.  From  1811  to  1820 
he  was  a  student  of  the  University  of  Glasgow, 
but  completed  his  course  in  Edinburgh.  In  1S21 
he  was  licensed;  and  on  Sept.  S,  1825,  he  was 
inducted  to  the  parish  of  Row,  and  faithfully  did 
lie  discharge  his  duties.  His  anxious  meditation 
on  the  religious  state  of  his  congregation  led  him 
to  the  conclusion,  that,  in  order  to  sei-ve  God  witli 
pure  love,  they  must  rest  "  assured  of  his  love 
ill  Christ  to  them  as  individuals,  and  of  their  in- 
dividually h.aving  eternal  life  given  to  them  in 
Christ."'  This  "assurance,"  further,  rested  on 
the  promises  of  the  gospel;  but,  imless  Christ 
diedylir  all  (unlimited  atonement),  there  was  "no 
sufficient  wan-ant  for  calling  upon  men  to  be 
assured  of  God's  love  to  them."  I5y  manfully 
preaching  these  views  he  involved  liiniself  in  a 
church  trial  for  heresy,  and  was  in  due  course 
deposed  by  the  Assembly,  Wednesday,  Jlay  2.5, 
18il,  by  a  majority  of  a  luindred  and  nineteen 
to  six.  He  went  back  to  Kilninver,  preached 
tliroughoiit  the  neighborhood,  and  at  last,  in  the 
first  week  of  1833,  began  an  independent  ministrj' 
in  Glasgow,  which  lasted  for  twenty-six  years 
(1835-.\pril,  1859).  He  was  married  on  Sept. 
20,  1838.  In  1851  he  published  his  book  on  the 
Eucharist,  Christ  the  bread  of  Life  (2d  ed.,  1860), 
suggested  by  tlie  then  Roman-Catholic  contro- 
versy. He  rejected  transubstantiation,  because 
it  contradicts  the  faculty  of  perception,  which  dis- 
tinguishes man  as  a  spiritual  being.  "  There  is 
a  spiritual  eye  which  sees  that  in  Christ  is  pre- 
sented to  us  the  appropriate  food  of  eternal  life; 
and  to  fix  the  thoughts  on  him  was  the  proper 
office  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  As  long  as  it  was 
itself  the  object  on  which  thought  and  interest 
were  concentrated,  so  long  it  was  misused;  and 
tliis  misuse  of  the  ordinance  was  as  possible,  if 
not  as  common,  among  Protestants  as  it  was 
among  Koman-Catholics."  In  1856  he  issued  his 
chief  work,  The  Nature  of  the  Atonement,  and  itx 
/{elation  to  Remission  of  Sins  and  Eternal  Life 
(4th  ed.,  1873).  By  one  of  its  .sentences  tiie 
main  thesis  of  the  book  m.ay  be  thus  expressed : 
"It  was  the  spiritual  essence  and  nature  of  the 
Kufferhigs  of  Christ,  and  not  that  these  sufferings 
were  penal,  which  constituted  their  value  as 
entering  into  the  atonement  made  by  the  Son  of 
God,  when  he  put  away  sin  by  the  sacrifice  of 
himself."  In  1859  he  was  compelled  by  failing 
health  to  resign  his  charge  at  Glasgow.  In  1862 
he  published  Tlioui/hts  on  Revelation,  with  S/)ecial 
Reference  to  the  Present  Time,  —  a  book  called  forth 
by  the  Essays  and  Reriews  (1860).  In  18(i8  the 
University  of  (il;i,sgo\v  made  liiin  a  doctor  of 
divinity.  In  1870  lie  removed  liis  liome  from  the 
neigliborhood  of  (llasgow  to  Ilosneatli,  to  his 
house  Ach-n;irHliee  ("  'Hie  Fi<'ld  of  I'eacc"),  an  old 
local  name.  In  this  liousc,  ai>|uopriately  iiami'd, 
lie  partially  prepared  the  volume  which  appeared 
in  1873,  under  the  title  Reminiscences  and  Rejiec- 


tions,  referring  to  his  early  ministry  in  the  parish 
of  Row  (1825-31);  and  then,  with  his  book  un- 
finished, but  with  his  life-work  done,  at  peace 
with  God  and  man,  honored  and  beloved  by  all 
who  knew  him,  a  channel  of  God's  grace  unto 
many,  this  eminent  and  gifted  servant  went  to  his 
higher  service.  The  impression  Dr.  Campbell 
made  upon  all  his  acquaintances  was  that  of  holi- 
ness. Dr.  Norman  JNIacleod  said  of  him,  "His 
character  was  the  most  perfect  embodiment  I 
have  ever  seen  of  the  character  of  Jesus  Christ." 
His  readers  testify  to  his  sincere,  humble,  pro- 
found piety ;  and,  where  his  theory  of  the  atone- 
iiient  is  umjualifiedly  rejected,  his  personal  charm 
is  unhesitatingly  acknowledged. 

See  D.  Campbell  :  Memorials  of  John  M'Leod 
Campbell,  London,  1877,  2  vols. 

CAMPE,  Joachim  Heinrich,  b.  at  Deensen,  in 
the  grand-duchy  of  Brunswick,  1746 ;  d  in  the 
city  of  Brunswick,  Oct.  22,  1818;  was  chaplain  to 
a  I'riissian  regiment,  and  director  of  ISasedow's 
Pliilanthropinum  at  Dessau;  established  after- 
wards a  celebrated  boarding-school  for  boys  near 
Hamburg,  and  settled  finally  at  Brunswick,  wliere 
he  wrote  and  edited  whole  children's  literature. 
Many  of  his  books,  as  for  instance  Robinson  der 
JUni/ere,  became  almost  world-famous,  and  are 
still  very  popular.  His  educational  principle  was 
exclusively  rationalistic.  Religion  lie  recognized 
only  as  a  prop  for  morality,  and  poesy  he  rejected 
altogether,  as  a  snare  to  the  intellect.  But  the 
success  with  which  he  labored  made  him  one  of 
the  most  prominent  champions  of  rationalism  in 
Germanv. 

CAMPEGIUS  (Lorenzo  Campeejffi),  b.  at  Bo- 
logna, 1474;  d.  in  Home,  15^)9  ;  was  first  professor 
of  canon  law  at  Padua,  and  then  priest.  Julius 
11.  used  him  in  nuin^'  important  diplomatical 
cases ;  and  Leo  X.  made  liim  a  cardinal  in  1517. 
The  principal  events  in  his  career  are  his  missions 
to  England  in  1519  and  in  1528,  and  his  negotia- 
tion of  a  counter-reformation  in  Regensburg  in 
1524.  He  represented  the  Pope  at  the  diets  of 
Nuremberg  (1524)  and  Augsburg  (1530),  and 
played  a  conspicuous  part  at  the  election  of  Paul 
III.,  1534.  Some  letters  by  him  are  found  in 
Epist.  misc.  sin(j.  J'ers.,  Ba.sel,  1550. 

CAMPION,  Edmund,  b.  in  London,  Jan.  25, 
1540 ;  executed  at  Tyburn,  Dec.  1,  1581  ;  studied 
at  Oxford,  and  was  ordained  a  deacon  in  1507, 
but  felt  himself  at  variance  with  the  tenets  of  the 
Church  of  England;  went  to  Ireland,  thence  to 
Douay;  embraced  Romanism,  and  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus.  In  1580  lie  was  .sent  by  Greg- 
ory XIII.  on  a  projiagandisl  mission  to  Eiighind. 
but  was  arrested  July  17,  1581,  on  a  charge  ol 
trea.son,  and  condemned  to  death.  He  wrote  a 
Narratin  de  Dirortio  Jfenrici  17//.,  publislied  at 
Douay,  1622,  and  a  History  of  Irelanit,  puliii.shed 
in  Dul>lin,  1633.  For  a  full  account  of  his  mis- 
sion to  England  .see  FuoiiIiK  :  History  <f  l\ii<ilaiid, 
XI.  He  was  a  man  of  rare  culture,  amiability, 
and  diiiloinalic  skill. 

CAMP-MEETINGS  are  religious  gatherings 
held  in  a  grove,  usually  lasting  for  several  days, 
during  which  many  find  shelter  in  tents  or  tem- 
porary houses.  The  main  features  are  the  oixMi-air 
jireaciiing,  the  night  prayer-meetings,  and  the 
freedom  of  the  life.  They  are  not  so  common 
as  formerly,  at  least  in  the  Eastern  States,  and 


CAMUS. 


379 


CANAAN. 


are,  indeed,  regarded  by  some  as  morally  if  iint 
BpiriLually  objecMoiialde.  The  first  ineetiii};  of 
tlie  kind  is  said  to  hav(!  taken  place  in  Ken- 
tucky, on  tlie  banks  of  the  K('d  River,  in  17!)!), 
under  a  Presbyterian  and  a  Methodist  minis- 
ter. These  denominations  at  first  used  them  in 
eonnnon;  but  gradually  the  Presbyterians  with- 
drew, and  of  late  years  the  Methodists  and  the 
liaptists  have  almost  exelusively  hidd  them.  In 
recent  times  the  M(!thodists  have  purch;ised  tracts 
of  land  in  desirable  locations  on  the  seaboard  or 
inland,  and  turned  them  into  parks,  with  comfor- 
table houses,  streets,  post-offices,  meeting-places, 
biblical  models,  etc.,  and  there  in  the  summer 
many  persons  live,  and  there  tlie  religious  gather- 
ings of  different  kinds  are  daily  held.  Tlius  the 
primitive  camp-meeting  is  continued  in  an  im- 
proved form.  The  credit  of  introducing  camp- 
meetings  into  England  is  due  to  the  Rev.  Lorenzo 
Dow  (see  title),  an  eccentric  though  able  minister 
of  Methodist  views,  who  in  1807  proposed  it  in 
Staffordshire.  Two  Methodists,  William  Clowes 
and  Hugh  Bourne,  were  so  impressed  witli  the 
advantages  of  this  style  of  service,  that  they  per- 
sisted in  liolding  them  after  they  were  disa(> 
proved  by  the  Wesleyan  Conference  in  1807 ;  for 
doing  which  they  were  finally  expelled.  In  1810 
they  founded  the  Primitive  Methodists,  which 
body  uses  the  camp-meeting.  The  Irish  Wesley- 
an conmienced  them  in  1860.  See  art.  "  Cami> 
meeting"  in  McCliutock  and  Strong's  CyclopiedUi 
(vol.  II.  p.  60). 

CAMUS,  Jean  Pierre,  b.  in  Paris,  1.582;  d. 
there  1652;  became  Bishop  of  Belley  in  1608, 
and  lived  in  great  intimacy  with  Francois  of 
Sales;  resigned  in  1628;  was  afterwards  Abbot 
of  Aulnay  in  Normandy,  but  retired  finally  to 
the  Ilopital  des  Incurables  in  Paris.  He  was  an 
extremely  prolific  writer,  and  much  relished  in 
his  own  time.  A  hundred  and  eighty-six  works, 
many  of  which  are  in  several  volumes,  were  the 
result  of  his  labor,  —  moral  romances  of  a  rather 
odd  description,  satirical  pamphlets  against  the 
mendicant  orders,  etc.  His  L  Esprit  de  St.  Fran- 
f:oi.'<  de  Sales,  6  vols.,  Paris,  1641,  afterwards 
abridged  by  CoUot,  and  his  L'Ai-oisinement  des 
proleslants  de  VEylise  Romaine,  edited  by  Richard 
Simon,  Paris,  1703,  are  still  read. 

CA'NA  OF  GALILEE  was  the  home  of  Nathan- 
ael  (John  xxi.  2),  and  the  scene  of  Christ's  first 
miracle,  and  of  another  (John  ii.  1-11,  iv.  46). 
'J'he  traditional  Cana  is  a  village  now  called  Kefr- 
Kenna,  which  is  about  four  miles  north-east  of 
Nazareth.  There  are  shown  the  "water-pots  of 
stone "  from  which  the  water  made  wine  was 
drawn,  the  well  whence  it  originally  came,  and 
the  site  of  Nathanael's  house ;  but  Robinson  de- 
nies the  claims  of  the  village,  in  favor  of  Kana-el- 
Jelll,  about  nine  miles  north  of  Nazareth.  The 
name  is  similar,  the  situation  is  fine,  and,  although 
there  is  now  no  village  on  the  spot,  the  ruins  indi- 
cate that  once  there  was  quite  a  large  settle- 
ment. 

CA'NAAN  (low)  occurs  in  the  Bible  as  a  person- 
al name,  the  youngest  son  of  Ham  (Gen.  ix.  18, 
X.  6) ;  as  a  tribal  name  (Hos.  xii.  7)  ["  merchant," 
in  the  A.  V.];  but  above  all  as  a  (/eui/ra/>hical 
name,  —  the  country  inhabited  by  the  post<?rity 
of  Canaan,  particularly  in  the  phrase  "  the  laud  of 
Canaan"  ((Jen.  xi.  31sq.).  In  the  latter  sense  it  de- 


notes a  well-defined  district,  all  the  country  on  the 
west  of  the  .Ionian,  cxtcudiiig,  at  h'ast  in  places, 
to  the  coast,  including  on   the  south  the  Negebli, 
or  the  .South  Country  (Num.  xxxiii.  40);  on  the 
north,  Pluenicia;  on  the  south-west,  I'hilistia.    The 
name  occurs  outside  the  Bible,  among  the  Egyp- 
tians and  Phoenicians,  but  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  known  to  the  Assyrian.s,  wlio  call  the  land, 
not  Canaan,  but  the  "back  countiy."     See  Schro- 
der, Die  Keilinsc/irifle/i,  p.  14.     The  word  in  its 
meaning  "low"  referred  to  the   "sinking,"  the 
Arabali,  wiiich  is   .so   striking  a  feature  of   the 
country,  and  the  Shefelah,  the  South  Plain.     In 
its  primary  application  in  the  mouth  of  Noah,  it 
was   prophetic  of   the  condition  of  .servitude  to 
which  Canaan  would   come   in   his   descendants 
(Gen.  ix.  2.')).     The  Canaanites  appear  to  have 
been   Shemitic   in    language ;  for  quite  evidently 
they  spoke  the  same  tongue  with  the  Hebrews,  as 
Isaiah  says  (Isa.  xix.  18),  with  merely  dialectical 
differences.      For  a   di.scussion    of   the   question 
whether  the  Canaanites  were  Hamites,  .see  J.  (i. 
Miiller,  Die  Seniitcn  in  ihrem  Verltallnisszu  Clmmiten 
u.  Juphi(en,  Gotha,  1872  (p.  o4).     Like  the  Phce- 
nicians,  they  were  a  commercial  people,  so  much- 
so,  —  that  the  name,  iu  later  times,  became  an  occa^ 
sional  synonyme  for  merchant  (.lob  xli.  6  ;   Prov. 
xxxi.  24  —  Hebrew).     The  land  of  Canaan  must 
have  been  settled  ere  the  Canaanites  arrived;  for 
certain  tribes  are  reckoned  with  the  Canaanites 
in  every  full  enumeration  of  the  population,  who 
evidently  were  one  with  them  (Exod.   iii.  8,  17; 
Deut.  vii.  1,  etc.).     Whence  they  came  cannot  be 
determined.      Their  appearance  was  the  cause  of 
the  spies'  discouraging  report  (Num.  xiii.  22,  33). 
The  Canaanites   and  they  appear  to  have  li\'ed 
peaceably  together.      (Jne   of  their  descendants, 
()g,   King   of   Bashan,  ruled   over  the   Amorites 
within  his  borders  (Deut.  iii.  8).     It  is  probable, 
however,    that   they   gradually   lost   their   ascen- 
dency.     The    Canaanites,    Perizzites,   Amorites, 
Ilittites,  and   Hivites  were   in   the   land   in  the 
patriarchal  days  (Gen.  xiii.  7,  xiv.  7,  xxvi.  34, 
xxxiv.  2).     In  the  genealogical  table  in  Gen.  x. 
l.")-l!),  eleven    Canaanite  tribes  are  enumerated ; 
but  the  enumeration  subsequently  varies  from  five 
(Exod.  xiii.  5),  six  (Exod.  xxiii.  23),  seven  (Deut. 
vii.  1),  to  ten  (Gen.  xv.  19-21)  ;  and  these  tribes 
were  brought  into  close  contact  with  Israel,  while 
the  Sidonians  or  Phfeniciaus  on  the   north  were 
not  so  much  so.     Of  these  tribes,  the  Amorites, 
and  perhaps  the   Ilittites,  were  ])robably  nnght- 
ier  than  the  others;   for  whenever  the   name  of 
Canaanite,  or   of    Canaanite    and    Perizzite,   are 
found  together,  there  occur  those  of  Amorite  and 
Hittites  (e.g..  Gen.  xv.  16,  cf.  ver.  21 ;  .Josh.  i.  4) 
as  general   name.       The   tribal   limits   probably 
often  changed  ;  but,  as  near  as  may  be,  these  were 
the  locations  of  the  tribes:   the  Amorites,  chiefly 
at  first  in  the  south-west,  shortly  before  Moses' 
time,  migrated  east  of  the  .Jordan,  and  founded 
the  kinodoms  of  Sihon  and  Og  (Deut.  iii.  8,  iv. 
47 ;  Jo.sh.  ix.  10).     See  Amorite. 

The  Hilliles,  in  Abraham's  day,  were  found  at 
Hebron  (Cieu.  xxiii.  10),  during  the  exodus  (Num. 
xiii.  2f)),  along  with  the  .Jebusites  and  Amorites, 
upon  the  momitains,  higher  up ;  in  the  days  of  the 
judges  (Judg.  i.  26),  as  far  north  as  Bethel, 
whither  the  Amorites,  or,  more  likely,  the  Israelites 
liad  driven  them ;  and  in  Solomon's  time  upon 


CANAAN. 


380 


CANADA. 


lycbauou  (1  Kings  x.  29).  The  name  in  Assyri- 
an records  is  Haiti. 

The  PerhzUes  appear  to  have  been  the  peasant 
class  of  the  population,  liviny;,  during  patriarchal 
times,  ill  the  middle  ol'  the  West  Jordan  country, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Bethel  and  Shecheni 
((Jeu.  xiii.  7,  xxxiv.  30),  and  afterwards  as  far 
north  as  Beth  Sheaii,  in  the  mountainous  and 
wooded  stretches  of  that  locality  (Josh.  xi.  3,  xvii. 
lo;  Judg.  i.  4,  5). 

The  Gin/askile.i  inhabited  probably  a  small  tract 
between  the  Hittites  and  the  Amorites,  with 
whom  they  are  mentioned  (Deut.  vii.  1;  Josh, 
xxiv.  11). 

Whether  the  Geslnirites  (Josh.  xiii.  2)  and  tlie 
Oe:rilcs  (1  Sam.  xxvii.  8)  were  Canaanite  tribes 
is  uncertain. 

The  Jebusites  (except  Gen.  x.  16)  were  always 
last  mentioned,  perhaps  because  their  territory 
was  the  smallest,  only  their  city  and  its  immedi- 
ate surrounding-s.  Yet  they  were  a  "  kingdom," 
and  fought  manfully  (Josh.  x.).  Their  capital, 
Jobus,  was  later  called  Jerusalem  (Judg.  i.  8). 

The  Hivites  exchanged  the  middle  countiy, 
where  tliey  inhabited  Shechem  and  other  cities 
((ien.  xxxiv.  2),  for  the  northern  about  Lebanon, 
as  far  as  Hamath  (Josh.  xi.  3;  Judg.  iii.  3). 

The  picture  of  life  among  the  Caiiaaiiites 
drawn  for  us  by  the  Bible  is  a  very  animated  one. 
We  see  that  they  were  essentially  a  warlike  peo- 
ple, dwelling  in  cities,  with  walls  and  gates  (Josh. 
X.  20),  had  fortresses  upon  the  heights,  and  gave 
much  time  and  thought  to  the  perfecting  and  col- 
lecting of  implements  of  war.  Their  iron  chari- 
ots were  irre.sistible  (Josh.  xi.  4,  xvii.  16,  18; 
Judg.  i.  xix.).  On  the  other  hand,  the  fact  that 
one  of  their  cities  was  called  Kirjath  Sepher, 
•'The  City  of  Books"  (Judg.  i.  11),  joined  to  the 
Greek  tradition  of  the  Eastern  or  Phoenician  ori- 
gin of  writing,  leads  to  the  conjecture  that  read- 
ing and  writing  were  in  u.se.  At  all  events,  they 
carried  on  trade  and  manufacture ;  and  the  abun- 
dant crops  which  fell  into  the  Israelites'  hand  at 
the  time  of  the  conquest  attest  their  skill  in 
agriculture  and  gardening  (Josh.  xxiv.  13).  Over 
this  people,  divided  as  they  were  into  tribes  and 
lesser  subdivisions,  reigned  many  "  kings,"  or 
sheikhs,  as  we  .should  call  them  to-day  (.ludg.  i.  7), 
although  their  authority  was  api>arently  shared 
.and regulated  by  "elders  "  (Josh.  ix.  11).  "  But  this 
bustling,  martial,  industrious  people  were  the  vic- 
tims of  superstition,  idolatry,  and  vice.  They  wor- 
shipped Baal  and  .Vstarte  (see  titles),  observed 
times  and  .sea,sons,  jiraotised  witchcraft  and  magic 
(Deut.  xviii.  10),  were  addicted  to  unnatural  lusts 
(Lev.  xviii.  19-30).  Laxity  of  morals,  .shanieless- 
ness  of  conduct,  led  to  haril-licartedne.ss,  reckle.ss- 
ne.ss,  and  cruelty;  for  he  who  lives  for  the  gratifica- 
tion of  pa.ssion  has  no  ])ity  for  the  weak.  Such  a 
corrupt,  corrupting  people  as  the  Canaanites  pol- 
lute the  air.  (iod  therefore  ordered  their  destruc- 
tion, and  the  Israelites  felt  no  compunction  in 
carrying  the  order  out;  it  was  in  .self-defence; 
and  well  had  it  been  for  Israel  if  they  had  not 
grown  weary  of  blood-.shedding.  The  remnant  of 
the  (.'anaanit(!s  wa.s  the  caus(?  of  Israel's  fall. 

The  history  of  Canaan  after  the  conquest  is  in 
the  main  simply  this:  gradual  extinction  by  the 
resistless  conqueror.s,  a  lull  in  the  battle,  a  re- 
iituiiption  of  hostilities  un  the  part  of  the  Canaan- 


ites, and  a  long  series  of  victories  for  them, 
followed,  after  a  time,  by  divine  deliverances. 
The  de.struction  of  the  Canaanites  was  begun 
again  under  Samuel,  when  Israel  had  a  central 
government;  was  continued  under  Saul's  better 
military  organization,  under  David's  greater  skill; 
and  completed  under  .Solomon  (1  Kings  ix.  20). 
Thus  the  orders  received  by  Alo.ses  were  only 
partially  carried  out  by  the  people  under  Joshua. 
So  anxious  were  they  to  settle  down,  have  their 
families  about  them,  and  pursue  the  peaceful 
callings  in  the  land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey, 
that  they  sheathed  the  sword  too  soon,  as  the 
first  chapter  of  Judges  .shows.  The  Canaanites 
held  strong  cities  in  every  part  of  the  land,  many 
of  them  probably  very  important  places.  Such 
were  Jebus,  between  Benjamin  and  Judah,  and 
Gezer,  on  the  highway  to  Egypt.  The  former 
was  taken  by  David  (2  Sam.  v.  7),  and  the  latter 
taken  and  burnt  by  Pharaoh,  Solomon's  father- 
in-law  (1  Kings  ix.  10).  Those  who  were  driven 
out  by  the  Israelites  went  to  the  north.  It  is 
said  that  Asher  and  Najihtali  did  not  drive  out 
the  Canaanites,  but  dwelt  among  them  (Judg. 
i.  31-33).  .\s  wiis  to  be  expected,  as  soon  as 
the  old  dwellers  in  the  land  perceived  the  scat- 
tered condition  of  Israel,  they  rallied  their  forces, 
and  attacked  the  conquerors  with  great,  though 
not  permanent,  success  ;  for  misfortune  led  Israel 
to  God,  and  God  raised  up  judges  who  delivered 
them.  But  the  Canaanites  unhappily  taught  the 
Israelites  their  idolatry  ;  and  so,  long  after  they 
had  been  overthrown  utterly,  they  overthrew 
Israel,  since  Baal  had  been  put  in  the  place  of 
Jehovah,  and  vice  was  mistress  instead  of  virtue. 
Marriages  with  Canaanites  (Judg.  vi.  3  ;  2  Sam. 
iii.  3;  Ez.  ix.  1),  contrary  to  the  express  com- 
mand of  Jehovah  (Deut.  vii.  3),  had  introduced 
this  strain  in  the  nation's  blood,  and  thus  induced 
the  disastrous  overthrow.  The  foolishness  of 
God  is  wiser  than  men.  If  the  people  had  obeyed 
him,  they  would  have  been  spared  centuries  of 
misery.  See  v.  Lexokkke:  Kenaan.  Volkx-  u. 
Reli(/ion.'!(/e.ichichle  Israels.,  Kdnigsberg,  1S44  ; 
Gkau  :  Seiiiiten  u.  Indnijermanen,  Giitersloh,  2d 
ed.,  1867;  IiiiNTsni  :  I'her  Itidof/enimnen-  uiiil 
Semileii/hiim,  Leipzig.  1872.       FU.  W.  scnULTZ. 

CANADA,  DOMINION  OF.  The  name  of  that 
vast  British  lUqx'udency  that  lies  between  the 
United  States  and  the  North  Pole,  and  between 
the  .\tlantic  and  the  Pacific  Oceans.  'Jhis  coun- 
try was  di.scovered  in  15:!4  by  Jacques  Cartier  of 
St.  Malo.  who  took  pt>s.se.ssion  of  the  Labrailor 
region  in  the  name  of  the  French  King.  During 
a  .second  visit  in  l.')3.'),  Cartier  reacluHl  a  great 
river,  which  lu;  named  the  St.  Lawrence,  in  lionor 
of  the  .saint  on  whose  fete-day  (.\ug.  10)  he  had 
entered  if.s  waters.  Passing  up  the  river,  ho 
arrived  at  Stadacona,  now  t^uebec,  and  subse- 
quently at  Ilochelaga,  lying  at  the  foot  of  a 
mountain,  the  view  from  wlio.se  summit  so 
charmed  the  explorer,  that  he  named  it  Mont 
Hoy,  whence  the  present  Montreal.  No  further 
effort  was  made  lor  the  colonization  of  Canada 
until  1603,  when  Samuel  Chamj)lain  planted  a 
colony  in  Acadia  (now  Nova  Scotia),  and  in  1607 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  present  city  of  (Que- 
bec (]ir()])erly  Kt^bec,  an  Indian  word  nu'aning 
straits),  the  St.  Lawrence  being  at  this  point 
comparatively  narrow. 


CANADA. 


381 


CANADA. 


In  1627  the  government  of  Canada  hecame 
Tested  in  a  commercial  company  of  a  liundrcd 
partners,  with  Champlain  as  governor,  wliile  tlie 
name  of  New  France  was  used  in  the  cliarter  now 
issued.  In  166:{  tlie  company  was  dissolved,  and 
Canada  became  again  a  royal  province,  with  its 
affairs  administered  by  a  council,  consisting  of  tin- 
governor —  who  was  responsible  for  all  military 
measures,  the  bishop  —  in  charge;  of  tlie  religions 
and  educational  interests,  and  the  inteudant,  or 
civil  governor  —  having  charge  of  tlie  finances  ami 
all  matters  affecting  triple  and  commerce,  along 
with  a  few  other  officials  (the  inhabitants  having 
no  representation),  —  a  system  that  continued  in 
operation  for  a  hundred  years.  During  this 
period,  hunters  and  traders  finding  their  way 
westward  came  into  collision  with  the  English 
settlers  in  Western  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio;  and 
this,  combined  with  the  constant  troubles  with 
the  New-England  colonies,  —  territorial  boun- 
daries being  all  undefined,  — •  led  to  war.  Thougli 
France  and  Britain  were  nominally  at  pea.ct;  in 
Europe,  yet  each  openly  assisted  their  respective 
colonists  in  their  local  conflicts.  At  last,  in  1759, 
Wolfe  gained,  under  the  walls  of  Quebec,  the 
decisive  victory  of  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  which 
resulted  in  the  cession  of  Canada  to  England ; 
the  vanquished  securing,  as  conditions  of  sur- 
render, tlie  continued  exercise  of  "  their  language, 
their  religion,  and  their  laws."  British  emigrants 
now  began  to  settle  along  the  banks  of  the  St. 
Lawrence ;  while  in  1790  large  tracts  of  land  in 
the  Niagara  district  were  given  to  loyalist 
refugees  from  the  revolted  colonies  of  America. 
In  1791  Canada,  hitherto  under  a  military  gov- 
ernor-general appointed  by  the  Crown,  received 
a  constitution ;  and  the  upper,  or  western  section, 
which  was  exclusively  British,  was  separated 
from  the  lower,  or  eastern  one,  which  was  as 
exclusively  French  and  Roman-Catholic ;  each 
division  having  an  Upper  House,  or  I..egislative 
('ouncil,  appointed  by  the  Crown,  and  a  Lower 
Ilon.se,  or  Assembly,  elected  by  the  people,  along 
with  a  governor.  Aft«r  some  years,  dissatisfac- 
tion arose  in  both  provinces  against  the  govern- 
ments; while  in  addition,  in  Lower  Canada,  race 
and  religious  antagonism  became  manifest.  These 
things  brought  the  country,  in  1837—38,  to  the 
verge  of  civil  war,  but  resulted  finally  in  the  for- 
mation of  a  legislative  union  between  the  prov- 
inces, with  Kingston  as  the  capital.  The  old 
dissensions,  however,  soon  re-appeared ;  so  that 
the  great  project  of  a  confederation  of  the  several 
North-American  provinces  inider  a  Federal  Gov- 
ernment, having  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Com- 
mons, but  with  Provincial  or  State  Legislatures, 
each  independent  for  all  local  purposes,  was 
adopted  in  18G7,  by  which  the  two  Canadas, 
Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Brunswick,  were  formed 
into  "  The  Dominion  of  Canada,"  with  Ottawa 
for  its  capital.  In  1870  the  newly-formed  prov- 
ince of  Manitoba,  in  1871  British  Columbia,  and 
in  1872  Prince  Edward  Island,  entered  the  Con- 
federation. When  the  English  took  possession 
of  Canada,  its  population  was  6.5,000.  At  present 
it  is  4,000,000,  of  whom  about  1^250,000  are 
claimed  to  be  of  French  origin,  and  are  connected 
chiefly  with  the  eastern  portion  of  the  country; 
while  about  85,000  are  Indians,  who  have  lived  in 
unbroken  friendship  with  the  government.     For- 


merly Can.ada  was  known  only  as  a  lumber  and 
fur-producing  country,  having  in  addition  some 
valuable  fisheries ;  but  of  late  it  has  been  exjwrt^ 
ing  large  amounts  of  farm-produce  and  cattle. 
Its  mineral  resources  of  gold,  silver,  coi>j)cr,  iron, 
and  coal,  are  oidy  now  becoming  known.  Alanu- 
factories  of  a  great  variety  of  articles  are  spring- 
ing up  over  all  the  country;  while  its  immens*' 
wheat-growing  prairie  territory  of  Manitoba  and 
the  North-west  offers  homes  for  countless  emi- 
grants. 

t^anada  is  a  .self-governing  country,  with  a  par- 
liamentarian .system,  copied  largely  from  Unit  ol 
(jreat  Britain.  The  franchi.se  is  almost  universal. 
The  ministers  must  be  sustained  by  a  majority 
of  the  Hou.se  of  Commons;  while  the  governor- 
general,  though  appointed  by  England,  merely 
lepresents  the  British  connection,  and  possesses 
no  political  authority  whatever. 

lidiginn.  —  The  Roman-Catholic  Church  in 
Canada  dates  from  the  discov(!ry,  for  Huguenots 
were  allowed  to  .settle,  only  on  conditions  that 
.soon  proved  fatal  to  their  religion.  In  1615  foni 
RecoUet  priests  (a  branch  of  the  Franciscans) 
settled  in  Quebec,  forming  the  earUest  regular 
establishment.  In  1624  the  Jesuits  arrived,  antl 
began  their  missionary  and  educational  labors. 
In  1658  Francois  Laval  was  sent  out  as  vicar- 
apo.stolic  of  New  France,  becoming  first  bishop 
of  Quebec  in  1072.  Under  him  the  church  sy.s- 
tem  was  fully  organized.  One-thirteenth  of  all 
the  revenue  (a  proportion  afterwards  reduced  U> 
one-twenty-sixth)  was  collected  as  the  tithe,  or 
dime,  for  church-iiur])oses.  The  bishop,  though 
appointed  by  the  Pope,  must  be  subject  to  the 
king  of  France,  while  the  parish  cures  were  de- 
clared to  be  permanent  in  their  offices.  For 
some  time  after  the  conquest,  the  see  of  Quebec 
remained  vacant,  as  the  English  (lovernment 
would  recognize  its  occupant  only  as  the  head  of 
the  Roman  Cluuch  in  Canada,  and  not  as  the 
bishop  of  that  city.  The  difficulty  wa.s,  however, 
overcome;  for  in  1806  the  Pope  appointed  to  tlie 
vacant  see  M.  Plessis,  who  subsequently  becan;e 
the  first  Canadian  archbishop.  The  Roman- 
Catholic  Church  is  thus  practically  established 
by  law  in  Lower  Canada,  now  the  Province  of 
Quebec.  Its  ecclesiastical  staff  throughout  the 
Dominion  consists  of  two  archbishops,  twelve 
bishops,  and  nearly  fifteen  hundred  clergy,  all 
of  an  extremely  ultramontane  character. 

The  Episcopal  Church  in  British  North  America 
dates  from  the  conquest.  In  1760  the  first  Epis- 
copal congregation  was  organized  in  Montreal ; 
.service  being  held  in  the  chapel  of  the  Recollets. 
at  such  hours  as  the  building  was  not  required 
for  mass.  In  1774,  while  the  Roman-Catholic 
Church  was  secured  in  all  its  previous  rights,  it 
was  restricted  to  collecting  its  church-dues  from 
members  of  its  own  communion,  and  the  purpo.'^e 
was  intimated  of  establishing  a  Protestant  Church. 
In  1791,  when  the  constitutional  act  was  adopted, 
one-seventh  of  all  the  land  in  the  colony  disposed 
of  by  sale  or  grant  to  colonisfjj  was  "reserved" 
for  the  support  of  a  Protestant  clergy.  In  1787 
Dr.  Inglis  was  appointed  by  the  English  Crown 
Bishop  of  Nova  Scotia,  —  the  first  of  the  colonial 
bishops ;  in  1793  Dr.  Mountain  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Quebec;  and  in  1837  the  see  of  jMontreal 
was  instituted.     Since  then,  other  sees  have  been 


CANADA. 


382 


CANDACE. 


organized,  until  now  the  Episcopal  Churcli, 
which  has  no  connection  with  the  C'liurch  in  Kng- 
land,  possesses  eighteen  bishops,  with  about  six 
hundred  and  fifty  ministers,  and  theological  semi- 
naries at  LennoxviUe,  'W'iimipeg,  Loudon,  Wind- 
sor (X.S.),  and  Toronto. 

The  Presbyterian  Church  dates  from  17G.5,  when 
the  chaplain  of  the  Twenty-fourtli  Regiment 
began  service  in  Quebec.  In  17G9  Presbyterian 
ministers  were  sent  out  from  Scotland  to  Nova 
Scotia.  In  a  little  while  the  numerous  divisions 
of  tlie  Scottish  Church  were  reproduced  on  North- 
American  soil ;  but  of  these  it  is  not  necessary 
now  to  speak,  a.s,  after  a  series  of  local  and  par- 
tial imions,  these  all,  reduced  in  number  to  four, 
■ — the  Church  of  Scotland,  the  Canada  Presby- 
terian Cliurch,  the  Presbj-terian  Cliurch  of  the 
Lower  provinces,  and  tlie  Presbytei'ian  Church  of 
the  Maritime  provinces  in  connection  with  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  —  entered,  in  1S75,  into  a 
union  under  the  name  of  "  The  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Canada."  This  united  church  now 
e.xtends  from  Newfoundland  to  the  Pacific ;  con- 
sists of  about  fifteen  hundred  congregations,  with 
a  hundred  and  thirteen  thousand  comnmnicants ; 
raised  in  1S81  a  million  and  a  quarter  of  dollars; 
and  has  theological  seminaries  at  Halifax,  Que- 
bec, ^lontreal,  Kingston,  Toronto,  and  Winnipeg. 

Congregationalism  dates  from  the  settlement 
in  Nova  Scotia,  in  17,")9,  of  some  New-England 
Puritans,  who  were  guaranteed  full  liberty  of 
worship,  and  exemption  from  all  disabilities,  for 
not  conforming  to  the  Episcopal  Church.  In  the 
Province  of  Canada  it  dates  from  1801,  when 
the  London  Jlissionary  Society  sent  out  an  agent 
to. Quebec  to  minister  to  a  number  of  .soldiers  in 
the  garrison  there;  while  in  1810  the  society 
sent  an  agent  to  Upper  Canada.  In  1827  the 
Canada  Educational  and  Home  MLssionary  So- 
ciety w:is  formed  of  Congregationalists  and  Pres- 
byterians. In  l.s^W  the  Congregational  ministers 
receiv(xl  a  legal  status  as  nunisters  of  religion. 
In  1840  a  theological  seminary  was  established 
in  Toronto,  which  in  1804  was  removed  to  IMon- 
treal.  The  present  strength  (1881)  of  Congre- 
gationalism ill  the  Dominion  is  si.x  associations, 
a  hundred  and  sixteen  churches,  and  about  seven 
thousand  comnmnicants. 

The  Metlnxlist  tlhurch  dates  from  the  presence 
in  Quebec,  .shortly  after  tlie  conquest,  of  some 
soldiers  of  tiiat  persuasion;  and  subsequently 
Methodists  from  New  York  formed  congregations 
in  what  is  now  Ontario.  The.se  congregations  at 
first  received  their  ministers  from  the  United 
States,  and  formeii  an  integral  part  of  the  Method- 
ist-Episcojial  Church  of  that  country.  In  ]81(j 
the  Knglisii  Methodist  Conference  sent  out  agents, 
who  opened  .several  stations ;  so  that  in  18'J0  it 
wiis  agreed  that  the  English  Conference  should 
luive  sole  charge  of  jyower  Canada,  and  tlu^ 
American  one  of  that  of  Upjicr  Canada.  In  1824 
the  Canadian  Methoilists  were  formed  into  a 
general  Conference  of  their  own,  and  in  1828 
separabnl  from  the  American  ('hurch,  becoming 
indei>(Mident  and  self-governing,  under  the  nami,' 
of.  "  The  Methodist-Kpiscojial  (,'hurch  of  Canada." 
Bishops,  how(!Ver,  were  never  ordained  ;  and  in 
1832  "The  Wesleyan  Methodist  Church  in  Cana- 
da," as  it  was  then  called,  united  with  the  Eng- 
lish Wesleyan   Methodi.st  Conference.     This  was 


followed  by  the  formation,  in  18:54,  of  the 
"Methodist-Episcopal  Church  in  Canada,"  claim- 
ing to  represent  the  original  Canadian  Methodist 
Church.  In  1874  a  union  was  effected  between 
tlie  Wesleyan  INlethodists  and  the  New  Connec- 
tion, forming  the  Methodist  Church  of  Canada. 
In  1884  this  Church  and  the  Methodist-Epis- 
copal, Primitive  Methodists,  and  Bible-Christian 
Churches  united.  The  new  Church  is  governed 
by  two  General  Superintendents,  who  do  the 
work  of  supervision,  aided  by  the  Presidents  of 
the  Annual  Conferences,  hold  office  for  eight 
years,  and  are  eligible  for  re-election.  It  con- 
tained in  1884  one  hundred  and  seventy  thousand 
members  and  nearly  seventeen  hundred  minis- 
ters. There  were  ten  Annual  Conferences,  and 
over  three  thousand  churches.  See  Met/mrlisl 
Annual  for  1SS5,  Toronto.  The  Evangelical 
.Association  (or  "  Albright  Methodists  ")  of  North 
America,  Canada,  reported  in  1884  sixty-seven 
ministers.  Seethe  Canadian  A  Imanuc  fur  lSi>5, 
Toronto. 

There  are  several  small  bodies  of  Lutheran 
churches  also,  for  the  mo.st  part  in  Ontario. 

The  Baptist  Church  lias  about  five  hundred 
congregations  in  different  parts  of  the  Dominion. 

Educational  institutions  were  early  established 
in  Canada.  In  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  the  Recollets,  the  Jesuits,  and  the  Ursu- 
line  nuns,  opened  schools  in  Quebec,  while  the 
Sulpicians  did  the  same  in  Montreal.  Until  the 
present  century,  however,  boys  could  receive  a 
superior  education  only  in  either  of  these  cities ; 
wdiile  numerous  schools  had  been  established  for 
the  benefit  of  girls.  Some  time  ago  an  admira- 
ble system  of  public  instruction  was  adopted  hy 
each  of  the  present  provinces  of  the  Dominion, 
but  with  such  modifications  as  might  be  re(iuired 
to  meet  circumstances  and  the  peculiar  religious 
condition  of  each  locality ;  so  tliat,  by  means  of 
primary  or  elementary,  high  and  normal  schools, 
leading  up  to  the  university,  a  good  education  has 
been  brought  witliin  the  reach  of  almost  every 
child  throughout  the  Dominion.  'J'lie  expenses  of 
the  system  are  met  by  government  grants,  local 
assessments,  and  .school  ff^es.  Mastei's  of  high 
schools  must  be  university  graduates,  and  experi- 
enced teachers.  Teachers  of  public  .schools  must 
be  regularly  qualified,     a.  I).  MATIIEWS  (orync-liuc). 

CAN'DACE  was  the  title  of  the  queens  of  the 
Ethioi>ian  realm  situated  north  of  Meroij,  with 
the  capital  Napata.  From  Alexander  the  (ireat, 
and  down  to  the  time  of  Eu.sebius,  we  meet  w  ith 
Ethiopian  queens  of  this  n.'ime,  who.se  etymology 
is  obscure,  though  a]>parently  not  Shemitic.  It 
•seems  that  in  lOlhiopia  the  (|ueen-vvid(iw  siic- 
ceedi'd  to  the  tliroiu',  and  that,  as  long  .as  she 
lived,  the  son  occupied  only  the  .second  place. 
See  Lki>.sius  :  liriefe  rtt«  yhliji/plcn,  18.'J2,  pp.  181, 
217.  In  Acts  viii.  27  is  mentiimed  an  eunuch 
who  was  treasurer  to  the  reigning  Candace.  He 
was  a  "  pro.selyte  of  the  Cate,"  since  he  had  come 
up  to  Jeru.salein  to  worship;  but  h<^  was  not  a 
Jew,  since  he  was  an  eniuuh  (Dent,  xxiii.).  On 
his  return  from  Jerusalem  he  met  with  the  apos- 
tle Philip  between  Asdod  and  (ia/.a,  and  was  con- 
verted and  bai>tized.  According  to  a  loose  tiadi- 
tiou  his  name  was  Judich.  He  brought  the  (iist 
.seeds  of  Christianity  to  Ethiopia;  but  the  real 
evangelization   of   the   country  took   [ilace  much 


CANDIDUS. 


CANDLESTICK. 


later.     S<-((  Lrnoi.iTi:  Hia.  Mlhiop.,  1681,  II.  4, 

7,  ill.  L'.  KUET8CIII. 

CANDIDUS,  an  Aiian  controversialist  i'roni 
the  niidille  of  thfi  fourtli  centnry,  wrot<i  a  liook, 
l)e  Gencrd/ionc  Divini  Vertii,  and  addressed  it  to 
his  friend,  the  celebrated  African  riietorician, 
Victorinus,  on  the  occasion  of  his  conversion  to 
Christianity.  The  book  called  forth  an  answer 
from  Victorinns,  Confutntorium  (.'cmdii/i  Arlmii ; 
and  the  two  works  are  fjenerally  ]irinted  together. 
See  Migne:  Patrol,  Vl'll.  j)]).  Ulia  and  103G. 

CANDLEMAS,  a  Christian  festival  institnted 
in  the  Kasteni  Church  by  the  Emperor  Justinian 
(.>12),  under  the  name  of  iimmavTri,  or  Fesluiii 
Si/vieo!tix  (Luke  ii.  25).  In  the  Honjan  Church,  in 
which  15aronius  says  that  it  occurred  already  in 
the  time  of  Gelasius  (492-49G),  it  .soon  became  a 
feast  of  Mary,  Fesltan  I'urificalioni.t  Marice :  the 
2d  of  February,  on  which  it  was  celebrated,  being 
the  fortieth  day  after  the  birth  of  Christ  (Dec.  25), 
and  consequently  the  day  on  which,  according  to 
liCvitical  rules,  the  purification  of  the  mother 
should  lake  place.  In  all  its  details,  however, 
—  the  lighting  of  candles,  the  consecration  by  the 
I'ojie  of  all  the  candles  to  be  used  in  the  ser^■ice 
during  the  year,  etc.,  —  the  Candlemas,  Feslum 
CwKlelaruin,  shows  itself  to  be  a  mere  Christian- 
i-zation  of  an  old  Pagan  feast  celebrated  in  Rome 
just  at  the  same  season,  by  purification  of  the 
whole  house,  in  order  to  make  it  ready  for  the 
returning  sun,  and  by  lighting  of  candles  and 
torches,  in  memory  of  Ceres  searching  after 
Proserpina.  See  II.  Alt  :  Dcr  chrislliche  Cuilus, 
IJerlin,  1851-1800,  2  vols,,  I.  p.  559. 

CANDLES,  use  of.  In  divine  service.  There  is 
no  trace  of  their  use  during  the  first  three  Chris- 
tian centuries ;  for  Lactantius  (250-330)  says, 
"  If  they  (the  heathen)  would  contemplate  tliat 
heavenly  light  which  we  call  the  sun,  they  will  at 
once  perceive  how  God  has  no  need  of  their  can- 
dles, who  has  himself  given  so  clear  and  bright  a 
light  for  the  use  of  man.  ...  Is  that  man  there- 
fore to  be  tliought  in  his  senses,  who  presents  the 
light  of  candles  and  torches  as  an  offering  to  Him 
who  is  the  Author  and  Giver  of  light?"  (Bir. 
Inxt.,  VI.  2.)  But  in  the  fourth  century  Athana- 
sius  (29G-372)  reproached  the  Arians  with  having 
put  to  idolatrous  uses  the  candles  Cliristians  had 
used  in  worship;  and  Jerome  (331-420)  says  that 
the  practice  of  burning  candles  during  the  read- 
ing of  the  gospel,  even  in  the  clear  day,  was 
universal  in  the  Eastern  Church  {Liber  contra 
Vil/ilantuitii,  III.)  ;  and  in  another  place  he  speaks 
of  wax  lights  burning  before  the  tomb  of  martyrs 
(ICpi.sl.  ad  Riparium,  i.;  Epist.,  CIX.,  ed.  Migne, 
0/iera  lUcroiuimi,  vol.  I.  p.  907  [720]).  Chrysos- 
toin  (317-407)  speaks  of  the  candles  burning 
u]ion  the  altars  in  churches  as  a  usual  sight ;  but 
in  chapels  and  before  shrines,  lamps  were  pre- 
ferred. The  candles  were  and  are  exclusively 
wax.  The  Roman  Church  forbids  even  stearine 
candles,  ^^'ax  was  chosen  on  account  of  its  odor 
ar.d  its  costliness  ;  for  we  ought  to  give  God  our 
best  and  costliest.  At  mass,  at  least  two  tapers 
must  burn  upon  the  altar;  they  are  carried  in  by 
the  designated  ceroferarii:  so,  in  other  ceremo- 
nies, candles  were  used,  and  a  symbolical  meaning 
found.  Thus  the  baptism  candles  spoke  of  the 
light  of  the  good  works  by  which  heaven  was 
entered ;  the  marriage  candles,  of  the  purity  and 


joy  of  the  heart;  the  burial  candles,  of  the  eter- 
nal light  of  lieaven.  The  I'efornK^d  Chunh  has 
])ro])crly  rejected  the  use  of  candles,  as  .savoring 
too  much  of  that  heatlienism  whence  (he  custom 
was  borrowed.  II.  MERZ  (in  Ilcrzotj'n  ift  (•d.). 

CANDLESTICK,  THE  GOLDEN,  or  properly 
Candelabrum  (E.\-(iil.  .\xv.  31-40,  xxvii.  20, 
xxxvii.  17-24),  stood  on  the  south  side  of  the 
first  apartment  of  the  tabernacle,  "  opposite  the 
table  of  shew-bread,  in  an  oblique  position,  so 
that  the  lamps  looked  to  the  east  and  the  south : 
hence  the  central  was  called  the  'western  '  lamp." 
Its  object  was  partly,  by  its  lights,  to  enable  the 
priests  to  discharge  their  functions  there,  as  all 
natural  light  was  excluded  from  the  holy  jilace, 
but  cliiefly  to  be  a  holy  sign  and  symbol  of  the 
invisible  God,  who  dwells  in  the  light  whicli  no 
man  can  approach  unto,  who  covers  himself  .with 
light  as  with  a  garment  (1  Tim.  vi.  IG;  Ps. 
civ.  2),  who  is  himself  light,  and  the  source  of  it 
(Ps.  xxxvi.  9).  Bezaleel  made  it,  after  the  divine 
directions,  out  of  beaten  gold.  Dr.  T.  .1.  Conant 
thus  describes  it :  "  From  the  ba.se,  rose  an  upright 
central  shaft,  bearing  the  central  lamp :  from  two 
opposite  sides  of  it  proceeded  other  shafts,  three 
on  a  side,  making  six  branches  from  the  main 
.shaft,  all  being  in  the  same  plane  with  it.  and 
each  bearing  a  lamp.  A  part  of  the  )nain  shaft 
I  and  its  branches,  .serving  for  ornaments  of  the 
structure,  are  mentioned,  — Jlmeer-cups,  capitalu, 
und  Jfower.i.  In  shape  the  capital  may  have  had 
the  rounded  form  of  fruit,  as  indicated  in  son:o 
of  the  ancient  versions  and  Josephus.  From  the 
representation  in  Exod.  xxv.  33-35,  these  pai'ts 
appear  to  have  been  arranged  as  follow.s:  each 
of  the  six  side-branches  had  three  flower-cups, 
shaped  like  the  calyx  of  the  almond-blossom,  and 
terminated  in  a  crown  or  capital,  with  its  orna- 
mented flower  as  a  receptacle  for  the  lamp.  The 
central  shaft  was  composed  of  four  such  combina- 
tions of  calyx,  capital,  and  flower,  each  pair  of 
side-br.anches  resting  on  the  capital  of  one  of  the 
three  lo\ver,  the  fourth  and  uppermost  bearing 
the  central  lamp." 

The  question  whether  the  seven  lamps  were 
upon  one  level  may  probably  be  answered  afTn- 
matively.  Of  Josephus'  statement  {Antiq.  III. 
7,  7),  that  the  ornaments  upon  the  shaft  and 
branches  were  seventy  in  number,  there  is  no 
proof,  nor  much  likelihood,  although  he  finds  in 
the  numlier  a  secret  intimation  of  the  dcKa/joiiun, 
in  astrology  the  ten  degrees  of  a  circle,  and  in 
the  lamps  a  reference  to  the  seven  planets,  philo 
likewise  finds  symbolical  reference  in  the  seven 
lights  ;  for  he  says,  "  The  sacred  candelal)rum  and 
the  seven  lights  upon  it  are  an  imitation  of  the 
wandering  of  the  seven  planets  through  tho 
heaven  "  {Quis  rer  div.  kwr.  sit.  §  44,  ed.  Mangey, 
Tom.  I.  jip.  503  sqq.;  Bolm's  trans,  vol.  ii.  p.  137). 
Ewald,  probably  correctly,  sees  in  the  nimiber 
seven  merely  the  holy  number,  consecrated  by 
the  sabbath  {Antiq.  [Eng.  trans.]  p.  11.5).  The 
lamps  bin-nt  day  and  night,  although,  as  Josephus 
says  (Atitiq.  III.  8,  3),  it  may  well  be  that  by  day 
only  three  were  kept  burning.  It  wa.s  the  busi- 
ness of  the  priests  to  fill  the  lamps  every  evening, 
for  which  ]im'pose  the  finest  olive-oil  was  used 
(Exod.  xxvii.  20)  to  clean  them  in  the  morning, 
snuffing  them  with  golden  snuffers,  and  to  carry 
away  the  siiuff  iu  golden  snufi-dishes  (Exod.  xxv- 


CANDLISH. 


384 


CANISIUS. 


38).  Whenever  this  was  done,  the  priest  was  obli- 
gated to  offer  a  sacrifice  of  incense  upon  the  altar 
of  incense  in  the  inner  sanctuary  (Exod.  xxx. 
7,  8) ;  thus,  as  Ewald  says,  giving  perfect  expres- 
sion to  the  "  coiTespondence  between  light  and 
sacrifice." 

The  candelabrum  and  its  appurtenances  re- 
quired a  talent  of  pure  gold,  weighed  a  hundred 
minae,  and,  according  to  the  rabbins,  was  five 
feet  high,  and  three  feet  and  a  half  broad,  i.e., 
the  distance  between  the  exterior  branches. 
When  it  was  moved,  the  lamp-stand  was  covered 
with  a  blue  cloth,  and  put,  with  the  "  lamps,  tongs, 
snuff-dishes,  and  all  the  oil  vessels  tliereof,"  in 
badger-skin  bags,  which  were  carried  on  a  bar 
(Num.  iv.  9,  10). 

In  Solomon's  temple,  instead  of  one  candela- 
brum, there  were  ten  upon  golden  tables,  —  five  on 
the  north  and  five  on  the  south  side  of  the  Holy 
Place.  The  larger  number  fitted  the  larger  space 
and  the  greater  pomp  of  the  worship  (1  Kings  vii. 
49).  The  Chaldaeans  carried  them  to  Babylon 
(Jer.  lii.  9).  In  the  second  temple,  there  was  only 
one  candlestick  (Ecclus.  xxvi.  17;  "as  the  clear 
light  is  upon  the  holy  candle-stick,  so  is  tlie  beauty 
of  the  face  in  ripe  age").  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
removed  it  (1  Mace.  i.  21).  and  .Judas  IMaccabeeus 
restored  it  (Mace.  iv.  49)  ;  and  it  remained  in 
Herod's  temple  imtil  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem, wlien  Titus  carried  it  to  Home,  and  it  figured 
in  his  triumphiil  procession,  and  was  sculptured 
upon  his  arch,  although  it  would  seem  not  alto- 
gether accurately  (Joseph.  War,  VII.  5,  5).  It 
was  then  deposited  in  the  Temple  of  Peace. 
According  to  one  account,  it  fell  into  the  Tiber 
from  the  Milvian  Bridge  during  the  flight  of  Max- 
entius  from  Constantine,  Oct.  28,  312;  but  the 
usually  accredited  story  is,  that  it  was  taken  to 
Carthage  by  Genseric,  4.5o  (Gibbon  iii.  291),  re- 
covered by  Belisarius,  transferred  to  Constan- 
tinople, and  then  respectfully  deposited  in  the 
Christian  Church  of  Jerusalem  .53  {  (id.  iv.  24). 
JJothing  more  has  been  heard  of  it. 

The  saying  of  Jesus,  "  I  am  tlie  light  of  the 
"World "  (John  viii.  12),  was  probably  suggested 
by  the  illumination  of  the  temple  courts  on  the 
(evening  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  by  means  of 
four  great  candelabra  erected  in  the  gourt  of  the 
-women ;  although  some  see  in  it  allusion  to  the 
golden  candelabrum.  In  Rev.  i.  12,  20,  ii.  1, 
icandelabr.a  symbolize  rhurrlies. 

Lit.  —  lIcioLixo:  Thexattrus,  Yenet.  1714-09, 
,■34  vols.  fol.  toini  IX.  et  XI.  essays  by  Ueland, 
IJoederlein,  Ugolino,  and  Jahn  ;  BXiiu  :  Si/mlinli/c 
ides  Mosaiichen  Cid/it.^;  Heidelberg,  1837-39,  2  vols. 
,(2  ed.  vol.  I.,  1874)  ;  Blekk  :  Vorlesuiiffen  iiher 
den  Ilehraerhrief,  Elberfeld,  1808;  EwAi.n;  Anli- 
quitie.1  of  hrad  (Eng.  trans.),  London,  1870. 
Also  art.  Leuchler,  heili/jer,  in  Herzog  and  Plitt 
lle(d-enc;//clopivlie,  vol.  viii.  pp.  014,  010,  and  art. 
Canrlleslirk  iu  Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  Am. 
ed.  vol.  i.  pp.  3.>4-350. 

CANDLISH,  Robert  Smith,  D.D.,  one  of  the 
moHt  (liHtiiii,nii.slic'il  fcjurnlrrs  and  li-adi'rs  of  th(! 
Free!  Church  of  .Scotland,  b.  at  Eilinbnrgli.  March 
23,  1800  ;  d.  there  Oct.  19,  1872.  His  fatlu-r,  who 
died  early,  was  a  medical  teachc^r,  and  a  friend  of 
llobert  Burns.  He  wa.s  educated  .at  (iia-sgow, 
and,  after  two  years  spent  as  a  tutor  at  Eton,  he 
-was  licensed  as  a  preacher;  served  as  assistant  in 


Glasgow,  at  Bonhill,  and  in  St.  George's,  Edin- 
burgh, and  was  ordained  to  the  charge  last 
named  in  1834.  In  this  very  conspicuous  spliere 
his  great  talent  as  a  preacher  soon  made  him 
famous.  In  1839  he  publicly  identified  himself 
with  the  party  in  the  Established  Church  of  Scot- 
land which  ultimately  became  the  Free  Church, 
by  moving,  in  the  Commission  of  the  General 
Assembly,  the  suspension  of  the  Strathbogie  min- 
isters who  had  indicated  their  intention  to  disobey 
the  .\ssembly,  and  obey  the  Court  of  Session  by 
ordaining  Mr.  Edwards  as  minister  of  Marnoch. 
In  1839  he  was  nominated  by  the  crown  profes- 
sor of  biblical  criticism  in  the  University  of  Ed- 
inburgh ;  but,  on  the  angry  remonstrance  of  the 
Earl  of  Abenleen  in  the  House  of  Lords,  the 
nomination  was  cancelled.  In  1841  he  received 
the  degree  of  D.D.  from  Princeton  College,  New 
Jersey.  In  all  the  public  proceedings  prior  to 
tlie  disruption  (1843),  and  especially  in  the  debates 
in  the  General  Assembly,  wliere  he  shone  greatly, 
he  took  a  leading  part.  After  the  disruption  he 
exerted  liimself  with  great  energy  in  the  organi- 
zation of  tlie  Free  Church;  and,  more  than  any 
other  man,  he  aided  in  her  rapid  development. 
On  tho  death  of  Dr.  Chalmers  he  was  appointed 
by  the  General  Assen\bly  to  succeed  him  as  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  in  the  New  College,  Edinburgh  ; 
but,  after  accepting  the  appointment,  he  with- 
drew his  acceptance,  and  remained  minister  of 
St.  George's  Free  Church.  On  the  death  of  Dr. 
Cunningham,  he  succeeded  him  as  Principal  of  the 
New  College.  He  was  the  chief  organizer  and 
extender  of  the  school  system  of  the  Free  Churcli, 
which  was  afterwards  incorporated  with  the  na- 
tional system  of  education.  For  many  years  he 
was  the  most  conspicuous  man  in  the  General 
Assembly, of  which  ha  w;vs  indeed  the  recognized 
leader.  In  every  .scheme  and  movement  con- 
nected with  the  Free  Church,  he  took  a  cordial 
interest,  and  generally  an  active  share.  His  elo- 
quence as  a  debater,  his  tact  as  a  business-man, 
his  high  Christian  character,  and  liis  thorough 
disinterestedness,  secured  for  iiim  the  high  jilacc 
which  he  so  long  maintained,  in  sjiite  of  a  some- 
what sharp  and  abrupt  manner,  and  a  teiulency 
towh.at  some  considered  diploniatic  nian.igcment. 
He  was  a  voluminous  author,  although  his  books 
did  not  attain  a  very  large  circulation.  .Vnioiig 
his  writings  were:  CoiUrihulinns  loirards  lite  Expo- 
silion  of  Ike  Book  of  Genesii,  3  vols. ;  Un  the  Alonc- 
titcnl :  Scripture  Cliiiraclers  and  Mixrclhiiiii^ ;  JCj:- 
(imiudtion  of  Maurice's  Thc.olo(jicnl  JCsstii/s;  The 
Resurrection  of  Life;  The  Tico  (jrcat  (Joinmnnd- 
ments;  The  Fatherhood  o/ <7o(/ (Cunningham  Lec- 
tures) ;  Exposition  of  1  John;  The  (iospel  of  For- 
ifweness;  Select  Sermons  (posthumous).  In  1880 
appeared  a  Memoir,  by  William  Wilson,  D.D.,  at 
tlie  close  of  which  is  a  chapter  on  the  cliaracterof 
Dr.  Candlish  .as  a  theologian,  contrihntcd  by  Rob- 
ert Rainy,  D.D.,  his  successor  as  princij'al  of  the 
New  Coliege.  W.  O.  isi.AIKIE. 

CANISIUS,  Peter,  b.  at  Nimeguen,  May  8, 
l.VJI;  d.  at  Freiburg,  Dec.  21,  1.097;  descended 
from  a  Dutch  family,  J)c  Ilondt ;  was  educatc'd  at 
Cologne;  <>ntered  the  order  of  tli<^  .lesnits  (l.'J43). 
the  first  German  memlier;  and  became  professor 
in  the  University  of  liigolsta<lt  in  l.'it!*,  and  rector 
of  the  Jesuit  College  in  Vienna  in  l.'j.Ol.  In  Bava- 
ria he  founded  two  Jesuit  schools,  —  at  Augsburg 


CANNON. 


385 


CANON. 


and  Dillingen,  —  and  contributed  much  to  stop  the 
progress  of  th<^  Reformation.  In  Austria,  where 
he  became  court-preacher  to  Ferdinand  I.,  lie 
labored  with  still  great(;r  success,  so  that  the 
friends  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany  called 
him  the  Austrian  dog,  with  reference  to  his  name 
Canisius,  De  Ilondt,  the  hound.  His  works  have 
pai-tly  a  more  scholarly  character,  Commcnlarii 
against  the  Ceniur.  Mai/d.;  partly  a  more  practi- 
cal purpose,  Su.miiia  Dnclrime  et  InslUulianU 
Chrisfidncc,  15.14,  and  Inslilulinnen  Christ.  I'ielads, 
1566.  Both  the  latter  were  written  as  a  counter 
balance  to  the  catechisms  of  Luther,  and  found  a 
very  wide  use,  being  still  reprinted.  Biographies 
of  him  were  written  by  Raderus,  Munich,  KiH; 
Sacchini,  Ingol.stadt,  1616 ;  Dorigny,  Cologne, 
1692;  Werfer,  Schaffhausen,  1852;  and  Riess, 
Freil)urg,  1865.  G.  plitt. 

CANNON,  James  Spencer,  b.  in  the  Island  of 
Cura<,'oa  Jan.  28,  1776;  d.  in  New  Brunswick 
July  25,  18.52.  He  was  professor  of  pastoral  the- 
ology and  ecclesiastical  history  in  the  Theological 
Seminary  of  the  Reformed  Church,  New  Bruns- 
wick, N..I.,  from  1818  to  1819,  and  again  from  1826 
to  1852,  during  which  time  he  was  also  professor 
of  metaphysics  in  Rutgers  College.  Though  his 
duties  were  thus  manifold,  he  dischai'ged  them 
with  fidelity  and  capacity.  Learned,  systematic, 
deliberate,  liis  speech  was  slow  but  pithy,  and  his 
lectures  were  elaborate  and  exhaustive.  His  mem- 
ory is  still  cherished  by  many  pupils  and  hearers, 
and  his  portrait  is  found  in  many  of  the  older 
families  of  his  denomination.  After  his  death, 
his  Lectures  on  Pastoral  Theologi/  were  given  to 
the  press,  New  York,  1853,  and  favorably  re- 
ceived. See  Dr.  Proudfit's  ai'ticle  in  Sprague's 
A  nnals. 

CANON  (Cfinnnicl  and  Cannnicce),  a  general 
ecclesiastical  designation,  which  originated  in 
times  prior  to  the  Council  of  Nicsea,  from  the 
canon,  or  roll,  on  which  the  names  of  the  clergy 
belonging  to  a  certain  church  were  inscribed,  but 
which  afterwards  came  to  denote  a  peculiar  eccle- 
siastical class,  occupying  a  position  intermediate 
between  the  monks  and  the  secular  clergy.     See 

ChAI'TKI!. 

CANON,  Old  Testament.  The  word  "canon" 
means  primarily  a  straiglit  staff,  then  a  measur- 
ing-rod, hence,  figuratively,  that  which  is  artisti- 
cally, scientifically,  or  ethically  a  guide  or  a 
model :  so  in  the  earliest  Christian  use  (Gal.  vi. 
16;  Phil.  iii.  16;  Clemens  Rom.,  I  ep.  ad  Cor.  7, 
41)  the  canon  was  a  leading  thought,  a  normal 
principle.  The  next  change  of  meaning  (indi- 
cated by  Clemens  Alex.,  .Strom.  7,  16,  §  94)  was 
to  a  li//ir.  of  Christian  doctrine,  the  orthodox  as 
opposed  to  the  heretical.  Since  A.D.  300  the 
plural  form  (canons)  has  been  used  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal regulations.  Now,  since  the  Christian  doc- 
trines were  professedly  based  upon  the  Scriptures, 
the  writings  themselves  were  naturally  known  as 
the  Canon ;  and  the  test  of  the  canonicity  of 
any  particular  writing  was  its  reception  by  the 
Chuj-ch.  The  earliest  use  of  the  word  in  this 
sense  is  in  the  fifty-ninth  canon  of  the  Council  of 
Laodicffia  (A.D.  363):  "No  psalms  of  private 
authorship  can  be  read  in  the  churches,  nor  un- 
canonical  books,  but  only  the  canonical  books  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament,"  and  contempo- 
raneously in  Athauasius,  Epistola  Jestalis  (ed. 
26—1 


Bened.  L,  961,  Paris,  1698).  A  few  years  later 
the  use  was  general. 

I.  History  of  thk  Canon  among  thk  .Jews. 

(a)  The  Traditional  Account  of  the  Rise  of  the  Col- 
lection. —  The  theory,  which  was  almost  univer- 
sally received  for  fifteen  hundred  years,  that 
Ezra  was  the  .author  of  the  Old-Testament  canon, 
dates  from  the  first  Christian  century;  for  it  is 
found  in  the  Fourth  Book  of  Ezra  (Second  Es- 
(has)  xiv.  41,  that  Ezra  was  inspired  to  dictate  dur- 
ing forty  days  to  five  men  ninety-four  books  [not 
two  hundred  and  four,  or  nine  hundred  and  four, 
as  in  King  .lames'  Version],  of  which  twenty- 
four  were  to  be  published.  The.se  twentv-four 
quite  evidently  are  the  twenty-four  books  of  the 
Hebrew  Canon,  according  to  the  counting  given 
below  ;  and  the  seventy  are  the  .Jewish  Apocryjiha 
alluiled  to  in  chap.  28  of  the  Evangeliuni  Nicndenii 
[dospel  of  Nicodemus  (Clark's  trans),  p.  210]. 
What  the  Fathers  have  to  s.ay  upon  this  matter 
is  derived  in  part  from  Fourth  Esdra.s,  and  is 
equally  fabulous.  The  modern  Protestant  theory 
attributes  the  Old-Testament  canon  to  Ezra  and 
his  associates,  the  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue, 
or  at  least  to  their  time. 

(l>)  The  Theory  of  the  Synagogue.  —  The  above- 
mentioned  theory  has  been  supposed  to  be  the 
one  prevalent  among  the  Jews  themselves;  and 
indeed  the  eminent  rabbins  David  Kimchi  (d. 
1240)  and  Elias  Levita  (1472-1549)  put  it  fcrtli 
as  a  settled  fact  (see  Levita,  Ulassoreth  ha-Mnsso- 
relh,  p.  120,  ed.  Ginsburg,  London,  1867).  lint 
the  only  Talmudic  passage  which  can  l)e  quoted 
directly  in  its  behalf  is  in  Balm  Balhra ;  for  the 
other  quotations  commonly  made  prove  merely 
the  care  of  Ezra  and  the  men  of  the  Great  Syna- 
gogue for  the  law,  not  for  the  canon  :  indeed, 
mostly  for  the  oral  lair,  and  some  also  for  altera- 
tions in  the  text.  The  passage  is  in  these  words: 
"The  order  of  the  prophets  is  .loshua  and  Judges, 
•Samuel  and  Kings,  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,  Isaiah 
and  the  Twelve.  Ilosea  is  the  first,  because  it 
is  written,  'The  beginning  of  the  word  of  Jeho- 
vah by  Hosea'  (i.  1).  Did  (Jod,  then,  speak  to 
Hosea  first':'  and  have  there  not  been  many  proph- 
ets between  him  and  Moses 'i'  R.  .Joehanan  ex- 
plained this  as  meaning  that  Hosea  was  the  first 
of  the  four  prophets  who  prophesied  .at  that  time, 
—  Hosea,  Isai;ih,  Amos,  and  JJicah.  Why,  then, 
was  he  not  put  first?  Because  his  prophecy  stands 
next  to  tli.at  of  the  Latest  prophets,  Haggai,  Zech.a- 
riah,  and  Jlalachi :  he  is  therefore  counted  with 
them.  So  this  prophet  should  have  been  kept  by 
himself,  .and  inserted  before  Jeremiah?  No:  he 
was  so  small  that  he  might  then  easily  have  been 
lost.  Since  Isaiah  lived  before  Jeremiah  and 
Ezekiel,  ought  he  not  to  h.ave  been  put  before 
them?  [No.]  Because  Kings  closes  with  destruc- 
tion, .Jeremiah  is  entirely  occupied  with  it,  Eze- 
kiel begins  with  it,  but  ends  with  consolation, 
w'hile  Isaiah  is  all  consolation:  hence  we  connect 
destruction  with  destruction,  and  consolation  with 
consolation.  But  Job  lived  in  the  time  of  Moses: 
why  should  he  not  come  in  the  first  part '!  No; 
for  it  would  never  do  to  begin  with  misfortune. 
Yet  Ruth  contains  misfortune  ?  True  ;  but  it 
issues  in  joy.  That  is  a  support  for  the  s;iying 
of  Rab;  for  Rab  Jehuda  says,  in  the  name  of 
Rab,  '  Ezra  did  not  leave  Babylon  until  he  had 
written  his  own  family  register  '    Who  has  ended 


CANON. 


386 


CANON. 


it  ?  Neheraiah  the  son  of  Ilachaliah."  It  will  be 
pf-rceived  that  this  passage  says  nothin,^  about 
the  closincj  of  the  canon,  but  also  that  it  would 
readily  furnish  qround  for  the  idea  that  the  canon 
was  closed  in  the  time  of  Ezra  and  the  Great 
Synagojjue. 

(c)  Criticism  of  The  Tjvo  Theories. —They  hoth 
agree  in  assigning  the  collection  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment to  Ezra  and  his  companions  and  successors, 
and  also  in  asserting  that  the  division  into  the 
Law,  the  Prophets,  and  the  Hagioijraplia,  was 
primitive.  But  against  this,  two  objections  may 
be  urged :  (1)  Critical  investigation  assigns  the 
first  part  of  the  Book  of  Daniel,  on  account  of  its 
Greek  words,  to  a  time  when  Greek  was  under- 
stood, and  the  second  part  to  the  time  of  the 
Maccabees  [so  several  modern  German  scholars. 
But  see  art.  Daniel]  ;  (2)  The  position  of  some 
of  the  historical  books,  e.g.,  Ezra  and  Daniel, 
among  the  Hagiographa,  is  inexplicable  if  the 
canon  was  made  at  one  time.  Moses  IMaimoni- 
des,  D.  Kiinchi,  and  Abarbanel  explained  the  fact 
by  a  dilTerence  in  inspiration.  But  Christ  calls 
Daniel  a  prophet  (Matt.  xxiv.  15;  Mark  xiii.  14), 
and  quotes  him  as  worthy  of  all  credence. 

('/)  Positive  Exposition.  1.  Tlie  Pentateuch 
(the  so-called  "first  canon").  The  Hebrews,  like 
other  ancient  jieople,  preserved  their  sacred  writ- 
ings in  sacred  places.  So  the  law  of  the  Lord 
was  ]iut  by  the  side  of  the  ark  of  the  covenant 
(Dent,  xx.xi.  2G),  with  its  additions  by  Joshua 
(Josh.  xxiv.  26);  Samuel  laid  the  "right  of  the 
kingdom"  before  the  Lord  (1  Sam.  x.  25); 
Ililkiah,  the  high  priest  under  ,Iosiah,  found  "Me 
Book  of  the  Law  of  the  Lord  "  in  the  temple  (i.e., 
the  well-known  book:  so  it  was  no  recent  inven- 
tion, as  some  claim)  about  C23  B.C.  (2  Kings 
xxii.  8).  We  are  therefore  safe  in  believing, 
that,  since  the  time  of  Moses,  besides  the  tables 
of  the  law,  the  autographs  of  the  legal  and  his- 
torical writings  of  Moses  were  carefully  preserved 
in  the  sanctuary  (Exod.  xxiv.  4,  7,  xxxiv.  27, 
xl.  20).  The  priests  also  would  retain  partly 
oral  and  partly  written  information  (subsequently 
combined  in  the  Codex  of  the  Priests)  in  regard 
to  many  similar  matters  ;  and,  between  the  eigh- 
teenth year  of  Josiah  and  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem (about  5SU  B.C.),  the  writings  of  Moses 
and  the  priest-codex,  long  in  existence,  were 
combined.  During  and  after  the  exile,  the  influ- 
ence of  this  book  is  great,  and  the  proph(>ts  and 
the  pious  give  it  canonical  authority.  See  Karl 
Marti :  J)ie  Sjmren  der  sog.  Grundsclirift  des  lleia- 
teuchs  in  den  voreiilischen  Propheten  des  A.  T.,  in 
Jahrbiieher  fiir  protest.  Thcoloijie,  1880,  cf.  pp.  325- 
351.  Originally  Joshua  formed  part  of  the  book  ; 
but,  when  the  Mosaic  elements  received  their 
present  shape,  it  was  separated,  and  then  these 
elements  themselves  were  divided  into  five  parts, 
in  imitation  of  which  the  fivefold  division  of 
the  Psalms  was  made. 

2.  The  Ilisturico-prophetic  and  distinctively  Pro- 
phetic Hooks  (the  so-called  "second  canon"). — 
The  prophets  were  the  spiritual  exhorters  and 
guides  of  the  people,  and  therefore  held  in  high 
esteem  by  the  faithful,  whosi^  natural  desire  to 
have  a  collection  of  their  writings  we  have  every 
reason  to  believe  was  early  gratified.  At  all 
events,  it  is  quite  evident  from  the  prophetic  par- 
allels, that  the  prophets  were  acquainted  with  eacli 


other's  writings.  The  loss  of  so  much  sacred 
literature  in  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Chalda?ans  made  the  collection  of  the  remaining 
historic  as  well  as  prophetic  books  the  more 
imperative. 

3.  The  Hagiographa  (the  so-called  "third 
canon").  —  The  last  /\<a/ms  were  written  in  the 
time  of  Nehemiah  ;  but  the  collection  dates  from 
David.  The  first  collection  of  the  Proveibs  of 
Solomon  was  so  highly  valued,  that  Hezekiah 
ordered  a  second  to  be  prepared  (Prov.  xxv.  1). 
The  name  of  the  wise  man  sufficed  to  recommend 
the  Canticles;  its  age  and  contents,  the  Book  of 
.Job.  Lamentations  appealed  directly  to  every 
patriotic  Jew  during  the  exile,  and  was  accepted 
as  sacred,  although  Jeremiah  was  not  its  author. 
Ruth,  by  age,  and  especially  by  its  genealogy  of 
David,  was  put  in  the  third  canon,  and  formed  an 
introduction  to  the  Psalter.  These  early  writings 
were  followed  gradually  liy  the  others,  probably 
in  this  order:  Ezra,  Chronicles,  Ecclesiasles,  Esther 
(an  explanation  of  Purim.  the  festival  the  Per- 
sian .Tews  brought  back  with  them),  and  finally 
Daniel,  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees.  After  this 
time,  and  down  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
by  Titus,  A.D.  70,  the  nation  was  so  affected  by 
Greek  customs,  and  divided  by  the  growing  rival 
parties,  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees,  that  its 
religious  development  was  too  much  hindered 
for  any  work  to  receive  universal  recognition, 
and  hence  canonicity.  Not  long  after  the  Macca- 
bees, the  second  collection  or  canon  I'eceived  its 
name,  the  Prophets,  descriptive  not  only  of  a 
portion  of  its  contents,  but  of  their  authorship; 
and  thus  the  three  divisions  of  the  Old- Testament 
canon  —  the  I^aw,  Prophets,  and  Hagiographa  ^ — • 
d;ited  from  the  second  century  B.C.  See  the  Pro- 
logue to  Ecclesiasticus. 

Witnesses  for  the  Second  and  Third  Parts  of  the 
Ca»o«.  —  ( For  those  for  the  Pentateuch  see  section 
(rf)  1.)  Jesus  Sirach  shows  acquaintance  only 
with  the  Prophets  in  the  wider  sense,  the  "second 
canon,"  chaps,  xlvi.-xlix.,  especially  xlix.  10. 
llis  grandson  testifies  to  the  third  division  also. 

Pliilo  had  the  same  canon  as  ours  (see  C.  Sieg- 
fried, Philo,  ,Jeua,  1875,  p.  101),  and  quotes  from 
almost  all  the  books;  while  from  the  Apocrypha 
he  makes  no  excerpts  or  citation,  not  giving  it 
the  honor  he  accords  to  Plato,  Hippocrates,  and 
several  other  Greek  writers.' 

Second  Maccabees,  dating  from  before  70  A.D., 
in  the  spurious  .section  (i.  10-ii.  18)  contains  an 
account  of  the  recovery  of  the  sacred  fire,  a  quo- 
tation from  the  "records"  of  Jeremiah  (a  lost 
apocryphal  writing);  .and  then  follows  ii.  13: 
"  Ami  tlie  same  tilings  also  were  reported  in  the 
records,  namely,  the  memoirs  of  Nehemiah  [.an- 
other apocryphal  writing],  an(l  how  he,  fcuniding 
a  library,  gathered  together  the  books  concerning 
the  kings  an<l  prophets,  and  those  of  David,  and 
epistles  of  kings  concerning  holy  gifts."      This 

'[P.  C.  l.iicius,  DIf  Thrrnpmtni  u.  i/ire  Stetltmg  In  der 
Ankeufi,  Slr«s8buri(.  1380,  lin«  proved  tliat  tin'  IM  vita  cotttfm- 
pldliva  w:iH  not  willlcn  by  I'lillo,  anil  ciiiiBcqiKiUly  Ihi- clusalc 
I)ii..*.i!ii;L'  —  "In  every  lioviwe  there  in  a  Haered  nlirinc,  which  la 
e.-iMed  the  holy  place,  anil  Ihe  monuMlery  in  wliieli  they  [tho 
'riiernpenltcMl  retire  by  theniBelvei*,  and  perform  all  the  myH. 
lerieH  v)('  a  holy  life  .  .  .  studyinir  in  tliat  jdaee  tlu-  laws  and 
the  in^pned  «iird»  thronirh  Ihe  proplulB  and  hymns  and  the 
other  |wrlllni(»],  bv  which  linowled«e  anil  jiiety  are  increnned 
and  perfected"  ( />  rilil  contrmjil.  §  3),  which  id  the  only  di. 
rect  reference  to  tlie  threefold  divi«ion  of  llic  canon  found  in 
I'liilo'ti  workw  (yemiine  iillU  pretended)  —  mUBt  be  Ktven  iip,J 


CANON. 


387 


CANON. 


verse  bears  reliable  witness  to  Nehemiah's  collec- 
tion of  the  second  canon  substantially  as  we 
have  it  to-day.  in  addition  to  the  Psalms  and  the 
documents  so  weighty  for  the  rebuilt  city.  'J'he 
next  verse,  "  And  in  like  manner  also  .ludas  gath- 
ered together  all  those  books  that  had  been  scat- 
tered by  reason  of  the  war  we  had,  and  they 
are  with  us,"  applies  only  to  the  third  canon. 
Therefore  the  last  enlargement  of  the  Hebrew 
canon  took  pl.aco  under  .Judas  Maccabee  ;  altiiougli 
probably  the  most  of  the  books  of  the  third  canon 
had  previously  been  preserved  in  the  temple 
archives. 

Tlw  New  Testament  contains  quotations  princi- 
pally from  the  Pentateuch,  Prophets,  ami  Psalms, 
as  might  be  conjectured  from  its  scope,  but  recog- 
nizes the  threefold  division  of  the  canon  (Luke 
xxiv.  44).  (In  this  verse  "  the  Psalms"  does  not 
stand  for  the  entire  Hagiographa;  for  our  Lord 
meant  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  Psalms 
spoke  of  him.)  The  absence  of  quotation  in  the 
New  Testament  of  any  Old  Testament  book  ar- 
gues nothing  against  its  canonicity. 

Josephus,  in  his  book  Aijainsl  Apion,  \.  8,  bears 
the  strongest  testimony  for  the  canon,'  and,  as  is 
evident,  expresses  the  national,  and  not  his  pri- 
vate opinion.  And,  further,  the  books  mentioned 
are  not  mere  literature,  but  a  sacred,  divine  col- 
lection. He  enumerates  twenty-two  books;  thus, 
1.  The  five  boolcs  of  the  Law;  2.  The  thirteen 
Prophets,  counting  the  twelve  minor  Prophets  as 
one  book,  and  Lamentations  with  Jeremiah;  3. 
The  four  Hagiographa,  —  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ec- 
clesiastes,  and  Canticles.  But  this  arrangement 
is  not  to  be  looked  upon  as  either  old  or  correct. 

Siipposeit  Jewish  Dissent  from  the  Canon.  —  This 
dissent  is  not  real,  only  apparent;  but  appeal 
has  been  made,  Jirst  to  the  Talmudical  contro- 
versies about  certain  books,  e.g.,  Esther:  on 
further  examination  these  "controversies"  are 
perceived  to  be  mere  intellectual  displays;  there 
is  no  intention  of  rejecting  any  book.  Second, 
the  Book  of  Sirach,  it  is  said,  is  quoted  as  Scrip- 
ture ;  but  there  is  no  proof  that  it  was  regarded 
as  Scripture,  and  the  two  or  three  quotations  are 
memoriter,  and  probably  made  under  a  misappre- 
hension of  their  source.  Third,  the  Septuagint  is 
supposed  by  .some  to  show  that  the  Alexandrian 
Jews  had  a  different  canon  from  the  Palestinian, 
because  books  are  added  to  the  canonical  twenty- 
four;  but  this  does  not  follow.  Eor  first  the 
Palestinian  idea  of  a  canon  (namely,  the  compo- 
sitions of  inspired  prophets,  a  class  of  men  not 
then  existent)  was  not  known  in  Alexandria, 
where,  on  the  contrary,  the  statement  of  Wisdom 
(vii.  27),  "[Wisdom]  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion entering  into  holy  souls,  prepares  them 
friends  of  God  and  prophets,"  was  fully  believed, 
as  by  Philo  (cf.  Quis  ser.  din.  hcer.  §  52,  de  Cheru- 
bim, §  9,  and  de  prcem.  el  poen.  §  19)  and  Jo- 
sephus {War,  I.  3,  5;  II.  8,  12;  IH.  8,  3,  9),  who 


*[This  passage  in  condensed  form  is  as  follows  :  "  Wo  have 
twenty-lwo  books  containing  the  records  of  all  the  past  times, 
and  justly  believed  to  be  inspired.  Five  of  them  are  Moses'. 
These  contain  his  laws  and  the  traditions  of  the  origin  of  man- 
kind till  his  death.  From  Moses  to  .\rtaxcrxes  the  prophets 
made  the  record  in  thirteen  books.  The  remaining  four  books 
contain  hymns  to  God,  and  precepts  for  the  conduct  of  human 
life.  The  history  written  since  that  day,  though  accurate, 
is  not  so  much  esteemed,  because  there  has  not  been  an  exact 
succession  of  prophets.  No  one  dares  add  to,  take  from,  or 
alter  them;  but  all  Jews  esteem  these  books  to  contain  divine 
doctrines,  and  are  willing  to  tiie  for  them."] 


even  declared  that  they  themselves  had  been  at 
times  really  inspireil,  and  freely  accorded  the 
fact  unto  others.  Therefore,  to  an  Alexandrian 
Jew,  there  was  no  impropriety  in  enlai'ging  the 
Greek  transLation  of  tlie  Old  Tcstami'nt,  not  only 
by  additions  of  sections  to  the  canonical  books, 
but  of  entirely  new  l)ooks.  The  great  resjiect 
entertained  for  the  Septuagint  was  extended  to 
these  additions,  but  without  giving  the  latter  :iny 
canonical  authority.  There  was  no  Alexandrian 
canon;  for  neither  the  number  nor  the  order  of 
the  books  added  was  fixed.  Besides,  I'hilo,  who 
was  doubtless  a  tyjie,  proves,  by  the  fact  that  he 
never  uses  the  Apocrypha  in  the  same  way  as 
the  canonical  books,  that  the  Alexandrian  jews 
made  a  distinction  between  them. 

The  Triplex  JJioision  of  the  Hebrew  Canon  is 
testified  to  by  the  prologue  to  Sirach  and  the 
New  Testament  (Luke  xxiv.  44).  The  .Seventy 
gave  up  this  division  in  favor  of  a  different 
(namely,  the  present  Christian)  arrangiincnt  of 
the  books,  and  inserted  the  apocryphal  books  and 
sections  in  appropriate  places. 

7'Ae  Order  of  the  Books  in  the  Hebrew  Canon  [is 
as  follows:  1.  Law,  —  the  five  books  of  Moses; 
2.  Prophets,  —  Joshua,  Judges,  First  and  Second 
Samuel,  First  and  .Second  Kings,  Isaiah,  Jere- 
miah, Ezekiel,  the  twelve  minor  Prophets;  3. 
Haf/iof/rapha,  —  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job,  Canticles, 
Kuth,  Lamentations,  Ecclesiastes,  Estiier,  Daniel, 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  Chronicles,  in  all,  twenty- 
four  books]. 

The  Number  of  the  Canonical  Books.  —  Jewish 
tradition,  except  when  influenced  by  Ab'xandria, 
unanimously  gives  tlie  number  as  twenty-four. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  usual  to  say  that  the  original 
reckoning  was  twenty-two.  If,  however,  the 
witnesses  for  the  latter  number  be  not  counted, 
but  weighed,  it  is  plain  that  the  authority  they 
rest  upon  is  Alexandrian;  and  this  is  worthless 
for  getting  at  the  primitive  reckoning,  because 
the  Alexandrian  Jews  altered,  not  only  the  order 
and  division  of  the  books,  but  added  to  them 
others  not  in  the  canon.  But  how  did  the  Alex- 
andrians arrive  at  the  number  twenty-two  ?  By 
joining  Kuth  to  Judges,  and  Lamentations  to 
Jeremiah.  Having  thus  made  twc-nty-two,  they 
were  impressed  with  its  numerical  agreement 
with  the  number  of  letters  in  the  Hebrew  alpha- 
bet. This  idea  was  thought  significant,  jiart  of 
the  divine  intention  indeed;  and  so  it  became 
fixed  in  the  Jewish  mind.  The  Fathers  took  it 
up  in  their  uncritical  fashion;  and  so  it  has  come 
down  to  our  day.  Josephus  first  gives  twenty- 
two  ;  but  he  makes  greater  use  of  the  S"ptuagint 
than  of  the  Hebrew  original.  It  is  noteworthy 
that  Epiphanius  and  Jerome,  who  reckon  the 
books  twenty-two,  mention  also  twenty-seven ; 
i.e.,  the  Hebrew  twenty-two  letters,  with  the  five 
final  letters ;  made  by  separating  the  double 
books,  Samuel,  Kings,  Chronicles,  and  Ezra. 
But  this  double  counting  was  onhj  possible  for 
Jews  using  the  Septuagint,  since  the  original  does 
not  divide  these  books.  Further  :  neither  in  the 
Talmud  nor  in  the  Midrash  is  there  the  least  trace 
of  any  acquaintance  with  the  number  twenty-two; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  twenty-four  is  always  given, 
not  because  it  corresponds  with  the  twenty-four 
Greek  letters,  but  simply  as  the  natural  result  of 
the   gradual   rise  of   the  canon.     In  the  present 


CANON. 


383 


CANON. 


printed  Hebrew  Bible  the  number  is  tliirty-nine, 
similarly  counted,  tliough  not  arranged,  with 
those  of  Protestant  Bibles. 

II.  The  Oi.d-Tkstamext  Canon  in  the 
Chkistiax  Church.  1.  The  Palrklic  ami  Miil- 
ilte-Ai/e  IlViVers.  —  No  Father  has  impugned  the 
authority  of  the  Old  Testament :  but,  because  of 
the  universal  use  of  the  Septuagint,  they  recog- 
nized as  Scripture  what  we  regard  as  Apocrypha. 
Since  the  fourth  century  tlie  Greek  Fathers 
make  less  and  less  use  of  the  Apocrypha:  while 
in  the  Latin  Church  counciliar  action  justified 
and  emjihasized  their  use.  .lerome  alone  speaks 
out  decidedly  for  the  Hebrew  canon.  During 
tlie  middle  age  tlie  Apocrypha  were  not  recog- 
nized by  the  majority  of  tlie  Greeks:  while  just 
the  opposite  was  true  of  the  Latins,  although  not 
a  few  followed  Jerome. 

Tlie  Book  of  Esther,  because  of  its  curious 
contents,  was  sometimes  excluded  from  the  Chris- 
tian Old  Testament  Canon.  Melito  of  Sardis 
(about  170  A.D.)  omits  it  from  his  list  (see 
Kusebius,  H.  E.,  IV.  26),  although  perhaps  it  has 
ratlier  dropped  out  after  Et.dras  (Ezra),  inasmuch 
as  in  other  lists  it  conies  next  to  this  name.  It 
is  also  omitted  by  Athan.asius  (^EpUlida  Fcxialix, 
I.  961,  ed.  Bened.),  Gregory  of  Xazianzum  (Cann. 
XXXIIi.),  and  in  the  sixth  century  by  Junilius 
(De  Parlihus  Legis  Dlvince,  I.  3-7).  On  the  other 
liand,  it  is  included  in  the  canon  by  Origen,  Cyril  i 
of  Jerusalem,  and  Epiphanius. 

2.  The  Ancient  Oriental  Version-^. — The  old 
Syrian  Church  did  not  receive  the  Apocrypha. 
They  are  not  in  the  Peshito,  although  found  in 
a  later  Syriac  translation.  Eiihraem  Syrus  (d. 
373)  does  not  give  them  canonical  authority. 
Aphraates  (fourth  century)  cites  from  no  apoc- 
ryphal, but  from  every  canonical  book.  [Sasse, 
Proleijiimi'ita  in  Apltraalis  Sapientis  J'ersce  Sermones 
Homilelieos  (Lips  ,  1879),  p.  40,  says  Aphraates 
had  knowledge  of  First  and  Second  Maccabees.] 
A  great  difference  is  perceptible  iu  tlie  Peshito 
translation  between  the  Chronicles  and  that  of 
the  other  books.  This  has  started  the  query 
whether  the  Chronicles  were  accepted  as  canonical 
by  the  Syrian  Church.  The  Nestorians  certainly 
rejected  it.  The  Ethiopic  translation  follows 
tiiroughout  the  Septuagint,  and  contains,  not  only 
the  canonical,  but  also  the  apocryphal  books, 
except  that  for  First  and  Second  Maccabees  it 
substitutes  two  books  of  its  own  under  the  same 
name,  and  some  pseudepigraphs  of  which  the 
Greek  texts  do  not  now  exist;  for  the  Ethiopic 
Church  makes  even  less  difference  than  the  .Alex- 
andrian between  canonical  and  uncanonieal  books. 

[See  PSEUDEI'IGKAI'IIS  OF  THE  Ol,l>  TeSTA- 
MENTJ 

3.  The  Roman  Church  is  committed  to  the  use 
of  the  Apocrypha  as  Scripture  by  the  decision  of 
the  Council  of  Trent  at  the  fourth  session.  In 
order  to  get  a  normal  text  for  jiurposes  of  quota- 
tion, a  Bible  was  ]iubli.slied  in  Rome  in  1;j92 
under  the  orders  and  care  of  the  Pope.  In  it 
Jerome's  remark,  that  the  additions  to  Esther  and 
Daniel  which  are  printed  are  not  in  the  Hebrew 
text,  is  given;  ;ind  in  smaller  type  the  candid 
aniiounc('ment  is  prefaci'd  to  the  juayer  of  Ma- 
liasses  and  the  Third  and  Fourth  Books  of  Ezra, 
that,  while  it  is  true  they  are  not  in  the  Scripture 
canon  of   the   Council   of   Trent,  they  are  still 


included  because  they  are  quoted  occasionally 
by  certain  nf  the  Fathers,  and  are  found  both 
in  printed  and  manuscript  copies  of  the  Latin 
Bible.  The  decree  of  the  council  w.as  not  passed 
without  opposition;  and  later  Roman  Catholics, 
such  as  I)u  Pin,  Dixserl.  prelim,  sur  le  Bible,  Paris, 
1,  1;  B.  Lamy,  App.  liihl.  2,  5,  and  Jahn,  Einl. 
in  d.  <i<illUch.'li.B.  d.  Allen  Bimdes,  i.  119.  132, 
140-143.  have  endeavored  to  establish  two  classes 
of  canonical  books,  —  the  proto-canonical  and  the 
deutero-canoiiical,  —  .attributing  to  the  first  a  dog- 
matic, and  to  the  second  only  an  ethical  authority; 
but  this  distinction  evidently  contravenes  the  de- 
cision of  Trent,  and  lias  found  little  support. 

4.  The  Greek  Church.  The  synods  of  Constan- 
tinople (1638).  Jas.sy  (1642),  <and  .lerusalein 
(1'672).  expressly  reject  the  view  of  Cyril  Lucar, 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  others,  which 
distinguishes  the  canonical  from  the  apocryphal. 
And  the  last,  which  is  the  most  important  in  the 
modern  history  of  the  Eastern  Church,  defined  its 
position  in  regard  to  the  Apocrypha  in  the  an- 
swer to  the  third  question  .appended  to  the  Con- 
fexxion  t)/  Dosilheus,  in  which  it  expressly  mentions 
Wisdom,  .ludlth,  Tobit,  History  of  the  Dragon, 
History  of  Susannah,  the  Maccabees  (four  books 
of),  and  Ecclesiasticus,  as  canonical.  But  the 
longer  Catechit^tn  of  the  Orthodox  Catholic  Eaalern 
Church  (Moscow,  1839),  the  most  authoritative 
doctrinal  standard  of  the  orthodox  Gi'ieco-Riis- 
siaii  Church,  expre.^sly  leaves  out  the  apocryphal 
books  from  its  list  on  the  ground  that  "they  do 
not  exist  in  the  Hebrew."  [See  .SchaS,  Creeds 
of  Christendom,  vol.  II.  p.  451.] 

5.  The  Protestant  Church. — 'Plie  Lutheran  sym- 
bols do  not  give  any  ex]iress  declaration  against 
the  .\pocryi'lia.  JCevertheless  they  are  denied 
dogmatic  value.  Luther  translated  them,  and 
recommended  them  for  private  rea<ling.  With 
this  agrees  the  decisions  of  the  other  Reformed 
churches:  the  Gallic  Cnnfe.vsions,  1'm9,  §§  3,  4; 
Belf/ic  Conj'e.'ssion,  l.'iOl,  §§  4-6;  Thirlij-nine  Arti- 
cles of  Helii;ion  of  the  Church  of'  England,  l.')fi2, 
§  6.  [See  Schaff,  Creeds  of  Christendmn,  vol.  II  I.] 
The  Jiool:  of  Common  Prayer  contains  readings 
from  the  Apocrypha,  and  espi'cial  recommenil.a- 
tion  of  portions  of  Wisdom  and  Sirach.  . —  At  tin- 
Synod  of  Dort  (1618),  Gomarus  and  others  raised 
an  animated  di.scussion  by  demanding  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  apocryphal  Esdras,  Tobit,  .ludith,  and 
Bi'l  and  the  Dragon  from  the  Bible.  This  the 
synod  refuseil  to  do,  although  speaking  strongly 
against  the  Apocrypha.  Simil.arly  opposed  to  them 
was  the  Westminster  A.sseml)ly  of  Divines,  1647, 
Confession  of  Faith,  c.  L  §3;  the  Armini.ans,  Cou- 

fessio  .  .  .  I'asloruin,  qui  .  .  .  Jiemonslranlcs  vocan- 
lur,  I.  3,0;  the  Socinians  (O.storodt,  Unlerrichlunt) 
von  den  rornelimsten  Ifauplpunckten  der  christlichen 
Religion,  Rakau,  1604)  .and  the  Mennonites  (Jo- 
hann  Ris,  Pneci/auirum  (^hristiaua:  Fiilei  Arlicu- 
lorum  Precis  (.\)7if'rssio,  c.  29)  agree  with  the  other 
Protestants.  For  history  of  the  relation  of  the 
Bible  societies  to  the  Apocrypha,  see  Binr.K 
.SocrKTiES.  For  the  Apocrypha  in  general,  see 
Apocrypha. 

Lit.  —  (No  completeness  is  attempted  in  this 
list ;  only  the  more  serviceable  works  are  named.) 
J.  H.  lIoTTiNC.Eit:  Thesaurus  Philologicus  sen 
Clavi.i  .^criptunc,  Tiguri,  164!),  ed.  2,  1659,  4to; 
HuMl'UKEY  IIoDY:  De  BiOliurum   'Textibus  Oriyi- 


CANON. 


389 


CANON. 


nalihus  libri  II'.,  Oxonii,  1705,  fol.  (the  section 
De  Librurum  liihliroriim  Nutiwrii  ac  Online  shows 
in  one  liumlred  and  thirty-hve  columns  in  what 
different  ways  the  books  liave  been  arrani,'ed  and 
nninbered  by  Jews  and  Cliristians,  botli  in  manii- 
scri|it  and  [irint.  J.  Ciiit.  Woi.k,  in  vol.  11.  of 
his  Bili/iolluca  Hchrn'd,  has  rejuiblished  the  lirst 
fifty-one  columns)  ;  J.  II.  Lkidkn-fiiost  :  Diascr- 
talio  (jua  Ndiitina,  A'umerus,  Diritio  ct  Urdu  L'thri>- 
rum  Sacroruin  ('.  T.  sinluntur,  prveaitle.  Vlir.  B. 
Michaelix,  Halle,  1743;  J.  S.  Semlkk  :  Ahhand- 
luiu/  von  freier  Untersuchunij  ties  Krinoii,  Halle, 
1771-1775,  4  parts  ;  J.  P.  A.' Mim.lku  :  Be/t/irun;/ 
vuiii  Kanon  ties  A.  T.,  Leipzig,  1771;  C.  F. 
Schmid:  Hiiloria  Aniiij.  ct  Vindiialio  Canonis 
Sacri  Veteris  Noeujue  Test.,  Leipzig,  1775,  2  vols, 
(shows  great  diligence  in  gathering  materials, 
but  too  much  partiality  for  Joseiihus);  IIkin- 
iticil  ConuoiJi :  Versuck  c'mer  Beleuchliiii;/  der 
(j'esc/iic/ile  dc.t  judifchen  u.  cliristUcIien  JJiheltanoiis, 
Halle,  1702,  2  vols.  ;  F.  C.  Movkks  :  Luci  iimdiim 
JlislorUe  V.  T.  illustrati,  Breslau,  1842;  L.  Hi;kz- 
FKLD :  Oe.icliirhte  des  Vulkcs  Israel  vun  Zerstiiruny 
lies  erslcn  Tempels,  Nordhausen,  1S57  (2d  vol.); 
IL  EWAI.D  :  Geschiehie  des  Volkes  Isriiel  (3ded.), 
vol.  7,  Gottingen,  1808;  L.  Dikstkl:  Gesckidde 
des  A.  T.  in  der  clirisllichen  Kirche,  Jena,  ISliO  ; 
AliUAHAM  Gkiger:  Nachgetassene  Sckri/len,  in 
4th  vol.,  Elideilung  in  die  biblisclien  Scliriflen, 
Herlin,  1870.  [W.  Roiseutson  Smith  :  The  Old 
7'eslamenl  in  the  Jewish  Church,  Xew  York,  1881 ; 
E.  Rkuss  :  Die  Geschiehie  d.  heil.  Schrift.  A.  T., 
IJraunschvveig,  1881 ;  also  Introductions  by  Eleek 
and  IIoKNE,  14th  edition].  II.  L.  STRACIC. 

CANON  OFTHENEWTESTAMENT.i— Christ 
and  the  apostles,  and,  following  their  examjile, 
tlie  early  Church,  used  the  Old  Testament  as  the 
word  of  God ;  but  the  formation  of  the  New 
Testament  was  relatively  late  in  its  origin,  and 
slow  in  its  progress.  Decades  passed  before  the 
Christian  Church  tliought  of  collecting  the  apos- 
tolic writings,  and  yet  longer  time  before  they 
gave  them  canonical  authority.  The  Cliurch  had 
the  Old  Testament,  and  could  trust  to  verbal 
testimony  for  its  knowledge  of  Christ.  But  very 
early  in  its  history  a  literature  which  is  now  pre- 
served in  our  New  Testament  did  obtain  cur- 
rency. The  explanation  lies  in  the  authority  of 
tlie  writers,  the  pains  they  took  to  guard  against 
forgery  (2  Thess  ii.  2,  iii.  17),  the  reipiested 
reading  of  the  letters  in  the  church  (1  Thess.  v. 
27),  the  circulation  of  these  letters  from  chui'ch 
to  church  (Col.  iv.  10);  and,  finally,  the  charac- 
ter of  the  writings  themselves  which  demanded 
currency;  e.g.,  the  Synoptic  Gospels  were  designed 
for  the  Jews ;  that  of  John,  for  believers  generally 
(John  XX.  31)  ;  and  the  Catholic  Epistles,  for  the 
whole  Church.  It  is  evident  their  end  would 
not  be  attained  without  a  wide  circulation.  One 
trace  of  the  use  by  one  writer  of  another  is  2  Pet. 
iii.  10.  It  was  not,  however,  to  be  expected  that 
a  collection  of  these  apostolic  writings  woidd  be 
made  in  their  day.  Since  the  fall  of  Jerusalem, 
there  was  no  favorable  place  for  depositing  such 
a  collection,  if  made ;  nor  was  there  any  demand 
for  one.  It  is  probable  that  the  wide-spread  ex- 
pectancy of  the  end  of  the  world,  joined  to  the 


^[The  writings  of  tlie  Antc-Niccne  Fathers,  constrxntly  re- 
ferred to  in  tills  article,  will  be  fonnd  translated  in  the  Ante- 
^Hceiie  Cl^Hstian  Library,  Kdiu.,  1867-71,  24  vols.] 


fact  that  tlie  apostles  were  yet  with  them,  drove 
all  such  itleas  out  of  tlicnr  minds. 

The  ArosToi.ic  Fatheus  will  naturally  bo 
turned  to  first  in  proof  of  the  existence  of  a 
canon  ;  but  while  very  many  of  their  expressions 
can  be  paralleled  in  the  New  Testament,  ami 
sentences  of  Jesus  are  (pioted,  yet  the  impression 
left  on  the  mind  is  ratlier  that  they  drew  from 
the  fountain-head  of  tradition,  and  possessed 
written  (iosjiels  now  perishijd,  and  other  sources 
of  knowledge  closed  to  us,  than  that  they  re- 
garded any  nninber  of  wiitiugs  as  of  paramount 
canonical  authority.  It  is  indeetl  true  that  it  is 
easier  to  quote  this  early  )iatristic  support  for  the 
Epistles  than  for  the  (jospels ;  for  Ci.emk.s.s 
Roman  us,  writing  to  the  Corinthians  (c.  17,  cf. 
1  Cor.  i.  10  S(iq.),  Ion  ATI  us  to  the  EphesianH 
(c.  12,  cf.  Eph.  vi.  18),  and  PoLYCAur  to  the 
i'hilip/iians  (c.  3,  cf.  Phil.  iii.  1),  mention  the 
Epistles  of  Paul  to  those  churches  respectively. 
The  quotations  from  the  New  Testament  are 
fewer  than  from  the  Old  Testament ;  and,  while 
the  quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  are  gen- 
erally introduced  l>y  "Tlie  Scripture  saith,"  "The 
Holy  Spirit  saith,"  or  "  The  Holy  Word  speaks," 
those  from  the  New  have,  for  the  most  part,  no 
such  introduction.  We  conclude,  therefore,  that, 
to  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  the  New  Testament  had 
not  attained  canonical  authority.  To  this  con- 
clusion the  testimony  of  Papias  leads  us.  See 
Eusebius,  II.  E.,  III.  39.'^  Papias  wrote  five 
books  entitled  Interpretations  of  our  Lord's  Decla- 
rations. In  them  he  recorded  not  oidy  the  oral 
tradition,  but  also  what  he  had  read.  How  far 
his  actpiaintauce  with  the  written  Gospels  ex- 
tended is  not  clearly  expressed ;  but  there  is 
explicit  information  given  regarding  Matthew 
and  Mark,  and  his  acquaintance  with  Luke  is 
fairly  conjectured  from  the  similarity  of  his 
preface  (not  given  below)  to  that  of  Luke's. 
His  silence  about  John  proves  neither  his  igno- 
rance of  that  Gospel  nor  his  disbelief  in  it.  Eu- 
sebius also  says  that  Papias  "  made  use  of  testi- 
monies from  the  First  Epistle  of  John,  and 
likewise  from  that  of  Peter."  AVhat  Papias  says 
of  Mark  jmts  the  latter  in  silent  yet  evident  con- 
trast to  the  other  evangelists,  who  were  both  eye 
and  ear  witnesses  to  Christ.  We  have  a  right  to 
assert  that  Papias  was  acquainted  with  our  four 
evangelists,  and  drew  from  them,  and  not  from 
apocryplial  sources,  joined  to  oral  tradition,  his 
knowledge  of  the  gospel. 

The  next  witness  is  Justin  Mabtyk,  whose 
First  Apolotpj  (before  100)  was  quickly  followed 
by  the  Second,  in  both  of  which,  as  in  his  Dia- 
logue tcith  Trypho,  he  frequently  speaks  of  and 
quotes  from  the  Ulemoirs  of  the  apostles ;  thus, 
Apoloijy  I.  60,  "  The  apostles,  in  the  memoirs 
composed  by  them,  which  are  called  Gospels," 
Dialoijue  103,  "  The  memoirs  which  were  drawn 

2["And  John  the  Presbyter  also  said  this,  Mark  being  tho 
interpreter  of  Peter,  whatsoever  he  recorded  he  wrote  with 
great  accuracy,  but  not,  bowevei',  in  the  order  in  which  it  was 
spoken  or  done  by  our  Lord,  for  he  neither  beard  nor  followed 
our  Lord;  but,  as  before  saitl,  he  was  in  company  with  Peter, 
who  gave  him  such  instruction  as  was  necessary,  but  not  to 
give  a  histoi-y  of  our  Lord's  discourses.  Wherefore.  Mark 
has  not  erred  in  any  thing  by  writing  some  things  as  he  has 
recorded  them ;  for  he  was  carefully  attentive  to  one  thing,— 
not  to  pass  by  any  thing  that  he  heard,  or  to  state  any  thing 
falsely  in  these  accounts."  "  Matthew  composed  his  history  in 
the  Hebrew  dialect,  and  every  one  translated  it  as  he  was  able." 


CANON. 


890 


CANON. 


up  by  his  apostles  and  those  who  followed  them." 
These  '■  memoirs  "  are  doubtless  our  present  Gos- 
pels. The  references  to  Matthew  and  Luke  are 
easiest  recognized.  Mark  is  called  the  "  memoir 
of  Peter"  (Dial.  lOG).  Tlia  influence  of  John's 
Gospel  is  seen,  not  so  much  in  quotation  as  in  the 
style  of  arijuraentation  and  expression.  See 
Luthardt,  Dcr  jnh.  Ur.iprunt/.  pp.  63  sqq.  [Eug. 
U:ins,  St.  John,  the  Author  o/ the  Fourth  Gospel, 
Kdin.,  1875.  See  Anuor:  The  Authorship  of  the 
Fourth  Gospel,  Boston,  1880.]  Justin  refers  to 
the  Apocalypse  {Dial.  81)  and  to  the  Pauline 
Epistles  as  the  authoritative  writings  of  Chris- 
tians (Apol.  I.  28),  and  further,  tliat  the  '■  memoirs 
of  the  apostles  "  were  read  in  their  weekly  meet- 
ings witii  tlie  same  frequency  and  solemnity  as 
the  writings  of  the  prophets  (I.  67).  Thus  .Justin 
gives  us  certain  knowledge  of  a  veritable  canon 
of  the  New  Testament.  Some  of  our  present 
canon  must  have  been  already  collected  and  recog- 
nized as  authoritative  Christian  literature.  Ta- 
riAN,  the  scholar  of  Justin,  made  a  Diatessaron, 
"a  gospel  by  the  four"  (P2us.,  //.  E.  IV.  29). 
and  therefore  must  have  u.sed  John's  Gospel.  It 
seems  to  have  been  in  the  interests  of  Gnosticism, 
and  is  therefore  really  all  the  higher  testimony 
to  tlie  position  of  these  writings.  We  are  hence 
justified  in  saying  that  by  the  end  of  the  second 
century  the  canonical  Gospels  were  in  common 
use  as  sources  of  the  life  of  Jesus.  The  apos- 
tolic Epistles  were  not,  however,  as  yet  collected. 
Paul's  were  probably  gathered  first.  Athexago- 
UAS  (d.  about  200)  grounds  his  argument  for  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead  upon  words  of  the  Epis- 
tles to  the  Corinthians  (De  Itesun:,  16,  cf.  1  Cor. 
XV.  53,  2  Cor.  v.  10);  and  Tueophilus  (d.  about 
188)  quotes  Rom.  xiii.  7  sq.,  1  Tim.  ii.  2,  Tit. 
iii.  1,  with  the  formulas,  "the  holy  word  exhorts 
us,"  or  "  teaches  us ;  "  and  to  do  this  was  to  put 
the  apostolic  upon  the  level  of  the  Old  Testament 
writings. 

The  rise  and  spread  of  heresy,  especially  Gnos- 
ticism, was  largely  instrumental  iu  deepening 
the  authority  of  the  New  Testament  in  the 
Church;  for  she  found  in  it  the  dam  to  check 
the  flood  of  error.  The  heretics  in  their  own 
interest  corrujited  the  New  Testament,  or  gave  it 
false  interpretations,  and  even  forged  books  in  the 
name  of  apostles.  Marcio.v  of  .Sinope,  the  (inos- 
tic  (fl.  about  110),  made  a  collection  of  apostolic 
writings,  in  whicli  he  included  one  Gospel,  and 
ten  Pauline  Epistles,  in  this  order:  Galatians, 
First  and  Second  Corinthians,  Romans,  First  and 
Second  Thessalonians,  Colossiaus,  Philemon, 
Philippians,  Lnodicewus,  (Epijjh.,  Il<rr.  XLll.  !»). 
This  Gosjiel  did  not  exurtUj  harmonize  with  any 
one  of  ours,  but  approached  nearest  to  Luke, 
liutoutsiile  of  .Marcion's  circle,  Hasii.idks  (about 
130)  made  \i.se  of  some  (iospel ;  but  we  an!  not 
sufficiently  informed  to  pronounce  decisively  that 
it  was  one  of  our  four.  Similarly  the  (Jphite 
references  [to  Matthew,  Lnki",  .lohn,  Ronnins, 
First  and  .Second  Corintliiatis,  (ialatians,  Ephe- 
sians,  and  Hebrews]  cannot  be  adduced  in  jiroof 
of  their  use  of  the  New  Testami-nt,  because  we 
do  not  know  the  primitive  shape  of  their  teach- 
ing. The  position  of  the  New  Testament  in 
another  Gnostic  set,  the  Valentinians,  is  much 
clearer;  for,  of  the  pupils  of  ^'aleMtirlUs,  llerac- 
leoii  wrote  a  commentary  upon  .lohn  (about  160), 


of  which  fragments  have  been  preserved  by  Clem- 
ent of  Alexandria  and  Origen  ;  and  Ptolemy  cites 
the  fourth  Gospel  as  from  John  the  apostle. 
Valentinus  himself  seems  to  have  made  a  gospel- 
harmony  :  at  all  eventfs,  he  and  his  followers 
were  well  acquainted  with  the  Gospel  of  John 
(Irenaeus,  Adv.  Hter.  IIP  11,  7).  See  Heinrici : 
Die  valentinianische  Gnosis  u.  die  heiline  Schrift, 
Berlin,  1871. 

Iren'jEus,  Bishop  of  Lyons  (177-202),  is  the 
next  witness,  exhibiting  the  Gallic  view  of  the 
canon  at  the  close  of  the  second  century.  He 
quotes  all  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  save 
Philemon,  Second  Peter,  and  Jude.  He  shows 
special  knowledge  of  the  history  of  our  Gospels, 
and  emphasizes  their  unity  and  unshakable  po- 
sition ;  denies  ecclesiastical  authority  to  HebreifS, 
but  looks  upon  the  New  Testament  as  the  pillar 
and  ground  of  the  faith  {Adv.  liter.  III.  11)  ;  says 
that  both  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  proceed 
from  the  same  Spirit  (IIP  21);  but,  it  should  be 
added,  he  puts  equal  stress  upon  tradition  (HI. 
4,  2),  and  expressly  cites  the  Pastor  of  Hernias 
as  "scripture"  (IV.  20,  2).  Clement  ok  Ai.ex- 
an'dkia  (d.  about  220),  a  little  later,  is  witness 
to  the  use  of  the  Alexandrian  Church.  He  uses 
all  the  canon  of  Irena;us,  and,  besides,  the  two 
omitted  Catholic  Epistles;  considers  Paul  to 
have  been  the  author  of  Hebretvs,  and  Lidje  its 
translator  (Euseb.,  //.  E.  VI.  14) ;  assigns  to  the 
"  Gospels,"  as  he  calls  our  New  Testament,  an 
equal  position  with  the  Law  and  the  Prophets 
(Clem.  .\lex.,  Strom.  IV.  1,  §  2),  but  nevertheless 
does  not  seem  to  have  fixed  ideas  in  regard  to  a 
canon ;  for  he  lays  great  emphasis  upon  an  un- 
written saying  of  Jesus,  and  the  Epistle  of  Barna- 
bas {Strom.  6).  Tektullian  is  the  contemporary 
witness  for  Proconsular  Africa  (See  Rbnsch,  Das 
Neue  Testament  Terlullians,  Leipzig,  1871).  He 
shows  no  acquaintance  with  Second  Peter,  Second 
and  Third  John,  ascribes  Hebrews  to  Barnabas 
{Dc  Pudic.  c.  20),  and,  along  with  First  Peter  and 
Jude,  considers  it  an  appendix  to  the  apostolic 
writings,  and,  before  his  conversion  to  Montanism, 
quoted  as  Scripture  the  Pastor  of  Hernias  {lb. 
c.  10).  With  these  six  exceptions,  he  makes 
cojiious  use  of  the  New  Testament. 

The  Peshiio,  the  Syrian  Bible  version  (.see 
Biiii.E  Versions),  surely  not  later  than  the  be- 
ginning of  the  third  century,  contains  the  four 
Gospels,  the  Acts,  Epistles  of  Jame.s,  First  Peter, 
First  John,  and  fourteen  Pauline  Epistles  (i.e.,  it 
includ('s  Hebrews,  whose  apostolicity  and  full 
canonicity  wer(!  afterwards  denied),  but  leaves 
out  Second  Peler,  Second  and  Third  John,  Jude, 
and  Jiertldlion.  This,  then,  was  at  that  time  the 
canon  of  that  part  of  the  Church. 

The  Mikatokian  Fragment,  so  called  be- 
cause discovered  by  IMunitori  (published  1740) 
in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan,  in  a  inanu- 
scrii)t  of  the  eighth  or  ninth  century,  originally  be- 
longed to  Cohimban's  gieat  nionastery  at  Bobbio, 
ri'peatedly  published  and  investigated  [.see  Mi;ra- 
torian  Fragment,  Tregelle.s,  Canon  Miiralo- 
rianus,  London,  1868,  and  Westcott,  CaiKni  of  the 
^^'ew  Testament,  London,  bSSl];  and  was  probably 
originally  writt^'n  in  Latin,  is  surely  of  Occi- 
dental origin,  dates  from  the  last  quarter  of  the 
second  century,  but  of  unknown  authorshij). 
'ihe  fragineutisL  draws  a  shai])  line  between  the 


CANON. 


391 


CANON. 


fully  and  the  only  partially  received  writings. 
The  list  iiicliules  tlie  four  Gospels,  Acts,  tliirt('<;n 
EpistUrs  of  I'aul,  First  .lolin,  Second  .John,  .hide 
(although,  in  the  judgment  of  llw,  compiler,  the 
hust  two  Kpistles  had  as  little  right  to  their  nanicis 
as  Wisdom  to  that  of  .Solomon),  and  Kevelation 
of  John  aixl  that  of  I'eter  (not  for  ]mMic  read- 
ing) ;  excludes  Ilebrenv,  Jamen,  First  and  SeconiJ 
Peler,  Third  John.  The  compiler  also  declares 
tliat  the  Pastor  of  Hennas  was  for  private  reading 
only. 

From  the  preceding  statements  it  follows,  that, 
at  the  close  of  the  second  century,  oui'  present 
New  Testament  was  completed,  and  in  parts  had 
received  the  unanimous  indorsement  of  the 
Church ;  but,  as  there  was  no  agreement  as  to 
certain  books,  there  was  no  canon  in  a  universal 
sense.  Passing  over  to  the  third  century,  the 
first,  and  uncpiestionahly  the  most  learned,  scholar 
to  be  examined  is  Ouigk.v  (18,'>-254).  See  Euse- 
bius,  //.  /?.  VI.  25.  This  testimony  is  import.ant; 
for  he  had  the  best  information,  deri\'ed  from 
inen,  books,  and  travel.  At  the  same  time  he 
was,  according  to  his  own  confession,  determined 
to  follow  the  Church's  tradition,  and  hence  his 
list  is  really  that  of  the  Church  as  he  knew  it. 
lie  puts  first  "  the  four  Gospels,  which,  as  I  ha\'e 
understood  from  tradition,  are  the  only  undis- 
puted ones  in  the  whole  Church  of  God  through- 
out the  world."  He  knows  of  those  of  the  He- 
brews, of  the  Egy])tians,  and  of  Peter;  but  he 
rejects  them.  To  the  Gospels  he  adds  the  Acts 
(whose  author  he  asserts  was  surely  Jjuke),  and 
the  Epistles  of  Paul  (fourteen,  although  he  con- 
siders Ildirews  only  Paul's  in  doctrine),  Peter,  and 
tJohii.  James  and  Jude  are  omitted  purposely; 
but  elsewhere  he  calls  James  a  "holy  Epistle." 
Jude  he  cites,  although  he  acknowledges  that  its 
genuineness  was  questioned.  The  Apocalypse 
hi  accepts  as  canonical.  But  Origen  apparently 
places  on  a  level  with  these  writings  the  I'astnr  of 
Ilermas  and  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  and  the  First 
Epistle  of  Clement. 

The  memorable  canon  of  Eusebius,  the  church- 
historian  (265-340),  given  in  H.  E.  III.  25,  is  as 
follows:  1.  'OfioTLoyov/ina  (confessedli/ f/enuine),  the 
four  Gospels,  Acts,  Epistles  of  Paul  (number  not 
stated).  First  .John,  First  Peter,  and  t'lye  i^avdii 
("if  it  .seems  right"),  the  Revelation  of  John;  2. 
' KvTLkcyuiitva  (^spoken  a/jainst),  "  although  they  are 
well  known,  and  approved  by  many,"  Epistle  of 
James  and  Jude,  Second  Peter,  Second  and  Third 
John;  3.  J^'iUa  (spurious),  tiie  Acts  of  Paul,  Pastor 
of  Ilermas,  the  Rerelation  of  Peler,  Epistle  of  Bar- 
nabas, Institutions  of  the  Apostles,  and,  "  if  the  opin- 
ion appears  correct,  the  Revelation  of  John,  which 
some  reject,  but  others  rank  among  the  genuine."  ' 

'  [As  tlie  rcmnrks  of  Eusebius  which  follow  the  above  nre 
very  important,  we  give  tbcni  in  full:  "But  there  are  also 
aonio  wlio  number  amonif  these  the  *  Gospel  according  to  the 
Hebrews,'  witli  whicli  those  of  the  Hebrews  that  have  received 
Christ  are  particularly  delighted.  These  may  be  said  to  be  all 
concerning  which  there  is  any  dispute.  We  have,  however, 
necessarily  subjoined  here  a  catalogue  of  these  also,  in  order 
to  distinguish  those  that  are  true,  genuine,  and  well  authenti- 
cated writings,  from  those  others  which  are  not  only  not  em- 
bodied in  the  canon,  but  likewise  disputed,  notwithstanding 
that  they  are  recognized  by  most  ecclesiastical  writers.  Thus 
we  may  have  it  in  our  power  to  know  both  these,  and  those 
that  are  adduced  by  the  heretics  under  the  name  of  the  apos- 
tles;  such,  viz.,  as  compose  the 'Gospels'  of  Peter,  Thomas, 
and  Matthew,  and  others  beside  them  ;  or  such  as  contain  the 
'  Acts  of  the  Apostles,'  by  Andrew  and  John  and  others,  of 
which  no  one  of  those  writers  iu  the  eeclesiastjcal  succession 


In  this  section  Euseliius  hesitatingly  pronounce.s 
judgment  in  favor  of  Ilebretcs,  which  he  reckons 
among  Paul's  F^pistles  (cf.  II.  E.  III.  3)  and  Ilcve- 
lation. 

Ry  the  close  of  the  fourth  century  tlu!  doubts 
which  had  rested  upon  certain  liooks  of  the  New 
Testament  have  vanished.  Atiianasius  of  Alex- 
andria, who  first  uses  "  canon  "  in  our  sense  (d. 
373),  Cyitii,  of  Jerusalem  (d.  380),  (JitKcoitY  of 
Nazianzum  (d.  38!)),  and  ICi'ieiiAxirs,  Pishoj)  of 
Salamis  (d.  403),  have  left  catalogues  of  the  New 
Testament,  which  agree  in  granting  to  the  dis- 
jiiited  Catholic  Epistles  an  etpial  place  with  the 
undisputed;  noticeable  is  also  tlu^  unquestioning 
reception  of  Hebrews.  The  sixtieth  canon  of  the 
Council  of  Eaodicea  (360)  gives  th(^  list  of  the 
present  New  Testament  (but  uo  apocry)  ihal  1  lOoks), 
with  the  exception  of  Revelation,  and  thus  voices 
the  decision  of  the  Eastern  (-.'laiL-ch  of  the  fourth 
century  in  regard  to  the  New  Testament  canon. 

The  AVestern  Church  also  at  this  time  had 
settled  upon  ii  canon.  There  is  little  dilference 
between  the  lists;  and  what  one  omits  another 
restores.  Thus  IIii.ahy  of  Poitiers  (<1.  3G8) 
leaves  out  the  five  Catholic  Epistles ,  but  Piiir..\s- 
Tiuus  (d.  387)  and  Rufinus  (d.  410)  insert 
them.  So  Ambrosk  (d.  379)  nund)ers  Hebrews 
among  P.aul's  Epistles,  and  the  Apocalypse  is 
universally  accepted  as  apostolic  and  canonical. 
The  decisive  judgment  came  from  Jekomk  (d. 
420)  and  Augustine  (d.  430).  Yet  Jerome, 
while,  out  of  respect  to  tradition,  including  in 
his  canon  the  disputed  Epistles,  acknowledged 
that  they  had  been  often  put  aside.  Augustine 
was  much  more  influenced  by  the  voice  of  tradi- 
tion. The  synods  were  also  in  substantial  agree- 
ment upon  the  canon.  Thus  that  of  Hippo  Regius 
in  Numidia  (393),  while  Augustine  was  a  presby- 
ter there,  in  its  thirty-si.xth  canon  gives  the  list  as 
now  received:  so  Carthage  (397  and  419),  and  so 
Bishop  Gelasius  in  the  decree  prepared  by  a 
Roman  synod  (495),  which  decree  fixed  the  order 
in  which  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  at 
present  stand. 

By  397  the  canon  of  the  New  Testament  was 
established;  but  the  canonicity  of  certain  books 
was  still  occasionally  questioned,  nor  is  there 
wanting  individual  cases  of  their  rejection. 
Thus  Chrysostom  (d.  407)  ignores  the  lOpistles 
of  Jude,  Second  Peter,  Second  and  Third  John. 
and  the  Apocalypse.  But  these  dissenting  voices 
were  few  and  uninfluential.  The  middle  .age 
came  on,  and  the  Catholic  Church  left  off  think- 
ing and  questioning  on  the  subject.  Not  until 
the  Council  of  Trent  w.as  the  Western  Church 
(not  now  Catholic,  but  Roman)  called  upon  to 
express  her  mind  upon  the  canon ;  and,  when  she 
did,  she  re-affirmed  the  canon  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, and  an.athematized  all  dissent.  See  Cone. 
Tri.l.,  Sess.  IV.,  April  8,  1540. 

The  Reformation  awoke  new  interest  in  the 
canon.  The  Reformers  expressed  themselves 
very  freely  upon  it.     First  comes    Caklstadt  : 


has  condescended  to  make  any  mention  in  his  works.  And, 
indeed,  the  character  of  the  style  itself  is  very  difterent  from 
that  of  the  apostles;  and  the  sentiments,  and  the  purport  of 
those  things  that  are  advanced  in  them,  deviating  a.s  far  as 
possible  from  sound  orthodoxy,  evidently  proves  they  are  the 
fictions  of  heretical  men,  whence  they  are  to  be  ranked  not 
only  among  the  spurious  writings,  but  arc  to  be  rejected  as 
altogether  absurd  and  impious."] 


CANON. 


CANON  LAW. 


De  Canonis  Scrip/uris :  aiifl  the  same  year  and 
]>l.-ice,  in  German,  in  condensed  form,  Welche 
Biichtr  hiblisch  sinil,  Wittemberg,  1520.  lie  di- 
vides the  entire  Bible  into  three  classes :  I.  The 
Late,  the  Gospels,  and  Acts;  II.  (of  secondary 
dignity)  The  Prophets,  thirteen  Epistles  of  Paul, 
First  John,  and  First  PHer :  III.  (of  lowest 
dignity)  The  remainder  of  the  canon.  Bnt  this 
j)urclv  subjective  arran;jenient,  which  showed 
neither  dogmatic  nor  critical  principles,  was  of 
no  influence.  Its  historical  caujie  was  the  fear 
lest  Luther  should  .actually  destroy  the  tradi- 
tional canon  by  his  free  handling  and  criticism, 
especially  in  regard  to  Hebrews,  James,  Jwie,  and 
the  Apocalypse.  Luther  attributed  Hebrews  to 
Apollos  ;  said  that  James  was  quite  beneath  apos- 
tolic dignity  in  its  style,  and  legal  in  its  spirit, 
"  au  epistle  of  straw  ;  "  pronounced  Jude  "an  un- 
necessary epistle;  "  while  as  for  the  Apocalypse, 
he  considered  it  neither  ajiostolic,  nor  prophetic, 
nor  inspired,  of  no  more  value  than  Second  Es- 
dras,  particularly  because  it  presented  pictures 
and  guiding  words.  He  did  not  ignore  the  his- 
torical attestation  of  a  book  ;  but  his  standard  for 
the  canonicity  of  a  book  was  its  power  to  teach 
Christ;  and  so,  because  these  four  books  failed 
to  present  Christ  according  to  his  notions,  he 
puts  them  at  the  end  of  his  New  Testament. 
As  was  to  be  expected,  Luther  had  followers  in 
this  path,  such  as  Brenz,  Flacius,  and  the  "Mag- 
deburg centuriators,"  and  Chemnitz;  and  while 
the  Gallic  (§  3)  and  Belgic  (§  4)  Confessions,  and 
the  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  (§  1)  com- 
mit these  churches  to  a  canon,  the  Lutheran  does 
not,  nor  do  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Church 
of  England  (§  6) ;  for  the  latter  s.ays,  after  the 
list  of  the  Old-Testament  Apocrypha,  "  All  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament  as  they  are  com- 
monly received  we  do  receive,  and  account  canoni- 
cal." The  Reformed  churches  were,  however, 
agreed  upon  the  canon  ;  and  as  for  the  Reformers, 
OicOLAMP.vDius  (d.  15  !1 )  might  object  to  putting 
the  antilegomena  on  a  level  with  the  homologou- 
mena,  and  ZwixGi.l  (d.  15:J1)  might  reject  the 
Apocalypse;  but  none  of  them  went  so  far  as  to 
make  a  canon  of  his  own.  Two  names  in  the 
modern  German-I'rotestant  Church  represent  tlie 
sceptical  opinions  of  their  day.  Johanx  Sai.omo 
Skmlek  (d.  1791),  in  his  Ahhandlun//  von  freier 
Untersuchunij  des  Kanoiis,  Halle,  1771-75,  4  vols., 
set  fortli  the  idea  that  the  early  Church  did  not 
regard  the  canon  as  normal  for  all  time,  but 
rather  as  a  list  of  books  which  were  read  in  pub- 
lic service.  No  book  was  truly  canonical  e.\oept 
it  was  universally  usable;  ami  therefore  a  later 
age  was  not  bound  to  respect  the  limits  of  the 
original  collection.  See  Sk.mi.ick,  .'\(T()Mij<)1>a- 
TION.  He  anticipated  the  Tubingen  school  in  the 
assertion  that  the  Catholic  epistles  were  rocon- 
ciliatory  documents.  The  founder  of  this  school 
was  Fkkdina.nd  Ciiiustiax  Bauu  (.1.  ISOO). 
They  almost  give  up  the  iilcn  of  a  canon  ;  nor 
does  the  question  of  canonicity  enter  into  discus- 
sion in  their  later  New-Testanu'iit  criticism.  See 
Ti'UiNiJKN  ScHooi,.  Their  oiqionents  seem  like- 
wise to  have  abandoned  the  dLscnssioii,  although, 
as  Schleiermachcr  has  sai<l,  "  The  Protestant 
Church  must  strive  after  a  more  definitiMietermi- 
natiou  of  the  canon  ;  and  this  is  the  highest  exe- 
getico-theological  task  for  the  higher  criticism." 


Lit.  —  Selection  of  modern  works.  In  German. 
—  Reuss  :  Die  Geschichte  der  heiligen  SchriJ'len 
Neuen  Testaments,  Braun.schweig,  1842,  5th  ed., 
1874,  in  2  Pai'ts  ;  Kirchhokek  :  Quellensammhauj 
ziir  Geschichte  des  neutestam.  Kanons  his  auf  Hie- 
ronymus,  Ziirich,  1844  [A.  H.  Charteris  :  Can- 
onicity:  a  Collection  of  Early  Testimonies  to  the 
Ciinonical  Books  of  the  New  Testament,  based  oti 
Kirchhofer's  QiieHensammlunf/,  Edinburgh  and  Lon- 
don, 1881];  Thiersch:  Versuch  :ur  Herstellung 
lies  hislorischen  Standpunctcs  fiir  die  Krililc  der  7ieti- 
testam.  .SWin/?e;i,  Erlangen,  1845:  the  same  :  Die 
Kirche  im  apostol.  Zcitalter  u.  die  Eiitstehuni/  des 
neutestam.  Biicher,  1857,  3d  ed..  Frankfurt,  1879; 
Crednek:  Zur  Geschichte  des  Kanons,  Halle, 
1847;  the  same:  Geschichte  des  neutestam.  Kanons 
(ed.  by  Volkmar),  Berlin,  1860;  Hilgenfeld: 
Der  Kanon  ii.  die  Kritik  drs  i\'eurn  Testament, 
Halle,  18G3;  Scholte.v:  Die  cillesten  Zeuijnisse 
betr.  die  .Schri/ten  des  N.  T.,  Bremen,  lS(i7;  [OliEK- 
BECK  :  Zur  Geschichte  des  Kiinnns,  Chenniitz,  1880 ; 
Reuss:  History  nf  the  Canon,  Eng.  trans.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1884;  Zahn  :  Forschmu/en,  Erlangen, 
1881  sqq.  WOLDEMAK  SCHMIDT. 

[In  English.  —  Westcott  :  History  of  the  Canon 
of  the  New  Testament,  Cambridge,  1855,  5th  ed.. 
London,  1881;  the  same:  art.  Canon,  in  Smith's 
Dlctionartj  of  the  Bible,  Am.  ed.,  vol.  I.  pp. 
3t)S-37(J  ;  Gaussen"  :  Le  canon  des  saintes  Ecritures, 
Lausanne,  1860,  translated  and  abridged  by  Rev. 
Dr.  Kirk,  The  Canon  of  Holy  Scripture,  Boston, 
18(J2 ;  Sanday  :  The  Gospels  in  the  Second  Cen- 
tun/.  London,  1876;  Samuel  Davidsox:  Canon 
of 'the  Bible,  London,  1878,  3d  ed.,  1880:  Mitch- 
ell :  A  uthenticity.  Canon,  and  Text  of  the  Greek 
New  Testament,  Andover,  1880;  J.  J.  Givex; 
Tlie  Truth  of  Scripture  in  Connection  with  Kecela- 
tion,  Insjiiration,and  the  Canon.  Edin.,  1881 ;  Char- 
teris:  Canonicity  (see  above).] 

CANON  LAW.  Collections  of  Canons  and  De- 
cretals. Corpus  Juris  Canonici.  In  the  first  three 
centuries  the  word  "  canon  "  simply  denoted  such 
rules  of  conduct  and  discipline  as  had  descended 
innnediately  from  the  founders  of  the  Christian 
Church,  and  were  generally  accepted  by  it.  But 
by  degrees,  as  the  synods  took  the  lead  in  the 
life  of  the  Church,  and  tlicir  decrees  were  recog- 
nized as  authoritative  by  the  Cliurch.  these  decrees, 
too,  were  called  canones ;  and  in  the  .same  man- 
ner, when  the  primacy  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome 
became  firndy  established,  both  the  name  ami 
the  authority  of  canones  were  transferred  to  liis 
decretals,  until  at  last,  in  the  language  of  the 
middle  ages,  the  word  "  canon "  came  to  denote 
any  ecclesiastical  prescription  in  contradistinction 
to  the  regulations  of  the  civil  law. 

During  the  first  centuries  the  Christian  Church 
felt  no  necessity  of  having  a  .systematic  collection 
of  its  canons.  Its  relations  were  as  yet  so  simple, 
that  l\u:  intermediate  prescriptions  of  Clirist  and 
the  ajiostles  were  sulticient  for  its  constil,ution 
and  dis(tipline.  That  the  so-called  Apostolical 
Constitutions  and  Canons  do  not  reach  back  to 
the  time  of  the  ajiostles  is  certain.  A  Codex 
Canonum  is  first  mentioned  in  the  acts  of  the 
Counc'il  of  Clialcedon  (451).  Here  (lie  canons  ti, 
83,  84,  95,  and  96  of  a  certain  collection,  were 
re.ad  aloud  ;  and  a  clo.ser  examination  shows  that 
those  canons  are  the  canon  Ii  of  the  synod  of  Nic;ea 
(325),  and  the  canons  4,  5,  16,  and  17  of  the  synod 


CANON  LAW. 


393 


CANON  LAW. 


of  Antiochia  (332).  Thus  it  seems  quite  probar 
ble  that  this  Greek  collection  contained  the  can- 
ons of  several  councils  numbered  in  continuous 
succession,  beginning  with  the  Council  of  Nicpca, 
and  ending  with  that  of  Antiochia.  There  were 
other  Greek  collections  of  canons.  See  Petr.  et 
Hieroii.  Hallerinii,  De  Aitll'/uis,  luvi  eililis  tnm 
iiieililis,  Collcclionilnis  el  Collcctorilms  Caiinnum, 
in  Oiii'i:  Leonis  Marjni,  Venice,  17-^7,  Tom.  III. 
But  it  is  a  mistake  to  ascrilie  an  official  character 
recognized  by  the  wliole  C'liurch,  eitlirr  to  that 
Cnilex  Canoiiuin  use<l  at  tlii!  Council  of  Chalcedon 
or  to  any  otiier  collection  ;  and  the  so-called  Cuilex 
Caiinnum  Ecclcsite  Uiilmsa;  which  Christoph 
Justeau  published  in  Paris,  IGIO,  is  nothing  but 
a  miscarried  attempt  at  fabrication :  both  the 
title  and  the  arrangement  are  tlie  editor's  own 
work. 

Of  the  decrees  of  the  Greek  councils,  only  those 
of  the  Council  of  Xic^a  were  innnediately  ac- 
cepted by  the  Western  Clmrch  (Iiinoc.  I.  Epp.  ad 
Theuphil.  Alex.  <aud  ad  CIcr.  cl  Popul.  Const.,  in 
Schdnemann  :  Puntif.  Roman.  Epislnl<E  Genuince, 
Gottingen,  1796,  pp".  539,  519),  and  also  those  of 
the  Council  of  Sardica  in  the  original  Latin  text. 
But  already  in  tlie  fifth  century  there  existed  Latin 
translations  of  the  Greek  collections  of  canons ; 
and  of  these  translations  three  are  specially 
noticeable;  namely,  the  Spanish  or  Lsidorian  trans- 
lation, the  Translalio  Pri.tca,  and  the  Dionysian 
translation.  The  Spanish  or  Lsidorian  translation 
received  its  name  from  the  circumstance  that  it 
afterwards  came  to  form  the  basis  for  the  great 
Spanish  collection  of  canons  and  decretals,  which 
for  a  long  time  was  ascribed  to  Isidore  of  Seville  ; 
but  its  birthplace  was,  no  doubt,  Italy,  and  with 
respect  to  its  date  the  translation  of  the  decrees 
of  the  Council  of  Xicrea  was  known  in  Gaul  in 
439  (Concil.  Kegense);  and  that  of  the  deci'ees  of 
the  Council  of  Ancyra  (^Canones  Anci/ritani),  in 
517  (Concil.  Epaonens.).  This  translation  forms 
part  of  a  collection  of  canons  made  in  Gaul 
towards  the  close  of  the  fifth  century,  and  was 
first  published  by  Paschasius  Quesnell,  in  Oj/era 
S.  Leonis,  Paris,  1675,  Tom.  II.,  under  the  title, 
Codex  Ecclenice  Romance.  The  title  is  a  misno- 
mer, however,  as  the  collection  was  never  author- 
ized by  the  Roman  Church.  Different  from  this 
translation  is  the  Versio  or  Translutin  Prisca,  made 
in  Italy  in  the  second  half  of  the  fifth  century, 
containing  the  decrees  of  the  Councils  of  AncjTa 
(Ancyrenses),  Neo-Ca3Sarea,  Nicpea,  Antiochia, 
Gangi-a,  Constantinople,  and  Chalcedon,  and  pub- 
lished first  by  Justeau,  in  Bihlioth.  Jur.  Canon. 
Tom.  I.  p.  275,  but  after  an  incomplete  codex,  and 
then  complete  and  more  correct,  by  the  Ballerinii 
in  Opera  Leonis  Magni.  Tom.  III.  p.  473.  Of  still 
greater  importance  is  the  translation  made  in 
Rome  by  Dionysius  Exiguus,  on  the  instance  of 
Bishop  Stephan  of  Salona,  at  the  end  of  the  fifth 
century.  It  contains  fifty  Canones  Apostolorum, 
a  hundred  and  sixty-five  canons  from  the  Councils 
of  Niciea,  Ancyra  (Anci/rani),  Neo-Ca?sarea,  Gan- 
gra,  Antiochia,  Laodicea,  and  Constantinople  from 
one  Greek  collection,  twenty-seven  canons  from 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon  from  another,  and  finally, 
in  the  original  Latin  text,  twenty-one  canons  from 
the  Council  of  Sardica  and  the  acts  of  the  synod 
of  Carthage  (419).  Besides  this  work,  Dionysius 
also  made  a  coUectiou  of  the  decretals  of  Siricius, 


Innocent  I.,  Zosimus,  Boniface  I.,  Cwlestinus  I., 
Leo  I.,  (lelasius  I.,  and  Anastasius  II.,  on  the 
instance  of  the  presbyter  .Julian,  and  during  the 
reign  of  Synmiachus  (498-514).  These  two 
works  of  Dionysius  were  afterwards  united  into 
one  colk^ction,  which  soon  gained  the  precedence 
of  all  other  collections,  was  frequently  qiujted  by 
the  popes,  ahd  wa.s,  according  to  the  testimony  of 
Cassiodorus  {De  Instil.  Dii'in.  c.  23),  in  general 
use  throughout  the  Western  Church  in  the  middle 
of  the  sixth  century.  In  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne it  even  obtained  the  rank  of  an  official 
Codex  Canonum.  Augmented  with  the  decretals 
of  Ildarius,  Simplicius,  Felix,  Synunachus,  Hor- 
misda,  and  Gregory  II.,  it  was  presented  in  774  by 
Pope  Adrian  to  Charlemagne,  and  at  the  diet  of 
Aix-LvChapelle  (8(12),  it  was  formally  recognized 
by  the  prankish  Church  as  CWex  Cf«?on«»i.  This 
Codex  Dionijsio-IIadrianeus  was  first  edited  by 
Wendelstein,  Jlayence,  1.525,  and  then  by  Pithou, 
Paris,  1009 ;  and  it  is  found  in  Bihlioth.  Jur. 
Canon.,  Tom.  I.,  and  in  Migne,  Patrologin,  Tom. 
67,  p.  135. 

The  African  Church  based  its  discipline  princi- 
pally upon  the  decrees  of  its  own  councils.  Espe- 
cially the  synod  of  Carthage  (419)  was  in  this 
respect  of  great  inqiortance,  as  it  incorporated 
with  its  own  decrees  those  of  the  synods  held 
under  Aurelius  of  Carthage  since  393.  This  col- 
lection of  African  canons  Dionysius  merged  into 
his  compilation,  though  in  an  incomplete  and 
abbreviated  shape ;  and  the  Dionysian  text  was 
afterwards  translated  into  Greek,  and  combined 
with  various  Greek  collections.  .lusteau  published 
in  1015,  in  Paris,  both  the  Latin  and  the  Cireek 
texts,  under  the  arbitrary  title.  Codex  Canonum 
Eccles.  AfricancE.  and  they  have  been  reprinted 
in  Bihlioth.  Jur.  Canon,  Tom.  I.  p.  305,  and  in 
Bihlioth.  Ecclesiast.,  Berlin,  1839,  vol.  I.  p.  155. 
The  two  most  noticeable  among  the  other  African 
collections  are  the  Breinatio  Canonum,  made  in 
540  by  Fulgentius  Ferrandus,  deacon  of  the 
Church  of  Carthage,  containing  an  extract  of  the 
Greek  canon  after  the  lsidorian  translation,  and 
the  decrees  of  the  African  councils  up  to  523,  and 
published,  first  by  Pithou,  Paris,  1588,  and  then 
in  Bihlioth.  Jur.  Can.,  Tom.  I.  p.  448,  and  in 
JSIigne,  Patrologia,  Tom.  07,  p.  949 ;  and  Concor- 
dia Canonum,  probably  made  about  090  by  an 
African  bishop,  Cresconius,  and  printed  in  Bihlioth. 
Jur.  Canon,  Tom.  I.  App.  p.  3. 

Collections  of  decrees  of  councils  and  of  papal 
decretals  existed  in  Spain  in  the  sixth  century,  as 
appears  from  the  acts  of  the  synod  of  Braga 
(563);  and  the  overthrow  of  Arianism,  and  the 
restoration  of  the  Catholic  Church,  made  a  com- 
plete and  systematic  arrangement  of  all  canonical 
matter  very  desirable.  Shortly  after  the  fourth 
council  of  Toledo  (633),  such  a  collection  was 
actually  made.  In  the  form  in  which  we  now 
know  this  collection,  as  published  in  iladrid 
(1808),  it  belongs  to  the  eighth  century;  but  it  is 
quite  possible  to  form  an  idea  of  the  original  col- 
lection. As  the  text  contains  much  more  than  is 
mentioned  by  the  indice.i,  it  seems  legitimate  to 
infer  that  the  indices  were  made  to  the  original 
collection,  and  retained  unchanged ;  no  notice 
being  taken  of  the  later  additions  to  the  text. 
The  collection  consists  of  two  parts.  Part  first 
contains   the    decrees  of    the   councils :    Concilia 


CANON  LAV/. 


39-i 


CANON  LAW. 


Grcfcorum,  after  the  above-iiientioned  so-called 
Spanish  or  Isidorian  translation  ;  A/ricrB  Concilia; 
Concilia  Gallite  (16);  and  Concilia  Hispanite  ^36). 
Part  second  contains  the  papal  decretals  from 
Daniasus  to  Gregory  I.  (604).  The  author  of 
this  collection  is  unknown.  Xone  of  the  existing 
manuscripts  contain  any  thing  to  put  the  collec- 
tion in  comiection  with  Isidore  of  Seville.  He 
is  first  mentioned  as  its  author  by  the  author  of 
the  Pseudo-Isidorian  decretals ;  wliich  article  see. 

The  old  British,  the  Scotch,  and  the  Irish 
churches  developed  their  constitution  and  disci- 
pline independently  through  their  own  synods; 
tut  very  few  of  the  canons  of  those  synods  have 
come  down  to  us.  Some  canonical  collections 
from  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  are  simply  peni- 
tentials.  In  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  too,  the  dis- 
cipline depended  for  a  long  time  upon  native 
.synods,  though  the  Dionysian  collection  was 
known  there  already  in  the  seventh  century,  as 
appears  from  the  acts  of  the  synod  of  Ilerford 
(673).  With  the  exception,  ho\\ever,  of  the 
2)enitence-ordinances  of  Tlieodore,  Bede,  and 
Egbeit,  nothing  exists  of  an  Anglo-Saxon  collec- 
tion of  canons.  The  De  Jure  Sacerdolali  and 
Excerptiones  are  of  Frankish  origin.  See  'Was- 
.serschleben :  Bussordnunyen  dcr  ahendlandischen 
Kirclie,  Halle,  1851.  But  there  exists  an  Irish 
collection  of  canons,  published  at  Giessen,  1871, 
by  "Wasserschleben,  which  treats  the  whole  field 
of  church-discipline.  The  collection  is  interest- 
ing, not  only  on  account  of  the  rich  patristical 
materials  it  contains,  but  also  on  account  of  the 
great  number  of  decrees  of  Irish  synods  it  pre- 
sents, and  which  give  a  vivid  pictui'e  of  the 
peculiar  constitution  of  the  national  church  of 
Ireland. 

Long  before  the  Codex  Dionysio-Hadrianeus  was 
recognized  as  the  Codex  Canonnm,  or  Liher  Cano- 
num,  there  circulated  in  the  Frankish  Empire  a 
great  number  of  collections  of  canons  and  decre- 
tals. One  published  by  Paschasius  Quesnell,  under 
the  title  Codex  Ecclesice  Romance,  is  mentioned 
above.  Xew  materials  were  added,  w  hen,  towards 
the  close  of  the  eighth  century,  the  great  Spanish 
collection  became  known  in  Gaul ;  but,  as  the 
materials  grew  richer,  they  became  more  difficult 
to  handle.  Systematical  arrangement  wa.s  necces- 
sary,  and  such  systematically  arranged  collections 
soon  became  very  frequent.  One  belonging  to 
the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  cent\iry,  and  con- 
taining three  hundred  and  eighty-one  cupitula, 
lias  been  published  by  Kichter,  Marburg,  1844 ; 
another,  dating  pi'obably  from  the  begiiniing  of 
the  ninth  c(mtury,  by  d'Achery  in  SpecUetj.  I. 
p.  510;  a  third,  the  so-called  P<cnitentiaiis  of 
Bishop  Ilalitger  of  Cambrai,  810-837,  by  Cani- 
sius.  in  Leclion.  .4 h(i'7.,  edited  by  Basnage,  T.  II. 
P.  II.  p.  87.  These  three  collections  pay  special 
regard  to  the  rpiestion  of  penitence,  and  so  do  tiie 
various  collections  by  Ilrabanns  jSIaurus:  Liher 
l'u:nilenliuin  ad  Oli/arium,  841,  and  Epislola  ad 
/[eribaldum,  8.53.  The  so-called  Capiluta  Episco- 
porum  also  evince  a  somewiiat  similar  character. 
They  are  minor  collections,  generally  made  by 
.some  bishop,  and  consisting  ]iartly  of  extracts 
from  larger  works,  )>artly  of  local  decrees  and 
I)rescriptions.  To  this  kind  of  collections  belong 
Slaluta  Bonifacii  Mo/junl.,  797  (Mansi :  Concil., 
XIII.  p.  383),  Cuiiii'iJa   Theodulphi  Aurel.,  797 


(Mansi,  XIII.  p.  903),  Capitula  Ahijlonis  Basil., 
820  (Mansi,  XIV.  p.  393),  Capitula  Herardi 
Turonensis,  858  (Baluze :  Capil.  Beg.  Francor,  I. 
p.  1283),  Capitula  Hincmari  Bemens,  852-877 
(Mansi,  XV.  p.  505),  etc.  The  great  influence 
which  during  the  Carolingian  period  the  secular 
power  exercised  on  the  Church,  even  on  its  disci- 
pline, added  still  more  new  materials  to  the  body 
of  the  canonical  law ;  and  systematical  compila- 
tions also  of  these  new  elements,  the  capitularies 
of  tlie  Frankish  kings,  were  made,  for  instance, 
by  Ansegis,  Benedictus  Levita,  etc. 

After  the  ninth  century  this  labor  of  systemati- 
zation  became  of  still  greater  importance ;  and 
attempts  were  made,  on  a  steadily-increasing 
scale,  almost  in  every  country,  until,  in  the  middle 
of  the  twelfth  century,  the  whole  development 
reached  its  consummation  in  the  Decretum  Grali- 
ani.  Among  the  principal  works  of  the  kind 
may  be  mentioned  Libri  Duo  de  Causis  Synodali- 
bus  et  Disciplinis  Ecclesiasticis  by  Abbot  Regino 
of  Prtim  (d.  915),  written  on  the  instance  of 
Archbishop  Kathbod  of  Treves  as  a  manual  for 
bishops,  and  published  at  Leipsic,  1840,  by  Was- 
senschleben ;  Decretum,  or  Liber  Dtcrelorum  Bur- 
chardi,  written  by  Bishop  Burchard  of  Worms, 
between  1012  and  1023,  and  published  in  !Migne, 
Palrologia,  Tom.  140,  p.  537  sqii.  ;  a  collection  of 
canons  by  Cardinal  Deusdedit,  dedicated  to  Vic- 
tor III.  (1086-87),  and  published  by  Martinucci, 
Venice,  1869 ;  the  Decretum  in  seventeen  books, 
and  the  Pannormia  in  eight  books,  by  Bishop 
Ivo  of  Chartres  (d.  1117),  both  found  among  his 
works  in  Jligne,  Patrolor/ia  Tom.  161 ;  besides  a 
number  not  yet  printed.  But  all  these  attempts 
were  completely  superseded  by  the  Discorduntium 
Canonnm  Concordia,  or  Liber  Decretorum,  or  simply 
Decretum  Gratiuni,  consisting  of  three  parts,  of 
which  the  first  is  divided  into  one  hundred  and 
one  distinctiones,  each  distinclio  comprising  a  num- 
ber of  cationex :  the  second  into  thirty-six  causce, 
each  causa  comprising  a  number  of  questions  and 
answers;  and  the  third  into  five  rf/s/Mica'oHei.  The 
division  of  the  first  and  third  parts  into  distinc- 
tiones is  the  work  of  I'aucopalea;  while  that  of 
the  second  part  into  catisa-  proceeded  from  Gra- 
tian  himself.  The  work,  however,  is  not  simply 
a  systematical  arrangenu-ut  of  the  materials, 
but  also,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  treatment  of  the 
subject.  Besides  the  text  of  the  canones,  it 
also  contains  short  explanations.  Dicta  Gratiani, 
in  which  the  author  endeavors  to  explain  away 
the  contradictions  between  the  canones.  To  this 
feature  the  work  owed  a  great  deal  of  its  success. 
Written  at  Bologna,  and  wi-itten  at  a  time  when 
Bologna  was  the  centre  of  all  juridical  study,  it 
was  planned  and  executed  in  accordance  with  the 
method  then  prevailing  in  the  juridical  lecture- 
room,  lather  than  with  a  view  to  special  practical 
purposes.  It  was  imiiiediately  made  the  subject 
of  study.  Gratiaii  liiin.self  lectured  upon  it  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  i/lossatorcs  on  the  Corpus 
Juris  Justiaiii ;  and  through  the  school  it  con- 
quered and  ruled  the  world,  though  it  was  never 
formally  confirmed  by  the  popes,  or  accepted  by 
till'  Church  as  authoritative. 

The  Decretum  Gratiani  apjieared  in  the  period 
when  the  papal  power  stood  at  its  liighest,  and 
developed  its  greatest  legislative  activity.  Hence 
the  natural  consequence,  that,  though  the  work  at 


CANON  LAW. 


395 


CANONICAL  HOURS. 


its  first  appearance  was  justly  considered  as  the 
Corjius  Juris  Vaiionici,  oidy  a  few  years  elapsed 
before  it  became  iucoiii[ilete,  or  even  aiiticpiated. 
Supplements  were  necessary;  an<l  no  less  than  five 
new  collections  were  made  bi'fon^  the  devel(i[)ment 
again  reached  a  haltini;-point  with  the  Decrelii- 
liuin  Grcyorii.  fX.  (.'oiiijiitdlio  {12'-'A).  The  first  of 
these  supplementary  collections  was  the  Brcvia- 
riuin  Extravafjtinluiiu;  that  is,  a  collection  of  decre- 
tals, extra  decretum  raijaiiles,  by  ISernardus,  provost 
•of  Pavia.  It  was  finished  in  1 1!)(),  and  consists 
of  five  books,  subdivided  into  t'tluli  and  ciipitula. 
The  intluence  of  the  Vudcx  Justiniaiii,  and  even 
«f  the  Pandects,  is  still  more  a])parent  here  than 
in  the  dcvrelum  itself.  The  arrangement  of  the 
material  in  the  five  books  is  indicated  by  the 
verse  :  Judex,  Judicium,  C'lcrus,  Coimuhia,  Crimen. 
The  second  collection,  the  so-called  Compilatio 
Tenia,  was  made  by  tlie  papal  notary  Petrus  C'ol- 
livacinus,  from  Benevent,  on  the  instance  of  Inno- 
■cent  III.,  and  contains  tlie  decretals  issued  by 
that  Pope  during  the  first  eleven  years  of  his 
reign.  The  Pope  sent  it  himself  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Bologna  in  1210.  The  Compilatio 
Secimda  is  later  in  time  than  the  preceding,  but 
•contains  tlie  decretals  issued  by  the  popes  from 
Alexander  III.  to  Innocent  III. :  hence  its  name, 
Secunda.  It  was  made  by  Johannes  Galensis. 
After  tlie  fourth  council  of  the  Lateran  (1215),  a 
new  collection  was  made  by  an  unknown  author, 
and  recognized  by  the  University  of  Bologna  as 
Compilatio  Quarta.  These  fom-  collections  were 
first  pulilished  by  Ant.  Augustinus,  Ilerda;,  1507, 
and  then  by  Labl>e,  Paris,  1009.  The  Compila- 
tio Quinta,  containing  the  decretals  of  Ilonorius 
III.  and  the  constitution  of  the  Emperor  Fred- 
•eric  II.,  was  sent  to  the  University  of  Bologna  in 
1220,  and  published  first  by  Cironius,  Tolos.-\;, 
1645,  and  then  by  I.  A.  Riegger,  Vienna,  1701. 
In  1230  Gregory  IX.  charged  his  chaplain,  Ilay- 
niund  of  Pennaforte,  with  the  compilation  of  a 
new  collection,  in  which  the  preceding  five  collec- 
tions, together  with  his  own  decretals,  should  be 
merged  into  one  body ;  and  this  new  collection, 
Decretalium  Greyorii  IX.  Compilatio,  was  in  1234 
sent  to  the  University  of  Bologna  with  a  papal 
buU.  From  this  time  it  was,  both  in  the  schools 
and  in  practical  life,  considered  and  used  as  the 
law-book  of  the  Church ;  but,  as  it  had  taken  the 
place  of  the  Extravagantes,  it  was  in  quotations 
marked  like  those;  namely,  by  the  word  Extra. 

The'  Compilatio  Greyorii  also  very  soon  needed 
supplements;  and  such  were  furnished  by  Inno- 
cent IV.,  Alexander  IV.,  Urban  IV.,  Clement 
IV.,  Gregory  X.,  and  Nicholas  III.  These  sup- 
plements were,  by  Boniface  VIII.,  united  into 
one  body  together  with  his  own  decretals,  after 
the  plan  which  Gregory  IX.  had  employed  with 
respect  to  the  Extrauagantes ;  and  this  new  collec- 
tion was  in  1298  sent  to  the  universities  of 
Bologna  and  Paris,  under  the  name  of  Liber  Se.i:- 
tus,  and  with  a  papal  bull  of  authorization.  The 
decretals  which  Boniface  VIII.  issued  after  1298, 
and  among  wliich  were  the  famous  bull  Unam 
Sanctum,  as  well  as  the  decretals  of  Clemens  V. 
(130.5-14),  were  finally  collected  by  John  XXII., 
and  in  1317  sent  to  the  universities,  where  they 
were  treated  under  the  name  of  Const itutioncs 
Clementince  ;  but  with  tlie  Clementines  the  official 
collections  of  papal  decretals  stojiped.     The  bat- 


tered authority  of  the  Poi)e,  and  tlie  steadily 
inci-ea.sing  discrepancy  between  the  papal  see  on 
the  one  side,  and  the  secidar  jiower  and  the 
national  churclies  on  the  other  side,  gave  the 
papal  legislation  an  entirely  new  character,  and 
mad(^  the  success  of  such  an  undertaking  as  an 
official  collection  of  decretals  more  than  proijlem- 
atic.  The  law-collections  already  in  existence, 
the  Decretum  Gratiani,  tlie  Compilatio  Gregorii, 
till!  Liber  Sextus,  the  Clementines,  and  two  com- 
pilations of  Extraragnntcs  by  Chappuis,  were  held 
together  as  the  Corpus  Juris  Canonici  (Vitalis  de 
Thebes  and  Jean  Chappuis,  Paris,  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, most  correct  edition  by  A.  L.  Kichter,  Leip- 
zig, 1839,  2  vols.);  but  any  attempt  at  further 
development  failed.  The  Liber  Septinms  pub- 
lished by  Petrus  Matthaeus  at  Lyons,  1500,  was 
never  authorized;  and  the  Liber  ^ejitimus,  which 
resulted  from  the  labors  of  a  committee  appointed 
by  Gregory  XIII.,  was  withdrawn  in  159.8.  Chro- 
nological collections  of  the  papal  bulls,  the  so- 
called  Bullaria,  took  the  place  of  the  systematized 
compilations  of  papal  decretals ;  and  the  authority 
of  the  Corpus  Juris  Canonici  itself  became  a  ques- 
tion of  the  Concordats. 

Lit.  —  RlCllTER :  Lehrbuch  <l.  Kath.  evanij. 
K.  R.,  Leipzig,  1842,  8th  ed.  [by  Dove],  1884 ; 
BiCKELL :  Geschichte  des  Kirchenrechts,  Giessen, 
1843;  M.4A.SSEN:  Geschichte  der  Quellen  und  der 
Litcratur  des  canonischen  liechts  im  Abendlande, 
Gratz,  1870 ;  Schulte  :  Die  Geschichte  der  Quellen 
und  Literatur  des  canonischen  Rechts  von  Gregor 
bis  auf  die  Gegenwart,  Stuttgart,  1875-80,  3  vols. ; 
[J.  H.  Blunt:  Book  of  Church  Law,  4th  ed., 
Phillimore,  London,  bSSu  ]     WASSERSCHLEBEN. 

CANONICAL  HOURS,  certain  portions  of  tinif 
set  apart  for  the  performance  of  prayer  and  devo- 
tion. In  their  fully-developed  arrangement  they 
are  seven:  prime,  about  six  a.m.;  terce.  about 
nine  a.m.;  sext,  about  noon;  nones,  about  three 
P.M.;  vespers,  ahoxit  sunset;  compline,  about  bed- 
time ;  nocturns,  matins,  or  lauds,  at  midnight.  The 
book  which  contains  the  prayers,  psalms,  hymns, 
canticles,  scripture-lessons,  and  patristric  read- 
ings, used  according  to  fixed  rule  on  these  occa- 
sions, is  called  a  "  Breviary  "  (see  title),  and  the 
separate  services  themselves,  "Hours."  These 
services  came  up  very  early,  but  the  exact  time  is 
uncertain.  The  apostolic  chur»h  observed,  very 
likely,  the  Jewish  custom  of  praj'ing  three  times 
daily,  —  at  the  third,  sixth,  and  ninth  hour  (Ps. 
Iv.  17;  Dan.  vi.  10;  cf.  Acts  ii.  15,  iii.  1,  x.  30). 
Clement  of  Alexandria  (second  century),  Tertul- 
lian  (third  century),  and  Jerome  (fourth  century), 
all  speak  of  these  three  hours  as  the  usual  times 
of  prayer.  In  the  third  century  a  morning  (ma- 
tins) ami  an  evening  (vespers)  hour  were  added  by- 
some,  making  five  hours;  and  the  innovation  was 
at  last  universally  accepted.  In  the  fourth  cen- 
tury the  zeal  of  the  Psalmist,  "  seven  times  a  day 
do  i  praise  thee  "  (Ps.  cxix.  164),  was  held  up  for 
Christian  imitation  by  Ambrose,  Augustine,  and 
Hilary  ;  liut  Ca.ssian  (424)  claimed  to  have  been 
the  first  to  have  instituted  the  rule. 

V^arious  grounds  have  been  stated  for  observ- 
ing these  hours.  Thus  for  prime,  Cassian  gives 
the  practical  reason  that  it  prevents  the  compara- 
tive idleness  and  sloth  which  the  long  interval 
between  matin  lauds  and  terce  entailed.  "  The 
third  (terce),  sixth  (sext),  and  ninth  (noties)  hours 


CANONIZATION. 


3% 


CANTHARUS. 


were  thought  to  have  been  selected  in  lionor  of  the 
Holy  Trinity."  Other  reasons  were  given :  thus 
Cj'prian  says,  "  Tlie  Holy  Gliost  descended  on  the 
disciples  on  the  tliird  hour  "  (tcrce)  ;  and,  for  sext, 
St.  Peter,  ■•  at  the  .sixth  hour  went  up  to  tlie  house- 
top ;  again,  "  The  Loi-d  was  crucified  at  the  sixth 
hour;"  for  nones,  "At  the  niutli  hour  Christ 
washed  away  our  sins  with  blood. "  For  i-espers,  lie 
says,  "  When  at  the  departure  of  the  sun  ...  we 
pray  .  .  .  we  are  praying  for  the  coniing  of  Christ, 
who  will  give  the  grace  of  everlasting  light."  For 
compline,  the  manifest  propriety  of  prayer  before 
resigning  oue's  self  to  the  "elder  brotlier  of 
death  "  would  be  a  .sutficient  reason.  "Xoclui'ns 
originated  in  the  pious  custom  of  prayer  when 
one  awoke  in  tlie  night."  Matins,  or  lauds,  were 
later  united  with  nnctwns.  The  services  used  at 
the  canonical  hours  are  manifestly  appropriate 
only  to  monasteries,  although  all  Christians  might 
with  advantage  observe  these  set  times  of  prayer. 

In  England  the  hours  from  eight  to  twelve  in 
the  forenoon  are  also  called  "  Canonical  Hours," 
before  or  after  which  marriages  cannot  legally  be 
solemnized  in  any  parish  church  without  a  license. 
See  the  exliaustive  article  by  i\Ir.  Scudamore, 
"Hours  of  Prayer,"  in  Smith  and  Cheetham's 
Diet.  Christ.  Anilq..  vol.  i.  pp.  792-799. 

CANONIZATION  is  the  ceremonial  act  by 
which  one  previously  beatified  is  put  down  on 
the  roll  or  canon  of  saints,  as  entitled  to  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Church.  The  most  pii'oper  way  in 
which  to  an-ive  at  .such  an  honor  seems  to  be. a 
papal  verdict ;  and  cases  very  early  occur  in  whicli 
the  Pope  confirmed  a  beatification  or  canonization 
which  had  taken  place  independently  of  him. 
As  an  exclusive  right,  however,  the  papal  see  did 
not. claim  canonization  until  the  time  of  Alexan- 
der III.  (ll^^l)  :  and,  as  the  bishops  continued  to 
beatify  and  canonize  in  their  dioceses,  Urban 
VIII.  issued  (10:25  and  1G34)  new  and  more  em- 
phatic bulls,  presenting  in  detail  tlie  whole  man- 
ner of  proceeding.  M'hen  it  could  be  proved 
with  valid  testimonies  that  a  person  had  led  a 
holy  life,  and  worked  miracles,  a  motion  for  his 
beatification  could  be  made  in  the  following  man- 
ner: fifty  years  after  liis  death,  the  bishop  of  the 
place  .should  appoint  a  connnittee,  which  had  to 
carry  the  case,  first  before  tlie  Coni/reyatio  liitu- 
um,  then  before  the  cardinals,  and  finally  before 
a  consistory  presided  over  by  the  Pope  himself. 
The  act  of  beatification  always  took  place  in  llie 
Basilica  I'alicana  (see  the  bull  by  Benedict  XI\'. 
of  Xov.  L':!,  1711,  in  Bullar.  Ma>iuum,  Tom.  XVL); 
and  the  heiilus  was  entitled  to  be  connneniorated 
in  the  canon  missce,  to  have  altars  erected  in  his 
honor,  to  have  his  nMuains  publicly  exhibited, 
etc.  If  miracles  continued  to  be  wronglit,  a  new 
and  still  more  rigid  investigation  was  instituted, 
and  in  due  time  the  canonization  followed.  Tliis 
act,  too,  took  place  in  the  Basilica  Vaticanai  and 
the  sanctus  was  entithul  to  the  invocation  and 
adoration  of  the  whole  Church,  —  hcalorum  cnllns 
Jidelibn.^ permitlitur,  canonizatoriim  aulem prwcipitur. 

Lit. — .IfSTUS  Foxtaxiu.s:  Codex  Conslilu- 
tionum  (juos  Stimmi  PonliJIces  e.didcrunt  in  solenni 
canonisatione  Sanctorum,  993-1729,  Kome,  1729; 
Fi:i!r!Ai!is  :    Bih.  f'anon.  MEJKIt. 

CANONS  REGULAR,  members  of  monastic 
orders,  lived  under  some  rule,  but  not  with  mo- 
nastic strictuess. 


CANSTEIN,   Karl   Hildebrand,   Baron  Von,    b. 

Aug.  -1,  1G(J7,  at  LinilenUerg  in  ISrandenbiag- ;  d. 
in  Berlin,  -Vug.  19,  1719  ;  studied  Law  in  Fr.ink- 
furt-o]i- the -Oder;  travelled,  and  served  for  a 
short  time  in  tlie  Prussian  army,  but  retired  then 
into  private  life,  and  devoted  liimself  wholly  to 
religious  studies  and  philanthropical  undertak- 
ings. He  wrote  a  Harmonic  der  vier  Ecanr/elisten,  ' 
171S,  and  a  Life  of  Spener,  who  was  an  intimate 
friend  of  his;  and  in  1712  he  founded  in  Halle 
the  Cansteinsche  Bihelanstidt,  which  was  able  to 
sell  the  Xew  Testament  for  two  groschen,  and 
the  whole  Bible  for  six,  and  which,  up  to  1S7G, 
had  sold  4,383,285  Bibles  and  1,337,058  Xew  Tes- 
taments. His  life  was  written  by  Lange,  1740, 
as  a  supplement  to  liis  Life  of  Spener,  and  by 
C.  II.  Chr.  Plath,  Halle,  18G1.  The  historv  of 
the  Bible  institution  was  written  by  Oswald  ^Ber- 
tram,  Halle.  18(;3. 

CANTERBURY,  the  Anglo-Saxon  Cantivara- 
hijrig,  the  Itunian  Diirorernu/ii,  became  the  metro 
politan  see  of  the  Knglisli  Church,  wlien  Augii.s- 
tine  and  his  fellow-missionaries  were  settled  there 
in  590  by  King  Ethelbert,  who  gave  them  an  old 
Koman  church  and  his  own  palace.  The  church 
was  entirely  rebuilt  by  Lanfranc  (1070),  much 
enlarged  by  Anselm,  and  again  enlarged  by  its 
restoration  after  the  fire  in  1172.  The  nave  was 
rebuilt  in  the  course  of  the  fifteentli  century,  and 
the  central  tower  was  not  finished  until  1500. 
Tlie  building  is  five  hundred  and  forty-five  feet 
long,  and  a  hundred  and  fifty-six  feet  broad  at 
the  eastern  transept,  and  is  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  magnificent  catliedrals  in  England.  Its 
brightest  d.iys  it  saw  in  the  century  following 
after  the  murder  of  Thomas  Becket  (1170),  wliose 
shrine,  placed  in  a  special  chapel,  was  immensely 
wealthy,  and  attracted  thousands  of  pilgrims  every 
year,  not  only  from  England,  but  also  from  the 
Continent,  until  the  commissioners  of  Henry 
VIII.  destroved  the  shrine,  and  cleared  the  chapel 
(153S). 

Our  word  "  canter  "  is  a  contraction  of  "Can- 
terbury gallop,"  ami  therefore  a  reminder  of  the 
Canterbury  pilgrimages,  and  tlie  easy  pace  at 
which  they  were  performed ;  for  they  were  quite 
as  much  excursions  as  religious  exercises.  Chau- 
cer (1328-1400),  in  liis  Canterliurij  Tales,  has  given 
us  an  "  admiralile  picture  of  such  pilgrimages, 
with  the  manners  and  behavior  of  a  party  of 
pilgrims,  leisurely  en  jnying  tlu;  journey,  and  tell- 
ing slories  to  each  other  on  the  road."    , 

The  Archbisliop  of  Canterbury,  who  is  the  pri- 
mate of  all  England  and  metropolitan,  does  not 
live  in  Canterbury,  but  in  Landieth  Palace,  Lon- 
don. The  cathedral  statf  consists  of  a  dean,  six 
canons,  twenty-four  honorary  canons,  an  auditor, 
six  preachers,  four  minor  canons,  and  subordinate 
officers.  The  cryjit  of  the  cathedral  is  a  church 
founded  by  Queen  Elizabetli  for  Frencli  Protes- 
tant refdgees,  and  still  used  by  a  small  Frencli 
congregation.  'J"he  ecclesiastical  remains  in  tlie 
toW'U  are  very  interesting,  including  flio.se  of  the 
first  friary  of  the  Dominicans  in  England,  and 
of  the  church  in  which  Ethelbert  was  ba))ti/,ed. 
.See  .St.vm.ky  :  Memorials  of  Cantcrlmry,  0th  ed., 
1872. 

CANTHARUS,  a  well,  or  cistern,  or  fountain,  or 
sinijily  a  vessel  for  water,  in  the  centre  of  the 
atrium  just  in  front  of  the  entrance  of  tlie  ancient 


CANTICLES. 


397 


CANTICLES. 


liasilica,  used  by  ilie  faithful  for  the  abhition  of 
hands  and  face  Lid'ore  entering  the  clnircli  build- 
ing. 

CANTICLES,  or  SONG  OF  SOLOMON,  called 
in  Hebrew,  D'Ttyri  ^^'p,  Song  of  Songs;  i.e.,  the 
most  beautiful  of  songs :  so  in  Greek,  /frr/ta 
'  ua/it'iTuv,  au<i  Latin,  Canticum  Cantlcnrum.  Ihe 
book  is  plainly  a  love-song ;  and  the  difficulfry  of 
its  interpretation  ai-ises  from  its  unique  position 
in  Hebrew  literature :  we  have  no  other  exam- 
ples with  which  to  compare  it.  But  is  tlie  loVe 
immortalized  merely  carnal,  or  is  it  spiritual  V 
Does  the  poem  find  its  end  in  the  earthly,  or  is  it 
rather  an  allegory,  setting  forth  the  heavenly  in 
the  garb  of  tlie  earthly?  It  is  the  task  of  tlie 
critic  to  explain  first  of  all  the  peculiar  phraseol- 
ogy, and  then  decide  whether  it  compels  or  can 
bear  a  deeper  meaning. 

The  poem  is  a  unit.  The  persons  throughout 
are  King  Solomon,  his  rustic  Beloved,  and  the 
Daughters  of  Jerusalem.  The  same  phrases  re- 
peatedly recur,  cf .  ii.  7,  iii.  5,  v.  8,  viii.  4 ;  iii.  6, 
yi.  10,  viii.  5;  ii.  17,  iv.  G,  viii.  14;  ii.  6,  viii.  3; 
i.  2,  iv.  10;  ii.  5,  v.  8,  etc.  Many  parts  are  mani- 
fest parallels;  e.g.,  ii.  8  .sqq.,  iii.  1  sqq.,  and  v.  2 
sqq.  Canticles  is  a  lyrical  drama,  yet  not  in- 
tended for  presentation  on  a  stage  so  much  as  for 
recitation  :  Ps.  ii.  and  xxiv.  are  examples  of  simi- 
lar use  of  dialogue  in  poetry.  According  to  the  tra- 
ditional view,  Solomon  celeorates  his  marriage  with 
the  Shulamite ;  while,  according  to  the  modern 
and  now  prevalent  view  (the  Shepherd  Theory), 
he  celebrates  rather  the  constancy  of  the  country 
maiden,  who,  unmoved  by  the  blandishments  of 
the  great  king,  persists  in  her  love  for  an  humble 
shepherd,  until  the  king  gives  his  consent  to  the 
matoli,  and  retires  from  the  field.  These  two  in- 
terpretations of  course  lead  to  wholly  different 
allotments  of  the  speeches. 

(1)  The  Shepherd  Theory  quotes  weighty 
names  in  its  defence.  It  is  the  theory  of  Ewald, 
who  thus  analyzes  the  Song  •  Solomon  and  his 
suite  once  found  in  a  "garden  of  nuts"  (vi.  11) 
near  the  village  of  Shulem  (or  Shunem)  a  most 
charming  and  modest  girl,  whom  Solomon  at- 
tempted to  get  for  his  harem,  notwithstanding 
the  rough  treatment  she  had  I'eceived,  and  her 
lowly  station  as  keeper  of  a  vineyard  (i.  0). 
These  two  play  together  the  first  scene,  wherein 
it  appears  that  she  is  in  love  with  a  shepherd 
(i.  7),  and  will  not  yield  to  Solomon's  wishes. 
So  the  dramatic  poem  goes  on.  AVhen  Solomon 
praises  her,  she  responds  by  praising  her  beloved 
swain :  she  longs  for  him  by  day,  she  seeks  him 
in  her  dreams  at  night.  The  culmination  of  the 
action  is  in  Solomon's  final  efforts  to  win  her 
favor.  He  offers  to  her  his  throne :  as  queen  he 
leads  her  to  his  capital,  but  in  vain.  He  tries 
upon  her  the  magic  of  his  speech  (vi.  4  sqq.); 
but  the  simple-minded  girl  is  overcome  of  home- 
sickness, and  the  embraces  of  her  lover  are  dearer 
to  her  than  those  of  the  king.  Solomon,  finding 
persuasion  useless,  magnanimously  gives  her  up  ; 
and  in  the  last  act  we  see  her  walking  with  her 
lover  upon  their  native  hills.  .Joy  has  come  to 
her  at  last.  She  has  received  her  reward.  The 
moral  of  the  piece  is  expressed  in  viii.  6,  7.  Love 
is  inflexible,  inextinguishable,  unpurchasable ; 
*nd  to  this  free  and  faithful  love  is  the  victory. 


It  must  be  confessed  that  the  above  scheme  is 
attractive  and  plausible ;  but  a  careful  examina- 
tion of  the  Song  shows  that  it  is  without  foun- 
dation. Against  it  decidedly  is  the  jiassage  iii. 
0-v.  1  inclusive,  —  a  description  of  a  royal  ■  mar- 
riage wliich  is  hapjiily  terminated.  Where,  then, 
is  tlie  maiden's  constancy?  In  order  to  curry  out 
his  scheme,  Ewald  was  obliged  to  interpolate  two 
lines  between  vers.  7  and  8  of  chap,  iv.,  —  "  Look, 
my  love,  look !  There  he  comes  I  Listen  while 
he  speaks  to  me,"  —  because  there  is  no  indication 
in  the  text  of  any  change  of  speakers.  It  is  also 
ridiculous  to  make  Solomon  .step  aside  while  the 
lovers  meet.  Again,  viii.  11,  12,  is  jilainly  a  speech 
of  the  Shulamite  to  Solomon.  Besides,  why  may 
not  Solomon  be  supposed  to  be  the  shepherd  of 
the  poem?  Delitzsch  has  explained  vi.  2  and 
elsewhere  by  saying,  "  The  country-life  of  the 
maiden,  and  the  delight  of  Solomon  in  nature, 
express  themselves  in  these  words,  and  prove  by 
their  spiritual  beauty  that  the  romantic  girl  saw 
in  the  lover  a  plain  .shepherd,  not  a  king,  and  as 
such  loved  him,  and  pictured  herself  as  sharing 
with  him  her  accustomed  simpilicity ;  in  which 
fancies  the  king  humored  her."  It  is  noteworthy 
that  the  poem  contains  no  word  of  complaint,  but 
that  Soloiuon's  tender  tones  are  echoed  by  the 
Shulamite  —  facts  which  are  against  the  Shep- 
herd Theory. 

(2)  The  Traditional  Theory.  The  poem  con- 
sists of  confessions  of  reciprocal  love  l)etween 
Solomon  and  the  Shulamite.  AA'e  divide  it  into 
five  acts:  I.  The  first  meeting  of  the  lo'S'ers 
(i.  2-ii.  7) ;  II.  Their  reciprocal  longing  and 
searching  (ii.  8-iii.  5)  ;  III.  The  marriage  in  the 
capital  (iii.  6-y.  1)  ;  IV.  New  seekings  and  find- 
ings of  the  lovers  (v.  2-viii.  4)  ;  V.  Sealing  of  the 
bond,  and  its  meaning  (viii.  5-14).  The  scene 
of  the  first  act  (i.  2-ii.  7)  is  a  country-seat  of 
the  king's,  near  the  home  of  the  fair  Shulamite. 
The  pair  meet ;  and  the  maiden  is  at  sight  so  en- 
amoured of  Solomon,  that  she  permits  herself  to 
be  led  to  his  garden-house,  where  she  receives  a 
garland  from  tlie  court  ladies.  The  king  is  also 
at  once  smitten,  and  the  pair  expre.ss  tlieir  mutual 
regard.  In  the  second  act  (ii.  8-iii.  5)  the  lover 
seeks  his  love,  and  finds  her  at  home.  She  seeks 
him  at  night  upon  the  streets  of  the  city,  and, 
finding  him,  expresses  her  delight  with  the  same 
words  used  in  the  first  act.  The  latter  scene  is 
manifestly  not  adapted  to  representation.  In  the 
third  act  (iii.  6-y.  1)  the  wedding  march  and 
songs  are  heard.  The  fourth  act  (v.  2-viii.  4) 
concerns  incidents  of  the  wedding  festivities.  In 
the  closing  scene  one  of  the  brothers  of  the  bride 
appears,  and  invites  her  to  go  home  with  him.  In 
the  fifth  act  (viii.  0-14)  this  request  is  granted : 
Solomon  and  the  Shulamite  revisit  the  scene  of 
their  first  meeting.  Her  brothers  are  suitably 
rewarded  for  their  care  of  their  sister.  M'ith 
Solomon's  request  of  the  bride  to  sing,  and  her 
counter-request  that  he  should  show  his  agility, 
the  joyous,  lively  Song  closes. 

The  book  is  a  story  of  conjugal  love,  of  its 
anxieties  and  rewards,  and  as  such  it  deserved  a 
place  in  the  canon.  Because  of  its  pm-ity  and 
mystery,  writers  in  other  parts  of  the  Bible  usa 
it  as  an  image  of  the  holiest  desires.  _  And  the 
poem  owed  its  canonical  position  likewise  to  the 
peculiar  dignity  of  the  king  of  whom  it  spoke ; 


CANTICLES. 


898 


CANTICLES. 


for  Solomon  was  for  liis  time,  as  David  had  been 
for  his,  the  anointed  of  the  Lord,  the  Messiah, 
the  vicegerent  of  the  unseen  King  (Ps.  ii.  7,  xlv. 
7  sq.,  ex.  1).  When,  therefore,  tlie  king,  seeking 
a  purer,  holier  love  than  he  found  in  his  harem, 
condescended  to  raise  a  simple  maiden  of  the 
people  to  a  place  by  his  side,  because  she  realized 
to  him  the  very  love  he  sought,  what  was  this 
but  a  picture  of  the  Jlessianic  marriage  of  which 
Ps.  xlv.  sings, — a  culmination-point  of  the  \-isible 
kingdom  of  God,  at  that  time  thought  to  be  on 
earth  ?  According  to  this  hypothesis,  there  is  no 
difficulty  about  the  Solomonic  origin  of  the  poem, 
nor  about  its  representation  of  literal  facts.  Yet 
it  may  be  of  different  authorship  and  occasion, 
as  the  peculiarity  of  a  few  words  may  indicate. 
(The  Shepherd  Theory  renders  a  Solomonic  origin 
improbable.)  The  majority  of  the  recent  critics 
assign  it  to  a  time  shortly  after  the  disruption 
(950-946  B.C.),  and  maintain  it  was  a  popular 
protest  against  the  luxury  of  the  court  of  the 
Northern  Kingdom. 

In  later  Hebrew  literature  there  are  numerous 
references  to  it  (cf.  Cant.  iv.  12,  15,  and  Prov.  v. 
15  sqq.;  v.  6,  Prov.  i.  28;  vi.  9,  Prov.  sxxi.  28; 
\ai.  10,  Prov.  xxiii.  31;  vii.  7,  Prov.  vi.  30). 
Questionable  is  the  use  in  Jeremiah  (xxii.  21), 
in  Haggai  (ii.  23 ;  cf.  Cant.  viii.  0),  and  the  refer- 
ence in  Isaiah  (v.  1)  ;  but  Hosea  appears  to  have 
known  Canticles,  and  borrowed  much  from  it. 
That  references  to  it  are  not  common  in  the  pro- 
phetic writings  is  proof  that  it  was  not  a  people's 
book,  but  rather  artistic  and  esoteric.  It  was. 
however,  admitted  into  the  canon,  and  declareil 
by  Rabbi  Akiba  to  be  so  valuable,  that  the  whole 
world  was  not  worth  as  much  as  the  day  on  which 
it  was  given  to  Israel.  Yet  a  mystery  was  made 
of  it :  no  one  under  thirty  years  old  was  allowed 
to  read  it  (thus  jnitting  it  in  the  same  category 
with  the  history  of  creation  and  Kzekiel),  on  the 
ground  that  it  coidd  be  licentiously  interpreted 
(see  Fiirst,  Der  Kanon  des  A.  T.  nach  den  Vher- 
Ueferunyen  im  Talmud  mid  Midrasch,  Leipzig, 
1868).  It  was  interpreted  as  an  allegory  epito- 
mizing the  whole  theocratic  history  of  Israel. 
This  is  the  view  of  it  taken  in  the  commentaries 
of  llashi  and  Aben  Ezra.  But  !Maimonides,  in 
Morek  Nevochhn,  substitutes  for  this  historico- 
allegorical  theory  an  allegorico-mythical  one, 
rejects  the  continuity  of  the  Song's  action,  and 
wins  from  some  of  its  parts  instruction  on  the 
soul's  relationship  to  God. 

The  Christian  Churcli,  under  the  lead  of  Ori- 
gen,  likewise  regarded  it  as  an  allegory,  in  wliich 
tlie  Bride  was  the  Church,  the  lover  was  Christ ; 
and  Theodore  of  IMopsuestia  was  anathematized 
for  interpreting  it  of  earthly  love.  In  the  middle 
ages  the  allegory  was  supposed  to  relate  to  the 
intercour.se  between  Christ  and  the  individual 
soul.  So  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  in  his  famous 
eighty-.six  sermons  on  this  book  (dovvn  to  iii.  1). 
Tlio  reformers  adopted  the  allegorical  interpreta- 
tion. Coming  down  to  later  times,  (irotius  con- 
sidered it  a  nuptial  song  for  Solomon  and  tlie 
daughter  of  Pharaoh  ;  .so  others,  erotically.  Her- 
der was  enamoured  of  its  beauty,  and  distributed 
it  into  "separate  voices,  accordant  only  in  tlie 
breath  of  love."  So  the  I'rotestant  interpreters 
differ :  .some  are  literalists,  and  otlier.s  allegorists ; 
some  hold  to  the  unity,  others  to  the  collective 


nature,  of  the  Song.     The  author  maintains  that 
the  theme  is  conjugal  love,  pure  and  sweet. 

Lit.  —  German  commentators  (see  Bibliogra- 
phy by  Zockler,  in  Lange,  Amer.  ed.,  pp.  25-43, 
for  a  careful  distribution  of  the  commentators 
upon  Canticles  into  their  respective  schools). 
J.  G.  Herdki!  :  Licder  der  Llehe,  die  idlesten  tind 
scJionsten  aus  dem  Moi'genliuide,  1778;  F.  W. 
C.  Umbreit  :  Lied  der  Liehe,  Gbttingen,  1820; 
H.  KwALi> :  Das  llnhelied  Salomonis,  Giittingen, 
1S26,  and  in  Die  Didder  des  alien  Jiiindes,  Gbttin- 
gen, 2d  ed.,  1800  ;  E.  J.  ilAGxrs  :  Kritische  Beur- 
heiturKj  des  H.  L.  Sal.,  Halle,  1842  ;  F.  BoTTCiiKn  : 
Die  iiltesten  Biilinen<lichltinr/en,  Leipzig,  1850 ; 
F.  Dklitzscii  :  Das  llohelied,  Leipzig,  1851,  and 
in  his  Commenlar,  1875;  E.  AV.  IIkxgstenherg  : 
Das  H.  L.  Salomonis,  Berlin,  1853  [Eng.  trans,  in 
Clark's  Library];  IIitzig:  Das  IlolicVud,  Leipzig, 
1855;  ZiicKi.ER :  Das  H.  L.  Sal.  (in  Lange 's 
Bihelicerk,  1868) ;  II.  Gr.ATZ :  Sc!iii--ha-Schiri7n, 
1871;  C.  F.  GoDET  :  liludes  lililitjues,  vol.  i., 
Paris,  1873  [Eng.  trans.,  Oxford,  1875];  [S.  J. 
Kami'F  :  Das  Holielied,  Prag,  1877,  2d  ed.,  1870; 
B.  W.  J6SEFFV :  Das  llohelied,  Basel,  1S77 ; 
K.  Koiii.ER  :  Das  Hohe  Lied,  Chicago,  1878]. 

[English  commentators  (see  the  valuable  Sup- 
plementary Bibliography  by  Professor  'W.  II. 
Green,  in  his  translation  of  Zockler's  Commen- 
tary on  the  Song  of  Solomon,  in  the  An"'-ericau  edi- 
tion of  Lange's  Commentary,  pp.  43-47).  Bishop 
II.^ll:  An  Open  and  Plain  l'araphra.-<e  upon  the 
Song  of  Songs,  London,  1009;  Hexry  Aixs- 
wouTii:  Annotations  upon  .  .  .  the  Song  of  Songs, 
or  Canticles,  London,  lOoO  (of  much  influence  in 
shaping  the  current  allegorical  interpretation)  ; 
J.  Cotton  :  A  Brief  Exposition,  etc.,  London, 
1642  (in  Nichol's  series);  W.  Guild:  Lore's  In- 
tercourse between  the  Lamb  and  the  Bride,  London, 
1658 ;  Ja.mes  Durham  :  Claris  Caiitici,  London, 
1068;  John  Mason  Good:  Song  of  Songs,  hon- 
don,  1803 ;  J.  Fry  :  Canticles,  a  Neic  Translation 
with  Notes,  London,  1811  ;  George  Burrowes  : 
A  Commentarti  on  the  Song  of  Solotnon,  Pliiladel- 
phia,  1853,  2d  ed.,  revised.  New  York,  1867: 
Peter  Macpherson:  The  Song  of  Songs  shown  to 
be  constructed  on  Architectural  Principles,  Edin- 
burgh, 1856  (he  supposes  the  Song  to  consist  of 
verses  written  along  an  archway) ;  A.  IMoODY 
Stuart  :  A  n  IL.rposilion  nf  the  Song  of  Solomon, 
London,  18.57,  repub.  Philadeli>hia,  1809  (one  of 
the  best  commeniaries  on  the  Song);  Christian  . 
I).  GixsiU'KG  :  The  Song  of  Songs  translaleil  from 
the  Original  llebrcn)  with  a  Conimtiitary,  Historical 
and  Critical,  I^ondon,  18-57;  John  Mason  Xeale: 
Sermons  on  the  Canticles,  preached  in  a  Religious 
House,  by  a  Pries!  of  the  Church  of  England,  Lon- 
don, 1857;  L.  WrriiiNGTON :  Solomon's  Song 
translated  and  explained,  Boston,  1861  ;  J.  F. 
TiiRUPi" :  The  Scmg  of  Songs,  a  Revised  Transla- 
tion, icith  Introduction  and  Commentary,  Cambridge, 
1862;  11.  F.  Littledale:  A  Commentary  on  the 
Sonq  of  Songs,  frinn  Ancient  and  Mediirral  Sources, 
London,  1809;  IL  J.  Matthews:  Abraham  llm 
Ezra's  Commentary  rm  the  Canticles,  after  the  First 
Recension,  edited  from  Two  Hebrew  MSS.,  with  a 
Translation,  London,  1874. 

There  are  very  numerous  mcitrical  translations 
of  the  Song.  Dr.  (ircen,  in  Lange,  gives  a  list  of 
them.  The  latest  is  by  James  Pratt,  London, 
1881.]  OUEI.I.I. 


CANTOR. 


390 


CAPERNAUM. 


CANTOR  (.v/»f/('r),an  eccli^siastical  order  of  (in- 
anoiciit  cliurcli,  institutt^d  in  the  fourth  century. 
It  is  ineutioiied  in  tlie  Apostolical  Constitutions; 
and  tlie  Council  of  lyaodicea  Qiit'i)  forbids  any- 
body to  sinn'  in  the  cluirciies,  Imt  tlie  cantors. 
The  ordination  could  be  pi'rl'orined  by  a  prc^sby- 
ter,  ami  imposition  of  hands  was  not  a  part  of  it. 

CANUS,  Melchoir,  b.  at  Tarancon,  Spain,  loi:! ; 
d.  at  'rolcdn,  loliO;  entered  the  order  of  the  J)o- 
nunicans;  studied  at  Salamanca;  was  jirofessor 
of  theology  at  Alcala  and  Salannmca,  liishop  of 
the  Canaries,  and  provincial  of  his  order.  Mis 
principal  \vorks  are  J)e  Pcenitentki,  De  S(icrame7i- 
tis,  and  Loci  TheoUniici ;  which  last  work  occupies 
a  prominent  place  in  the  history  of  Konum-Catho- 
lic  dogmatics.  His  works  appeared  at  Cologne, 
1005,  and  at  l.yon,  17(14. 

CAPER'NAUM  {lUe  village  of  Nahnm,  not  to  be 
connected  with  the  prophet)  is  not  mentioned 
outside  of  the  Ciospels,  perhaps  was  not  built  till 
after  the  exile,  but  is  called  Christ's  "own  city" 
(Matt.  ix.  1),  and  was  the  scene  of  many  of  his 
mighty  acts.  See  JIatt.  viii.  .5-14,  ix.  2,  xvii.  24  ; 
John  vi.  17-59,  iv.  40,  etc.  It  is  plain  from  the 
Gospels  that  it  was,  (1)  in  Galilee  (Luke  iv.  .31) ; 

(2)  on  the  lake  (Matt.  iv.   13 ;  John  vi.  17-24)  ; 

(3)  the  seat  of  a  collector  and  of  a  garrison 
(Matt.  viii.  5),  perhaps  of  a  custom-house  (Jlatt. 
xvii.  24 ;  Mark  ii.  1,  14 ;  Lulce  v.  27,  cf .  Matt.  ix. 
1,  9) ;  (4)  noted  for  its  synagogue  built  by  a 
Roman  centurion  (Luke  vii.  1,  5) ;  (5)  joined 
with  Chorazin  and  Bethsaida  in  the  denuncia- 
tions of  Jesus,  and  its  destruction  predicted 
(Matt.  xi.  20-23 ;  Luke  x.  13-15).  It  has  been 
inferred  that  it  was  in  the  land  of  Gennesaret ; 
but  this  is  not  certain  (cf.  Matt.  xiv.  34;  John  vi. 
16,  17,  24,  25).  The  indications  are,  that  the  city 
was  on  the  west  side  of  the  lake,  and  near  its 
northern  end.  Constantine  built  there  a  cluirch 
upon  the  site  of  Peter's  house.  We  find  refer- 
ences to  the  place  in  the  thirteentli  century,  but 
to-day  its  very  site  is  in  dispute.  The  expression, 
"  On  the  borders  of  Zebulun  and  Naphtali " 
(Matt.  iv.  13),  does  not  help  us  any,  because  it  is 
imcertain  where  tliese  borders  were.  Two  places, 
only  about  three  miles  apart,  lay  claim  to  be 
Capernaum,  —  Khan  Minyeh,  on  the  northern  end 
of  the  plain  of  Gennesaret ;  and  Tell  Hum,  a  ruin 
near  the  lake,  about  two  miles  south-west  of 
where  the  River  Jordan  enters  the  lake,  —  and 
biblical  geographers  are  much  divided  between 
them;  the  claims  of  other  places,  such  as  'Ain 
Mudaivarah,  meeting  now  with  no  support.  The 
arguments  for  and  against  each  place  are  as  fol- 
lows: 1.  Tell  Hum  is  well  located  for  a  custom- 
house and  garrison,  since  it  was  on  the  border  of 
Philip's  tetrarchy.  But  Khan  Jlinyeh  was  on 
the  Roman  highway  to  Damascus :  whether  it 
ran  by  Tell  Hum  in  Christ's  day  is  very  doubtful. 
Khan  Minyeh  is  surely  much  more  accessible, 
and  therefore  more  likely  to  get  trade.  To  reach 
Tell  Hum  one  must  follow  a  narrow  path  (an- 
ciently a  conduit)  cut  in  the  rock  at  some  height 
above  the  lake.  2.  A\'hen  it  is  said  (Mark  vi. 
32,  33 ;  cf.  Matt.  xiv.  13 ;  Luke  ix.  10)  that  the 
people  walked  around  the  head  of  the  lake  while 
Jesus  went  across  in  a  boat,  but  yet  they  arrived 
first,  it  does  not  necessarilij  follow  that  Cajier- 
naum  was  far  to  the  north,  because  no  men- 
tion  is   made   of   it  as   the  point  of   departure. 


Xor  is  it  proven  that  Capernaum  belonged  to 
(jenuesarct,  becausi^  Mark  (vi.  53)  says,  that,  on 
the  return  journey,  Jesus  came  to  (iennesaret; 
and  John  (vi.  24),  that  the  people  found  him  at 
Capernaum.  3.  Jose])hus  {Life,  72)  relates,  that 
when  wounded,  near  the  enti'ance  of  the  Jordan 
into  the  lake,  he  was  carried  into  a  village  named 
Capernaum,  or  Kcpharnome,  which  ajijiarently 
was  the  nearest;  i.e..  Tell  Hum.  But,  as  Jose- 
phus  does  not  say  that  Capernaum  was  the  near- 
est village,  it  might  just  as  well  have  been  a  little 
farther  off;  and  the  passage  is  not  conclusive. 
In  the  only  other  passage  in  which  Josephus 
mentions  Capernaum  {War,  III.  10,  8),  it  is  not 
the  name  of  a  place,  but  of  a  "  most  fertile  foun- 
tain "  by  which  Gennesaret  was  watered.  This 
is  probably  the  'Ain  el  Tuhiyhah,  the  fountain 
from  which,  by  means  of  an  aqueduct  along  the 
seashore,  the  water  was  carried  to  the  northern 
part  of  the  plain.  It  is  only  about  two  miles 
from  Tell  Hum,  and  a  mile  from  Khan  IMinyeh: 
by  the  latter  place  itself  flows  'Ain  et  Tin  ("the 
Fountain  of  the  Fig-tree  "),  w  hich,  however,  falls 
into  the  sea  a  few  hundred  steps  off;  southward 
is  the  Round  Fountain,  'Ain  J\Iiulawarah,  in  which, 
as  in  Joseplins'  Kapharnaum,  the  Kile  fish  cora- 
cinus,  or  catfish,  is  found.  [Lieut.  Kitchener 
remarks  that  'Ain  et  Tabighah  is  too  muddy,  and 
too  much  overgrown  with  weeds,  to  allow  the  co- 
racinus  to  be  seen  ;  for  they  always  remain  at  the 
bottom  of  the  w  ater.]  4.  The  statement  of  Theo- 
dorus  (c.  530),  that  Capernaum  was  twice  as  fai- 
from  IMagdala  as  the  latter  from  Tiljerias,  and 
that  of  Arculfus  (c.  070),  that  he  had  seen  Caper- 
naiun  lying  from  west  to  east,  between  the  sea 
on  the  south,  and  the  mountain  on  the  north, 
agree  best  with  Tell  Hrun,  which  lies  upon  a 
point  of  the  shoi'e  jirojecting  into  the  lake.  But 
later  tradition  is  of  small  account  either  way. 
5.  Robinson  interprets  Tell  Hum  "hill  of  the 
camel-herd,"  which  is  very  questionable.  But  to 
compare  Hum  with  Nahum  [the  mound  or  ruin 
of  Nahum]  is  equally  so.  The  Jewish  tradition 
connects  it  with  R.  'ranehiun.  0.  Tell  Hum  is, 
at  all  events,  one  of  the  most  important  ruins 
in  Palestine,  a  half-mile  long,  a  quarter-mile 
broad,  emljracing  that  of  a  synagogue  about 
seventy-five  feet  long  by  fifty-eight  feet  wide  ;  its 
walls  built  of  hard  limestone,  resting  on  basaltic 
rock.  FR.  W.   SCHULTZ. 

[If  Tell  Hmn  be  Capernaum,  then  this  is 
probably  the  synagogue  built  by  the  pious  cen- 
tiu'ion,  and  in  which  Jesus  taught  (Luke  vii.  5; 
Mark  i.  21).  The  walls  of  many  private  houses 
can  be  traced,  and  two  tombs  have  been  found. 
But  there  are  ruins  at  Khan  IMinyeh  also,  accord- 
ing to  Lieut.  Kitchener,  under  the  present  surface 
of  the  ground.  This  review  of  the  arguments 
shows  that  there  is  nuich  to  be  .said  on  both 
sides.  The  claims  of  Khan  Minyeh  are  supported 
by  Robinson  (18.52),  Jlacgregor  (1SG4),  Sepp 
(1867),  Porter  (1875),  Kiepert,  and  by  Lieut. 
Kitchener  and  Selah  Merrill  (1877),  representa- 
tives respectively  of  the  British  and  American 
Exploration  Societies;  while  those  of  Tell  Hum 
are  maintained  by  Dr.  John  Wilson  (1847).  Dr. 
W.  M.  Thomson  (18.59),  Ilepworth  Dixon  (1S64), 
Dean  Stanley  (1871),  Capt.  (now  Lieutenant- 
Colonel)  Wilson  (1871),  Ritter,  Delitzsch,  Socin, 
in    Baedeker's   Syria  and  Palestine,   Schaff,   and 


CAPHTOR. 


400 


CAPPADOCIA. 


others.  The  strongest  avguinent  for  Khau  Min- 
yeh,  or  the  Khiu'bet  Jlinyeh  of  Lieut.  Kitchener, 
is  the  geographical :  it  is  near  the  shore,  in  the 
land  of  Gennesaret  (if  Geiinesaret  be  el-Ghuweir), 
and  is  well  located  for  a  custom-house,  on  the 
liighway  from  .Jerusalem  to  Damascus.  For  Tell 
Hum  there  is  the  similarity  of  name,  and  the 
extensive  ruins.  Dr.  Robinson  explains  their 
absence  from  Khan  ilinyeh  on  the  ground  that 
Tiberias  may  have  been  built  witli  them;  but 
Tiberias  was  already  built  (.V.D.  20)  while  Caper- 
naum was  flourisliing;  and,  besides,  so  comislete 
a  demolition  as  the  conjecture  necessitates  is  not 
easily  effected.  If  Tell  Hum  be  Capernaum, 
then  Kerazeh,  two  miles  northward,  is  Choraziu. 
This  is,  upon  the  whole,  the  most  probable  view. 
But  see  Chor.azin. 

Besides  the  authors  mentioned,  see  Scn.\FF : 
Bible  Lands,  350-.3.54,  and  his  Bible  Diet,  sub 
'•Capernaum;"  Lieut.  Kitchexer,  art.  in  the 
Quart,  ■'statement  of  the  Palestine  Exploration 
Fund,  July,  l'S70;  S.  Mekuill:  East  of  the  .Jor- 
dan. Xew  York,  1881,  p.  457  (for  Khan  Minyeh); 
K.  Tii.  KL'cKEUT :  Reise  durch.  Putastina,  Mainz, 
1881,  pp.  381  sqq.  (wOio  favors  decidedly  Tell 
Hum)]. 

CAPHTOR,  the  original  home  of  the  Caphto- 
rim,  or  Philistines  (Deut.  ii.  23;  Jer.  xlvii.  4; 
Amos  ix.  7),  eitlier  an  island,  as  Jeremiah  calls  it, 
or  a  coast  country.  '\'arious  identifications  liave 
been  proposed.  1.  Cappadocia,  favored  by  the 
old  versions  because  of  similarity  of  sound ;  but 
Cappadocia  was  originally  Catpatuk,  and  so  the 
similarity  vanishes.  2.  Cyprus,  but  in  tlie  Old 
Testament  the  island  is  called  Chittim.  3.  Crete: 
the  generally  received  identification,  supported 
by  Amos  ix.  7 :  the  Philistines  are  said  to  have 
been  brought  from  Caphtor  as  the  Lsraelites  from 
Egypt;  but  the  Pliilistines  are  called  Cheretliites, 
cf.  1  .S.am.  XXX.  14,  16;  Ezek.  xxv.  10;  Zeph.  ii. 
5 ;  but  the  latter  are  Cretans,  as  the  Septuagint 
calls  them.  The  objection  that  Gen.  x.  13,  14 
(cf.  1  Chrou.  i.  12)  makes  the  Caphtorim  to  come 
from  tlie  Egyptians  is  tlius  explained:  the  Caslu- 
him  were  the  inhabitants  of  Cassiotis ;  colonists 
from  Crete  or  Caphtorim  settled  there,  were 
counted  ICgyptians,  and  then  went  to  Palestine, 
where  tliey  were  joined  by  their  countrymen 
direct  from  Crete.  4.  The  Phoenician  colony  on 
the  coasts  of  the  jV(7e  ddta,  because  Egyjit, 
Aiguptos  =  .\ia  guptos  =  Ai  Kaphtor  (Ileb.)  = 
coast-land  of  Phoenicia,  for  Caphtor  =  Ivaftur  = 
Great  Plia'uicia.  But  these  etymologies  arc  not 
undoubted.  [It  is  improliable  that  at  the  earliest 
times  a  tribe  moved  from  an  island  to  the  main- 
land :  lience  these  "  island "  id<>ntifications  are 
unliki-ly,  wliile  the  last  is  likely].  See  J.  G. 
i\Ii'-i,i.EK :  Die  SemilcH,  Gotha,  1872;  Stauk: 
Cazn.  RtiET.SC'IlI. 

CAPISTRANUS  (Gioranni  di  Capi.ilrano),  b. 
at  Capistrauo  in  tlie  Abruzzi,  June  23,  138.j;  d. 
at  Villach,  Carinthia,  Oct.  23,  14.')f) ;  studied  law, 
and  entered  the  service  of  the  King  of  Sicily,  but 
gave  up  this  career  in  141.'),  and  became  a  monk 
of  the  Franciscan  order.  He  was  one  of  tlie 
greatest  preachers  of  that  time,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  tlie  zeal  and  tlie  success  with  which 
he  worked  against  the  Fraticelli.  In  1450  he  was 
sent  to  Germany  to  counteract  tlii!  Hussites.  In 
thi.s  mission  he  paitially  failed ;  but,  after  the  fall 


of  Constantinople,  he  succeeded  in  rousing  once 
more  the  crusading  entliusiasm  of  tlie  people. 
He  led  personally  an  army  of  crusaders  to  the 
support  of  Johannes  Coninus,  and  he  contributed 
much  to  the  signal  defeat  of  the  Turks  at  Bel- 
grade. 

CAPITO,  Wolfgang,  li.  at  Hagenau,  Alsace, 
1478;  d.  at  Strassburg,  1.541 ;  studied  at  Freiburg, 
first  medicine,  then  law,  and  finally  theology; 
became  preacher  at  Bruclisal,  1511,  and  at  Basel, 
1513;  removed  in  1519  to  Mayence,  where  he 
lived  in  great  intimacy  with  the  archbishop, 
Albrecht ;  Ijut,  carried  away  by  the  Reformation, 
lie  left  Mayence  in  1523,  and  settled  at  Strass- 
burg,  where  he  became  one  of  the  most  prominent 
leaders  of  the  reformatory  movement.  He  is  the 
real  author  of  the  Confessio  Tetrapolitana.  At 
the  synod  of  Bern,  1532,  he  played  a  conspicuous 
part ;  and  his  moderating  and  conciliatory  in- 
fluence was  also  felt  in  the  Peasant  ^\'ar  and  the 
Analiaptist  disturbances.  A  list  of  his  writings 
is  found  in  Balm  :  Capita  und  Bulzer,  Elberfeld, 
1860. 

CAPITULARIES.  The  various  nations  of  which 
the  Frankish  Empire  was  composed  had  each  its 
own  law,  according  to  which  the  people  lived, 
also  when  it  left  its  native  territory.  But,  besides 
these  national  laws,  there  was  also  a  general  im- 
perial law,  valid  not  only  for  the  individual,  but 
also  for  the  territory.  In  the  ^Merovingian  time 
the  names  of  decretam,  dccrctio,  constituttiin,  edic- 
tum,  auctoritas,  pactio,  were  given  to  such  general 
imperial  prescriptions;  but  during  the  Carolingian 
time  capitularies  —  from  capitida,  because  the  edict 
was  divided  into  chapters  —  came  into  general 
use,  and  it  has  afterwards  been  extended  also  to 
laws  of  an  earlier  date.  The  language  was  Latin, 
but  the  text  was  accompanied  with  translations 
for  the  provinces.  As  the  Frankish  kings  exer- 
cised a  legislative  authority  also  in  the  affairs  of 
the  Church,  many  capitularies  have  a  direct  eccle- 
siastical bearing  ;  and  special  collections  of  eccle- 
siastical capitidaries  were  made  at  an  early  date, 
for  instance,  by  Ansegisus,  827.  Of  the  original 
copies  of  the  capitulari(!s,  only  a  few  fragments 
are  still  extant;  but  from  the  archives  of  monas- 
teries and  chapters  the  text  of  a  great  number  of 
capitularies  is  well  ascertained.  The  best  edition 
of  them  is  found  in  vol.  HI.  and  IV.  of  Peutz  : 
i1/«n.  Ilisl.  Germ.,  Hanover,  183.5-37.  See  STOltnE  : 
Geschiclite  der  deutschcn  llcrhtsijuellen,  Part  I.,  p. 
200,  where  olden-  editions  are  noticed ;  A.  BouE- 
Tlfs  :  Die  Kapitularien  im  Lonf/ohardenreiche,  1862, 
and  Beilriirje  zur  Kapitidarienkritit,  1874;  G. 
Bicselek:  Ubcr  die  Gesetzeskrajl  der  Kajiitularicn 
1871.  MEJER, 

CAPPADOCIA,  tlie  largest  and  most  easterly 
province  of  Asia  Minor.  On  the  north  was  Poii- 
tus ;  on  the  east,  the  Euphrates,  beyond  wliich 
were  Armenia  and  Mesopolainia;  on  the  soutli, 
Syria  an<l  Cilicia;  an<l  on  the  we.st,  Galatia.  It 
was  high  tabUvlaiid,  intersected  by  ranges  of 
mountains  .spar.sely  wooded,  but  fitted  for  grain 
or  grazing.  It  was  conquered  by  Cyrus,  ruled  by 
Alexander  the  (ireat.  Made  a  tributary  by  th(! 
.Seleucida>,  it  became  a  Roman  province  A.D.  17. 
Some  Cajipadocian  Jews  were  in  Jerusalem  on 
tlie  Day  of  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  0);  and  Christians 
of  the  jirovince  are  specially  addressed  by  Peter 
(1  Pet.  i.  1). 


CAPPEL. 


401 


CAPTIVITY. 


CAPPEL,  Jacques  (Jacobus  Cappellus),  li.  at, 
Renin's,  l.'iTO;  il.  ul  Sedan,  1024  ;  descended  from 
a  family  whieh  has  given  to  France  many  excel- 
lent men,  and  was  educated  in  the  Reformed 
Church.  In  1599  he  l)ecame  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Sedan,  and  in  IGlO  professor  of  theology.  A 
list  of  his  numerous  works  is  given  as  an  appen- 
dix to  tli(^  ski'tch,  Di:  ( 'appcllonmi  Grille,  which  is 
printed  as  an  introdu(^tory  to  Ludocici  t'upp<;lli 
Comincutaiii  id  Nolfc  Crilica;  in  Vetus  Testamcnium, 
Amsterdam,  1689  ;  and  his  Ohncrcaliones  in  Hetecta 
Pentalcuchi  Loca,  in  Josiiam,  JudiccK,  etc.,  are  con- 
tained in  the  same  volume.  His  Ilistoria  Sacra 
appeared  at  Sedan,  Kill.'.  Many  of  his  works  are 
not  printed. 

CAPPEL,  Louis  (Liidocicus  Cappellus),  a  J'oung- 
er  brother  of  the  preceding;  b.  at  St.  Elier,  a 
village  near  Sedan,  Oct.  1.5  or  10,  1.585;  d.  at 
Sauinur,  June  18,  1058;  studied  theology  at 
Sedan,  and  acted  for  some  time  as  tutor  to  the 
daughters  of  the  Duke  of  Bouillon ;  received  a 
stipend  from  the  Reformed  C'hurch  of  Bourdeaux, 
and  travelled  for  four  years  in  England,  Holland, 
Germany,  and  Switzerland;  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  in  the  Academy  of  Saumur  in 
1613,  and  professor  of  theology  in  1633.  He  was 
a  man  of  vast  learning ;  but  the  subject  on  which 
he  specially  concentrated  his  energy  was  the  Ids- 
tory  of  the  text  of  tlie  Old  Testament,  on  which 
he  wrote  Arcanum  Punclationis  Revelatum,  Am- 
sterdam, 1624 ;  Critica  Sacra,  Paris,  1650 ;  and 
Dialriha  <le  Veris  et  Antiquis  Hebraurum  Lilcris, 
Amsterdam,  1645.  By  these  works,  advocating 
the  comparatively  recent  introduction  of  the 
vowel-points  in  Hebrew  writing,  he  seemed  to 
shake  the  authority  of  the  Sci'iptm-es  as  the  in- 
spii'ed  regula  et  novum  fidei,  and  they  met  with 
great  opposition  in  the  Protestant  world.  The 
first  was  vehemently  attacked  by  Buxtorf,  which 
attack  called  forth  the  Vindiciw  Arcani  Puncla- 
tionis ;  but  this  answer  was  not  published  until 
1689,  by  his  son,  in  Ludovici  Cappelli  Conimentarii 
et  NotCE  Crilicce  in  V.  Test.  The  Critica  Sacra  was 
finished  in  1634 ;  but  such  strong  objections  were 
made  to  it  by  the  author's  friends,  both  in  Geneva, 
Leyden,  and  Sedan,  that  its  publication  was  post- 
poned for  sixteen  years.  It  was  severely  criti- 
cised, and  the  author  wrote  thrice  in  defence  of 
it,  —  Justa  Defensio  adversus  Injustum  Ccnsorcm ; 
De  Critica,  1651 ;  and  De  eadem  ilia  Critica, 
1652.  The  opposition  at  last  became  so  strong, 
that  the  first  propositions  of  the  Formula  Consen- 
sus Helvetica,  are  pointed  directly  against  Cappel- 
lus. But  after  the  lapse  of  half  a  century,  the 
results  of  his  investigations  were  universally  ac- 
cepted. A  complete  list  of  his  works,  printed 
and  unprinted,  is  given  in  the  above-mentioned 
Comment,  et  Nota  in  V.  Test.,  Amsterdam,  1089. 
See  also  Geoug  Schnederm.vxx  :  Die  Contro- 
verse  des  Ludovicus  Capellus  mit  den  Buxtnrfen, 
Leipzig,  1879.  E.  bertheau. 

CAPTIVE.     SeeAA^AR. 

CAPTIVITY  OF  THE  JEWS.  This  term  is 
used  in  a  narrow  sense  to  ex)  iress  the  "  seventy 
years "  between  the  first  invasion  of  .Tudsea  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  and  the  permission  for  the  re- 
turn, given  by  Cyrus  B.C.  605-.536.  But  in  its 
widest  sense  it  may  be  taken  to  inclmle  the  differ- 
ent times  when  the  Jews  came  under  the  power 
cf  their  foes.  Six  such  times  of  partial  and 
27'- 1 


transient  captivity,  however,  are  recorded  in 
Judges:  1.  By  Clnishan-rishathaim,  King  of 
Aram-naharaim,  i.e.,  Mesopotamia,  during  eight 
years  (iii.  8);  2.  Kglon,  King  of  Moab,  during 
(eighteen  years  (iii.  14)  ;  3.  Jabin,  King  of  Hazor, 
during  twenty  years  (iv.  3);  4.  the  jMiilianites 
during  .seven  years  (vi.  1)  ;  5.  the  Anniionitcs  dur- 
ing eighteen  years  (x.  8);  0.  tlie  I'liilistines  dur- 
ing forty  years  (xiii.  1).  The  chronolfigy  of  this 
period  of  the  .Judges  being  very  uncertain,  we 
cannot  tell  whether  any  two  of  th'se  captivities 
were  synclironous,  or  wliether  thei|  followed  each 
other  in  time,  as  they  do  in  the  record. 

Captivity  in  the  strict  sense  first  fell  upon  the 
Xortliern  Kingdom  ;  lor  after  Pnl,  B.C.  762  (2 
Kings  XV.  19),  Tiglath-pile.ser,  B.C.  740  (xv.  29), 
King  of  Assyria,  made  war  upon  Israel,  and 
carried  members  of  the  tribes  of  Reuben,  Gad, 
and  Manasseh,  with  a  few  of  other  ti-il>es,  into 
his  land.  The  residue  remained  under  their  own 
king,  but  paid  tribute  to  the  Assyrian  (iovern- 
ment.  After  the  lapse  of  some  twenty  years,  this 
tribute  was  refused  :  tlierefore  Shalmanezer  "  went 
up  to  Samaria,  and  besieged  it  three  years,"  or 
rather,  two  according  to  our  reckoning.  It  was 
finally  taken  by  the  "  King  of  Assyria,"  probably 
his  successor,  Sargou  (B.C.  721),  who  carried  away 
the  mass  of  the  poimlation  beyond  the  Euphrates 
(xvii.  0).  — Tlie  kingdom  of  Judah,  as  was  inevi- 
table, fell  next  under  the  great  world-power, 
Assyria.  In  the  fourteenth  year  of  Ilezekiah 
(B.C.  713),  Sennacherib  took  all  the  fenced  cities 
of  Judah,  and  was  prevented  from  taking  Jerusa- 
lem only  by  the  large  tribute  sent  him  (xviii. 
13-10).  His  next  attempt  upon  the  city  occurred 
a  few  years  later.  He  sent  an  army  against 
Jerusalem,  and  semeed  upon  the  very  eve  of 
success,  when  God  slew  one  liundred  and  eighty 
thousand  of  his  army,  and  thus  prevented  any 
attack  (xviii.  17,  xix.  35).  One  hundred  yeai's 
of  comparative  quiet  passed  ;  and  then  Xebuchad- 
nezzar,  King  of  Babylon,  began  his  depred.ations 
(B.C.  005).  At  first  he  cari'ied  away  only  a  few ; 
but  among  them  were  Daniel  and  Ids  companions 
(xxiv.  1;  Dan.  i.  1-4).  In  B.C.  598  he  came 
again,  and  took  away  ten  thousand  (2  Kings  xxiv. 
10-16).  The  seventy-years'  captivity,  in  the  eccle- 
siastical sense,  began  in  B.C.  .588,  wlien,  for  the 
fourth  time,  Xebuchadnezzar  invaded  Judwa,  and 
took  Jerusalem  after  a  .siege  of  eighteen  months, 
whose  horrors  are  graphically  depicted  in  Jere- 
miah's Lamentations.  The  King,  Zedekiah,  and 
his  people,  were  transported  to  Babylon,  the  city 
was  burnt,  and  the  walls  broken  down  Cxxv.  1-21). 
The  "  seventy-years'  captivity,"  in  the  civil  sense, 
came  to  an  end  wlien  Cyrus  allowed  the  Jews  to 
return  (B.C.  530)  ;  in  an  ecclesiastical  sense,  not 
until  the  temple  was  rebuilt  (B.C.  517).  The 
first  company  went  under  Zerubbabel  (Ez.  ii.  2)  ; 
a  second  under  Ezra  (B.C.  458)  ;  and  a  third 
under  Xehemiah  (B.C.  445).  Those  who  re- 
mained in  Assj'ria,  or  who  were  afterwards  scat- 
tered over  the  Roman  Empire,  were  known  as 
"  The  Dispersion "  (John  vii.  35 ;  1  Pet.  i.  1 ; 
Jas.  i.  1).  They  were  the  soil  for  tlie  gospel 
seed.     See  Dispersed. 

The  .Jews  themselves  commonly  reckon  four 
n.ational  captivities,  —  the  Babylonian,  the  Me- 
dian, the  Grecian,  and  the  Roman.  The  Babylo- 
nian  has   been    already   described;    the   Median 


CAPUCHINS. 


402 


CARACCIOLI. 


(Medo-Persian)  was  IVoiii  Darius  tlie  jMede  to 
Barius  Codomamis  (B.C.  530-332);  the  (Tiecian, 
from  tlie  entrance  of  Alexander  tlie  Great  into 
Jerusalem  to  the  insurrection  of  the  Ilebi-ews 
imder  the  Maccabees  (B.C.  332-107);  and  the 
Roman,  from  B.C.  03.  From  A.U.  7  to  GS  there 
were  thirteen  Roman  procurator.s  ia  JuJiea.  In 
A.D.  70  the  Jews  lost  every  thing  ;  their  temple 
was  destroyed,  and  they  were  driven  from  their 
land.  In  a  sense  they  are  still  in  their  Roman 
captivity. 

CAPUCHINS.  A  :\Iinorite  of  the  Observantine 
Convent  of  Montefalconi,  !Matteo  di  Ba.sio,  heard, 
of  a  brother-monk,  that  the  capuchin  (hood)  which 
St.  Francis  had  used  was  of  quite  a  different  shape 
from  that  which  afterwards  his  followers,  the 
Franciscan  monks,  adopted.  He  was  nnich  struck 
by  this  discovery,  left  his  monastery  immediately, 
appeared  in  Rome  before  Pope  Clement  VII., 
and  obtained  (in  1520)  permission  of  him  to  put 
ou  a  pyramidal  capuclie,  to  wear  a  long  beard,  to 
live  as  a  hermit,  and  to  preach  wherever  he 
liked,  on  the  condition  that  he  should  report  once 
every  year  at  the  provincial  chapter  of  the  Observ- 
ants. But  enthusiasm  is  contagious.  Shortly 
after,  another  Observantine  monk,  Ludovico  di 
Frossombone,  became  enamoured  with  the  genuine 
capuche,  the  long  beard,  and  the  literal  observa- 
tion of  the  rules  of  St.  Francis  ;  and,  together  with 
his  brother  Raffaello,  he  repaired  to  Rome,  where 
he  received  by  a  breve  the  same  permission  as 
JIatteo  had  received  orally.  Tlie  three  enthusi- 
asts now  joined  fortunes,  and  found  protection 
against  the  Observants  with  the  Duke  of  Came- 
rino.  By  a  bull  of  July  IS,  152S,  Clement  YII. 
confirmed  them  as  a  separate  congregation  (Fra- 
tres  Minores  Capuzini),  entirely  independent  of 
the  Observants,  but  under  the  authority  of  the 
Conventuals.  They  should  have  only  a  vicar- 
general,  and  he  should  be  confirmed  by  the  gen- 
eral of  the  Conventuals :  they  should  be  subject 
to  visitations  from  the  chapter  of  the  Convent- 
uals ;  wlien  walking  in  a  procession,  they  .should 
walk  under  the  cross  of  the  Conventuals,  and 
not  under  a  cross  of  their  own,  etc.  But  they 
were  free  to  display  the  large  pjTaniidal  capiu^he, 
and  that  was  to  them  the  great  thing.  Their 
first  monastery  was  foimded  at  Colmenzono  by 
the  Duchess  of  Camerino.  In  1.529  they  had 
already  four  monasteries,  and  in  the  same  year 
Ludovico  could  convene  the  first  chapter  of  Capu- 
chins at  .Vlvacina.  But  in  1543  its  vicar-general, 
JJeruardino  Ochino,  embraced  Protestantism.  He 
had  left  the  Observants,  and  joined  the  Capu- 
chins in  1534.  In  1538  he  was  made  vicar- 
general  of  the  congregation ;  and  so  successful 
was  his  administration,  that  he  was  re-elected  in 
1543.  But  now  he  left,  not  oidy  the  congregation, 
but  the  Clnircli,  lied  to  Geneva,  an<l  became  an 
apostate.  This  was,  of  coiu-se,  a  f(;arful  blow 
to  the  congregation.  Tlie  Pope  thouglit  of  dis- 
.solving  it  altogether;  and  only  the  most  doleful 
supplications,  the  most  absolute  submission  to 
the  wish  of  the  Pope,  the  most  complete  abnega- 
tion of  all  indiviilual  opinions,  saved  it  from 
death.  As  soon,  however,  as  it  began  to  recu- 
perate, it  showed  its  sincerity  and  vigor  by  de- 
veloping one  of  the  most  extreme  tyjies  of  l^atin 
monasticism.  The  Reformation  actrd  upon  the 
monks  of  the  Roman  Church  as  a  kind  of  mag- 


netic polarization ;  and  while  the  Jesuits  de- 
velojied  to  the  higliest  degree  of  excellency  the 
positive  qualities  of  the  Church,  —  the  un.scrupu- 
lous  energy  and  cunning  intrigue  of  a  consum- 
mate casuistry,  the  Capuchins  succeeded  in  giving 
perfect  expression  to  its  negative  qualifications,  — 
its  ignorance,  its  credulity,  and  its  coarse  symim- 
thy  with  the  lower  instincts  of  the  masses.  Origi- 
nally the  congi'egation  was  confined  to  Italy;  Vmt 
in  1573  it  invaded  France,  in  1.5il2  Germany,  and 
in  1000  Spain.  In  lOlSI  it  obtained  its  own  gen- 
eral, and  right  to  walk  in  a  procession  vmder  its 
own  cross.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century  it  was  abolished  in  (iermauy  and  in 
France ;  and.  in  the  third  and  fourth  decades  of 
the  present  century,  it  suffered  very  much  both 
in  Spain  and  Portugal.  In  the  last  decade,  how- 
ever, it  seems  to  be  recuperating  in  all  Roman- 
Catholic  countries. 

There  was  also  an  order  of  Capuchin  nuns 
founded  by  JIaria  Laurentia  Longa,  who  in  1534 
took  the  veil  at  Naples  with  nineteen  other 
women.  They  adopted  the  third  rule  of  St. 
Fi'aucis,  and  were  placed  under  the  authority  of 
the  Theatines.  But  in  153S  they  made  a  change, 
adopted  the  rules  of  St.  Clara,  assumed  the  pyrami- 
dal capuche,  and  came  under  the  authority  of  the 
Capuchins.  In  1575  they  founded  a  monaster}' 
in  Rome,  and  in  1000  one  in  Paris. 

The  Aiuwli;;!  Saci:  Hist.  Onlinis  Minorum  S. 
Fnmcisci  ijui  Cnpucini iinnctip(inlur,\>y  B.WEisirs. 
Lyons,  10.32,  is  simply  an  impudent  praising-up  of 
the  Capuchins  at  the  expense  of  the  Observants, 
and  full  of  palpable  lies.  Reliable  information 
is  found  inllF.LYOT:  Illsloire  (It."  Ortlrex  Moitas- 
lique.i,  Paris,  1714-19;  W.\ni)i.\<i :  Annales  On!. 
Min.,  Lyons.  1025.  .VLBRECUT  VOGEL. 

CAPUTIATI  (rapiicheil),  thus  called  from  the 
hood  of  their  cowl;  appeared  first  in  .\uvergne 
(1182),  under  the  leadership  of  the  carpenter 
Dm-and,  who  boasted  to  have  received  revelations 
from  the  Virgin  for  the  jnn-pose  of  establishing 
peace  in  the  Church,  and  destroying  all  her  ene- 
mies. According  to  otlier  accounts,  the  ultimate 
object  of  these  peacemakers  was  nothing  so  inno- 
cent as  peace.  At  all  events,  Bishoj^  Hugo  of 
,\uxerre  marched  against  them  with  troops,  took' 
them  all  prisoners,  and  condemned  them  to  go 
about  a  whole  year  bareheaded,  in  frost  and  heat- 
by  cutting  the  cnpuelie  of  llieir  cowl. 

CARACCIOLI,  Galeazzo  (.^f(lrt■hL•se  di  Viro). 
h.  at  Xuples  in  1517;  d.  at  (ieneva,  May  7,  1586; 
descended  from  one  of  the  wealthiest  and  most 
di.stinguished  families  of  the  kingdom  of  Xaples,- 
and  entered  early  on  a  brilliant  career  at  the 
Neapolitan  com-t.  Tiie  reformatory  movement, 
which  in  this  period  s]irang  up  almost  every- 
where in  the  Honum  Church,  and  which  in 
Na])les,  under  the  leadership  of  the  .Spaniard  Juan 
de  Valdcs,  early  attracted  his  attention  and  sym- 
pathy, and  his  ac(j\iaintance  with  Pietro  iMarlire 
Veriiiiglis,  carried  liini  still  farther  onward  in  the 
direction  of  Protestantism.  But  in  Na]iles,  as  in 
.so  many  other  places,  an  ecclesiastical  re-aetion 
followed  immediately  after  the  reformatory  move- 
ment;  and,  though'the  attcm])t  of  introilueing 
the  Inquisition  in  the  kingdom  failed,  the  nltra- 
iiuintane  re-action  .soon  became  so  powerful  that 
Caraccioli  felt  compelled  to  fiee  (1551).  He  set- 
tled  at   Geneva,    and   became    a  nieml>ei-  of  the 


CARAITBS. 


40:5 


CARDINAL. 


Protestant-Italian  consresation  wliicli  had  ex- 
isted there  since  1512;  and  he  remained  there, 
■  an  exile,  and  a  stranger  to  his  own  family,  in 
spite  of  the  exertions  which  his  relatives,  and, 
among  them,  his  nncle,  I'ope  Paid  IV.,  made  to 
induce  him  to  return.  His  life  has  been  written 
by  Baliuni,  preacher  to  the  Italian  congrega- 
tion at  Geneva:  llUtdnn  dclUi  Vila  di  Giileazza 
Caraccioli,  1587;  new  edition,  Florence,  1875. 
CARAITES.     See  Isk.\i:i.,  rosr-iuni.icAi.  iiis- 

TOIiY    <IF. 

CARANZA.     Sim.  Cakiianza. 

CARAVANSERA!.     See  Khax. 

CARCASS.  The  Hebrews  were  not  alone  in 
thinking  that  the  dead  body  of  any  animal,  clean 
or  unclean  was  defiling.  The  Parsees,  to  men- 
tion another  people,  shared  the  concept;  but  the 
Hebrew  law  contained  many  regulations  upon 
the  subject;  and  statute  gave  justification  and  a 
religious  meaning  to  the  natural  repugnance  to 
the  presence  cf  death  (see  particularly  Lev.  xi.). 
It  was  defilement  to  eat,  even  of  a  clean  animal 
which  had  eitlier  died  naturally,  or  been  killed 
by  other  animals,  or  to  touch  it,  or  to  carry  the 
carcass  of  an  unclean  animal  (f^ev.  xi.  .39,  40). 
If  the  touching  was  accidental,  a  trespass  offering- 
was  demanded  (Lev.  v.  2,  5,  6).  Of  animals 
which  died  naturally,  they  were  forbidden  to  vise 
more  than  the  fat,  but  were  at  liberty  to  give  the 
carcass  to  dogs,  to  the  stranger,  and  to  sell  it  to 
aliens  (Exod.  xxii.  31 ;  Dent.  xiv.  21)  ;  but,  if  the 
stranger  ate  it,  he  was  unclean  (Lev.  xvii.  15). 
To  refrain  from  things  strangled  was  one  of  the 
requirements  laid  upon  the  Gentile  Christians  by 
the  Council  of  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.  20  sq.)  For 
Talmudical  regulations  see  Tr.  Oheloth,  I.  5,  G ; 
II.  1.  FR.  AV.  SCnULTZ. 

CARCHE'MISH  (Fortress  of  CJiemosh),  very 
probably  identical  with  Circesinm,  at  the  juncture 
of  the  Khabur  (Chebar)  and  the  Euphrates,  — 
one  of  the  cities  taken  by  Pharaoh-Xecho  shortly 
after  the  battle  of  Megiddo  (about  B.C.  608),  anil 
retaken  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  B.C.  005  (Isa.  x.  9; 
Jer.  xlvi.'^2-12;  2  Cluon.  xxxv.  20).  The  Gar- 
{/amis  upon  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  is  not  to 
be  regarded  as  identical  with  Carchemish,  but 
rather  as  describing  a  city  nnich  farther  north. 
ScHRADER  :  Keilinsckriflen  u.  Geschichtsf'orschunc/, 
Giessen,  1878;  Maspero:  De  Carchemis  oppiiH 
situ  et  list,  antiqii.,  Paris,  1872.  KUETSCIII. 

CARDINAL  is  the  title  of  the  highest  dignity 
in  the  Roman-Catholic  hierarchy,  next  to  that  of 
the  Pope.  Its  origin  dates  far  back  in  the  history 
of  the  Church  of  Rome,  though  its  final  defini- 
tion was  not  fixed  until  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  Each  of  the  dioceses  into  which 
that  city  was  divided  had  its  own  cathedral, 
or  baptismal  church,  titulus;  and  the  occupant  of 
such  a  church  was  called  iiititulalus,  incardinatus, 
cardinalis.  According  to  the  pontifical  of  Dama- 
sus  (384),  Pope  Marcellns  (308)  divided  Rome 
into  twenty-five  lituli.  In  the  same  manner  the 
city  was  divided  into  charity-wards  (an  institu- 
tion which  is  ascribed  to  Clement  I.),  and  at  the 
head  of  each  ward  stood  a  diaconus.  At  the  be- 
ginning, there  were  seven  such  wards;  and  the 
seven  diaconi  also  belonged  to  the  preshi/leri  intitu- 
lati.  Pope  Stephan  IV.  (771)  added  the  bishops 
of  the  suburban  dioceses,  that  is,  the  suffragans 
of  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Home,  to  the  class. 


The  number  of  cardinals,  however,  was  variable 
In  the  twelfth  century  it  seldom  ro.se  above  thirty 
(IlrRTEU:  Gcsr/iicfilc  J'fi/isl  Iniioccnz  III.,  I.  73, 
luitf  119);  in  the  thirteenth  it  once  fell  to  seven. 
The  Council  of  Basel  fixed  it  at  twenty-four  {sess. 
23,  c.  4  deer,  de  numero  et  ijiialitale  card.)  ;  but  in 
1510  there  were  only  thirteen  cardinals,  while 
under  Pius  IV.  (1559)  there  were  once  no  le.ss 
than  .seventy-six.  Sixtus  V.  finally  fixed  the 
number,  once  for  all,  at  seventy,  corresjionding  to 
tlie  seventy  elders  of  Lsrael ;  so  that  thei'e  should 
be  six  cardinal-bishojis  (O.stia,  Porto,  Frascati, 
Sabina,  Pala?strina,  and  Albano),  fifty  cardinal- 
priests,  and  fourteen  cardinal-deacons.  The  num- 
ber, however,  was  very  seldom  complete.  By  a 
bull  of  Feb.  1.5,  1507,  Pope  Pius  V.  finally  con- 
fined the  title,  w  hich  formerly  had  been  applied 
somewhat  vaguely  to  all  priests  appointed  at  a 
cathedral  church,  to  such  among  the  clergy  of  the 
city  of  Rome  as  had  been  "  incardinated  "  by  the 
Pope  him.self  (Ferraris:  JJdiliollin-a  Canonica 
s.  p.  Cardinales,  Ai-t.  I.  ser.  0),  referring  to  the  old 
testimony  about  Rome  as  tlie  ca7-do  erclesiarum 
.  .  .  unde  Senatus  Carilimdium  a  cardine  norem 
accejrit. 

The  rights  and  duties  of  cardinals  dejiend  upon 
a  number  of  older  and  more  recent  constitutions, 
but  especially  upon  the  Ceremoniale  Hnmanwn 
(the  Concil.  Tridentinnm,  sess.  XXI]'.  rap.  1  de 
reform)  and  the  bulls  of  Sixtus  V.  A  cardinal  is 
"created"  by  the  Pope;  and  the  qualities  de- 
manded in  a  candidate  are  generally  the  same  as 
those  demanded  in  a  liishoji,  —  the  person  must 
have  been  born  in  legal  wecllock,  be  possessed  of 
the  lower  degrees  of  ordination  for  at  least  one 
year  before  his  elevation,  have  no  progeny,  have 
no  relatives  of  second  degrees  (according  to 
canonical  computation)  among  the  cardinals,  etc. 
The  creation  takes  place  in  a  secret,  but  is  an- 
nounced in  a  public,  consistory,  when  the  instal- 
lation with  hat,  ring,  etc.,  is  "performed.  Until 
all  formalities  are  gone  through,  —  and  they  are 
very  multitudinous,  and  often  completely  un- 
meaning even  to  antiquaries,  —  the  cardinal  can- 
not exercise  his  rights;  for  instance,  not  vote  in 
the  conclave,  thougli  in  this  respect  the  consti- 
tution of  Eugene  IV.  (Oct.  20,  1431)  and  the 
rescript  of  Pius  V.  (Jan.  20,  1571)  contradict 
each  other.  By  the  ajjpointment  the  Pope  is 
obliged  to  pay  some  regard  to  all  nations,  but 
the  majority  of  cardinals  are  always  Italians.  Of 
the  sixty-seven  cardinals  in  185(),  fifty-one  were 
Italians.  In  former  times  the  kings  had  a  right 
of  presentation ;  and  cardinals  who  had  been 
created  in  that  manner  were  called  crown-cardi- 
nals. The  principal  rights  of  the  cardinals  are : 
they  alone  are  eligible  to  the  papal  see  (Stephan 
III.,  709),  and  they  alone  elect  the  Pope  (Nicho- 
las 11. ,  1059)  ;  and,  on  account  of  this  their  close 
connection  with  the  papal  digiiit}',  they  were 
allowed  by  Innocent  IV.  (1245)  to  wear  the  red 
hat  with  the  pendent  tassels,  and  by  Paul  11. 
(1404)  to  wear  a  purple  robe.  Urban  V'lII.  (1630) 
conferred  the  title  of  Emiiientissimi  upon  them, 
the  same  as  was  applied  to  the  prince-electors 
of  the  German  Empire;  and  offences  against 
them  were  considered  as  crimen  Iwsa  majestatis. 
Among  themselves  the  cardinal-bishops  rank  fir.st, 
then  tlie  cardinal-presbyters,  and  finally  the  cardi- 
nal-deacons.    The  oldest  cardinal-bishop  residing 


CAREY. 


404 


CARLSTADT. 


in  Rome  is  the  dean  of  the  College  of  Cardinals. 
See  articles  on  Conclave,  Consistory,  Curia, 
and  PoPK,  and  the  literature  there  given.  Comp. 
also  Histori/  of  the  Carilinals,  to  Pope  Clement  TX., 
London,  1670.  fol. :  Buddeus:  De  Orig.  Card. 
Dignitatis,  Jena,  109.5;  Bke  :  De  Orig.  et  Antiqu. 
Cardinalium,  Ileidelljerg,  1767.  MEJER. 

CAREY,  William,  a  Baptist  missionary  and  Ori- 
entali.-;t .  b.  at  raulerspury.  Northamptonshire, 
Eng.,  Aug.  17.  1761 ;  d.  at  Serampore,  India.  June 
9,  1834.  By  baptism  a  member  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church,  he  was  early  in  life  convinced  of 
the  scriptural  authority  for  the  Baptist  vie\^■s, 
and  joined  this  sect,  in  which  he  soon  became  a 
preacher.  His  congregations  were  very  poor, 
and  he  supported  himself  and  family  by  shoe- 
making.  But  his  thirst  for  knowledge  was 
strong;  and  he  managed,  notwithstanding  the 
pressure  of  poverty,  to  acquire  Latin,  Greek, 
Hebrew,  and  a  goodly  amount  of  other  useful 
learning,  especially  in  natural  history  and  botany. 
Thus,  unknown  to  himself,  he  was  being  prepared 
for  the  great  career  God  had  planned  for  him. 
His  attention  was  turned  nnto  the  heathen,  and 
he  saw  plainly  his  duty  go  to  them.  On  Oct.  2. 
1792,  largely  through  his  exertions,  the  first  Bap- 
tist missionary  society  was  founded ;  aud  on  June 
13,  1703,  he  and  his  family  sailed  for  India,  ac- 
companied by  Jlr.  John  Thomas,  who  had  form- 
erly lived  in  Bengal.  On  reaching  Bengal,  Carey 
and  his  companion  lost  all  their  property  in  the 
Hugli ;  but,  having  received  the  charge  of  an 
indigo-factoi-y  at  Mahia,  he  cut  otf  his  pecuniary 
connection  with  the  missionary  society,  aud  be- 
gan in  earnest  what,  instead  of  regular  missionary 
labor,  was  to  be  the  work  of  his  life,  —  the  study 
and  translation,  both  from  and  into  the  languages 
of  India.  In  1799  the  factory  was  closed ;  and 
he  went  with  Thomas  to  Kidderpore,  where  he 
liad  purchased  a  small  indigo-plantation.  Here, 
joined  by  JIarshmau  and  ^\'ard,  he  started,  under 
bright  hopes,  a  mission,  but  soon  encountered  the 
opposition  of  the  Indian  (tovernment,  wliich  for- 
bade the  mission's  enlargement,  and  compelled 
its  removal,  at  a  great  pecuniary  loss,  to  .Seram- 
pore, a  Danish  settlement  (1800),  where  it  took 
a  fresh  lease  of  life.  For  some  time  Carey  and 
Thomas  had  been  diligently  at  work  upon  a  ver- 
.sion  of  the  New  Testament  in  Bengalee.  In 
1801  it  was  publislied  by  the  press  Carey  institut- 
ed. About  the  same  time  the  Marquis  of  Welles- 
ley  appointed  him  professor  of  Oriental  languages 
in  the  Tort  William  College,  wlii('h  the  manpiis 
had  founded  at  Calcutta  for  the  instniction  of  the 
younger  members  of  tlie  British  Indian  civil  ser- 
vice. Carey  held  this  ]iosition  for  thirty  years, 
and  taught  Bengalee,  Mahratta,  and  Sanscrit. 
lie  wrote  articles  upon  the  natural  history  and 
botany  of  India  for  the  .Vsiatic  .Society,  to  which 
he  was  elected,  1805,  and  thus  in<ade  practical 
application  of  tastes  cultivated  in  former  years ; 
but  this  was  only  a  ]iart,  and  bv  far  the  less 
valuable  part,  of  his  work.  That  w)iich  has  given 
him  his  undying  fame  was  his  translations  of 
the  Bil)lc,  in  whole  or  in  part,  either  alone  or 
with  others,  into  some  twenty-four  Indian  lan- 
guages. The  Serampore  press,  \nider  his  direc- 
tion, rendered  the  Bible  accessible  to  ni()r<'  tlian 
three  lumdred  million  human  beings.  Besi<les,  he 
prepared  grammars  and  dictionaries  of    several 


tongues;  e.g.,  Mahratta  Grammar,  1805;  Sanscrit 
Grammar,  1806;  Mahratta  Dictionary,  1810;  Ben- 
galee Dirtionarif.  1818;  and  a  .Sanscrit  dictionary 
which  unhappily  was  destroyed  by  a  fire  in  the 
printing  establishment.  Later  students  have  dis- 
covered errors  and  omissions  in  these  works  ;  but 
all  honor  is  due  to  Carey  for  "  breaking  the  way," 
and  every  inhabitant  of  India  is  his  debtor.  See 
J.  C.  ^Mahshmax.  Life  and  Times  of  Carey, 
Marshmini,  and  Ward,  London,  1859,  2  vols. 

CARGILL,  Donald,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
.Scotch  Ciivenanters ;  b.  in  the  parish  of  I'attray, 
Perthshire,  1610;  beheaded  at  Edinburgh.  July  27, 
1681.  lie  was  educated  at  Aberdeen  ;  and  about 
1650  he  became  pastor  of  the  Barony  Church, 
Glasgow.  In  1661.  \\hen  Episcopacy  was  estab- 
lished in  Scotland,  he  refused  to  aece]it  his  charge 
from  the  archbishop,  and  was  banished  beyond 
the  Tay;  but  he  did  not  go.  In  1679  he  joined 
Cameron,  Douglas,  Hamilton,  and  others  in  the 
rebellion  against  prelacy,  which  arose  out  of  the 
■'  Rutherglen  Declaration "  of  May  29  of  that 
year,  and  with  his  fellow-Covenanters  endured 
the  defe.it  of  Bothwell  Bridge,  June  22.  He  fled 
to  Holland,  but  .soon  returned.  The  next  year  he 
and  Cameron,  with  their  adherents,  drew  up  the 
".Sanquhar  Declaration,"  June  22.  The  govern- 
ment set  a  price  upon  the  leaders'  heads.  They 
were  attacked  at  .\yrsmoss,  July  22.  and  Cameron 
was  slain  ;  but  Cargill  succeeded  to  the  leadership, 
and,  as  if  to  testify  in  the  most  signal  manner  hi.s 
abhorrence  of  the  tyrannical  persecutors,  he  pub- 
licly excommunicated  the  king  and  several  of  the 
nobles  at  a  field-preaching  held  at  Torwood  in 
Stirlingshire  in  September.  When  the  Duke  of 
York,  one  of  the  "excommunicated."  came  to 
Scotland,  the  persecution  of  the  followers  of  Car- 
gill  increased.  He  himself  was  hunted  froinplact 
to  place;  hut  on  July  11,  1681,  he  was  captured 
between  Clydesdale  and  Lothian,  and  taken  to 
Edinlnu'gh  for  trial.  He  readily  confessed  that 
he  had  done  what  the  council  had  called  treason. 
The  coimcil  were  equally  divided  whether  to  im- 
prison him  for  life,  or  to  execute  him ;  but  the 
vote  of  the  Duke  of  Argyle  decided  in  favor  of 
the  latter,  —  a  vote  which  cost  Argyle,  later  on, 
the  support  of  the  Covenanters,  to  say  nothing 
of  deej)  remorse.  Accordingly  Cargill  was  put 
to  death.  See  Hi'.tiikuinotox  :  llist.  Ch.  Scot- 
land, eh.  vii.  X.V.  (Carter). 

CARLSTADT,  Andreas  Rudolphus  Bodenstein, 
1).  pniliably  a  cnuiilc  of  yrars  befcire  Luther,  at 
Carlstadt  in  Franconia,  \\ hence  his  surname;  d. 
of  the  plague,  at  Basel,  1511 ;  made  his  first  studies 
at  some  Italian  university,  ami  came  in  l.")0-l  to 
AVittenberg,  where  in  151:!  lu!  was  made  professor 
of  theology,  and  archdeacon  at  the  collegiate 
church.  He  was  well  versed  in  the  works  of  the 
.schoolmen  ;  and  all  he  wrote  himself  at  this  period 
was  scholastic  in  sjiirit  and  in  form.  But,  having 
made  a  journey  to  Home  in  1515,  he  found,  on 
his  retm-'n,  the  whole  theologv  of  the  university 
changed  by  Luther.  The  seiioobuen  had  gone, 
and  "the  Bible  and  .Vugustine  had  tak<'n  their 
place.  His  first  instinct  was  hatighty  resistance; 
lor  he  w.as  used  to  consider  himself  the  repre- 
sei\tative  and  the  honor  of  the  miivcrsity.  But 
the  attempt  of  resistance  failed;  and,  as  failure 
always  made  him  very  meek  ami  submissive,  ho 
immediately   vieldc'd   io  the   change,  and    threw 


CARLSTADT. 


405 


CARLYLE. 


himself  into  tlie  opposite  extreme.  lie  became 
a  mystic.  M'orkiiig  together  witli  Luther  for 
some  time  in  perfect  unison,  lie  even  antioijiated 
him  in  several  points,  as  is  shown  by  his  hun- 
dred and  tifty-tvvo  theses  of  Ajjril  2(i,  1517,  Di' 
Natura,  Le<ie,  el  Grat'ni  conlnt  Sc/m/dxlicos  ct  Com- 
mmietn  NtitHnim.  lint  this  refornuitory  activity 
brought  him  in  conflict  with  Dr.  Kck ;  and  at 
the  Leipzig  disputation,  June  27,  1510,  he  had 
the  great  mortification,  not  only  to  see  himself 
foiled  by  the  skill  and  adroitness  of  his  adver- 
sary, but  also  to  see  Luther  step  forward  with 
connnanding  sviperiority,  and  usurp  the  whole  at- 
tention. The  next  year  (August,  1.520)  he  made 
the  first  attack  on  Luther  in  Ids  Dc  CanoiikU 
Scriplurh,  though  without  mentioning  his  name. 

Carlstadt  was,  no  doubt,  sincerely  devoted  to 
the  cause  of  the  Reformation  :  but  he  was  vain  ; 
he  wanted  to  be  the  first,  the  leader,  whenever  ho 
took  a  part  in  any  thing,  and  that  was  just  the 
very  position  which  he  was  utterly  unable  to 
occupy.  A^'hile  Luther  was  away  in  Wartburg, 
Carlstadt  found  the  field  free  ;  and  by  the  impetu- 
osity and  rashness  of  his  character  he  carried  not 
only  the  populace,  but  also  the  council  and  the 
university,  into  a  most  dangerous  revolution. 
Christmas  Day,  1521,  he  celebrated  the  Lord's 
Supper  in  his  church,  leaving  out  all  the  most 
essential  features  of  tlie  Roman  liturgy,  —  the 
confession,  the  consecration  of  the  elements,  the 
elevation  of  the  host,  the  reservation  of  the  cup 
for  the  clergy,  etc.  Jan.  20,  1522,  he  married  in 
a  most  ostentatious  way.  The  destruction  of 
images,  the  abolition  of  monasteries,  and  other 
sweeping  reforms,  were  in  preparation.  Mean- 
while the  students  and  the  mob  bombarded  the 
house  of  the  canons  with  stones,  and  interrupted 
the  service  when  it  was  not  in  accordance  with 
the  latest  frenzy  ;  and  the  whole  commimity  was 
on  the  very  verge  of  chaos  and  anarchy.  Luther's 
re-appearance  in  the  city  (March  0, 1522)  brought 
back  order  and  quiet ;  and  all  the  rash  and  pre- 
mature reforms  were  set  aside.  Carlstadt  himself 
was  treated  with  leniency,  even  with  regard,  by 
Luther ;  but  he  felt  sick  and  humiliated.  In  the 
spring  of  1523  he  left  'Wittenberg,  settled  on  a 
farm  in  the  neighborhood,  put  on  a  peasant's 
dress,  called  himself  a  "  new  layman,"  and  began 
to  cast  about  in  an  unruly  and  planless  manner. 

Once  more,  however,  he  got  an  opportunity  to 
show  himself  as  a  practical  reformer.  Towards 
the  end  of  1523  he  was  made  pastor  of  Orla- 
miinde,  and  he  immediately  began  to  repeat  his 
experiment  from  Wittenberg.  But  Carlstadt  at 
Orlamiinde,  and  Thomas  Miinzer  at  Allstiidt, 
soon  became  the  centres  of  a  wild  and  uproarious 
fermentation,  which  rapidly  spread  through(.)ut 
the  whole  of  Thuringia;  and  in  1524  he  was  ban- 
ished fronr  Saxony.  Through  the  interference  of 
Luther  he  was  allowed  to  return  in  1520  ;  but  he 
was  kept,  under  very  strict  control,  apart  from  all 
public  business,  forbidden  to  write  or  publish 
any  thing.  lie  gained  a  poor  pittance  by  selling 
gingerbread  and  beer.  Such  an  humiliation  the 
proud  man  could  not,  of  course,  bear.  In  1528 
he  fled,  and  roved  about  in  Ilolstein,  Friesland, 
and  the  Rhine  regions,  until  in  1530  he  arrived 
at  Strassburg.  The  controversy  between  Luther 
and  Zwingli  concerning  the  Lord's  Supper  he 
contemplated  with  unconcealed  interest ;  and  he 


took,  of  course,  the  side  of  Zwingli.  He  was 
consequently  W'ell  received  in  Sti'as.sburg  and 
Ziii-ich  ;  and  everybody  there  was  eager  to  do 
something  for  the  unhappy  man,  though  no  one 
seemed  willing  to  have  him  as  a  co-operator  or 
neighbor.  In  1531  he  was  ajipointed  pastor  of 
Altstiitten  in  the  Rhine  Valley,  and  in  15:M  pro- 
fe.ssor  of  theology  in  Basel.  His  life  has  been 
written  by  Maykk  :  Dlsnerl.alio  dc  Koro/.tlii(/iii, 
Oreifswald,  1703 ;  Fiissi.iN  :  Lfilifnsf/fsr/iiclilc  r/is 
Andreas  Bodenstein  I'on  Karhtadt,  Frankfurt.  177ti ; 
JXoKit:  Andreas  Bodenslein  von  Karlsldill,  Stutt- 
gart, 1856.  A  complete  list  of  his  works  has 
been  given  by  Rotermund  in  his  Erneuertes  An- 
<l<id.rii\  lireiuen,  1818.  ERBKAM. 

CARLYLE,  Thomas,  historian,  biographer,  an<l 
essayist;  b.  at  Ecclefechan,  Scotland,  Dec.  4,  171(5; 
d.  in  London,  p>b.  5,  1881;  buried  at  Ecclefechan, 
Feb.  10,  though  a  grave  was  oft'ered  in  Westmin- 
ster Abbey.  He  was  early  noted  for  his  extraor- 
dinary memory,  and  for  his  love  of  reading.  He 
entered  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1810, 
and  distinguished  him,self  as  a  nuithematician. 
Having  abandoned  the  study  of  theology,  he 
taught  nuithematics  in  the  high  school  at  Annan 
for  two  years.  In  181G  he  was  appointed  rector 
of  the  Burgh  School  at  Kiikcaldy.  Here  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  German,  and 
also  translated  Legendre's  Georrietri/,  adding  an 
Introductory  Essay  on  Proportion.  He  removed 
to  Edinburgh  in  1818,  and  from  1820  to  1823 
conti'ibuted  a  number  of  articles  to  the  Ed'tn- 
l/ti>r/h  Encyclopo'dia  and  the  Ediidmryh  Revieic. 
In  1824  he  introduced  Goethe  to  English  readers 
by  the  translation  of  WUhehii  Meister's  L(lirjulire, 
and  in  1825  published  the  Life  of  Schillei:  He 
married  Jane  Welsh  in  1820,  and  remo\-ed  in 
1828  to  Craigenputtoch,  where  he  wrote  his  Criti- 
cal and  Miscellaneous  Essays. 

Sartor  Itesarlus,  a  philosophic  romance  in  the 
form  of  a  treatise  on  dress,  containing  his  views 
on  the  problems  of  religion  and  life,  was  pub- 
lished during  1833-34,  in  Frase?-'s  Magazine.  In 
1834  he  removed  to  London,  to  the  house  in 
Cheyne  Row,  Chelsea,  where  he  resided  until  his 
death.  In  1837  appeared  Tlw  French  Recolulion, 
the  first  of  his  works  to  which  his  name  was  for- 
mally attached.  In  the  same  year  he  began  lec- 
turing, and,  during  1837-43,  delivered  courses  on 
German  Literature,  The  Periods  of  European  Cul- 
ture, the  Recolutions  of  Modern  Europe,  and  Heroes 
and  Hero -Worship,  besides  publishing  Chartism,  a 
political  treatise,  and  Po.s/  and  Present. 

One  of  his  most  important  works,  Oliver  Crom- 
icell's  Letters  and  Speeches,  was  issued  in  1845,  and 
produced  a  great  re^■olution  of  sentiment  in  favor 
of  Cromwell.  In  1840  he  inaugurated  the  move- 
ment which  resiilt«d  in  the  London  Lihrartj,  of 
which  he  w-as  afterwards  elected  president.  Dur- 
ing 1848-50  he  wrote  a  nundjer  of  political  and 
social  treatises,  notably  The  Latter  Day  Pam- 
phlets, the  ultimate  and  most  violent  expression 
of  his  political  creed. 

The  Life  of  John  Sterling,  especially  valuable 
as  a  partial  expression  of  his  own  religious  views, 
appeared  in  1851.  His  magnum  opus,  The  History 
of  Frederick-  the  Great,  w'as  begim  in  1858,  and 
finished  in  1865.  It  is  a  monument  of  patient 
industry  and  minute  research,  and  contains  a 
complete  political  history  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 


CARLYLB. 


406 


CARMEL. 


tnry,  but  weakened  his  moral  influence  by  its 
laudation  of  a  despot,  and  its  assertion  and  de- 
fence of  the  right  of  the  strongest. 

He  espoused  the  Soutliern  side  in  the  American 
^ouflict.  His  unappreciative  and  contemptuous 
treatment  of  the  question  appeared  in  The  Nigt/er 
Question  (1S50)  and  The  American  Iliad  in  a  jVu/- 
ihell  (1863).  In  18G0  he  was  chosen  rector  of  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  and  delivered  an  inau- 
gural on  The  Choice  of  Books,  ilrs.  Carlyle  died 
during  his  absence  on  this  occasion  (April  •21). 
A  few  newspaper  articles,  with  Historical  sketches 
of  the  Early  Kinys  of  Norway,  and  The  Portraits 
of  John  Knox,  marked  the  next  five  years,  and 
completed  his  literary  labors. 

Carlyle's  life  is  marked  by  gi-eat  unity  of  pur- 
pose and  concentration  of  energy.  He  lived  for 
literature.  With  his  imaginative  genius,  his 
poetic  insight,  and  his  opulent  diction,  lie  was  a 
poet  by  constitution ;  but  his  lack  of  the  sense  of 
form  and  proportion,  and  his  impatience  of  meas- 
ured expression,  made  him  despise  Jioetry.  His 
few  poetical  expei'iments,  Tlie  Niyht  Moth,  Tlie 
Adieu,  To-day,  and  Tlie  Sower  s  Sony,  are  among 
the  earliest  of  his  literary  efforts.  He  is  a 
preacher  and  a  prophet,  rather  than  an  artist. 
His  keen  sense  of  the  grotesque,  with  the  real 
depth  of  his  nature,  made  him  a  humorist  at  once 
racy,  subtle,  and  satirical ;  but  this  element  devel- 
oped itself  disproportionately,  and  ran  into  cyiii- 
cism  as  he  grew  older. 

Xotwitstanding  the  large  admixture  of  ethics 
and  philosopliy  in  his  v\Titings,  it  is  well-nigh 
impossible  to  define  accurately  his  position  as  a 
philosopher,  moralist,  or  religionist.  Veracity  is 
the  basis  of  his  ethical  conceptions,  by  which  he 
means  the  disposition  to  go  behind  appearances 
to  facts,  and  the  assertion  of  reality  as  against 
mere  symbols  and  conventionalities.  His  hatred 
of  shams  is  intense,  and  often  leads  him  into 
needless  roughness  of  speech.  His  ethical  ideal 
is  defective  from  its  identification  of  physical  and 
moral  order,  of  might  and  riglit.  It  is  too  sub- 
jective, lodging  the  test  of  right  in  each  man's 
moral  consciousness.  Hence  liis  fun<laniental  fal- 
lacy, expounded  in  i/ero-iro/-.s/i(/),  and  applied  in 
Frederick,  —  the  reverence  for  strength,  regardless 
of  moral  quality.  He  is  a  dangerous  guide,  there- 
fore, as  an  historian  and  political  philosopher. 
His  conception  of  history  as  only  the  record  of 
the  world's  great  men  is  radically  false.  He  lias 
no  sense  of  the  poi)ular  jiower  in  the  solution  of 

Eolitical  problems.  Tlie  moral  teaching  of  his 
istories  is  unsound  in  blinding  the  reader  to 
vice  through  the  admiration  of  greatness.  The 
logical  outcome  of  his  political  philosophy  is  slav- 
ery and  despotism.  As  an  historian  he  is  distin- 
guished by  exact  and  laboiious  attention  to  detail. 
He  studies  folios  and  ]iasquina<les  aliki^ ;  and  no 
detail  of  topograi)hy,  feature,  or  costume,  escapes 
him.  His  histories  are  a  series  of  striking  por- 
traits or  pictures.  He  stands  connuitted  to  no 
philosophical  system.  With  nuicli  talk  about  the 
real  and  practical,  his  jihilosophy  is  intuitional  and 
sentimental,  emphasizing  feeling  above  reason. 

Theologically  he  cannot  be  accurately  placed. 
The  Life  of  Sterling  throws  most  liglit  u|ion  his 
religious  views.  He  may  fairly  be  regarded  as  a 
theist.  He  is  mainly  silent  on  tlie  truth  of 
creeds,  always  reverential  towards  Christ,  and, 


while  agreeing  that  Christianity  is  the  supreme 
religion,  denies  that  it  embraces  all  truth.  He 
seems  to  hold  that  responsibility  to  God  is  the 
essential  truth  foresliailoued  in  all  religions,  and 
that  the  essence  of  all  religion  is  to  keep  con- 
science alive  and  shining.  He  believes  in  retri- 
bution as  the  natural  outcome  of  wrong.  He 
revered  genuine  piety,  and  his  own  moral  life 
was  singularly  pure.  As  a  critic  he  has  great 
knowledge  and  keen  discernment,  but  is  too 
liable  to  be  swayed  by  his  personal  prejudices. 

His  earlier  style,  as  in  tlie  Essays  on  Burns  ...in 
Scott,  was  natural,  simple,  dignified,  and  vigorous. 
His  later  style  is  figurative,  abrupt,  enigmatical, 
sometimes  turgid  and  involved,  inverted,  declama- 
tory, and  at  times  coar.se,  yet  withal  often  beauti- 
ful, rich,  and  powerful,  and  always  picturesque. 

Lit.  —  The  best  complete  edition  of  Carlyle's 
works  is  the  library  edition  of  ^lessrs.  Chapman 
&  Hall,  London,  in  oO  volumes.  See  Remi)iis- 
cences  lii/  Thomas  Carli/le,  edited  by  J.  A.  Froude, 
Lond  and  X.Y.,  1881;  W  H.  Wylie:  Thomas 
Carlyle,  the  Man  and  his  Books,  I^ond.  and  N.Y., 
1881;  Mo.NCUUK  D  Conw.^v  :  Thomas  Carlyle, 
Lond.  and  X.V  ,  1881;  Pktkh  B.wnk  :  Lessons 
from  my  Masters,  N.Y  ,  1870;  Edwix  1).  Mkad: 
The  Phd'jsojihy  of  Carlyle,  Bost  ,  1881;  Moiu.ky's 
Essay  on  Carlyle  ,  and  FitouDE  :  Life  of  Carlyle, 
N.Y  ,  1882,  2  vols  M.   K.   VINCEXT. 

CARMEL  Mount,  (park),  once  the  .southern 
bounilaiy  of  Aslier  (Josh.  xix.  2(3);  later,  part  of 
Galilee.  At  tlie  time  of  Josephus  it  belonged  to 
Tjre  (iro/-  iii.  o,  1).  The  range  runs  south-east 
to  north-west,  is  about  twelve  miles  long.  Its 
highest  elevation  is  1,740  feet.  It  is  to-day  cov- 
ered with  trees  and  flowers.  In  its  forests  ani- 
mals of  all  sorts  are  found.  It  is  a  magnificent 
sight;  but  the  view  from  it  is  grander,  inas- 
much as  the  ridge  divides  the  Plain  of  Sharon 
from  the  Plain  of  Jezreel,  and  projects  itself  into 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  No  Vionder  that  to  the 
poets  and  i>rophets  of  the  Old  Testament  it  was 
a  symbol  of  beauty  (Song  vii.  5;  Isa.  xxxv.  2, 
cf.  xxxiii.  9;  Jer.  1.  19;  Amos  i.  2;  Nah.  i.  4). 
Hidden  tliere  during  the  stormy  days  of  Ahab, 
lived  Elijah ;  and  his  cave  is  yet  shown.  Some- 
where upon  its  slopes  the  wondrous  contest 
between  Jeliovah  and  Baal  took  place,  and  the 
answering  fire  proved  who  was  the  true  God  (1 
Kings  xviii.  20-12).  The  traditional  site  is  at 
El  ji/ohraka,  i.e.,  "  burnt  place,"  upon  the  south- 
ern slope  of  the  range,  a  long  way  fi'om  tlie  coast. 
But  this  site  is  too  far  from  the  Kishon  to  meet 
the  reiiuirements  of  the  narrative ;  and  hence  Dr. 
Robinson  prefers  the  south-eastern  extremity  of 
the  range.  The  range  ends  abruptly:  a  bluff 
over  five  hundred  feet  higli  juts  out  into  tlie  .sea. 
Here  stands  the  famous  Monastery  of  the  Carmel- 
ites. Tlie  monks  show  you  behind  tlie  high  altar 
the  grotto  of  Elijali.  lint  on  tlie  rangi'  Elijah 
also  dwelt  (2  Kings  ii.  25,  iv.  25);  and,  indeed, 
so  numerous  are  tlie  caves  in  its  sides,  that  there 
could  be  no  dilliculty  in  finding  shelter.  AVlien 
first  mentioned,  it  was  a  holy  mount,  a  place  of 
concour.se  (2  Kings  iv.  23);  ami  altars  of  Baal 
were  doubtless  erected  upon  it,  which  was  proba- 
bly the  reason  wliy  Elijah  selected  it  as  the  site 
of  Ids  sacrifice.  In  later  times  Pythagoras  visited 
tlie  mountain,  attracted  by  its  .sanctity.  Here 
Vespasian  came,  and  sacrificed  to  tlie  divinity  c/ 


CARMELITES. 


407 


CAROLINE  BOOKS. 


the  same  name  with  the  mountain,  without  image 
or  temple,  but  wlio.se  oracle  had  foretold  his  ele- 
vation to  the  iniperatorship.  In  the  early  days 
of  Christianity,  there  were  many  hermits  in  its 
many  caves;  and  to-day  one  of  the  most  hopeful 
facts  for  Palestine  is  the  little  German  colony  of 
Haifa,  which  is  at  the  foot  of  Carmel,  near  the 
sea,  and  whose  labor  has  made  the  wilderness  to 
rejoice. 

CARMELITES.  A  certain  Berthold  came,  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  century,  to  I'alestine, 
on  a  pili;rimage  or  crusade,  and  formed  an  asso- 
ciation of  hermits  at  the  Well  of  Elijah  on  Mount 
Carmel.  In  1209  the  association  received  its  rule 
of  sixteen  articles  from  Albert,  Patriai-ch  of  .Je- 
rusalem ;  and  in  122^  this  rule  was  confirmed  by 
Pope  Ilonorius  III.  As  long-  as  the  crusading 
enthusiasm  sent  thousands  and  thousands  of  peo- 
ple from  Europe  every  year  to  Palestine,  the  asso- 
ciation of  IMount  Carmel  prospered  mucli ;  but 
when  this  whole  movement  came  to  a  standstill 
by  the  armistice  between  Frederick  II.  and  the 
Saracens,  the  liermits  at  the  Well  of  Elijah  began 
to  feel  very  lonesome,  and  in  1238  they  removed 
to  more  lively  places  in  Cyprus  and  Sicily.  In 
1240  they  came  to  England,  in  1241  to  Southern 
France,  and  in  1245  they  held  their  first  general 
chapter  at  Aylesford  in  England.  In  order  not 
to  be  completely  ousted  by  the  ileiulicant  orders, 
which  just  at  that  period  won  their  greatest  tri- 
umphs, it  was  necessary  for  the  Carmelites  to 
follow  fashion  ;  and  so  they  did.  They  changed 
their  rule  (1247),  their  organization,  their  dress, 
after  the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans.  But  they 
had  one  piece  of  good  luck :  they  invented  the 
scapulary  (1287).  The  scapulary  consists  of  two 
stripes  of  gray  cloth,  worn  on  the  breast  and  on 
the  back,  and  connecting  with  each  other  on  the 
shoulders.  This  innocent  piece  of  dress  was 
brought  expressly  from  heaven  by  the  Virgin  her- 
self;  and  she  promised  to  go  on  Saturday  evenings 
to  purgatory,  and  relieve  all  those  who  wore  it. 
Of  course,  the  scapulary  immediately  became  the 
rage.  Large  associations  or  brotherhoods  of  the 
scapidary  were  formed  among  laymen,  and  brought 
'n  a  more  or  less  loose  connection  with  the  order, 
which  earned  both  fame  and  influence  from  this 
circumstance.  As  was  natural,  the  success  stinni- 
lated  their  ambition.  They  began  to  dispute  the 
claims  of  the  Dominicans  to  tlie  rosary.  They 
brought  out  the  Virgin's  House  at  Loretto  as  a 
counterbalance  to  the  Portiuncula  Church  of  the 
ISIinorites.  They  claimed  to  be  the  oldest  mo- 
nastic order,  the  trunk  from  which  other  orders 
had  sprung,  since  they  could  show  an  uninter- 
rupted succession  of  generals  from  the  days  of 
Elijah,  who  had  been  one  of  their  generals. 
They  reckoned  the  Virgin  ^lary  as  one  of  their 
members,  and  called  themselves  Frafre.t  Beata- 
Marke  ile  Monte  Cannelo.  They  asjiired  to  occupy 
a  position  above  all  other  monastic  orders,  as  the 
true  representatives  of  Monasticism.  But  then 
the  bubble  burst.  The  Jesuits  fell  upon  them 
■with  violence;  and  Papebroch,  the  Bollandist,  laid 
bare  in  a  most  merciless  manner  the  emptiness 
of  their  pretensions.  The  controversy  became  at 
once  so  bitter  and  so  ridiculous,  that  the  Pope 
had  to  interfere ;  and  in  1608  Innocent  XII. 
ordered  both  parties  to  drop  the  matter,  and  keep 
silent.     But  the  great  aspirations  of  the  Carmel- 


ites were  blasted  forever.  Other  circumstances 
had  also  ])roved  unfavorable  to  their  success.  An 
unconnuoidy  great  number  of  independent  con- 
gregations were  formed  ;  and  several  of  them  — -as, 
for  instance,  the  congregation  of  ^laiitua,  founded 
by  Thomas  Connecte,  who  in  ll'-iii  was  burnt  in 
Kome  as  a  heretic;  the  Discalceati,  oi'  I!arefoot(^d 
Carmelites,  founded  in  the  sixteenth  century  in 
Spain  by  Theresia  de  Jesu;  and  others  —  had  their 
own  generals.  There  were  at  one  time  four  inde- 
pendent Carmelite  generals;  and  all  attemjits  at 
consolidating  the  whole  order  into  one  liody  failed. 
There  were  also  Carmelite  nuns.  Th<^  first  mon- 
astery was  founded  in  1452  by  Soreth,  a  geni'ral 
of  the  order,  who  was  poisoned  at  Nantes  in  1471 
by  the  discontented  monks.  To  this  order  of 
nuns  belonged  the  daughters  of  Louis  XV.  Hut 
in  modern  times  the  Carmelites  have  played  no 
conspicuous  part,  and  the  order  is  at  present  fall- 
ing rapidly  into  decay,  without  any  means  of 
reconstruction.  See  IlELYor  :  Tlisl.  ilcs  Ordrc.i 
Monastiijtjen,  F&ris,  1714-19;  M.\xxi.n(;:  Life  of 
Si.   Teresa,  Loudon,  18(i5.       .•\LI!I!i':(IIT   VOGEL. 

CARNAHAN,  James,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  for  thirty- 
one  years  presiilent  of  Princeton  College ;  b.  near 
Carlisle,  Penn.,  Xov.  15,  1775 ;  d.  in  Newark, 
X.J.,  March  2,  1859.  In  Jlay,  1823,  he  was 
chosen  president  of  the  College  of  Xew  Jersey, 
resigned  in  1853,  and  connection  with  the  institu- 
tion dissolved  June,  1854. 

CARNIVAL  (a  word  of  uncertain  etymology: 
eanii-eale,  "  farewell  to  flesh-meat ;  "  cani-iii-alliire, 
"  swallow  flesh-meat  ")  denotes  the  period  from 
the  end  of  the  festival  of  the  Epiphany  to  the 
end  of  Shrove-Tuesday.  This  part  of  the  year  is 
in  all  Roman-Catholic  countries  considered  a 
proper  season  for  social  enjoyments  ;  and  more 
e.specially  the  last  seven  or  ten  days  are  in  many 
cities,  particularly  in  Rome,  given  up  to  public 
merriment.  The  custom  is  of  Pagan  origin.  Ifi 
is  the  revelry  and  debauchery  of  the  old  Saturnalia 
and  Liipercalia,  which  have  been  continued  under 
this  form  in  the  Christian  world,  and  nowhere  in 
a  more  unrestrained  manner  than  in  the  centre 
of  Christendom,  —  in  Rome.  Several  popes  have 
tried,  if  not  to  repress  the  cu.stom,  at  least  to 
restrain  its  license.  Clement  XL  issued  two 
apostolical  briefs  (1719  and  1721),  lienedict  XIA'. 
an  encyclical  letter,  for  this  purpose.  But  other 
popes,  who  had  a  clearer  understanding  of  the 
economical  and  political  import  of  the  custom, 
did  every  thing  they  could  to  encourage  it.  Thus 
Paid  11.  issued  a  decree  with  very  minute  provis- 
ions with  respect  to  the  races  of  the  Corso ;  and 
when  the  Italian  people,  during  its  struggle  for 
national  unity,  instinctively  withdrew  from  these 
frivolous  dissipations,  the  papal  government  under 
Pius  IX.  was  very  desirous,  and  very  active,  to 
allure  it  back  on  the  old  track.  The  Roman 
Carnival  of  the  present  day  is  a  comparatively 
tame  affair. 

CAROLINE  BOOKS  (Lihri  Carolini,  or  Opus 
Caroli).  The  work  originated  in  the  controversies 
of  the  eighth  century  concerning  iinage-wor.ship, 
the  participation  of  Pope  Adrian  I.  in  the  second 
synod  of  Xicsea  (787),  and  the  communication 
of  the  acts  of  this  synod  by  Adrian  to  Charle- 
magne and  the  Frankish  Church.  Charlemagne, 
who  just  at  that  time  felt  very  much  displeased 
with  the  Byzantine  court  and  the  equivocal  policy 


CARPENTER. 


408 


CARRANZA. 


of  the  Pope,  had  the  ^\hole  matter  —  the  au- 
thority of  the  synod,  the  ortliodoxy  of  its  decrees, 
etc.  —  discussed  by  tlie  tlieologiaiis  of  liis  court, 
and  then  forwarded  the  acts  to  England  to  King 
Offa,  wlio  liliewise  laid  them  before  the  bishops 
of  his  realm.  Alcuin,  who  at  that  moment  was 
staying  in  England,  drew  up  a  criticism  of  the 
decrees  of  the  synod  in  tlie  form  of  a  letter,  which 
he  deli\'ered  personally  to  Charlemagne  in  the 
name  of  the  Euglish  princes  and  bishops.  The 
epistle  is  lost;  but  Charlemagne  sent  an  elaborate 
answer,  the  so-called  Libri  Carolini.  The  work, 
which  is  divided  into  four  books  and  a  hundred 
and  twenty  chapters,  contains  a  very  sharp  cen- 
sure of  tlie  synod  and  its  deci-ees,  and  establishes 
a  principle,  which,  on  the  one  side,  gives  the 
Christian  art  full  freedom  in  the  representation 
of  Christian  ideas,  but  on  the  otlier  excludes  all 
superstitious  misuses  of  the  merely  artistic  crea- 
tion. The  Pope  received  the  book  with  subnus- 
siun  and  extreme  iiattery,  Ijut  declined  to  recog- 
nize its  principles.  He  died,  however,  shortly 
after  (79.'))  ;  aiul  the  synods  of  Francfort  (704) 
and  of  Paris  (82.5)  took  the  book  as  basis  for 
their  whole  relation  to  the  question  of  image- 
worship.  The  first  edition  of  the  Caroline  Books 
was  given  by  Jean  du  Tillet  (Elias  Philgra). 
Paris,  1549  ;  the  best  by  Ileumann,  Aur/usti  Cuncili 
Nicceni  Secundi  Cr'nsuni,  Hanover,  1731.  See  II. 
I.  Floss:  Coiumentatio  tie  sii.ipecta  Lihrorum  Carol! 
fide,  Bonn,  ISfiO  ;  Leist  :  Die  lilerar.  Beiceyunrj 
d.  Bilderstreit.t.,  Magdeburg,  1871,  and  the  litera- 
ture on  Charlemagne.  WAGENTIAXX. 

CARPENTER,  Lant,  LL.D.,  an  English  Uni- 
tarian divine  and  author,  b.  at  Kidderminster, 
Sept.  2,  1780 ;  drowned  between  Xaples  and  Leg- 
horn, April  5,  1840.  lie  was  intended  for  the 
nonconformist  ministry;  but  he  joined  the  Uni- 
tarians, and  was  minister  to  the  church  at  Exeter, 
1805-17,  and  minister  at  Bristol,  1817-39.  He 
wa,s  made  doctor  of  laws  by  Cdasgow  University, 
1806.  He  published  numerous  works,  of  which 
the  more  important  are:  Introduction  to  the  Geog- 
raphy of  the  N.T.,  180.5;  Unitarianisin  the  Doctrine 
of  the  Gospels,  1809  ;  An  Examination  of  the  Charges 
made  against  Unitarians  and  the  Improved  Version, 
hy  Bishop  Magre,  Bristol,  1S20;  A  Harmony  of  the 
Gospels,  18:!.5,  2d  ed.,  London,  1838;  Sermons  on 
Practical  Suhjects,  London,  1840.  His  son  was  Dr. 
W.  B.  Carpenter,  the  physiologist  (d.  1885).  His 
life  was  written  by  another  son,  Hey.  Russell  Lant 
Carpenter. 

CARPENTER,  Mary,  philanthropist,  b.  at  Exe- 
ter, Kng.,  1S07;  d.  at  Bristol,  June  14,  1877.  She 
was  tin-  daughter  of  the  Uev.  Dr.  Lant  Carpen- 
ter, mentioned  above,  and  was  educated  l)y  him. 
Her  life-work,  the  inspiration  to  which  came  in 
18.33  from  the  Hindoo  reformer  Raimnohun  Roy, 
was  among  the  criminal  cl.ass,  wliom  slie  strove 
faithfully  to  raise.  To  this  end  she  originated 
the  system  of  reformatory  schools  for  vicious  gii-ls. 
In  the  drawing-up  of  tlie  bill  which  was  passed 
(>y  Parlianw-nt  in  1854,  slu-  was  greatly  aided  by 
the  recorder  of  Bristol,  Matthew  Davenport  Hill. 
Slie  was  also  one  of  the  chii'f  [iromoters  of  the 
Industrial  .Schools  Act,  which  jiassed  in  ln.57.  So 
great  was  her  zeal,  that  she  visited  India  four 
times  betwf-en  l8()fi  and  l87<i,  in  order  to  get  jier- 
sonal  knowledge  of  the-  educational  and  reforma- 
tory metliods  in  that  country.     Her  reports  were 


laid  before  Parliament.  In  1871  she  estaldished 
the  National  Indian  Association,  and  edited  it» 
journal.  Her  noble,  unselfish  life  had  its  roots 
in  her  fervent  piety.  She  wrote  much  in  behalf 
of  her  projects,  and  prepared  elaborate  reports 
for  various  bodies.  Besides  these  she  issued. 
Morning  and  Evening  Meditations,  5th  ed.,  1808, 
and  Six  Months  in  India,  18()7.  See  J.  Estmn 
Carpkxtku  :  The  Life  anil  Work  of  Mary  Car- 
penter, London.  1879.  new  ed.  1881. 

CARPOCRATIANS,  a  Gnostic  sect  founded  by 
Carpociates.  who,  in  the  tirst  decade  of  the  .second 
century,  developed  in  Alexandria  a  monastic 
system,  in  which  all  jiositive  religious  and  ethical 
ideas  were  lost  in  Pantheism.  As  the  public 
identified  the  Carpocratians  and  the  Christians, 
the  wild  vagaries  and  immoral  life  of  the  former 
were  often  laid  at  the  door  of  the  latter. 

CARPZOV  is  tlie  name  of  a  family  of  scholars, 
several  of  whom  were  theologians,  and  occupied  a 
prominent  position  in  the  Church.  I.  Johann 
Benedikt  Carpzov,  b.  at  liochiltz,  June  22,  lli07: 
d.  at  Leipzig,  Oct.  22,  1(557 ;  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Leipzig  from  11)43.  His  work  Isagoge 
in  Libras  Eccles.  lAither.  Symbolicos,  101)5,  is  the 
starting-point  of  that  liranch  of  theology  called 
"svmibolics."  Also  his  Ilodegeticum,  10.50,  played 
a  prominent  jiart  in  the  field  of  homiletics.  A.s 
the  Lutheran  minister  is  demanded  to  choose  hi.s 
text  for  a  certain  Sunday  from  a  certain  part  of 
the  Scriptures,  he  may  be  compelled,  during  a 
career  of  fifty  years,  to  preach  fifty  times  over 
the  same  text.  In  this  emergency  he  may  find 
great  help  with  Carjizov,  who,  in  his  Ilodegeticum, 
found  no  less  than  one  hundred  different  manners 
in  which  to  vary  the  theme.  II.  Johann  Gottlob 
Carpzov,  b.  at  Dresden,  .Sejif.  20,  1079;  .1.  at 
LUbeck,  April  7,  1707  ;  studied  at  Wittenberg  and 
Altdorf,  and  was  yirofessor  of  Oriental  languages 
at  Leipzig  from  1719  till  1730,  when  he  became 
superintendent^general  at  Liibeck.  His  Introdnclio 
in  Libros  V.  Test.,  1721,  Crilica  Sacra,  1728,  and 
Apparatus  Ilistorico-criticus  Antirjuitatum  U.  Test., 
1748,  are  works  both  of  learning  and  talent, 
though  his  stand-point  is  .still  that  of  Buxtorf, 
and  already  somewhat  antiquated :  the  authority 
of  the  text  depends  with  liim  upon  an  almost 
m.iterialistic  conception  of  inspiration.  He  was 
a  decided  adversary  of  the  wliole  pietistic  move- 
ment, more  especially  of  the  Ilerrnhuters.  HI. 
Johann  Benedikt  Carpzov,  b.  at  Leipzig,  Mav  20, 
1720;  d.  at  Helmsf;idt.  April  28,  1803;  became 
professor  of  (ireek  in  the  University  of  Helm- 
stiidt  in  1748,  and  I'anied  his  fame  chiefly  as  a 
philologist,  but  vindicated  tlii^  name  of  the  family 
as  rejiresentaf  ive  of  ]inre  orthodoxy  by  his  Lihcr 
Doclrinalis  Theologiw  I'lirioris,  1708.  He  was  one 
of  the  last  profes.sors  of  (iermany  who  continued 
to  use  the  Latin  language  in  his  lectures. 

CARRANZA,  Bartolome  de,  b.  at  Miramla  in 
Navanc,  1.503;  d.  in  l\(iiui\  .May  22, 157ti;  entered 
the  Dominican  order  in  1.520,  and  gained  a  great 
re|iutation  as  a  teacher  of  theology  in  the  I'niver- 
sity  of  Valladolid  ;  went  to  Pome  in  1539  as  a 
representative  of  his  order  to  its  chapter-general, 
and  sat  as  one  of  the  imperial  tlieologians,  1546- 
48,  in  the  Council  of  Trent,  where  he  |)layed  a 
conspicuous  part  as  leaili'r  of  the  party  demand- 
ing (lisciplinary  reform  ( ( 'o)itrin\rsi<i  de  Neeessaria 
Itesidentia  I'ersonali  Episcojioruiii,  Venice,  1547)  f 


CARRASCO. 


409 


CARSTARES. 


labored  with  great  zeal  for  the  restoration  of  the 
Roman  Church  in  Kngland  under  I'hilip  and 
Mary,  and  was  in  1557  made  Arcliliishop  of 
Toledo,  liut  in  155i)  lie  was  seized  by  the  Inqui- 
sition, and  thrown  into  prison,  lie  had  been 
present  at  the  death-bed  of  Charles  V.,  and  a 
rumor  sprang  up  that  the  emperor  had  not  died  in 
the  right  faith.  Testimonies  of  several  prisoners 
of  the  Inquisition  made  liim  su.spected ;  and  his 
Comnii'tilorios  .  .  .  sohre  el  Calechismo  Chriatiano, 
1558,  finally  furnished  the  basis  for  an  accusation. 
Though  it  is  not  true  that  the  book  contains  a 
complete  system  of  I'rotestantism,  the  avithor  cer- 
tainly belonged  to  the  reform  party  within  the 
Roman  Church,  and  there  was  nuich  in  his  book 
which  was  fit  to  give  offence.  lie  appealed  to  the 
Pope,  but  was,  nevertheless,  kept  in  prison  tUl 
1507.  He  was  then  removed  to  Rome,  on  the  in- 
stance of  Pius  V. ;  but  there,  too,  he  was  impris- 
oned ;  and  no  sentence  was  given  in  his  case  until 
Gregory  XIII.,  a  short  time  before  his  death,  sus- 
pended him  from  his  office,  and  compelled  him  to 
retract  certain  passages  of  his  catechism.  Among 
his  other  works  are  Summa  ConciUorum  et  Pontiji- 
cum,  Venice,  1546,  a  compendium  of  church  history, 
which  has  been  often  reprinted,  and  Controversim 
Qualuor,  a  treatise  on  the  authority  of  the  tradi- 
tion, the  Scriptures,  the  Pope,  and  the  councils. 
See  Florente  :  Histori/ of  the  Inquisition  in  Spain 
(Spanish  and  French),  1817-18 ;  JI'Crie  :  History 
of  the  Reformation  in  Spain,  Edin.,  1829  ;  IlEi>f- 
RICH  Langwitz  :  BartholomKus  Carranza,  Kemp- 
ten,  1870.  BENEATH. 

CARRASCO,  Antonio,  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  new  Reformation  in  vSpain ;  b.  in  Malaga, 
Jan.  19,  1843 ;  drowned  in  the  Ville  du  Havre 
disaster  in  mid-ocean,  Nov.  22,  1873.  He  was 
converted  at  sixteen,  and  joined  !Matamoros'  band 
of  Bible-readers  at  Malaga :  in  consequence,  he 
was  imprisoned  two  years,  and  then  sent  to  the 
galleys.  On  the  solicitation  of  the  Evangelical 
Alliance  deputation  at  Madrid,  May,  1863,  Queen 
Isabella  changed  his  sentence  to  exile ;  and  for 
five  years  he  studied  theology  in  Geneva.  In 
September,  1868,  on  the  downfall  of  Isabella,  he 
returned  to  Spain,  and  entered  with  great  zeal 
on  the  work  of  evangelization,  and  was,  at  his 
death,  pastor  of  the  Free  Church  in  IMadrid, 
which  had  a  membership  of  seven  hundred.  He 
was  the  best  educated  and  the  most  eloquent 
Protestant  preacher  in  Spain.  He  was  president 
of  the  Protestant  Synod,  and  made  frequent  visits 
to  the  scattered  congregations  throughout  the 
iand.  See  the  memorial  sketch  in  the  volume  of 
the  Evangelical  Alliance,  N.  Y.,  1874,  pp.  764,765. 

CARROLL,  John,  the  first  Roman-Catholic 
bishop  of  the  United  States ;  b.  at  Upper  Marl- 
borough, Md.,  Jan.  8, 1735;  d.  Dec.  3,  1815.  He 
•was  a  cousin  of  the  famous  Charles  Carroll  of  Car- 
rollton,  one  of  the  signers  of  the  "  Declaration  of 
Indendence."  He  was  ordained  a  priest  at  Liege, 
and  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  later  was  a 
tutor  in  two  English  Roman-Catholic  noble  fami- 
lies. AVhen  the  war  for  independence  broke  out, 
he  returned  to  America;  and  at  Dr.  Franklin's 
instance  he  was  in  1786  apjiointed  vicar-general 
of  the  new  established  Roman-Catholic  hierarchy ; 
and  in  1789  he  was  in  England  consecrated  a 
bishop  under  the  title  of  "  BishoxJ  of  Baltimore," 
and  in  1815  made  archbishop. 


CARSON,  Alexander,  LL.D.,  b.  in  County  Tv- 
rone,  Ireland,  1776;  d.  at  Jielfast,  Aug.  24,  1 84 4. 
He  sprang  from  Presbyterian  stock ;  was  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  (ilasgow  ;  became  the 
Presbyterian  nunister  in  Tubberniore,  Ireland, 
1797,  but  in  1805  withdrew  from  that  denomi- 
nation because  of  the  worldliness  of  many  of 
its  ministers  in  the  synod  of  Ulster,  and  justi- 
iied  himself  in  his  published  Reasons  for  Sepa- 
rcitini/from  the  Synod  of  Ulster.  He  was  followed 
by  a  majority  of  his  congregation.  Unable  to 
retain  his  former  churcli  edifice  without  litiga- 
tion, he  gave  it  up,  and  preached  for  many  years 
in  barns  or  fields,  imtil  at  last  a  rude  stone 
church  was  built  for  him  at  Tubberniore.  In  the 
early  part  of  his  independent  career,  while  study- 
ing the  New  Testament  in  order  to  confute  the 
Baptists,  he  was  converted  to  Baptist  principles ; 
and  henceforth  he  advocated  these  views,  except 
close  communion,  with  all  the  wealth  of  his  schol- 
arship, wliich  was  considerable,  and  all  the  power 
of  his  mind,  which  was  great.  The  Baptist  de- 
nomination value  his  writings  highly.  See  Bap- 
tism, in  its  Mode  and  Subjects,  trith  a  Sketch  of  the 
Life  of  Dr.  Carson,  .5tli  ed.,  Phila.,  1857 ;  also 
the  sketch  of  Dr.  Carson,  by  Rev.  Dr.  Tiiojias 
Akmita(;e,  in  Johnson's  Cyclopedia. 

CARSTARES,  William  (or  Carstairs),  a  Scotch 
clergyman  and  politiciil  leader;  b.  Feb.  11,  1649, 
at  Cathcart,  near  Glasgow ;  d.  Dec.  28, 1715.  His 
father,  the  Rev.  John  Carstares,  belonged  to  the 
extreme  Covenanting  party  of  Protesters.  After 
studying  at  Edinburgh,  he  went  to  the  University 
of  Utrecht,  and  there  his  friendship  with  ^^'illiam 
HI.  began.  This  intimacy,  together  with  his 
participation  in  the  composition  of  the  severe  trac- 
tate, An  Account  of  Scotland's  Grievances  by  Rea-  I 
son  of  the  D.  of  Lauderdale's  Ministrie,  humbly 
teiidered  to  his  Sacred  Majesty,  generally  attribut- 
ed to  the  learned  James  Steuart,  and  his  being 
the  bearer  of  despatches  from  those  in  Holland 
who  sympathized  with  the  disaffected  in  Scot- 
land, made  Charles  IPs.  government  suspicious  of 
him.  Accordingly,  when,  at  the  close  of  1674,  he 
landed  in  England,  he  was  arrested,  lodged  in  the 
Tower,  the  next  year  transferred  to  Edinburgh, 
and  kept  in  jirison  until  August,  1679.  He  went 
to  Ireland,  and  became  a  nonconformist  pastor, 
liut  in  1682  he  was  again  in  Holland,  and  the 
next  year  in  London.  lie  entered  into  the  Rye- 
house  Plot  for  an  insurrection  in  favor  of  the 
Duke  of  iMonmouth  and  to  assassinate  Cliarles 
H.  The  plot  was  discovered  in  the  middle  of 
July,  1683.  He  was  examined  before  the  Scottish 
council,  tortured  by  the  thumbscrew,  but  firnJy 
refused  to  make  any  disclosm'es,  "  until  he  was 
assured  that  his  admissions  would  not  be  used  as 
evidence ;  and  in  the  disclosures  he  then  made  he 
displayed  great  discretion."  The  King  pardoned 
him.  Prince  'William  of  Orange  welcomed  him 
warmly  on  his  return  to  Holland,  and  appointed 
him  court  chaplain.  When  the  Revolution  of 
1688  had  put  AMlliam  on  the  throne  of  England, 
he  became  royal  chaplain  for  Scotland ;  and  liy 
his  broad  catholic  views,  his  tact  and  learning, 
he  rendered  the  King  invaluable  service,  especially  , 
in  thoroughly  reconciluig  the  Scotch  Presbyteri-  I 
ans  to  the  new  regime.  lie  held  the  same  jiosi- 
tion  under  Queen  Aiiue  and  George  I.,  with  that 
of    principal  of    the   University  of    Edinburgh 


CARTHAGE. 


410 


CARTWRIGHT. 


(170i),  and  minister  of  St.  Giles.  lie  was  four 
times  elected  moderator  of  the  General  Assem- 
bly. See  State  Papers  and  Letters  addressed  to 
William  Carstares,  witli  Life  by  M'Cokmick, 
Edinbm-gh,  1774 ;  Story  :  Character  and  Career 
of  William  Carstares,  1874. 

CARTHAGE,  a  famous  city  of  the  ancient 
■svorld,  situated  near  tlie  modern  town  of  Tunis, 
Xortli  Africa ;  was  the  seat  of  nruuerous  church 
coimcils,  of  whicli  two  wei'e  very  important.  In 
411  a  conference  was  there  held,  on  command 
of  the  emperor,  witli  the  Donatists,  in  order  to 
refute  their  errors,  and  reconcile  them  with  the 
Church.  Augustine  and  Petilian  were  the  prin- 
cipal opposing  sj^eakers ;  and  IMarcellinus,  tlie 
Enijieror  Honorius'  tribune,  decided  tliat  the 
Donatists  liad  been  completely  answered,  nor 
from  this  sentence  was  there  any  appeal  allowed. 
From  this  conference  dates  the  decided  decline  of 
Donatism ;  for  more  stringent  measures  were 
adopted  towards  such  determined  heretics  as  they 
w-ere  adjudged.  See  Donatists.  In  412  Pauli- 
xrns  of  Milan  appeared  at  the  council  held  under 
Aurelius,  Bishop  of  Carthage,  as  the  accuser  of 
Coelestius ;  and  thus  the  Pelagian  heresy  received 
there  its  first  condemnation,  and  at  the  same 
time  its  first  ecclesiastical  recognition.  See 
ScH.\FF :  Church  History,  vol.  ii.  pp.  365  sq.,  vol. 
iii.  p.  79:-!;  and  IIefele  :   Conciliengeschichie. 

CARTHUSIANS,  an  order  of  monks  founded 
by  St.  Bruno  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eleventh 
century.  Bruno  was  born  at  Cologne,  studied  at 
varioiis  scliools  in  France,  became  chancellor  of 
the  chapter  of  Rhehns,  and  enjoyed  great  reputa- 
tion as  a  teacher.  Despairing  both  of  the  Church 
and  of  the  theological  science  as  wa3-s  of  salva- 
tion, he  determined  to  retire  from  the  world,  and 
live  as  a  hermit,  and  settled,  together  with  a  few 
companions,  at  Saisse  Fontaine,  in  the  diocese  of 
Langi-es.  In  1086  the  company  removed  to  La 
Chartreuse,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Grenoble;  and 
here,  at  one  of  the  wildest  spots  of  the  whole 
region,  they  built  their  huts  around  an  oratory, 
making  a  vow  of  silence,  abstinence,  the  oKseiTa- 
tion  of  the  canonical  hom-s,  etc.  When  L^rban 
II.,  who  had  been  a  pupil  of  Bruno,  ascended  the 
papal  tlirone,  Bruno  was  calle<l  to  Konie  ;  and,  as 
his  brotlier-hermits  would  not  leave  liim,  they  all 
•went  together.  Bruno,  liowever,  exercised  no 
influence  on  the  policy  of  Urban  II.  Tlie  arch- 
bishopric of  Rheggio,  wliicli  was  offered  to  him, 
lie  declined ;  and  wlien  Urban  II.  went  to  France, 
preparing  for  tlie  first  crusade,  Bruno  retired  to 
La  Torre,  near  Squillace,  in  Calabria.  Here  he 
died  Oct.  6,  1101,  and  was  buried  in  tlie  Clnn-ch 
of  .St.  Steplian.  lie  was  canonized  in  1514.  The 
order  grew  slowly.  In  1137  it  numbered  only 
four  establishments ;  in  1151,  fourteen  ;  Init  fifty- 
six  in  1258.  It  was  formally  recognized  and  con- 
firmed as  an  independent  order  by  Alexander  III. 
in  1170.  Its  rules,  the  Consuciudines  Carlusia, 
were  first  put  down  in  writing  by  Guigo,  the  fifth 
prior  of  La  Cliartrcuse.  In  12.50  Bernard  de  la 
Pour  made  a  collection  of  all  the  decisions  of  the 
chapter-general  since  1141,  —  Statula  Antii/ua.  A 
second  collection,  Statula  iS'Vjt'n,  was  made  in  1307  ; 
a  third,  Tcrtia  Compilnlio  Statulorum,  in  1500;  .and 
a  fourth.  Nova  Collectio  Statuorum  Ordinis  Cartu- 
xiensis,  in  1 .581 .  In  the  beginning  of  the  eiglileenth 
century,  there  were  a  liumhed  and  seventy  Car- 


thusian mon.a,steries,  of  which  seventy-five  were  in 
France  ;  but  aU  the  latter  disappeared  during  the 
Revolution,  and  only  a  few  of  them  have  since 
been  re-established.  There  are  also  Carthusian 
nuns.  The  order  is  said  to  have  originated  in 
the  twelfth  century;  but  the  five  Carthusian 
nunneries  which  existed  in  the  eighteenth  century 
dated  all  from  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. For  the  life  of  Bruno,  see  Histoire  Litlc'raire 
de  France,  IX.  p.  233;  for  the  history  of  tlie 
order,  Helyot  :  Histoire  des  Ordres  Mo'nastiqiies, 
Paris,  1714-10.  alerecdt  vogel. 

CARTWRIGHT,  Thomas,  b.  about  1535,  in 
Hertfordshire;  d.  Dec.  27,  1603.  He  was  ma- 
triculated as  a  sizar  of  Claire  Hall,  Xovember, 
1547,  and  as  a  scholar  to  St.  John's  College.  Cam- 
bridge, Kov.  .5, 1550.  In  1560  he  became  a  minor 
feUow  of  Trinity  College,  and  on  the  6tli  of  April 
of  the  same  year  a  fellow  of  St.  John's  College ; 
in  April,  1502,  a  major  fellow  of  Trinity  College^ 
In  1507  he  took  his  bachelor's  degree,  and  in 
1569  was  chosen  Lady  Margaret  professor  of  di- 
vmity,  and  began  to  lecture  on  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.  His  lectures  were  exceedingly  popular, 
and  made  a  profound  impression  in  favor  of  his 
distinctively  Puritan  views,  but  created  a  storm 
of  opposition  from  the  Prelatical  party,  headed  by 
Dr.  AVhitgift.  Tliis  conflict,  under  these  two  gi-eat 
champions,  continued  to  grow  more  and  more 
severe,  and  was  continued  by  their  successors  in 
two  gi-eat  parties  in  the  Church  of  England,  —  the 
Presbyterian  and  the  Prelatical.  The  Puritan 
platform  is  well  stated  in  the  six  propositions 
which  Cartwright  delivered  under  his  own  hand 
to  the  vice-chancellor,  the  grounds  of  his  persecu- 
tion by  the  Prelatists :  "  (1)  That  the  names  and 
fmictions  of  archbishops  and  archdeacons  ought 
to  be  abolished.  (2)  That  the  offices  of  the 
lavrful  ministers  of  the  Church,  viz.,  bishops  and 
deacons,  ought  to  be  reduced  to  their  apostolical 
institution :  bishops  to  preacli  the  word  of  (iod, 
and  pray,  and  deacons  to  be  employed  in  taking 
care  of  the  poor.  (3)  Tli.at  the  government  of 
the  Church  ought  not  to  be  intrusted  to  bishop's 
chancellors,  or  the  officials  of  archdeacons ;  but 
every  church  ought  to  be  governed  by  its  own 
ministers  and  presbyters.  (4)  Tliat  ministers 
ought  not  to  lie  at  large,  but  every  one  should 
liave  tlie  charge  of  a  particular  congregation.  (5) 
That  no  man  ought  to  solicit,  or  to  stand  as  a 
candidate  for  the  ministry.  (6)  That  ministers 
ouglit  not  to  be  created  by  the  sole  authority  of 
the  bishop,  but  to  be  openly  and  fairly  chosen  by 
the  people." 

ILaving  been  deprived  of  liis  professorship  Dec. 
11,  1.570,  of  his  fellowship  .at  Trinity  College  in 
September,  1571,  he  went  to  the  Continent,  and 
especially  to  Geneva,  and  conferred  with  Beza  and 
ottier  cliiefs  of  the  Reformed  Churches.  He  was 
prevailed  upon  to  return  l>v  his  friends  in  Novem- 
l)er,  1572.  An  Aihnonition  to  Parliament  for  the 
Reformation  of  Church  Discipline  liad  been  issued 
by  liis  friends,  .lolni  Field  and  Tliomas  Wilcocks, 
for  wliicli  lliey  had  been  cast  into  prison,  l^.art- 
wriglitesjioused  tlictirc.au.se,  and  issued  'J'hc  Second 
Admonition,  with  an  Humble  Petition  to  both  Houses 
of  Parliament  for  Jielief  ar/ainst  Subscription,  1.572. 
Whitgift  replied  in  An  Answei'e  to  a  Certen  Libcll, 
intituled  An  Admonition  to  the  Parliament,  1572. 
Cartwriyiit  rejoined  in  A   Ilepli/e  to  an  Ansirert 


CARTWRIGHT. 


411 


CARTWRIGHT. 


made  of  M.  Dnctor  W/iiler/i/lr  af/ainste  the  Admoni- 
tion to  the  Parliament,  l^u'i.  'I'liis  was  a  renewal 
of  the  old  discussion  on  a  larger  scale,  going  to 
the  roots  of  difference ;  Cartwright  and  the  Puri- 
tans contending  that  tlie  church  government  and 
the  discipline,  as  well  as  the  doctrine,  must  be 
reformed  according  to  the  Scriptures. 

The  discussion  took  a  wide  range, — -as  to  the 
standard  of  church  government,  the  choice  of 
ministers,  the  offices  of  the  Christian  Church, 
clerical  habits,  bishops,  archl)ishops,  the  authority 
of  princes  in  matters  ecclcisiastical,  confirmation, 
etc.  Whitgift  replied  in  A  Defense  of  the  Eeclesi- 
asticall  Regiment  in  Englande  defaced  by  T.  C.  in 
his  Ileplie  againsle  D.  Whitgifte,  1574,  and  also  The 
Defense  of  the  Answere  to  the  Admonition,  against 
the  lieplye  of  T.  C,  l.W-l,  pp.  812,  folio.  An 
order  for  Cartwriglit's  apprehension  was  issued 
Dec.  11,  1574;  and  he  fled  to  the  Continent,  and 
became  minister  of  the  English  congregation  of 
merchants  at  Antwerp  and  MiJdleburgh. 

In  1576  he  also  went  to  the  Isles  of  Jersey  and 
Guernsey,  and  aided  the  Puritans  there  in  settling 
the  discipline  of  their  churches,  and  then  returned 
to  Antwerp,  and  preached  for  several  years. 
Whilst  abroad,  he  wrote  the  Second  Repiie  of 
Thomas  Cartwright  agaynst  Maisler  Doctor  Whit- 
giftes  Second  ansiver  touching  the  Churchc  Discipline, 
1575,  and  also  The  Rest  of  the  Second  Repiie,  1.577. 

He  also,  in  1574,  prepared  a  preface  to  the  Latin 
work  of  William  Travers,  and  translated  it  under 
the  title  A  Full  and  Plaine  Declaration  of  Ecclesi- 
asticall  Discipline  owl  off  the  Word  off  God  and  off 
the  Declininge  off  the  Churche  off  England  from  the 
same,  1574,  which  still  more  imbittered  his  foes. 
Li  1582  he  was  invited  to  the  divinity  chair  in  St. 
Andrews,  Scotland,  but  declined.  In  1583,  at  the 
solicitation  of  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  and  Lord 
Treasurer  Burleigh,  and  a  large  number  of  Puritan 
friends,  he  undertook  to  write  a  confutation  of 
the  Rhemish  version  of  the  Scriptures,  which  took 
him  many  years ;  but  he  was  prevented  by  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities  of  England  from  pub- 
lishing his  work.  The  year  before  his  death, 
however,  his  Answere  to  the  Preface  of  the  Rhemish 
Testament,  1602,  was  issued ;  but  the  work  itself, 
not  until  1618,  under  the  title  A  Confutation  of 
the  Rhemists  Translation,  Glosses,  ami  Annotations 
on  the  New  Testament,  so  farre  as  they  containe 
3Ianifest  Inijiieties,  Heresies,  Idolatries,  etc.,  fol. 
pp.  Iviii.  761,  xviii.,  Leyden. 

In  1585  he  returned  to  England  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Earl  of  Leicester  and  Lord  Treas- 
urer Burleigh,  but  was  apprehended  by  Bishop 
Aylmer,  and  cast  into  prison,  where  he  remained 
from  April  until  June,  when  he  was  released 
through  the  influence  of  his  powerful  friends,  and 
the  Earl  of  Leicester  appointed  him  master  of  a 
hospital  which  he  had  founded  at  Warwick.  His 
preaching  was  opposed  by  his  enemies,  but  with- 
out success,  until  1590.  During  this  time  he  went 
over  a  great  part  of  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes. 
The  latter  was  published  in  1604  under  the  title 
Metaphrasis  et  Homilite  in  Lihrum  Solomonis,  qui 
inscrihitur  Ecclesiastes,  4to ;  the  former  in  1617, 
Commentarii  Succincti  et  Delucidi  in  Proverbia  Solo- 
monis, 4to.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
;  preacher  in  England  who  practised  extempore 
prayer  before  sermon,  although  he  usually  em- 
ployed forms  of  prayer-     During  this  period  the 


ecclesiastical  conflicts  waxed  hotter  and  hotter. 
The  I'm-itans  had  been  making  rapid  jirogress. 
The  first  jiresliytery  was  organized  at  Wands- 
worth within  the  Church  of  England  in  3572. 
Classes  wei-e  rapidly  oi'ganized  in  all  parts  of  Eng- 
land, bvit  secretly.  In  158:!  a  rough  draft  of  a 
book  of  Disciphne  was  drawn  up  by  Thos.  Cart- 
wright and  Walter  Travers,  and  at  an  assembly 
held  either  at  London  or  Cambridge  it  was  re- 
solved to  i)ut  it  in  practice.  It  was  revised  at  a 
national  synod  in  London  (1584),  and  referred  to 
Jlr.  Travers,  "to  be  corrected  and  ordered  by 
him."  It  was  then  passed  around  the  various 
classes.  It  was  adopted  and  subscribed  by  an 
assembly  of  all  the  classes  of  Wai'wickshire  in 
1588,  and  then  by  a  provincial  .synod  in  Cam- 
bridge ;  and  by  1590  the  Directory  had  spread  all 
over  England,  and  was  subscribed  to  by  as  many 
as  five  hundred  ministers.  The  episcopal  party 
were  greatly  alarmed,  and  determined  to  arrest 
Cartwright  and  the  other  leaders,  and  destroy  as 
large  a  number  of  copies  of  the  Holy  Discipline  as 
possible.  A  few  copies  were,  however,  preserved, 
and  subsequently  issued  in  English  in  1644  by 
authority  of  the  Long  Parliament,  entitled  A 
Directory  of  Church  Government  anciently  contended 
for,  and  as  farre  as  the  Times  woidd  siffer,  prac- 
tised by  the  first  Non-Conformists  in  the  Dales  of 
Queen  Elizabeth.  Found  in  the  study  of  the  most 
accomplished  Divine,  Mr.  Thomas  Cartwright,  after 
his  decease ;  and  reserved  to  be  published  for  such  a 
time  as  this. 

The  discussion  between  the  Presbyterians  and 
the  Prelatists  was  complicated  by  the  Brownist 
party  and  the  Martin  mar-prelate  tracts,  which 
loitterly  satirized  the  bishops.  Cartwright  took 
strong  gi-ound  against  the  Brownists  and  tlieir 
doctrine  of  separation,  and  opposed  the  JIartin 
mar-prelate  method  of  controversy ;  but  it_  was 
the  policy  of  the  Prelatists  to  make  the  Puritans 
bear  all  tlie  odiimi  of  the  weaker  and  niore  obnox- 
ious party.  Manuscripts  of  Cartwright  against 
the  Brownists  are  preserved,  but  no  printed  books. 
In  May,  1590,  he  was  summoned  before  the  High 
Commission,  and  committed  to  the  Fleet.  He 
and  his  associates  were  confronted  with  thirty- 
one  articles  of  charges,  afterwards  increased  to 
thirty-four,  besides  articles  of  inquiry.  He  \yas 
willing  to  reply  to  the  charges,  but  refused  to  give 
testimony  against  his  brethren.  He  was  then 
summoned  before  the  Star  Chamber  with  Ednunid 
Snape  and  others ;  but  the  case  never  reached  an 
issue.  Powerful  friends  worked  on  liis  _  behalf, 
and  he  was  finally  released  from  prison  in  1.592, 
on  the  promise  of  quiet  and  peaceable  behavior, 
in  broken  health.  The  remainder  of  his  life  he 
passed  quietly  on  the  Island  of  Guernsey,  and  at 
his  beloved  hospital,  save  that  he  had  to  meet  one 
bitter  attack,  to  which  he  wrote  A  Brief  Apologie 
of  Thomas  Cartwright  against  all  such  slaunderous 
Accttsalions  as  it  pleaseth  Mr.  Sutcliffe  in  his  Sev- 
erall  pamphlets  most  injuriously  to  load  him  with, 
etc.,  ito.  pp.  28,  1.596. 

Thomas  Cartwright  is  the  hero  of  Presbj-te- 
rianism  in  England,  laying  the  foundations  of 
Puritanism  broad  and  deep,  upon  which  a  great 
structure  was  subsequently  erected,  which  has 
continued  till  the  present  time.  Some  of  his  po- 
sitions have  subsequently  proved  untenable  ;  but, 
in  the  main,  the  Presbyterian  churches  of  Great 


CARTWRIGHT. 


412 


CASELIUS. 


Britain  and  America  still  stand  by  his  princi- 
ples. 

Other  works  besides  those  mentioned  in  their 
historical  connections  v.-ere  published  after  his 
death  by  his  disciples:  A  Catechisme,  1611;  .4 
Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossiann.  1612 ; 
A  Treatise  of  the  Christian  Reli/jion,  2d  edit.  4to, 
1616,  edited  by  A\'illiam  Bradsliaw ;  Harmnnia 
£i;an(7e//("n,  Amsterdam,  4to,  1627;  Commentaria 
Practica  in  tolain  Historiam  Eimnijelicam,  1630,  3 
vols.  4to.  For  fuller  information  reference  may 
be  made  to  CoorEit :  Athenm  Cantabrigienses,  1861, 
II.  p.  360,  f  ;  Brook  :  Lives  of  the  Puritans,  1813, 
II.  p.  1-36,  f. ;  S.iMUEL  Cl.\rke:  Lives  of  Thirty- 
two  English  Divines,  3d  edit.,  1077,  p.  16,  where  a 
portrait  is  given ;  Brook  :  Memoir  of  Thomas 
Carlirrif/hl.  hi').  C.  A.  "bRIGGS. 

CARTWRIGHT,  Peter,  an  American  Method- 
ist clergyman,  b.  in  Amherst  County,  Virginia, 
Sept  1,  1780 ;  d.  near. Pleasant  Plains,  Sangamon 
County,  Illinois,  Sept.  25,  1872.  His  parents 
removed  while  he  was  a  child  to  Kentucky  ;  there 
in  1801  he  was  converted,  and  in  1806  made  a 
deacon,  1808  an  elder,  in  the  Methodist  Church. 
In  1812  he  was  made  presiding  elder,  and  spent 
eight  yeai's  in  the  old  Wesleyan  Conference,  four 
in  the  Kentucky,  eight  in  the  Tennessee,  and  over 
forty-five  in  the  Illinois  Conference.  He  is  said 
to  have  received  more  than  ten  thousand  members 
into  the  church,  baptized  more  than  twelve  thou- 
sand persons,  and  preached  more  than  fifteen 
thousand  sermons.  He  was  familiarly  known  as 
the  "  Backwoods  Preacher ; "  but  no  one  ques- 
tioned his  devotion,  and  probably  his  homely 
preacliing  secured  him  the  better  attention :  he 
has  been  known,  however,  to  knock  dovni  the 
inattentive.  See  his  Fifty  Yeais  a  Presiding 
Elder,  and  the  A  utobiography  of  Peter  Cartwright, 
the  Backwoods  Preacher,  edited  by  Rev.  W.  P. 
Stricklanil,  Xew  York,  18.^6. 

CARY,  Henry  Francis,  li.  at  Gibraltar,  Dec. 
6,  1772;  d.  in  London,  Aug.  14,  1844.  After 
graduation  at  Christ's  Church,  Oxford,  in  1796, 
he  took  orders  in  the  Kstablishcd  Church,  and 
was  a]ipointed  vicar  of  Bromley  Alibots.  Staf- 
fordshire. Was  an  a.ssistnnt  librarian  of  the 
British  Museum  from  1826  to  1837.  Though  he 
had  distinguished  himself  by  an  original  ode  on 
the  misfortunes  of  Poland  when  at  Oxford,  and 
published  a  number  of  sonnets  and  odes,  his  fame 
rests  upon  his  work  as  an  editor  and  translator. 
He  had  devoted  much  attention  to  the  ancient 
and  modern  languages,  and  thus  had  fitted  him- 
self to  edit  The  Early  Erenrh  Poets :  a  Series  of 
Notices  and  Translations  (published  after  his  death 
by  his  .son,  Kev.  Henry  Cary,  in  1847).  and  the 
Birds  of  Aristophanes,  and  the  Giles  of  Pindar. 
His  great  work  is  his  translation  of  tlie  Divina 
Commedia  of  Dante.  The  /n/irno  appeared  in  1805 
and  1806,  and  the  completed  work  in  1814.  This 
work  received  little  attention  until  it  was  com- 
mended by  Coleridge  in  his  Icctiwes  in  1818;  liut 
Soutliey  afterwards  jironounced  it  "one  of  the 
most  masterly  ])roductions  of  modern  times;" 
and  The  Edinburgh  Jieview  sn\(\  that  it  was  "exe- 
cuted with  a  fidelity  almost  without  example." 
It  ha-s  not  been  excelled.  It  is  in  blank  verse. 
Cary  also  edited  carefully  revi.sed  editions  of 
Pope,  Milton,  Cowper,  Thom.son,  and  Young. 
His  Life  was  publislied  in  1847  by  liis  son.     He 


was  buried  in  the  "Poets'  Corner"  of  Westmin- 
ster Abbey.  Arthur  gilmax. 

CARYL,  Joseph,  b.  in  London,  1602;  d.  there 
Feb.  7,  1673.  He  was  for  some  time  a  commoner 
at  Exeter  College,  and  a  preacher  at  Lincoln's 
Inn.  He  was  one  of  the  Triers  for  the  approba- 
tion of  ministers  in  16.53,  ejected  in  166l',  aiul 
afterwards  minister  to  a  congregation  gathered 
near  London  Bridge.  His  title  to  fame  was  his 
E-rposition,  with  Practical  Observations,  on  the  Booke 
of  Job,  London,  1648-66,  12  vols,  quarto,  2d  ed., 
2  vols,  folio,  1676-77,  abridged  by  Berrie,  Edin- 
burgh, 1830,  8vo.  Sjmrgeon  {Commenting  and 
Commentaries,  London.  1876,  p.  6)  says  of  the  work, 
"  Caryl  must  have  inherited  the  patience  of  .lob, 
to  have  completed  his  stupendous  task.  It  woidd 
be  a  mistake  to  su]ipose  that  he  is  at  all  pi-olix  or 
redundant:  he  is  oidy  full." 

CASAS,  Bartolemeo  de  las,  b.  at  Seville,  1474; 
d.  in  ^ladrid,  l.)66 ;  entered  the  Dominican 
order ;  went  in  1535  to  St.  Domingo  as  a  mis- 
sionary among  the  Indians ;  became  Bishop  of 
Chiapa,  ^Mexico,  in  1.544,  and  spent  his  life  in 
preaching  the  gospel  to  the  American  aborigines, 
and  in  defending  them  against  the  cruelty  of 
their  conquerors.  Nine  times  he  travelled  be- 
tween America  and  .Spain  in  order  to  induce 
Charles  V.  to  put  an  end  to  the  horrible  miseries 
which  the  Spaniards  inflicted  on  the  Indians. 
But  he  succeeded  only  partially.  Of  his  works, 
written  about  or  in  behalf  of  the  Indians,  there 
is  a  collected  edition  in  2  vols,  by  Llorente,  Paris, 
1822.  containing  a  detailed  sketch  of  his  life. 

CASAUBON,  Isaac,  b.  at  Geneva,  Feb.  18, 
1559  ;  d.  in  London,  .July  1,  1614 ;  was  professor  of 
Greek,  first  at  Geneva  (1582-96),  then  at  Mont- 
pellier  (1596-1000)  ;  removed  in  the  latter  year  to 
Paris  as  librarian  to  Henry  IV.,  but  left  France 
after  the  assassination  of  the  king  (1610),  and 
settled  in  London,  where  he  was  well  received  liy 
King  .lames  and  the  bishops  of  the  Anglican 
Church.  He  was  acknowledged  to  be  the  greatest 
scholar  of  the  age,  next  to  Scaliger ;  and  though 
he  was  a  philologist  and  a  critic,  rather  than  a 
theologian  or  historian,  he  was  frequently  drawn 
into  the  theological  controversies  of  his  time.  Be- 
sides some  minor  pamphlets,  he  edited  a  Xovum 
Testamenlum  (jriccum.  (ieneva,  1587  ;  but  his  E.rer- 
cilationes  in  Baroninni  remained  imfinishcil.  His 
letters,  accompanied  with  a  carefully  written  life, 
were  puldished  by  D'Almeloveen,  Kotterdam, 
1709 ;  but  for  his  biography  his  Ephemerides, 
pulilished  in  1850  liy  Tlie  Clarendon  Press,  are  of 
jiaraniount  interest.  See  AIauk  Pattison  :  Isaac 
Casauboii.  Oxford.  1875. 

CASELIUS,  Johann,  b.  at  Gottingen,  15.33;  d. 
•at  Helmst:idt,  April  9,  1613;  studied  at  Witten- 
bi'rg  uniler  Mclanchthon,  and  at  Leipzig  inider 
Caineronius ;  visited  Italy  twice  (1560-63  ami 
1566)  ;  Wiis  .ip])ointed  ]irofessor  at  liostock  in 
156:),  and  removed  to  Helmstadt  in  1.599.  He- 
belonged  to  the  i\Ielanehtonian  school,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  bi-illiaiit  representatives  of 
humanism  in  (iermany:  but  he  w.as  vehemently 
attacked,  es]ieci;illy  in  the  latter  jiart  of  his  life, 
by  the  rigid  Lntlierans,  who  wanted  to  have 
]ihilosophy  and  classical  learning  ejected  from 
the  miiversities.  Of  his  numerous  writings  nuvny 
still  remain  in  manuscri]>t.  See  K.  Hknkk:  (t. 
Calixtus  iind  seine  Xeit,  I.  p.  48;  .LvKon  lirntK 


CASSANDER. 


413 


CASSIODORUS. 


uakd:  Ejiislola  de  J.  Caseiio,  Wolfenbiittel, 
1707. 

CASSANDER,  Ceorg,  b.  ou  the  Island  of  Caz- 
dand,  iu  the  Scheldt,  1515;  d.  at  Cologne,  1506; 
taught  classical  literature,  canon  law,  and  theol- 
ogy 'it  15ruges  and  Ghent,  but  retired  to  Cologne, 
and  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  stiulying. 
His  gi-eat  object  was  a  reconciliation  between  the 
Koniiui  Church  and  the  Reformers.  On  the  in- 
stance of  the  Duke  of  Cleve,  he  wrote  against  the 
Anaba])tists,  and  still  nearer  he  approached  his 
great  idea  by  his  work  De  Officii)  Pii,  1501.  Sitm- 
monc^d  afterwards  to  Vienna  by  Ferdinand  T., 
expressly  for  the  purpose  of  .such  a  reconcilia- 
tion, he  wrote  his  ConsuUaiio  de  Ariicxdis  Fidei 
inter  J'fi/)ixl/ix  el  Prolc.flanles  Controversis ;  but  he 
achieved  nothing  but  to  offend  the  one  party 
■without  gaining  the  confidence  of  the  other.  In 
some  respects  he  is  a  precursor  of  that  spiritualiz- 
ing Romanism  of  a  later  date,  which  manages  to 
retain  even  the  worst  misuses  by  representing 
them  as  mere  symbolization  of  some  fanciful 
but  pure  idea.  The  collected  edition  of  his 
■works  was  published  in  Paris,  1610.  See  Cal- 
KOEx;  Fi'to  Ca.s'sa)i(/n,  Amsterdam,  1859  ;  Biuck  : 
Cassanders  Ideen,  Cologne,  1876  (from  a  Roman 
point  of  view).  C.  ■WEIZSACKER. 

CASSEL,  The  Conference  of,  1001,  was,  to  a 
•certain  extent,  the  result  of  the  great  influence 
which  Georg  Calixtus  of  Helmstiidt  had  exercised 
in  tins  part  of  Germany,  and  engaged  tlie  per- 
sonal support  of  Wilhehn  VI.  of  Hesse,  with 
•whom  it  was  a  serious  wish  to  see  a  luiion 
brought  about  between  his  Lutheran  and  Re- 
formed subjects.  The  disputation  lasted  from 
the  1st  to  the  9th  of  June.  On  the  Lutheran 
side,  spoke  Peter  Musseus  and  Johann  Ilennichen, 
both  from  Rintelu,  and  pupils  of  Georg  Calix- 
tus ;  on  the  Reformed  side,  spoke  Sebastian 
Curtius  and  Johannes  Hein,  both  from  ^larburg. 
The  subjects  of  discussion  were  the  doctrines  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  predestination,  tlie  two  natures 
in  Christ,  and  baptism ;  and  the  wliole  character 
•of  the  proceedings  •khs  moderate  and  conciliatory. 
A  basis  of  union  was  also  established,  and  Wil- 
hehn VI.  was  requested  to  take  measures  for  the 
furtlier  consolidation  and  extension  of  the  result 
arrived  at.  But  he  died  in  1003,  and  the  cause 
was  lost  by  the  stubbornness  of  the  Lutherans, 
especially  in  Saxony.  See  Henke  :  Das  Unions- 
■coUoqidum  zu  Cassel,  Marburg,  1802  ;  Heppe  : 
Kii citeiu/eschichle  beider  Hessen,  Marburg,  1870, 
II.  lOll-Ki."").  HEPPE. 

CASSIANUS,  Johannes,  b.  between  350  and 
300 ;  d.  between  440  and  450 ;  was  educated  in  a 
monastery  at  Bethlehem,  under  the  tutelage  of 
abbot  Germanus.  In  390  the  master  and  his 
pupil,  now  two  friends,  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
Egyptian  liermits ;  and  this  oasis  of  stillness  and 
quiet,  situated  ou  the  veiy  confines  of  the  con- 
fusion and  restlessness  of  the  ancient  world,  made 
so  deep  an  impression  on  tlie  two  wanderers,  that 
they  remained  there  for  seven  years.  Leaving 
Egypt,  they  repaired  to  Constantinople,  where 
Cassianus  was  consecrated  a  deacon  by  Chrysos- 
tom  ;  but  after  the  overthrow  of  Chrysostoni  (404) 
Cassianus  went  to  Rome  alone.  Of  Gernumus 
nothing  more  is  lieard.  The  sack  of  Rome  by 
Alaric,  made  upon  Cassianus,  as  upon  so  many 
•others,  the  impression  that  pieace  and  safety  could 


not  be  attained  except  by  leaving  society  and  tlie 
stir  of  the  multitude,  and  settling  down  in  soli- 
tude. He  went  to  Massilia,  founded  two  monas- 
teries (one  for  men  and  one  for  women),  and 
wrote,  lor  tlie  instruction  of  his  pupils,  De  Cano- 
liioruin  luxlilulis  Libri  XIL,  and  Collaliones  Patrum 
XXIV.  In  the  former  of  tlie.se  works  he  gives 
first  the  external  rules  after  which  a  hermit's  life 
is  led,  and  then  he  describes  the  internal  labor 
by  wliicli  tlie  final  goal  is  readied.  In  the  latter 
he  gives  his  experiences  from  the  P^gyptian  lier- 
mits. By  tiiese  books,  and  by  his  two  founda- 
tions, lie  introduced  monasticism  in  the  Western 
Church. 

Also  from  another  side  the  Western  Church  was 
deeply  moved  at  that  moment,  namely,  by  the 
genius  of  Augustine.  But  the  discrepancy  be- 
tween the  ideas  of  Augustine  and  the  theological 
system  of  the  Eastern  Church,  in  which  Cassianus 
was  educated,  was  so  great,  that  he  never  felt  able 
to  adopt  such  doctrines  as  those  of  predestination, 
the  irresistibility  of  grace,  etc.  He  did  not  sepa- 
rate himself,  however,  so  far  from  the  views  of 
Augustine  as  to  embrace  those  of  Pelagius.  On 
tlie  contrary,  on  the  instance  of  Leo  the  Great,  lie 
wrote  liis  De  Incarnatione  Libri  '  VII.,  directly 
against  Nestorianism,  but  indirectly  against  Pela- 
gianism ;  and  thus  he  became  tlie  founder  and 
first  representative  of  semi-Pelagianisin.  The 
best  collected  edition  of  his  works  is  that  by 
Gaz^us,  Douai,  1010,  which  has  been  often  re- 
printed, latest  at  Leipzig,  1733.  An  accurate 
analysis  of  his  stand-point  has  been  given  by 
G.  Fr.  Wiggeus  :  Darstetlung  des  Augustinismus 
und  Pelagianismus,  1833,  II.  pp.  0-183.  [There  is 
an  Italian  translation  of  Cassianus 's  work,  Venice, 
1003,  and  a  French,  Paris,  1067.]       tiiieksch. 

CASSIANUS,  Julius,  a  heretical  teacher  from 
the  latter  part  of  the  second  century,  is  known  to 
us  only  through  Clement  Alexandrinus,  who  twice 
(Sti-mnata,  I.  '21 ;  III.  13)  refers  to  his  writings. 
According  to  Clement  he  was  the  originator  of 
docetism ;  and  his  denial  of  the  reality  of  Christ's 
body  seems  to  be  a  natural  sequence  of  his  abso- 
lute condemnation  of  generation  even  under  the 
form  of  matrimony ;  for,  if  it  is  an  evil  to  be  born, 
the  birth  of  Christ  must  be  an  evil  too,  and  there 
is  no  other  means  to  place  Christ  outside  of  the 
evils  of  generation  than  denying  the  reality  of  his 
human  nature. 

CASSIODORUS,  Magnus  Aurelius,  b.  at  Scyl- 
laciuni  in  Bruttiuiii,  about  477  ;  d.  in  the  Jlonas- 
tery  of  Viviers  about  a  century  later  ;  descended 
from  a  noble  and  wealthy  family,  and  entered 
early  on  a  brilliant  political  career;  became  sena- 
tor and  consul,  and  carried  great  weight  in  the 
council  of  the  Ostro-Gothic  kings  from  Theodoric 
to  Vitegis,  but  retired  in  540  from  public  life, 
founded  the  ]\Ionastery  of  Viviers,  and  devoted 
himself  exclusively  to  literary  pursuits.  As  he 
induced  his  brother-monks  to  follow  in  the  same 
track,  he  set  an  example,  which,  during  the  dark 
ages,  made  the  monasteries  asylums  for  science 
and  the  liberal  arts.  In  the  earlier  period  of  his 
life  his  literary  activity  was  chiefly  directed  to 
history  ;  but  the  works  which  he  wrote  after  his  re- 
tirement are  religious  or  theological :  Instituliones 
Dioinwum  et  Scecukirium  Litterat-um,  a  kind  of 
theological  encyclopajdia ;  De  Orthugraphia,  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  preceding ;  Complexiones  in  Epis- 


CASTELL. 


414 


CASUISTRY. 


tolas  et  Acta  Apostolorum  et  Ajmcabjpsin ;  Hisloria 
Ecclesiastica  Tripartita,  etc.  Collected  editions 
of  his  works  were  given  by  J.  Garet,  Rouen, 
1679,  and  in  SIigxe  :  Patrologia  Lat.  LXIX.- 
LXX.  See  Dexis  de  Ste.  SIarthe:  Vie  de 
Cassiodore,  Paris,  1694;  Olleris  :  Cassiodore 
Conservateur  des  Lirres  de  VAntu/uite  latine,  Paris, 
1841;  A.  Franz:  .1/.  A.  Cassiodorius  Senator, 
Breslau,  1872.  ebert. 

CASTELL,  Edmund,  Orientalist;  b.  at  Hatley, 
Cambridgeshire.  IGOG ;  d.  in  Bedfordshire,  1685. 
He  was  educated  at  Emanuel  and  St.  John's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge.  AVhile  at  the  university,  he  com- 
piled his  immortal  work,  Lexicon  Heptaglolton, 
Hchraicum,  Chaldaiciim,  Syriacum,  Samaritanum, 
jElhiopicum,  Arnl/icum,  conjunctim,  et  Pcrsicu7n 
separatim,  London,  1669.  2  vols,  folio.  He  spent 
eighteen  years,  and  twelve  thousand  pounds,  upon 
the  work.  Tluis  he  ruined  his  fortune  and  his 
health.  In  1666  he  was  appointed  King's  chap- 
lain, Arabic  professor,  and  later  a  prebend  of 
Canterbury :  at  his  death  he  was  rector  of  Iligham 
Gobion  in  Bedfordshire.  He  assisted  AA'alton 
upon  his  Polyglot  (1657),  not  only  by  lalior,  but 
by  money  to  tlie  amount  of  a  thousand  pounds, 
and  for  it  his  Lexicon  was  specially  prepared. 

CASTELLIO  or  CASTALIO,  Sebastian,  b.  at 
St.  Martin-du-Fresne,  a  village  of  Savoy,  1515; 
d.  at  Basel,  Dec.  29,  1568;  made  his  studies 
under  very  difficult  circumstances,  and  was  in 
1.540  appointed  tutor  to  three  young  noblemen 
at  Lyons,  where  he  published  the  tirst  part  of 
his  Latin  Dialogues,  a  work  which  was  often  re- 
printed, and  used  as  a  text-book  up  to  1731,  and 
which  has  been  translated  into  English  under 
the  title  Youth's  Scripture  Remembrancer,  London, 
1743.  Having  made  the  acquaintance  of  Calvin 
at  Strassburg,  he  was  called  to  Geneva  as  rector 
of  its  high-school.  But  disagreement  soon  arose 
between  him  and  the  great  reformer ;  and  in 
1544  he  left  Geneva,  and  settled  at  Basel.  After 
living  there  for  several  years  in  great  poverty,  he 
published,  in  1551,  his  Latin  translation  of  the 
Bible,  dedicated  to  Edward  VI.  of  England ;  and 
in  the  following  year  he  was  made  professor  of 
Greek.  In  1555  appeared  his  French  translation 
of  the  Bible,  dedicated  to  Henry  II.  of  France. 
The  Latin  15ible  of  Castellio,  the  last  edition  of 
which  appeared  at  Leipzig,  1756,  may  be  charac- 
terized as  the  Bible  of  the  Humanists.  The 
powerful  realism  of  the  original  text  is  often 
weakened  by  the  elegant  forms  of  the  translation. 
But  the  violent  attacks  of  Calvin  and  Beza  find 
their  exiJanation,  not  so  much  in  the  faults  of 
the  work  as  in  the  connection  in  which  Castellio 
stood  to  certain  anonymous  treatises  against  Cal- 
vin's doctrine  of  predestination,  and  to  Martinus 
Bellius's  De  non  Piiniendis  (jiadinjhcreticis.  See  his 
LifeliyJ.  ^Luii.v,  Basel,  1862,  founded  upon  careful 
Btudy  of  the  sources.      BEUXII  ARI>  HKiUENBAClI. 

CASUISTRY  is  a  theological  discipline  which 
developed,  generally  in  connc^ction  witli  ethics,  but 
sometimes  independently,  and  for  a  long  period 
even  succeeded  in  completely  super.sediug  this 
science.  Its  first  germs  may  Ije  found  in  the 
very  text  of  the  Now  Testament.  Clnist  answers 
ca.sui.stical  questions  (Matt.  xxii.  17 ;  Luke  xiv. 
3).  Paul  does  ti)e  same  (1  Cor.  vii.,viii.  10).  As 
the  institution  of  confession  and  iienance  de- 
veloped in  tiie  old  church,  manifold  opportunities 


occurred  to  decide  upon  the  moral  worth  of  so  n» 
special  action.  The  ethical  writings  of  Tortul- 
lian  and  Augustine,  among  the  Latin  fathers,, 
are  rich  in  such  decisions.  In  the  penitontials,^ 
or  books  of  penance,  the  movement  began  to- 
take  shape,  and  show  direction.  They  contained 
long  lists  of  sins  observed  in  common  life,  or 
imagined  as  possible,  minutely  described,  and 
accurately  classified ;  and  to  each  sin  was  added 
the  penance  or  ecclesiastical  punishment  set  upon 
it.  New  materials  flowed  from  the  canon  law, 
wliich,  in  consequence  of  its  own  inborn  princi- 
ple, always  considered  morality  in  its  relation  ta 
actual  circumstances ;  and  the  method  which  the 
proper  treatment  of  such  materials  demanded 
was  brought  to  its  very  perfection  by  the  school- 
men. Thus  the  penitentials  of  the  ancient  church 
gradually  grew  into  the  mediaeval  science  of  casu- 
istry; and  when  auricular  confession,  in  1215,. 
was  made  a  formal  law,  this  science  became  of 
so  great  practical  importance,  that  the  casuist 
appeared  in  the  miiversities  by  the  side  of  the- 
canonist. 

Raimund  de  Pennaforte,  from  the  thirteenth 
century,  is  generally  mentioned  as  the  earliest 
representative  of  this  science  of  casuistiy.  His 
Summa  de  Casibus  Pcenitcntialibus  consists  of  four 
books,  and  is  alphabetically  arranged:  it  was 
edited  by  Hon.  Vine.  Laget,  Lyons,  1719.  A 
great  number  of  smiilar  tiooks  followed  in  the- 
fom-teenth  and  fifteenth  centiu'ies,  generally 
called  Summce,  and  often  named  after  the  author 
or  his  birthplace :  thus  the  Asttsana,  ed.  Nurem- 
berg, 1482,  after  Asti  in  Piedmont ;  the  Pisana  or 
Pisanella,  ed.  Paris,  1470,  after  Pisa  ;  the  Angelica, 
ed.  Nuremberg,  1492,  after  Angelas,  the  -Genoese ; 
the  Pacijica,  ed.  Venice,  1574,  after  Pacificus  from 
Novara,  etc.  But  by  degrees,  as  the  science  de- 
veloped, its  inner  confusion  increased.  Every  | 
trace  of  a  ruling  principle  disappeared,  and  tlie  ' 
whole  field  was  covered  with  a  loose  conglomer- 
ate of  details.  The  cases  became  more  and  more 
intricate,  the  solutions  more  and  more  subtle ; 
the  power  of  conscience  to  give  a  clear  and  ready 
verdict  was  blunted  and  confounded ;  and  the 
blight  of  sceptici.sm,  with  its  indifference  and 
frivolity,  fell  upon  the  whole  moral  field  of 
Christian  education. 

At  this  point,  as  at  so  many  others,  the  Reforma- 
tion Laid  tlie  axe  at  the  root  of  the  evil.  Luther 
biu-nt  the  Angelica,  together  with  the  papal  bull, 
and  declared  openly  that  the  true  Christian  needs 
no  special  moral  instruction,  as  the  spirit  of  his 
faith  will  surely  lead  him  to  that  which  is  sanc- 
tioned by  the  will  of  God,  and  demanded  by 
lirotherly  love.  Even  Zwingli,  though  represent- 
ing a  more  specifically  moi'al  side  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, never  ceased  to  assert  that  the  iiulividnal 
spirit,  when  fidly  imbued  with  the  word  of  God, 
is  the  true  source  from  which  to  draw  the  moral 
ride,  entirely  inde]>eiident  of  any  external  pre- 
scription. Although  a  nund>er  of  diliicult  moral 
cases  presented  themselves  in  which  the  Reform- 
ers had  to  give  a  decision,  as,  for  instance,  with 
respect  to  marriage,  usury,  obedience  to  estab- 
lished authority,  etc.,  nevertheless,  no  casuistry, 
])ropt!rly  speaking,  di'velojied  during  the  first 
decades  of  the  l{i-forMialii>n  ;  and  wlien  it,  later 
on,  grew  up  both  within  the  Reformed  and  within 
tlie  Lutlu-ran  Church,  it  proved  of  a  merely  tran- 


CASUISTRY. 


415 


CATACOMBS. 


isient  nature,  and  was  speedily  absorbed  by 
ethics. 

In  the  Refonnod  Church,  W.  Perkins  (1558- 
1602)  was  tlie  first  wiio  attempted  to  revive  casu- 
istry, though  he  conipletely  abandoned  the  old 
scholastic  method.  lie  wrote  in  English,  Tlie 
Whole  Tiviilise  of  Cfises  of  Conscience,  London, 
1602,  wliieli  was  edited  in  Latin,  by  INL^gkh, 
Hanover,  ll)();3,  and  Dkaktis,  Geneva,  1621,  and 
in  German,  liy  Si'iii'xcLi,  Basel,  1640,  and  Leip- 
zig, 1690.  Ilis  piqiil,  Wii.MAiM  Ames,  followed 
the  same  track :  IJc  ( 'onscientia  t:t  ejus  Jure  vel 
Casibus,  Amsterdam,  lU:i(),  translated  into  Ger- 
man, Nuremberg,  1654  ;  also  others  ;  Hall  :  7iesr>- 
lulions  and  Decisions  of  Dicers  Practical  Cases  of 
Conscience,  London,  1649;  S.\xdersox  :  Nine 
Cases  of  Conscience,  London,  1678;  I.  H.  Alsted: 
Theoloyia  Casuum,  Hanover,  1621,  which  he  in  his 
theological  encyclopiedia  placed  independently 
beside  the  Theoloyia  Hloralis.  In  the  Lutheran 
Church  the  attempt  was  made  a  little  later  by 
Fr.  Balduin  (1575-1627),  whose  Tractate's  de 
Casibus  Conscientia:,  first  publislied  (1628)  in 
AVittenberg,  was  meant  to  form  an  opposition  to 
the  corrupted  casuistry  of  the  Roman-Catholic 
Church.  It  contains  all  the  casuistic  materials 
scattered  throughout  the  works  of  the  Reform- 
ers, arranged  after  a  very  superficial  plan;  and 
the  great  regard  which  is  paid  to  such  subjects 
as  ghosts,  evil  sjiirits,  sorcerers,  witches,  etc., 
shows  how  tightly  the  Orthodox  Lutheran  Church 
was  held  in  the  mazes  of  superstition  and  ped- 
antry. The  same  character  re-appears  with  the 
other  Lutheran  casuists  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury,—Fink,  1631;  Dunte,  16.36;  Kdnig,  1654; 
Kessler,  1658 ;  Dannhauer,  1679 ;  Osiander,  1680 ; 
Olearius,  1694,  etc.  Nevertheless,  the  influence 
of  Spener  soon  became  apparent;  and  the  clear 
and  convincing  exposition,  by  his  pupil  Buddeus, 
of  the  superfluity  of  casuistry  as  an  independent 
branch  of  evangelical  theology,  finally  made  it 
disappear. 

Quite  otherwise  in  the  Roman-Catholic  Church. 
There,  among  the  Jesuits,  casuistry  attained  a 
new  and  most  luxuriant  growth.  To  re-establish 
the  tottering  dominion  of  the  hierarchy  over  the 
souls  was  the  avowed  object  of  the  order ;  and 
what  more  suitable  means  could  be  found  for 
such  an  aim  than  the  dissolution  of  all  morality 
in  casuistry  ?  Consequently,  instead  of  a  deeper 
conception  of  the  universal  ideas  of  morality, 
instead  of  a  stronger  assertion  of  conscience  in 
its  office  as  the  organ  of  the  spirit  of  faith,  the 
Jesuits  invented  the  doctrines  of  probabilism,  of 
the  aim  justifying  the  means,  of  a  difference  be- 
tween philosophical  and  theological  sins,  of  men- 
tal reservation,  etc. ;  and  the  result  was  an  inner 
confusion  which  actually  made  the  peiutent  the 
slave  of  the  confessor.  The  most  prominent 
among  tiie  Jesuit  casuists  ai'e  Mariana,  Mendoza, 
Suarez,  Sanchez,  ^Molina,  and  Escobar  in  Spain  ; 
Filliucci  and  Francolini  in  Italy ;  Less  and  Lob- 
kowitz  in  Holland ;  Busenbaum  and  Laymann  in 
Germany.  The  laxity,  however,  and  frivolity  of 
the  Jesuit  morality,  caused  scandal,  even  within 
the  Roman-Catholic  Church  itself.  In  the  first 
half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  Arnauld  began 
the  opposition ;  then  followed  Pascal.  The  Sor- 
bonne  condemned  the  doctrine  of  proViabilism  in 
its  Corpus  Doclrince,  ed.  by  Pfaff,  Tubingen,  1718. 


Scholars,  like  Mabillon  and  Du  Pin,  kept  aloof 
from  the  pestiferous  atmosphere ;  and  serious 
men,  like  Ileinrich  a  St.  Ignatio,  attempted  to 
rear  a  ntiw  moral  system  on  another  basis  (T/no- 
loyia,  1707;  Ethica  Amoris,  1709).  But  all  tliis 
was  done  with  very  little  effect.  There  is  in  the 
doctrinal  system  of  tlie  Roman  Cliurcli  a  tendency 
which  necessarily  leads  to  casuistry  in  morals, 
and  which  cannot  be  eradicated  exciipt  together 
with  the  Church  itself.  Even  Sobiech's  Com- 
pcndiuin  Thcolof/icc  Moralis,  Breslau,  1814,  bears 
witness  to  this  truth. 

Lit.  —  G.  Tii.  jMeier:  Inlroductio  in  TheologicB 
Moralis  Studium,  Helmstadt,  1671  ;  J.  F.  Mayer, 
in  his  edition  of  Strauch  :  Theoloyia  Moralis, 
1705;  Buddeus:  Isayoye  Ilislorica,  etc.,  1727; 
Staudlin:  Geschichie  d.  Siltenlehre,  (iottingen, 
1799  and  1802;  De  Wette  :  Chrisltiche  Sitlen- 
lehre,  Berlin,  1821,  Part  II.;  Heinricii  Merz: 
Das  System  d.  christl.  Sittcnlehre  nach  den  Grund- 
sutzen  des  Protestanlisimts  iind  Kallwlicismus,  Tii- 
bingen,  1841.  E.  SCHWAKZ. 

CASUS  RESERVATI  are  cases  of  sin  in  which 
the  Pope  or  the  bishop  reserves  the  right  of 
absolution  to  himself,  or  to  a  priest  authorized 
by  him.  The  Roman-Catholic  Church  justifies 
such  reservation  in  the  following  manner:  as 
Christ,  properly  speaking,  conferred  the  power 
of  absolution  only  on  the  apostles  and  their  suc- 
cessors (John  XX.  21-23),  the  Pope  and  the 
bishops,  by  further  conferring  the  po\\  er  on  their 
substitutes,  the  lower  ranks  of  the  priests,  have  a 
right  to  make  such  resei-vations  as  they  deem 
necessary  for  the  weal  of  the  Church  ;  w  hich  con- 
ception lias  been  confirmed  by  the  Council  of 
Trent,  sess.  XIV.,  cap.  7,  de  poenitentia.  The 
cases  which  the  Pope  has  reserved  for  himself 
maybe  found  enumerated  in  Ferr.\ris:  Biblio- 
theca  Canonica,  Jladrid.  1795,  10  tom.  in  5  vols, 
fol.  The  cases  which  the  bishops  have  reserved 
for  themselves  differ  in  the  different  dioceses. 
With  respect  to  Germany  see  H.^utzheih  :  Con- 
cilia Germarii(e,  Tom.  XL 

CATACOMBS  is  the  name  of  certain  subter- 
ranean galleries  and  halls  in  which  the  ancient 
Chiu'ch,  up  to  the  fifth  century,  buried  her  dead  ; 
though  instances  of  burial  in  the  manner  now 
common  occur  even  in  the  first  days  of  the 
Church.  The  Pagans  called  their  burial-places 
Koi/i7iT?)pia  (dormitoria,  "sleeping-rooms");  and  the 
Christians  adopted  the  name,  which  among  them, 
fi'om  their  hope  of  resurrection,  received  a  new 
and  deeper  meaning.  Christian  cemeteries  of 
the  abo\e  description  are  found  in  Syria,  Alex- 
andria, Melos,  Malta,  Sicily,  Spain,  and  through- 
out the  whole  of  Italy,  especially  in  Naples  and 
Rome.  The  most  extensive,  and,  both  in  artistic 
and  in  ecclesiastical  respect,  the  most  important, 
of  these  cemeteries,  are  those  built  under  the  hills 
just  outside  the  gates  of  Rome.  They  are  fifty- 
four  in  number;  and  their  labyrinthine  galleries 
and  corridors,  excavated  in  the  tufa,  woukl,  if 
stretched  out  in  one  contimious  line,  reach  from 
one  end  of  the  Italian  Peninsula  to  the  other. 
They  are  computed  to  house  about  six  millions 
of  dead.  In  the  surroundings  of  Rome,  tliere  are 
found  twenty-four  more  subterranean  cemeteries, 
and  thirty  in  the  rest  of  Italy. 

It  was  formerly  believed  that  the  Roman  cata- 
combs  were   merely   quarries,   which   had    been 


CATACOMBS. 


416 


CATACOMBS. 


abandoned,  and  then  taken  into  use  by  tlie  Cliris- 
tians,  in  lack  of  something  better.  •  But  it  lias 
now  been  ascertained  beyond  doubt  that  such 
was  the  case  only  with  a  few  of  them ;  and  there 
is  a  marked  difference  between  those  which  origi- 
nated as  independent  structm-es,  and  those  which 
were  reared  m  the  quarries.  The  hitter  have 
broader  but  also  more  irregular  galleries,  built  up 
with  masonry  and  props  of  all  kinds ;  while  in 
the  former  the  galleries  are  narrower  but  higher, 
more  regular,  and  alwaj^s  hewn  out  in  the  granu- 
lar tufa,  which  at  once  is  firm,  easy  to  work,  and 
well  suited  to  preserve  the  corpses,  because  it  is 
porous,  and  easily  lets  off  the  water.  It  has  also 
l)een  ascertained  that  originally  the  catacombs 
were  not  built  secretly,  nor  were  they  fitted  up  in 
a  poor  and  dismal  style.  Among  the  privileges 
which  Julius  Ciesar  gave  the  Jews  of  Rome  was 
also  legal  protection  of  their  burial  associations 
and  gi'aves.  As  the  first  Cliristian  congregation 
ill  the  city  consisted  mostly  of  converted  Jews,  it 
naturally  enjoyed  the  same  jirivilege.  The  first 
Christian  cemetery,  like  that  of  the  Jews,  was 
built  on  a  hillside,  near  the  public  highway,  and 
with  a  conspicuous  entrance.  It  was  a  locus 
religiosus,  though  not,  in  the  Roman  sense  of  the 
words,  a  locus  sacer.  Even  the  remains  of  the 
martyrs  could  be  buried  without  any  trouble. 
But  it  is  true,  that,  when  the  times  of  persecution 
came,  the  original  entrances  had  to  be  covered 
up,  and  new  entrances  to  be  made  in  some  for- 
gotten corner  of  an  adjacent  quarry,  where  they 
were  not  easily  detected.  Regular  service  was 
not  held  in  the  catacombs  until  the  second  or 
third  century,  and  then  only  exceptionally,  but 
more  frequently  during  the  fhird  and  fourth  cen- 
turies. Even  the  death-days  of  the  mart\TS  were 
celebrated  in  the  chapels,  or  small  basilicas,  above 
the  catacombs,  up  to  the  middle  of  the  third  cen- 
tury ;  and  it  was  not  until  an  edict  of  257  had 
forbidden  the  Christian  assemblies,  that  Pope 
Felix  I.,  in  269,  ordered  those  natalitia  to  be  cele- 
brated at  the  very  graves.  According  to  tradi- 
tion, five  or  six  of  these  subterranean  burial-places 
date  back  to  the  times  of  the  apostles,  as,  for 
instance,  those  of  Priscilla,  Lucina,  and  Flavia 
Domitilla ;  and,  indeed,  inscriptions,  wall-paint- 
ings, and  ornaments  belong  to  the  tunes  of  the 
Flavians  and  Trajan.  The  orchards  or  vineyards 
under  which  the  cemeteries  were  excavated  were 
given  to  the  congregation  by  some  wealthy  mem- 
ber, for  tiiis  purpose.  Thus  the  first  common 
burial-])lace  which  the  Christian  congregation  of 
Rome  possessed  was,  no  doubt,  founded  by  u 
noble  lady  at  her  villa,  ud  culacumhns,  whore 
afterwards  Constantine  built  a  church  over  the 
grave  of  St.  .Seliastian.  The  place  was  probably 
called  Kara  av/ijiai,  from  some  natural  or  artificial 
cave;  or,  as  Kifiida  also  means  a  ciqi,  there  may 
have  stood  an  inn,  Kara  kv/jiScu:,  catacumlias,  analo- 
gous to  ad  cnscs,  ml  titjuilas,  etc.,  at  a  s]iot  on  the 
much-frequented  Via  Appia,  and  in  the  vicinity 
of  Vicus  Sutpicius,  and  from  this  inn  the  whole 
neighliorhood  may  have  received  its  name. 

In  the  third  century,  there  were  in  Rome  twenty- 
five  large  cemeteries,  and  about  twenty  minor 
martyr  or  family  tombs.  Pope  Zephyrinus  placed 
the  deacon  Kallistus,  proposihis  of  the  Roman 
clergy,  over  the  al)Ove-m(!iitioned  Ca:mclcrium  ait 
Calacumhas ;  and,  of  the  eighteen  popes  between 


Zephyrinus  and  Sylvester,  thirteen  were  buried 
there.  During  the  period  of  peace  from  Caracalla 
to  Decius,  Pope  Fabianus  (238)  erected  also,  in 
other  cemeteries,  a  nmnber  of  small  oratories  for 
service  :  such  a  one  was  discovered  in  1S74  in  the 
Cemetery  of  Domitilla.  In  2.37  Valerian  forbade 
tlie  Christians  to  visit  their  cemeteries,  declared 
their  loca  religiosa  state  property,  and  had  Pope 
Sixtus  and  his  deacon  Laurentius  beheaded  in 
the  Cemetery  of  PrKtextatus.  Gallienus,  how- 
ever, again  allowed  the  Christians  to  use  their 
burial-places  (260) ;  but  from  that  time  it  became 
customary  to  conceal  the  entrances.  Under  Xu- 
nierian,  a  gTeat  number  of  the  faithful,  who,  with 
the  vasa  sacra,  had  sought  refuge  in  a  catacomb 
on  Via  Salaria,  were  bm'ied  alive ;  the  entrance 
having  been  choked  up.  Shortly  before  his  death, 
Aurelian  issued  an  edict  against  the  Christians, 
and  in  303  the  grounds  under  which  the  ceme- 
teries were  built  were  taken  from  them.  Instead 
of  that  named  after  Kallistus,  Marcellinus  now 
founded  another  large  common  cemetery,  buUt 
very  deep  under  the  ground ;  and  the  entrances 
to  the  graves  of  the  martyrs  were  covered  up. 
Under  Maxeutius,  the  persecutions  ceased.  In 
311  the  church  property  was  restored,  and  with 
the  edict  of  Milan  (312)  a  new  era  began  for 
the  Chiuch. 

The  victorious  Church  did  not  like  to  bury  her 
dead  in  the  catacombs,  and  consequently  the 
catacombs  were  less  and  less  used.  !Melcliiades 
was  the  last  pope  interred  at  St.  Kallistus.  Syl- 
vester lies  in  the  basilica  built  by  him  over  the 
Coeinelerium  PrisciUcE ;  and  Marcus,  in  the  cella 
memorice  at  the  entrance  of  the  Ca:mvlerium  Balbi- 
n(E.  The  example  once  set,  graves  in  or  near  the 
basilicas  soon  came  to  be  preferred  to  graves  in 
the  catacombs.  The  extraordinary  increase,  how- 
ever, of  the  martyr-worship  after  the  time  of  Con- 
stantine, contributed  to  give  the  catacombs  a  new 
interest.  Costly  basilicas  were  erected  above  the 
graves  of  the  martyrs ;  and  the  whole  side  of  the 
hill  where  was  the  mouth  of  the  gallery  leading 
to  those  graves  was,  so  to  speak,  carved  off  in 
order  to  lay  bare  the  gi-aves  themselves.  Under 
Damasus  this  arrangement  was  completed.  Walls 
were  propped  up,  corridors  and  passages  were 
formed,  flights  of  steps  were  built,  the  chambers 
themselves  were  adorned  with  marble,  and  the 
calligrapher,  Furius  Dionysius  Philokalus.  was 
busy  everywhere  making  inscriptions.  Pruden- 
tius,  ill  his  hymns  on  the  martyrs  (Jlcpl  nrcipavuv 
XI.,  1.53-218),  gives  a  description  of  the  tomb 
of  Ilijipolytiis,  such  as  it  had  been  restored  by 
Damasus.  Tlie  walls  of  the  little  chapel  were 
inlaid  with  slaVis  of  I'ariaiiiiiarble,  and  leaves  of 
glittering  silver  ;  and  on  the  birthday  of  the  mar- 
tyr such  a  multitude  of  devotees  thronged  to  the 
grave,  that  the  narrow  passages  proved  altogether 
incapable  of  holding  them.  Indeed,  the  cata- 
combs became  a  much  frequented  place.  Jerome, 
ill  his  commentary  on  Ezek.  xl.  b,  6,  gives  a  graphic 
descri])tion  of  the  visits  he  made  while  a  school- 
boy, ami,  together  with  his  comrades,  on  Sundays, 
to  this  dreary  yet  awful  spot.  "  On  both  sides  the 
walls  rise,  filled  with  corpses  ;  and  the  whole  place 
is  so  dark,  that  the  prophet's  words,  '  Anil  they 
shall  go  alive  to  hell'  (Ps.  Iv.  Hi),  seem  directed 
to  us.  Now  and  then  a  little  light  breaks  down 
from    above,  through   a  wall-eye,  —  just   enough 


CATACOMBS, 


417 


CATECHETICS. 


to  soften  the  horror  of  the  night  for  a  moment. 
But  by  the  next  step  we  are  again  in  the  densest 
darkness ;  and  the  words  of  tlie  poet,  '  Horror 
ubique  ainmos,  simut  ipsa  silentiu  terreut '  (Vihgil, 
^IHneas  II.,  75.)),  come  home  to  our  heart." 

According  to  records  still  extant,  two-thirds  of 
the  t'hristiaus  who  died  in  Itonie  between  338 
and  •![)!  were  buried  in  the  catacomlis;  but,  be- 
tween 37'J  and  400,  not  more  than  oniM.liird  ;  after 
410  only  a  few;  and  none  after  4.'J4.  Jn  Naples, 
however,  and  in  .Sicily,  interment  in  catacombs 
continued  as  late  as  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries. 
After  the  conquest  by  Alaric,  the  Christians  in 
lionie  could  not  afford  to  adorn  their  graves  any 
more;  and  from  410  the  catacombs  actually 
began  to  fall  into  oblivion  and  decay.  After  426 
no  fossores,  "  grave-diggers,"  are  mentioned  any 
more.  The  Ostrogoths  under  Vitiges  (537),  and 
again  under  Totila,  did  not  liesitate  to  outrage 
the  graves  of  the  niartjTs,  and  throw  out  their 
bones ;  and  though  tlie  Popes  Vigilius  and  John 
in.  (568),  and  Sergius  and  Gregory  III.  (735)  did 
much  for  the  restoration  of  the  catacombs,  and 
the  revival  of  the  devotion  at  the  martyr's'  graves, 
■when  the  "  godless  "  Longobards,  under  Aistulf, 
broke  open  the  tombs,  and  carried  away  the  bones 
of  the  saints,  the  awe  and  even  the  respect  of  the 
people  for  the  catacombs  sank  so  low,  that  sheei> 
pens  were  built  in  the  consecrated  graves.  In 
761  Paul  I.  transferred  a  hundred  holy  corpses  to 
the  new  church  he  had  erected,  and  dedicated  to 
St.  Sebastian  and  St.  Sylvester.  July  20,  817, 
Paschal  I.  transfeiTed  twenty-three  hundred  holy 
corpses  to  St.  Prassede ;  and  Sergius  II.  and  Leo 
IV.  carried  them  by  the  cartload  into  the  Pan- 
theon. Thus  the  ruin  of  the  catacombs  was  com- 
pleted. In  the  fourteenth  century,  however, 
three  of  these  old  cemeteries  were  still  visited 
by  pilgrims ;  but  in  the  fifteenth  the  Ccemetcrium 
in  Catacumhas,  or,  as  it  was  also  called,  the  Came- 
terium  Calacumbas  ad  Sehastia7nim,  was  the  only  one 
open  to  visitors ;  and  thus  it  came  to  pass  that  its 
name,  Catacutnbas,  became  the  common  appella- 
tion applied  to  all  subterraneum  burial-places. 

In  1578  another  catacomb  was  incidentally  dis- 
covered, and  immediately  made  a  mine  from 
which  the  altars  of  those  churches,  which  during 
the  counter-reformation  had  been  taken  from  the 
Protestants,  were  refurnished  with  relics.  St. 
Borromeo,  the  chief  of  the  counter-reformation, 
prayed  whole  nights  in  the  catacombs ;  and,  some 
years  before  him,  Filippo  Neri  spent  every  night 
there.  AVater  from  the  wells  of  the  catacombs,  or 
the  mere  use  of  cups  found  there,  began  to  work 
miraculous  cures.  Pope  Sixtus  did  his  best  to 
push  the  movement,'  discovering,  investigating, 
and  restoring  catacombs.  Bosio,  an  official  of  the 
order  of  IMaltha,  spent  his  fortune,  and  often 
risked  his  life,  in  examining  the  catacombs. 
Gems,  utensils,  sarcophagi,  were  found  in  great 
multitude ;  but  most  of  them  were  lost  again  by 
bad  management.  What  remained  was  gathered 
into  the  Christian  Museum  in  the  Vatican,  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  by  Benedict  XIV.  The  de- 
scription of  Bosio's  discoveries  appeared  at  Rome 
(1632)  shortly  after  his  death,  under  the  title, 
Roma  Sotlerranea ;  but  both  the  description  and 
the  illustrations  are  very  inaccurate.  A  Latin 
translation  by  Ariiir/hi,  much  enlarged,  appeared 
in  1651 ;  and  a  pocket  edition,  somewhat  abbrevi- 
28  —  1 


ated,  in  1671.  The  literature  of  the  subject  now 
began  to  flourish.  See  Cardinal  Bottaki  :  Scul- 
ture  e  pitture  sagrc  eslratte  dai  cemelari  ili  Roma, 
Rome,  1737-54,  3  vols,  fob;  SIauchi  :  Monumenli 
dctle  Anliche  Arti  Cristlane  nclla  Mali-opoli  did 
Cristianismo,  Turin,  1841;  Pkhkkt:  CataconJ/es 
ih  Rome,  Paris,  1851.  But  all  these  woi'ks  were 
completely  superseded  by  G.  B.  uic  Rossi:  La 
Roma  Solterranea,  I. -III.,  1804-77.  See  also 
J.  Si'icNCEU  NouTHCOTic  and  AV.  11.  ISuownlow: 
llama  Sotlerranea,  London,  ISO!)  [2d  ed.,  2  vols., 
1870,  entirely  rewritten,  and  njuch  enlarged]; 
V.  SciIULTZE  :  Die  Katakomben  von  S.  Gennaro 
del  Pooe.ri  in  Neapel,  1877 ;  J ■  II.  Parkkk:  The 
Archccology  of  Rome,  1874-77,  9  vols.;  and  F. 
Becker  :  Die  Wand-  und  Decken-  Gemulde  der 
romischen  Katakomben ;  Roms  altchristticlie  Ciime- 
terien ;  and  Die  Inschriften  der  romischen  Ciimete- 
rien,  1878  ;  [R.  Armellini  :  Le  catacombe  romans 
descritte,  Roma,  1880 ;  L.  Lefout  :  Clironologie 
des  peintures  des  catacombes  romains,  Paris,  1881 
(60  pp.)  ;  T.  Roller  :  Les  catacombes  de  Rome, 
Paris,  1881,  2  vols.  ;  V.  Schultze  :  Die  Kata- 
komben, Leipzig,  1882].  IIEINIIICII  MERZ. 

CATAFALCO,  or  CATAFALQUE,  from  the  Ital- 
ian balco,  a  "scaffold,"  is  a  representation  of  a 
tomb,  made  of  plain  carpentry,  but  often  magni- 
ficently decorated.  It  came  into  use  in  Italy, 
wlien  it  became  customary  not  to  bring  the  corpses 
into  the  church  while  the  singing  of  the  A'igil, 
Requiem,  and  Libera,  took  place ;  and  its  object 
was,  as  a  visible  memorial  of  the  dead,  to 
strengthen  the  devotion. 

CATALDUS,  ST.,  a  saint  of  the  Roman-Catho- 
lic Church,  but  a  person  of  a  very  fabidous  record. 
It  seems,  however,  that  he  lived  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, came  from  Ireland,  made  a  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem,  settled  at  Tarent,  and  became  bishop 
there.  In  1071  his  bones  were  discovered  ;  and,  as 
they  made  the  customai'y  miracles,  he  was  canon- 
ized. His  festival  is  celebrated  on  iSlay  10.  The 
Acta  Sanct.,  May,  gives  his  life,  and  the  literature 
belonging  to  it. 

CATECHETICS,  CATECHISMS,  and  CATE- 
CHUMENS. Catechetics,  from  Kanixii^en;  "to 
teach,"  "  to  instruct,"  is  a  part  of  practical  theol- 
ogy, and  corresijonds  to  catechesis,  as  theory  to 
practice.  The  practical  art  of  catechisation  origi- 
nated together  with  the  Church,  and  in  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries  it  began  to  develop  its  scien- 
tific theory.  Some  instruction  in  the  truths  of 
Christianity,  more  or  less  conqirehensive,  more  or 
less  profound,  was,  no  doubt,  from  the  very  first 
days  of  the  Church,  considered  an  indispensable 
condition  for  admission  into  membership,  that  is, 
for  baptism  and  very  early  the  catechist  appeared 
as  an  officer,  the  catechumenate  as  an  institution, 
in  the  Church.  The  Const itutiones  AposloliccE, 
from  the  latter  part  of  the  third  century,  show 
the  institution,  its  functions,  and  its  proceedings, 
in  a  fair  state  of  development;  and  a  century 
later  on,  in  the  ■s\Titings  of  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, 
Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Chrysostom,  and  Augustine,  it 
presents  itseU  as  a  missionary  apparatus  of  great 
completeness  and  vigor.  After  a  sinqile  applica- 
tion to  the  deacon,  or  presbyter,  or  bishop,  and  a 
preliminary  investigation  by  him  of  the  moral 
standing  of  the  applicant,  any  person,  Jew, 
jjagan,  or  heretic,  was  admitted  into  the  state  of 
a  catechumen  by  the  sign  of  the  cross  and  the 


CATECHISMS. 


418 


CATECHUMENS. 


imposition  of  hands ;  th.at  is,  lie  was  recognized 
as  a  Christian,  tliougli  not  as  one  of  the  fideles, 
and  enjoined  to  attend  tlie  catechisation  in  tlie 
church.  As  a  catechumen  he  passed  through 
several  stages.  Some  distinguish  between  two, 
others  between  three,  and  others  again  between 
four ;  though  a  first  class,  not  allowed  to  enter  the 
church-building,  but  receiving  instruction  outside 
the  wali,  is  a  very  doubtful  supposition.  Tlie 
first  class  comprised  the  Auilientes,  who  attended 
the  sermon,  but  left  the  church  before  the  strictly 
liturgical  part  of  the  service  began ;  the  second, 
the  Genujieclentes,  or  Prostrali,  who  were  allowed 
to  attend,  kneeling,  the  prayer  which  was  offered 
up  for  them  ;  the  third,  the  Compelentes,  or  candi- 
dates for  baptism,  to  whom  the  arcani  cli.iciplina 
was  unveiled.  —  the  creed  and  the  Lord's  Prayer. 
The  whole  course  through  the  catechumenate  took 
between  two  and  three  years ;  and  in  this,  its  great 
missionary  function,  the  Church  appears  to  have 
employed  as  much  caution  as  energy.  In  the 
tlih'd  and  fourth  centm-ies,  questions  of  the  what 
and  the  how  of  this  mstruction  were  mooted ;  and 
in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  the  settled  prac- 
tice began  to  develop  its  theory.  See  Cyril  :  Calc- 
cheses ;  Gkegory  of  Xyss.\  :  Oratio  Catechelica; 
Chrysostom  :  Catecheses  ad  lUmyiinanilos ;  Au- 
gustine :  De  CalecJilzmidis  Rudibus.  Comp.  I. 
May'ER  :  Geschichte  des  Kulcchmnenats  nnd  der 
Katechese  in  den  erslen  sechi  Ja/irhunderten,  Keniiv 
ten.  1868. 

In  the  period  from  the  sixtli  to  the  sixteenth 
century  very  little  was  done  for  catechetics  and 
catechesis.  The  missionary  activity  of  the  Church 
assumed  an  entirely  new  character.  On  the  one 
side,  the  society  in  which  Christianity  was  born, 
and  in  which  it  was  now  growing  into  supreme 
power,  had  been  thoroughly  christianized ;  infant 
baptism  had  become  the  rule ;  the  catechumenate 
disappeared ;  the  instruction  in  Christianity  was 
left  to  the  family,  and  the  clergy  gradually 
dropped  those  functions  which  characterize  the 
catechist,  developing  only  those  which  character- 
ize the  priest.  On  the  other  side,  the  Church 
carried  on  its  mission  among  the  barbarians  in  a 
peculiar  wholesale  style,  which  plainly  shows 
that  the  kingdom  of  heaven  had  become  a  king- 
dom on  earth,  and  meant  to  vindicate  itself  as 
such.  Whole  nations  were  converted  by  the 
sword,  or  as  a  natural  consequence  of  the  conver- 
sion of  their  ruli-r;  and  the  great  oliject  of  the 
Church  was  to  subdue  the  nuisses  under  an  exter- 
nal organization,  which  did  next  to  nothing  for 
the  internal  trai)ung  of  tlie  individual.  The. 
gi-ave  shortcomings  of  the  Konian-Catholic  Church 
in  this  respect  were  felt;  but  very  little  was  done 
to  make  up  for  the  deficiency.  The  cnpilularies 
of  Charlemagne  and  l^ouis  the  Piou.s,  the  councils 
of  Lambeth  (1281),  IJezier  (1346),  and  Tortosa 
(112,0),  ardently  inculcated  the  duty  of  the  priest 
to  instruct  his  flock  in  the  Cliristian  faith.  In  the 
ninth  century  Ottfried  wrote  the  so-called  AVeis- 
senburg  Catechism ;  in  the  eleventh,  Kruno  of 
AVurlzburg,  a  catechism  in  the  form  of  questions 
and  answers;  in  tlic  fifteenth,  John  fjerson,  his 
Ue  Purvulis  ad  Clirinlum  Trnliciidis.  lint  it  was 
only  among  the  heretical  sects  of  the  jieriod,  —  the 
Cathari,  Walden.ses,  AViclifites,  IJoheniian  Bretli- 
ren,  etc.,  —  that  catechesis  and  catechetics  still 
lived  on,  and  bore  fruit.     Amoug  them  no  child 


was  allowed  to  grow  up  without  being  able  to  give 
an  account  of  its  faith  ;  and  in  Bohemia  there  are 
traces  of  gradated  catechumenate  similar  to  that 
of  the  ancient  Church.  It  is  apparent,  however, 
as  we  approach  the  outbreak  of  the  Keformation, 
that  a  feeling  of  the  necessity  of  giving  more  and 
better  religious  instruction  becomes  more  and 
more  vivid  in  the  Church  ;  and  not  only  have  the 
Brethren  of  the  Coninion  Life  done  much  good 
in  this  field,  but  all  the  reformers  before  the 
Reformation  found  here  one  of  their  principal 
practical  issues. 

How  powerful  the  impulse  was  which  cateche- 
sis (and,  soon  after,  also  catechetics)  received  in 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  may  be 
inferred  from  the  sudden  and  almost  contempo- 
raneous appearance  in  all  chm-ches  of  the  cate- 
chism ;  that  is,  a  siminiary  of  the  contents  of  the 
faith,  drawn  up  under  the  authority  of  the 
Chmxh,  and  destined  to  form  the  basis  for  oral 
instruction.  [See  Philip  Schaff  :  Creeds  of 
Christendom.  New  York,  1877,  3  vols.]  In  the 
Lutheran  Church  several  attempts  had  been 
made,  both  by  Luther  and  others,  to  write  a  cate- 
chism ;  but  they  were  all  superseded  in  1529, 
when  Luther  published  his  Larger  and  Smaller 
Catechism,  —  the  former  destined  for  the  minister 
and  the  schoolmaster,  the  latter  for  the  people  and 
the  children  ;  which  two  books  soon  became,  and 
still  are,  the  standard  text-books  in  the  Lutheran 
churches  in  Germany  and  Scandinavia.  In  the 
Reformed  Church  the  Catechixmus  .S'a/i-6'H//ensis 
appeared  in  1527 ;  the  catechism  of  fficolampa- 
dius  and  Leo  Juda  in  1534 ;  that  of  Calvin,  in 
1536 ;  and  in  1563  that  of  L'rsinus  and  Olevianus, 
tlie  so-called  Heidelberg  Catechism,  which  became 
one  of  the  symbolical  books  of  the  Dutch  and 
German  Reformed  Churches  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica. In  the  French  Reformed  Church  various 
catechisms  were  used,  —  by  Capell,  1619,  Drelin- 
court,  1642,  etc., — until  in  1806  the  Cate'chisme 
a  I'Usaye  de  toules  les  Eylises  de  V Empire  Fran- 
cais  was  introduced.  Even  the  Roman-Catholic 
Church  felt  the  influence  of  this  impulse.  The 
catechism  of  Canisius  appeared  in  1554  ;  that  of 
Bellarmin,  in  1603 ;  that  of  Bossuet,  in  1687,  etc. 
The  standard  work,  liowever,  is  the  Calecliis7nus 
liomaniis  c.r  Decrelo  Cone.  Tritleni.,  published 
under  the  authority  of  Pius  V.,  in  1566  [and 
translated  into  English  by  Donovan,  Dublin, 
1829]. 

The  two  great  catechisms  which  the  Reforma- 
tion produced  in  England  are  that  of  the  EpLsco- 
jial  Church  and  that  of  the  Presliyterian  Church. 
The  former  was  prepared,  after  the  Hampton 
Court  Conference  of  1604,  by  John  Overall,  or  at 
least  in  part  by  him,  and  at  the  instance  of  James 
I.,  and  it  is  still  the  standard  text-book  of  the 
Clun-ch  of  England.  The  latter  was  prepared 
by  the  assembly  of  divines  at  Westminster,  and 
appean^d  in  a  double  form,  —  a  smaller,  1646,  and 
a  larger,  1047.  It  is  tlie  standard  text-book  for 
all  evangelical  Xonconformists  in  England,  and 
Presbytei'ians  in  America.  Other  liut  less  suc- 
cessful attempts  in  tlie  sami;  field  are,  Cranmer's 
Ciitechismc,  1548 ;  Allen's  Calechismc,  tiiat  is  to 
say,  A  Christen  Instruccion  of  (he  Principnll  Pointes 
of  Chrisles  IMifjion,  1551  ;  Kini/  Edward  Vllh's 
Catechisme,  1.").53;  Alexander  Xoel  :  Catechis- 
mus    sive  prima    In.ilitutio   Disciplinaque    Pielatii- 


CATENA. 


419 


CATENA. 


ChnslUinfv,  1570;  Danikl  Rookiss:  Pmrliccd 
Calechi.wic,  WiO  ;  Ezekikl  RooKits  :  GrnuiKh  of 
the  Christian  ReUf/ioti  byway  of  Catcchisiiif,  ICAU; 
HuNYAN :  Instruction  for  the  Iijnorant,  107:2 ; 
Isaac  Watts  :  Catechisms  for  Children  and 
Youth,  1730,  cto.  Valuable  contributions  to  cate- 
chetics  were  given  by  Isaac  Watts  :  Discourse 
on  Instruction  by  Catechism,  17-*S;  Gii.l.Y :  Norm 
Catecheticce,  1828;  GuEEX:  Lectures  on  the  Shorter 
Catechism,  Pliiladolphia,  1811;  Ardkn  :  Manual 
of  Catechetical  Listruction,  London,  1851.  But  a 
systematic  representation  of  catechetics  has  been 
produced  only  in  Germany,  where  the  practical  ap- 
plication of  very  different  principles  ami  methods 
of  catechisation  by  the  orthodox  Lutheran,  the 
Pietists,  and  the  Rationalists,  naturally  led  to  the 
creation  of  a  scientific  theory.  See  C.  Pai.mkij: 
Ecany.  Katechetik,  Stuttgart,  4th  ed.,^  1814  ;_  G. 
VON  Zkzschwitz  :  System  d.  christ.  lirchl.  Kate- 
chetik; Leipzig,  1864,  3  vols.;  R.  Kuhel  :  Kate- 
chetik, Barmeii,  1877;  P.  Gobel?  Geschichte  der 
Katechese  ijn  Abendlande,  vom  Verfall  d.  Katechu- 
menats  bis  zum  Ende  d.  Mittelalters,  Kempten,  1880 ; 
J.  Coiiiii.ET:  Du  catc'chumt'nal,  Paris,  1881  (36 
pp.). 

CATENA  (a  chain).  From  the  very  first 
days  of  the  Christian  Church  her  teachers  were 
deeply  engaged  in  the  study  and  exposition  of 
Holy  AVrit ;  and  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
attracted  the  same  attention,  and  carried  the  same 
authority,  as  those  of  the  New  Testament.  In 
Origen  the  Eastern  Church  produced  a  compre- 
hensive and  most  fertile  exegete ;  and  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fifth  century  her  literary  activity  reached 
its  acme.  Ambrose,  Avigustine,  and  Jerome  la- 
bored at  the  same  time  in  the  AVestern  Church  ; 
and  such  a  mass  of  exegetical  materials  was  pro- 
duced as  to  make  sifting,  arrangement,  and  epito- 
mizing, after  the  manner  of  the  old  scholiasts, 
absolutely  necessary.  Thus  originated  exegetical 
collections,  whicll  the  Greeks  called  imrojiat  {avX- 
Tloyai,  avvayuyni)  ep/irjveiijv,  etc.  while  tlie  Latins 
simply  designated  them  as  ylossce,  postilke,  etc. 
The  name  catence  is  of  a  later  date.  Formerly  it 
was  generally  believed  that  Thomas  Aquinas  was 
the  first  to  use  it;  but  the  title  Catena  Aurea,  of 
liis  work  on  the  Gospels,  does  not  belong  to  him : 
all  the  oldest  editions  have  Glossa  Continua,  or 
Continuum. 

According  to  general  acceptation,  the  catence 
began  in  the  ^^'est  with  Cassiodorus,  from  the 
end  of  the  fifth  century,  and  in  the  East  with 
Procopius  of  Gaza,  from  the  beginning  of  the 
sixth  century.  But  this  is  hardly  correct.  Tlie 
true  catena  consists  merely  of  extracts  from  a 
greater  or  smaller  number  of  exegetes,  whose 
names  are  given  after  every  quotation.  The  col- 
lector himself  offers  no  opinion  of  his  own.  His 
business  is  simply  to  collect  and  arrange,  and  he 
makes  changes  only  when  he  feels  compelled  to 
abbreviate  or  condense.  The  choice  of  authori- 
ties from  whom  to  make  extracts  was  individual 
and  incidental;  but  prominent  teachers  —  Origen, 
Chrysostom,  Theodoret,  and  Cyrillus  in  the  East, 
and  Augustine  in  the  West  —  were,  of  course, 
preferred.  Also  hei'etics  were  sometimes  quoted, 
but  generally  for  the  purpose  only  of  warning 
against  their  propositions.  iSomewhat  different 
from  this,  the  true  catena,  is  another  kind  of 
exegetical  collections,  in  which  the  collector  uses 


only  one  authority,  whom  ho  epitomizes,  con- 
denses, transcribes,  etc.  To  this  latter  kind  belong 
the  works  of  Procopius,  Cassiodorus,  Primasius, 
Florus  Magister,  Beda,  and  Rhabanus  Maurus; 
and  they  are  the  nearest  predecessors  of  the  true 
catena. 

Once  invented,  the  catena  flourished  during  the 
wiiole  period  of  the  middle  ages,  and  uj)  to  the 
latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Rich  mate- 
rials exist,  scattered  about  in  the  various  libraries  ; 
but  only  a  small  portion  of  it  has  as  yet  been 
examined  and  utilized.  See  J.  A.  FAJiHicius : 
mUiolheca  Grccca,  Hamburg,  1718-28,  VIH.  p. 
637  sqq. ;  J.  A.  Noesselt  :  De  Calenis  Patrum 
Grac,  in  his  Opusc.  ad  Hist.  Eccl.,  Halle,  1817; 
.1.  MouELLius :  BiUioth.  Marc.  Venet.  Manser. 
Grwc.  et  Lat.,  Bassani,  1802,  I. ;  and  Ids  Cod. 
Gnec.  Muser.  apud  Nanios  Patricios  Venetos  As- 
servati,  Bonn,  1784.  On  closer  investigation,  how- 
ever, it  appears  that  there  were  originally  only  a. 
limited  number  of  cateme,  which  were  copied  over 
and  over  again,  and  abbreviated  or  enlarged  in  a 
rather  arbitrary  manner  by  the  copyists.  Among 
the  most  jjrominent  catena  writers  were  Nicetas, 
Bishop  of  Serrai  in  ISIacedonia,  and  afterwards 
metropolitan  of  Heraclea  in  Thracia  (eleventh 
century),  and  ]\Iacarius  Chrysocephalus,  metropol- 
itan of  Philadelphia  (fourteenth  century).  There 
occur  also  catence  in  the  vernacular  tongues,  —  one 
in  Low  German,  on  Jesu  Sirach  ;  another  in  High 
German,  on  the  New  Testament,  etc.  The  exe- 
getical value  of  these  works  is  very  small ;  but, 
besides  having  interest  as  literary  monuments  of 
the  age  in  which  they  originated,  they  are  of  im- 
portance to  the  text-critic,  especially  in  cases  in 
which  they  quote  from  books  which  now  are  lost. 

As  the  Latin  cateme  mostly  quote  from  works 
which  still  exist,  they  are  only  of  suboidinate 
consequence,  and  need  no  further  mention  here. 
The  most  important   of   the  Greek  catence   are  : 

I.  To  the  Old  Testament.  —  One  to  the  Octateuch, 
very  rich,  edited  by  NicBphorus,  Archbishop  of 
Philadelphia,  Leipz'ig,  1772, 2  vols,  fob ;  one  to  Jere- 
miah and  Baruch,  printed  in  tlie  Commentary  of 
Mich.  Guislerius,  Lyons,  1633,  3  vols.  fol. ;  on* 
to  Daniel,  published  in  A.  jMai  :  Script.  Vett.  Nova 
Coll.,  I.  2,  p.  161  sqq. ;  one  by  Bishop  Nicetas 
to  the  Psalms,  edited  by  Balth.  Coederius, 
Antwerp,  1043-46,  3  vols,  fob,  very  interesting. 

II.  To  the  New  Testament.  —  To  Matthew,  one 
edited  by  P.  PossiNUS,  ToIoscB,  1646,  and  another 
edited  by  Balth.  Corderius,  Antwerp,  1647; 
to  Mark,  one  edited  by  P.  PossiNUS,  Rome,  1673, 
and  another  edited  by  C.  F.  Matth^i,  Moscow, 
1775;  to  Luke,  one  made  by  Titus  Bostrexsis, 
and  published  in  Fronto  Duc.eus,  Auctar.  Bib- 
lioth.  Patr.,  II.  p.  762  sqq.,  and  in  Bibl.  Patr.^ 
Paris,  XIII.,  and  large  parts  of  another,  pub- 
lished in  A.  ]Mai,  Script.  Vett.  Nova  Coll.  IX.,. 
p.  626 ;  to  John,  one  edited  by  Balth.  Corde- 
rius, Antwerp,  1630;  and  to  all  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament,  one  edited  by  J.  A.  Cramer, 
Oxford,  1838-44,  8  vols.  The  commentaries  of 
EuTHYMius  ZiGADENUS  to  the  Psalms  and  the 
Gospels,  of  Theophylactus  to  the  Gospels  and 
Paul's  Epistles,  and  of  Andreas  and  Arethas 
to  the  Apocalj-pse,  all  dating  from  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, have  the  character  of  catence,  though  they 
are"  not  altogether  without  independent  produc- 
tivity. 


CATHARI. 


420 


CATHARI. 


The  powerful  impulse  wliich  biblical  exegesis 
received  in  the  sixteenth  century  from  tlie  Refor- 
mation soon  produced  a  great  quant  it}'  of  new 
exegetical  materials  ;  and  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury exegetical  collections  were  made  which  in 
all  essential  points  show  the  cliaracter  of  the  old 
catence.  Such  are  tlie  Biblia  Mai/na,  Paris,  1643, 
5  vols.  fol. ;  Biblia  3Iaxiina,  Paris,  1660,  19  vols, 
fol. ;  Annolalions  upon  all  the  Books  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  Loudon,  1645,  "2  vols.  fol. ;  Pear- 
son's Crilici  Sacri,  London,  1660,  9  vols.  fol.  ; 
Abr.  Calovius  :  Biblia  Illustrata,  Francfort,  1672, 
4  vols.  fol.  And,  indeed,  the  exegetes  of  the 
Eoman-Catholic  Church  have  retained  many  of 
the  features  of  the  ancient  catena  up  to  this  very 
day.  O.  F.  FRITZSCHE. 

CATHARI  (xaSapoi,  "the  pure''),  a  dualistic 
sect  which  originated  in  Eastern  Europe,  inde- 
pendently of  the  IManichaeans  and  Paulicians, 
but  from  the  same  source,  —  an  intermingling  of 
European  and  Asiatic  ideas.  Most  probably 
they  originated  among  the  Slavs,  and  in  some 
Bulgarian  monastery ;  though  Shaff  arUc,  the  great 
authority  on  Slav  antiquities,  while  confirming 
their  Slav  origin,  puts  their  birthplace  in  Drago- 
■witza,  in  Southern  Macedonia,  where,  at  all 
events,  they  had  a  bishopric  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. Thence  they  spread  into  Thrace,  where 
they  were  known  as  the  Bogomiles,  into  Dalma- 
tia,  Slavonia,  Bulgaria,  whence  the  crusaders 
hrought  back  to  France  the  name  Bulgari,  or 
Bowjres,  and  Albania,  where  the  great  split  took 
place  between  the  absolute  dualists,  the  Alba- 
neuses,  and  those  adoptmg  a  milder  form  of 
dualism,  the  Concorezenses  (from  Coriza  in  Dal- 
matia,  or,  according  to  Schafforik,  from  Goriza  in 
Albania).  From  tlie  Slav  countries  in  the  Balkan 
peninsula,  where  they  maintained  themselves  up 
to  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  centm-y,  wheji 
they  were  absorbed  by  Mohammedanism,  they 
spread,  during  the  middle  ages,  over  all  Eurojie, 
more  especially  over  tlie  southern  part. 

Travelling  Slav  merchants  early  brought  the 
heresy  to  Italy.  Though  the  first  traces  of  the 
sect  in  the  Western  Church  are  found  in  France 
and  Flanders,  it  is  expressly  affirmed  that  the 
new  doctrines  were  brought  thither  from  Italy. 
In  Italy  the  first  Cathari  were  discovered  iu  tlio 
Castle  of  Jlonteforte,  near  Turin,  about  1035; 
and  their  chief  Girardus,  together  witli  .several 
others,  was  burnt.  A  century  later  on  they  had 
spread  widely  in  IJpper  Italy,  especially  in  Lom- 
bardy ;  and  in  1167  Xiceta.s,  the  Bishop  of  the 
Cathari  in  Constantinople,  came  to  Italy,  on  ac- 
count of  tlie  schism  between  the  Albanenses  and 
the  Concorezenses,  and  for  the  inirpose  of  secur- 
ing the  firm  adherence  of  the  Italian  Cathari  to 
tlie  doctrine  of  absolute  dualism.  In  Milan  and 
Florence,  in  Calabria  and  Sicily,  even  in  the 
Papal  States,  they  had  churches,  and  at  last  also 
dioceses.  Political  circumstances  were  favorable 
to  them  ;  many  powerful  nobU-s  jirotected  tliem ; 
for  centuries  tliey  withstood  all  the  exertions  of 
the  popes  and  tlie  Lujuisition.  But  it  is  an  exag- 
geration of  a  sickly  criticism,  when  Aroax  tries 
to  make  Dante  a  jm-aclier  among  the  Cathari, 
and  lh(!  Divina  Commcilia  an  allegorical  liljel  on 
the  Uoman  Churcli  (see  his  Dantn  lleretii/iie, 
Ui'iwlutionnire  el  Socialisle,  Paris,  1854,  and  Clef 
[<lc  la  Comidie  Anti-Cutholiijuc  de  Dante  Aliijliieri, 


Paris,  1856).  It  is  true,  though,  that  one  of  the 
most  active  members  of  the  sect,  Arnianiio  Pangi- 
lovo,  from  Ferrara,  was  very  near  being  canonized 
by  the  Pope  in  the  last  years  of  the  thu-teenth 
century.  Even  late  in  the  fourteenth  century 
the  Inquisition  in  Italy  was  -busy  persecuting  the 
Cathari ;  but  after  that  time  they  are  not  heard 
of  any  more  in  that  country.  Their  name  in 
Italy  was  not  Cathari,  however,  but  Patareni, 
from  Pataria,  an  obsciu'e  street  in  Milan,  the 
headquarters  of  the  rag-pickers,  where  they  held 
theu"  secret  assemblies. 

Their  principal  seat  in  "Western  Europe  the 
Cathari  had  in  Southern  France,  where  they  were 
known  as  the  Albigenses;  which  article  see. 
Thence  they  penetrated  into  the  northern  prov- 
inces of  Spain,  wliere  they  numbered  many  adher- 
ents in  the  thirteenth  century.  To  Germany 
they  came  partly  from  the  East,  from  the  Slav 
countries,  partly  from  Flanders  and  Champagne. 
In  1052  several  Cathari  were  condemned  to  death 
at  Goslar.  In  1146  Evervin,  pro\ost  of  Steinf el- 
den,  held  a  disputation  with  them  in  Cologne; 
but  the  disputation  was  interrupted  by  a  mob, 
and  the  Cathari  were  murdered.  Still  tlie  sect 
lived  on  in  the  regions  along  the  Rhine,  especially 
in  Cologne  and  Bonn.  In  1163  several  of  them 
were  burnt,  after  the  canon  Echbert  had  tried  ia 
vain  to  convert  them ;  and  in  1231  a  severe  perse- 
cution broke  out,  under  the  leadership  of  the 
fanatical  Dominican  monk,  Konrad  of  .Marburg, 
after  which  event  the  sect  is  not  mentioned  any 
more  in  Germany.  The  Waldenses,  however,  and 
the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit,  seem  to  have 
found  more  easy  access  among  the  Germans,  and 
maintained  themselves  in  the  country  during  the 
whole  of  the  middle  ages.  In  England  the  Ca- 
thari found  very  little  sympathy.  They  came 
over  in  1159  from  Holland,  and  in  1210  some  are 
said  to  have  been  discovered  in  London ;  but 
their  influence  was  very  insignificant. 

The  doctrinal  system  of  the  Cathari  consists  of 
some  imperfect  speculations  concerning  the  nature 
and  the  origin  of  evil,  physical  as  well  as  moral, 
mixed  up  with  some  curious  mythological  fancies 
about  the  creation  of  the  world,  of  man,  etc. 
This  .system  tliey  based  upon  the  New  Testament, 
of  which  they  possessed  a  translation,  probably 
derived  from  the  Orient,  and  deviating  considera- 
bly from  the  Vulgate.  But  the  text  of  thi.s 
translation  they  interpreted  in  a  most  arbitrary 
manner,  —  now  literally,  now  allegorically,  after 
the  rcquiroments  of  their  doctrinal  system.  They 
also  held  certain  apocryphical  books  in  great 
esteem,  especially  the  Visio  Jesaicc,  and  a  Gospel 
according  to  John,  entitled  Narralio  ile  Intcrror/a- 
llnnilms  S.  Johannis  <t  Jlesjionsionibus  Chrisli  Domi- 
ni. Of  tlieir  own  writhigs  nothing  is  known  but 
a  .short  though  very  remarkable  ritual,  drawn  up 
in  the  language  of  thi^  Troubadours  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  and  edited,  after  a  manuscript  in 
Lyons,  by  Cui'iitz,  Jena,  1852.  Unable  to  under- 
stand how  evil  ever  could  have  originated  from 
God,  they  were  led  to  ascribe  it  to  an  independent 
principle.  According  to  the  oldest  view,  and 
that  most  widely  adopted  among  them,  the  evil 
principle  was  ab.sohite  and  eternal,  like  the  good. 
Rut  this  coarse  dualism  was  afterwards  softened 
down  by  the  assumption  that  the  (^vil  sjiirit  had 
originally  been  a  pure  creature,  who,  liy  an  act 


CATHARINA. 


421 


CATHARINA  OF  SIENNA. 


of  his  own  five  will,  had  separated  himself  from 
the  good.  Both  systems  iiiaiiitaincd  tliciiiselves 
for  a  Ions'  time,  as  the  difference  between  them 
concerned  only  the  metaphysical  part  of  the 
whole  system,  the  theology  proper,  the  cos- 
mogony, and  the  anthropogony ;  while  the  morals, 
the  ritnals,  and  the  ecclesiastical  organization 
remained  mitouched  by  it,  tlu;  same  for  both 
parties. 

The  moral  system  of  the  Cathari  was  thor- 
oughly ascetic.  Sin  was  defined  as  Inst  after 
that  which  is  material ;  for  matter  was  the  work 
of  Satan.  The  sold  was  created  by  (lod,  and 
heaven  was  its  home;  but  Satan  had  allnred  her 
down  on  earth,  and  locked  her  up  in  a  material 
body  to  prevent  her  return  to  lieaven.  Natural 
life  was  consequently  nothing  but  a  term  of 
penance.  Any  contact  with  matter  was  sin. 
Any  act  of  the  will  which  was  not  an  abnegation 
of  nature,  a  sacrifice  of  the  material  self,  was  a 
sin.  To  hold  property,  to  keep  intercourse  with 
worldly  men,  to  tell  lies,  to  wage  war,  to  kill 
animals  (except  those  that  creep),  to  eat  flesh 
(except  that  of  fishes),  were  deadly  sins ;  and  the 
greatest  of  all  sins  was  generation,  whether  in  or 
out  of  marriage.  The  extreme  severity  of  this 
system  was  somewhat  mitigated  by  a  distinction 
between  the  perfecti  and  the  credenles.  Only  the 
former  were  demanded  to  fulfil  the  rules  in  all 
their  rigor :  considerable  allowances  were  granted 
to  the  latter.  But  onlj'  the  perfecti  formed  the 
Chiu'ch  proper,  outside  of  which  there  was  no 
salvation ;  and  all  were  enjoined  to  enter  this 
class,  if  not  earlier,  at  least  in  the  moment  of 
death,  by  receiving  the  spiritual  baptism,  which 
was  administered  by  a  single  imposition  of  haiuls, 
and  which  was  not  a  sacramentum,  but  only  a 
consolamentiim. 

The  ritual  and  ecclesiastical  organization  were 
exceedingly  simple.  There  were  no  churches, 
but  only  oratories,  without  images,  crosses,  or 
bells.  All  the  furniture  and  ornament  which  the 
building  contained  consisted  of  a  plain  table, 
covered  with  a  white  cloth,  on  which  laid  the 
Bible,  opened  at  the  Gospel  of  John.  The  ser- 
vice consisted  of  the  reading  and  expounding  of 
a  chapter  of  the  Bible,  after  which  one  of  the 
perfecti  blessed  the  kneeling  assembly.  There 
were  no  sacraments.  The  baptism  with  water 
was  rejected  as  something  insignificant.  Instead 
of  the  Lord's  Supper,  a  kind  of  agape  was  held, 
at  whicii  the  perfecti  broke  and  blessed  the  bread; 
but  no  reference  was  made  by  this  act  to  the 
body  of  Christ.  There  were  parishes  and  dio- 
ceses, with  deacons  and  bishops :  but  the  clergy 
had  no  power,  spiritual  or  secular ;  and  that 
which  made  the  Cathari  most  odious,  and  most 
dangerous  to  the  eyes  of  the  Roman  Church  was, 
no  doubt,  their  strongly  pronomiced  anti-clerical 
tendency. 

Lit. — JIaitl.\xd  :  Facts  and  Documents  on  the 
History  of  the  Alhif/enses  and  Waldenses,  London, 
1832;  Schmidt:  Histoire  et  Doctrine  de  la  Secte 
dcs  Cathares,  Paris,  1849, 2  vols. ;  [Brf.ede  :  Gesch. 
d.  Ber;rijf:  d.  KatJi.,  Riga,  1880  sqq.].  C.  SCHMIDT. 

CATHARINA  {'^itKadapivu,  "  the  always  pure  "), 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  saints,  worshipped 
both  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  Church.  Since  J. 
T.  Assemani,  she  is  generally  identified  with  that 
'noble  and  wealthy  Alexandrian  lady  of   whom 


Eusebius  tells  (TTisl.  Ecd.,  VIIL  14-15)  that  .she- 
withstood  all  the  adulterous  attacks  of  tlie  Kni- 
pcror  Maximinus,  and  for  that  reason  was  lian- 
ished,  and  despoiled  of  all  her  property,  liut 
this  does  not  agree  either  with  the  circmnstance 
that  Rufiuus  calls  the  Alexandrian  lady  DorotlK;a 
(Hist.  Eccl.,  VJII.  17),  or  with  the  principal  fea- 
ture of  the  old  legend  such  as  it  is  recorded  in 
the  Martyrologium  Ronianum,  and  by  Simeon  I\Ieta- 
plirastes  (Migne  :  Patrol.  Orcec,  T.  110,  pp.  275- 
302).  According  to  the  legend,  St.  C'atharina 
was  the  daughter  of  King  Konstos,  eighteen  years 
old,  and  as  wise  as  beautiful.  She  converted  the 
philosophers  with  whom  she  lield  a  disputation 
on  the  connnand  of  the  emjieror.  She  converted 
also  the  empress,  the  general  Porphyrins,  two 
hundred  soldiers,  etc.  ;  and,  when  she  was  placed 
on.  a  torturing  engine  composed  of  wheels,  she 
was  miraculously  rescued.  Finally  she  was  be- 
headed ;  and  her  remains  were  carried  by  angels 
to  IMount  Sinai,  -uhere  afterwards  the  emperor, 
Justinian  I.,  built  a  monastery  in  her  honor.  She 
is  the  patron  saint  of  the  philosophical  faculty  of 
the  LTniversity  of  Paris ;  and  she  was  a  favorite 
subject  with  the  paintere  of  the  middle  ages,  who 
represented  her  with  a  crown,  a  book,  a  wheel, 
etc.  Her  festival  is  celebrated  in  some  places  on 
Nov.  25,  in  others  on  March  5.  See  Surius  : 
Vit.  Sand.,  Nov.  25;  Act.  Satirt.  Boll.,  IMarch  5; 
Butler  :  Lices  of  Saiiil.%  Nov.  25.       ZOCKLER. 

CATHARINA  OF  BOLOGNA,  b.  1413;  d. 
March  9,  14{j3;  entered  the  order  of  St.  Clara  in 
1430,  and  became  afterwards  abbess  of  one  of 
the  convents  of  the  order.  She  was  canonized  in 
1724  by  Benedict  XIII.  A  book  of  Revelations 
is  ascribed  to  her.  It  was  first  printed  at  Venice, 
1511.  See  Act.  Sand.,  IMarch,  T.  11.  pp.  34-88; 
Buti.er  :  Lice.i  of  Saint:;.  IMarch  9. 

CATHARINA  OF  GENOA  {Catharina  Flisca 
Adorna  Vidua  Genuensis),h.  1447;  d.  Sept.  14, 
1510;  was  a  daughter  of  Robert  Fiesclii,  'i'ice- 
regent  of  Naples  ;  married  the  dissijiated  Giuliano 
Adorno,  but  became  a  widow  in  1474,  and  devoted 
the  rest  of  her  life  to  the  poor  and  tiie  sick.  She 
was  canonized  by  Clement  XII.  in  1737.  She 
wi'ote  Demonstratio  Puri/atorii,  Dialor/iis  Animam 
inter  et  Corpus,  and  other  mystico-prophetical 
works  of  the  kind  quite  common  during  the  mid- 
dle ages.  See  Act.  Sand.,  September,  T.  V.  pp. 
123-195;  Butler:  Lices  of  Saints,  Sept.  14; 
Upham  :  Life  of  Catharina  Adorna,  New  York, 
1856. 

CATHARINA  OF  SIENNA  {Catharina  Benin- 
casa),  b.  1347 ;  d.  April  29,  1380 ;  assumed  the 
habit  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Dominic  in  1365, 
and  enjoyed,  on  account  of  the  austerity  of  her 
asceticism  and  the  ecstatic  state  of  her  mind,  so 
great  a  fame  that  at  several  occasions  she  could 
play  a  conspicuous  part  in  politics  as  mediator 
between  Florence  and  Rome,  between  LTrban  VI. 
and  Clement  VII.,  between  Rome  and  Naples, 
etc.  She  was  canonized  in  1461  by  Pius  II.  Her 
festival  is  observed  on  April  30.  She  left  three 
hundred  and  seventy-three  letters  •  addressed  to 
popes,  cardinals,  princes,  etc.,  six  treatises  under 
the  common  title  X/iro  della  Divinn  Doltrina,  some 
prayers,  prophecies,  etc.,  which  were  published 
by  Aldus  Manutius,  A'enice.  1500,  and  again  by 
Girolamo  Gigli,  Sienna,  1707-26.  A  separate  edi- 
tion of  the  letters,  chronologically  arranged,  was. 


CATHARINA  OF  SWEDEN.        ■i--  CATHOLIC  APOSTOLIC  CHURCH. 


given  by  Xicolo  Tommaseo,  Florence,  1S60.  Her 
life  -n-as  written  by  Rainiund  of  Capua,  her  con- 
fessor (Act.  Sa»ct.,  April,  T.  III.  pp.  652  sqq.)  ;  by 
Chavin  de  Malan,  Paris,  1S46 ;  Alfonso  Capacelatro, 
Florence,  1855;  Hase,  Leipsic.  186i ;  Olga  von 
Leoiu'ad,  Cologne,  1S80.  The  Processus  CoiUesta- 
tionum  super  Sanctitate  et  Dodrina  Beatce  Calharinm 
de  Senis  is  given  by  Martene  and  Durand,  in  ]^et. 
Script.  Collectio,  VI.  See  in  English,  J.  E.  But- 
ler :  Catherine  of  Siemut.  3d  ed.,  London,  1881; 
Augusta  Theodosia  Dkane:  Catharine  of  Sien- 
na. London.  1880,  2  vols.,  2d  ed..  1887. 

CATHARINA  OF  SWEDEN  (Catharina  Suecica 
VaslanensL':),  h.  1331 :  d.  :\Iarch  2i,  1381 ;  was  a 
daughter  of  St.  Birgitta,  whom  she  accompanied 
to  the  Holy  Land,  and  succeeded  as  Abbess  of 
Wadstena.  When  thirteen  years  old  she  was 
married  to  a  young  and  pious  nobleman  ;  but  im- 
mediately after  the  wedding  they  both  made  a 
solemn  vow  of  perpetual  chastity,  and  kept  it. 
She  wrote  a  book,  T/ic  Soul's  Comforter,  wliich 
is  lost.  In  1474  she  was  canonized.  Her  festival 
falls  on  March  22.  See  Act.  Sand.,  March,  T.  III. 
pp.  503-531:  Butler:  Zu^es  o/, Sain/s,  March  22. 

CATHARINA  RICCI,  b.  1522;  d.  Feb.  2,  1589; 
entered  the  Dominican  order  at  Prato  in  Tuscany, 
and  became  prioress  of  the  nunnery.  She  was 
canonized  in  174G  by  Benedict  IV.  Her  letters 
were  edited  by  Cesare  Qdosti,  Prato,  1848. 
Her  life  was  w-ritten,  first  by  Seraphin  Ilazzi,  a 
Dominican  monk,  and  then  by  Philip  Guidi,  her 
confessor.     See  Rutler  :  Lives  of  Saints,  Feb.  13. 

CATHARINUS,  Ambrosius,  themonasticalname 
of  Lancelot  Politi,  b.  1483;  d.  Nov.  8.  1553; 
studied,  and  taught  jurisprudence  for  several  j-ears, 
but  entered  the  Dominican  order  in  1515 ;  became 
Bishoji  of  !Minori  1546,  and  Archbishop  of  Conza 
1552.  He  was  a  prolific  wTiter.  His  Apologia 
pro  Veritate  Caiholicce  et  Apostolica;  Fidei  ac  Doc- 
trince,  written  against  Luther,  is  his  first  work. 
He  also  wrote  against  Cajetan,  Carranza,  and 
Dominico  Soto. 

CATHEDRA  and  CATHEDRAL.  Cathedra,  in 
ecclesiastical  usage,  meant  originally  simply  the 
episcopal  throne  or  chair  placed  against  the  wall 
in  the  middle  of  the  semicircular  apsis,  with  a 
row  of  lower  seats  for  the  presbyters  on  each  side, 
and  so  that  the  priest  officiating  at  the  altar  faced 
the  bishop.  Afterwards  the  word  was.  applied, 
first  to  the  see  itself,  and  then  to  the  very  building 
in  which  the  bishop  olficiated,  ecclesia  cathedraiis, 
in  contradistinction  to  ecclesice  diocesance.  Thus 
the  transition  was  made  to  the  use,  now  so  general, 
of  the  adjective  "cathedral"  in  a  sid)stantive 
sense,  —  a  usage  which  dates  from  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, and  is  confined  to  tlie  Western  Church. 

CATHOLIC  (Ihrouyhoiit-all,  i.e.,  yencral,  univer- 
sal). This  word  early  came  into  use  among 
Christians  to  distinguish  their  church  from  the 
Jewisli,  wliich  was  national :  later  on,  it  distin- 
guished the  orthodox  church  from  the  heretical 
sects.  In  modern  times  it  lias  been  arrogantly 
and  aVisurdly  claimed  by  the  Church  of  Home'; 
and  Prote.stajits  usually  call  her  so,  although  it 
were  nearer  truth  to  say  the  Roman-Cat^iolic 
Church.  The  jilirase  in  the  Apostles'  Creed,  "tiic 
Holy  Catholic  Church,"  is  often  ignorantly  siijv 
posed  to  refer  to  the  Roman  Church  ;  but  the  word 
"catholic"  merely  means  "universal,"  and  was 
not  in  the  first  form  of  the  creed.     The  plirase  is 


correctly  explained  by  what  follows,  —  "  the  com- 
munion of  saints  : "  thus  it  simply  expresses  a 
belief  that  the  Holy  Church,  the  communion  of 
saints,  is  not  confined  to  one  nation,  but.  by  the 
appointment  and  help  of  Christ,  shall  be  dissem- 
inated through  all  nations.  Cf.  Pearson,  On  the 
Creed.  Art.  IX. 

CATHOLIC  APOSTOLIC  CHURCH,  or  IRV- 
INCITES.  The  man  to  give  the  strongest,  if  not 
the  first,  impulse  to  this  religious  movement,  was 
Edward  Irving  (1792-1834,  see  title),  although 
he  is  little  mentioned  by  the  writers  of  this 
Clnu'ch,  who  regard  him  merely  as  a  forerunner, 
and  not  as  the  founder  of  their  community.  The 
historic  occasion  for  the  Apostolic  Church  was 
the  manifestations  which  occurred  in  the  spring 
of  1830,  on  the  shores  of  the  Clyde,  among  some 
pious  Presbyterian  men  and  women,  who  believed 
that  their  organs  of  speech  were  used  by  the 
Holy  Spirit  for  the  utterance  of  his  thoughts  and 
intentions.  The  fame  of  these  phenomena  spread : 
in  Ajiril,  1831,  the  same  took  place  in  London. 
The  "  prophesyiugs  "  were  addressed  to  the  audi- 
ence in  intelligible  English,  and  were  like  Quaker 
utterances ;  but  the  "  tongues  "  were  monologues 
or  dialogues  between  the  speaker  and  Ciod,  which 
no  one  could  understand.  Toward  the  end  of 
1832  a  considerable  number  of  persons  had  be- 
come believers  in  the  supernatural  character  and 
divine  origin  of  these  spiritual  jihenomena,  and, 
further,  convinced  that  it  was  the  will  of  God  the 
apostolic  office  should  be  restored.  God  was 
believed  to  indicate  who  should  be  put  in  this 
office;  and  "by  the  middle  of  1835  the  fuU  num- 
ber (twelve)  was  completed,  and  they  entered,  as 
a  twelvefold  Apostolic  College,  on  the  work  of 
caring  for  the  whole  Christian  Church."  From 
these  apostles  this  church  has  received  its  doc- 
trine, organization,  and  worship.  In  doctrine  it 
is  eclectic.  Its  advocates  make  a  great  deal  out 
of  the  second  coming  of  Christ,  which  they  think 
is  very  near  :  they  believe  in  liaptismal  regenera- 
tion, and  the  spiritual  iiresence  of  Christ  in  the 
Supper,  with  the  additions  that  the  elements  after 
consecration  have  a  heavenly  and  spiritual  as  well 
as  a  material  character,  and  that  the  eucharist  is 
not  only  a  sacrament,  but  a  sacrifice,  in  the  patris- 
tic sense  of  a  thanksgiving.  With  them  it  is  also 
connected  with  a  commemoration  of  the  departs 
ed.  They  lay  stress  upon  the  a'cumenical  creeds, 
and  embody  them  in  their  worship.  In  organi- 
zation this  church  is  very  elaborate  ^ — apostles, 
prophets,  and  evangelists,  for  the  general  care  of 
the  church,  and  angels  (or  bisholis),  presbyters 
(priests),  and  deacons,  for  the  care  of  particular 
congregations.  All  ollicers  are  called  by  the 
Holy  Ghost,  through  ihe  jirojihets,  except  the 
deacons,  who  are  elected  by  tlie  respective  congre- 
gations as  their  repre.sent;itives.  In  wor.ship,  as 
in  doctrine  and  org:uiization,  it  is  eclectic  and 
elaborate.  It  is  highly  ritualistic,  with  a  .solemn 
liturgy,  based  upon  tlie  Anglican  and  ancient 
Greek,  and  with  an  elaborate  symbolism,  derived 
from  a  fanciful  interpretation  of  the  .Jewish  tab- 
ei'iiacle  as  a  type  of  the  worshiji  of  the  Christian 
Church  in  the  wilderness.  In  its  hierarchical 
constitution  and  ritu.alistic  worship  consists  the 
chii'f  ]ii'culiarity  of  this  community.  Tliey  are, 
u]u)ii  the  whole,  the  highest  of  Iligh-Churchmen; 
and  have,  indeed,  most  .sympathy  with  the  Kpis- 


CATHOLIC  EMANCIPATION.      423 


CATTLE-RAISING. 


copal  Chuich,  from  which  they  received  the 
majority  of  tlieir  original  members.  Their  inain 
strength  is  in  London,  where  tliey  have  seven 
churches,  after  the  model  of  tlie  seven  churches 
of  Asia;  but  they  are  also  foimd  throughout 
Great  Britain  andin  North  Germany;  and  they 
have  one  church  in  New- York  City,  but  very  few 
adherents  in  the  country. 

This  church  combines  a  high  order  of  piety 
and  hiunility  of  individual  members  with  aston- 
ishing assun'iptions,  wliicli,  if  well  founded,  would 
require  the  submission  of  all  Christendom  to  the 
authority  of  its  inspired  apostles.  But,  as  these 
die,  their  vacancies  are  not  filled :  soon  there  wiU 
be  none  left,  and  then  the  chm-ch  at  large  will  be 
no  better  off  than  it  was  before  the  movement 
began. 

Lit.  —  Edwaki)  Irving:  WuHs,  London, 
1864-65,  5  vols.;  Mrs.  M.  O.  W.  Oliphant: 
Life  of  Edward  Iroinrj,  London  and  New  York, 
1862 ;  Liturciii  and  cither  Divine  Offices  of  the 
Church,  London,  1842  (by  the  "Apostles,"  subject 
to  enlargement) ;  C.  M.  Carre  :  The  First  and 
Last  Days  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  London,  1851 ; 
J.  S.  Davknpokt  l  Edward  Irving  and  the  Catholic 
Apostolic  Church,  New  York,  1853;  W.  W.  An- 
drews :  Tlie  True  Constitution  of  the  Church  and 
its  Restoration,  New  York,  1854 ;  the  same :  The 
True  Marks  of  the  Church,  Hartford,  1867;  J.  S. 
Jacobi  :  Die  Lchre  der  Irviniyton,  Berlin,  1868 ; 
E.  Miller  :  History  of  Irvingism,  London,  1878, 
•2  vols. 

CATHOLIC  EMANCIPATION,  the  name  given 
to  the  Act  of  Parliament,  April  13,  1829,  which 
removed  from  the  Roman  Catholics,  particularly 
those  of  Ireland,  the  political  disalulities  which 
had  lain  upon  them.  The  Act  was  one  of  simple 
justice ;  but  the  tardiness  of  its  execution  is  a 
striking  instance  of  the  existence  in  Protestant- 
ism of  that  grasping,  persecuting,  intolerant 
spirit  so  commonly  condemned  by  Protestants  as 
a  Roman-Catholic  spirit.  From  their  subjugation 
in  1691,  down  to  the  Act,  Roman  Catholics  in 
Ireland  were  grievously  oppressed.  No  Roman 
Catholic  could  act  as  guardian  for  any  child ;  a 
son  turning  Protestant  could  dispossess  his  father, 
and  take  the  estate  ;  a  Roman-Catholic  heir  to  a 
landed  p>roperty  was  to  be  set  aside  in  event  of 
the  next  Protestant  heir;  no  office,  military  or 
civil,  could  be  held  by  a  Roman  Catholic ;  he 
could  not  vote,  or  marry  a  Protestant  wife  ;  he 
could  not  practise  law,  or  teach  school ;  a  priest 
marrying  a  Roman  Catholic  and  a  Protestant  was 
to  be  hanged.  Such  was  the  law ;  but  the  prac- 
tice was  naturally  much  milder,  and  several  of 
these  wicked  laws  were  repealed  by  the  Irish  Par- 
liament of  1790.  In  1806  came  tlie  Union.  Mr. 
Pitt  pledged  himself  to  secure  an  act  of  emanci- 
pation, but  failed ;  and  not  until  the  agitation  of 
O'Connell  and  the  Catholic  Association  awoke  the 
usually  slumbering  conscience  of  Great  Britain 
abont  all  that  relates  to  Ireland  was  any  thing 
done.  But  when  aroused,  the  British  are  always 
fair;  and  so  the  measure  of  relief  was  trium- 
phantly passed.  See  sub  Titido  Johnson's 
Ci/clopcedie. 

CATHOLIC  EPISTLES.  Seven  epistles— those 
of  James,  First  and  Second  Peter,  First,  Second, 
and  Third  Jolm,  and  Jude  —  are  so  denominated. 
Three  explanations,  none  very  satisfactory,  have 


been  given  of  the  term :  1.  Because  these  epistles 
are  "general  letters  of  instruction,  the  name  being 
at  first  applied  only  to  a  part,  but  afterwards  in- 
cluding even  tliose  addressed  to  private  person ; " 
2.  liecause  the  different  apostles  wei'e  engaged  in 
writing  them;  3.  Because  of  the  catlinlic  doctrine 
taught  in  tliem;  4.  The  First  Epistle  of  Peter, 
and  the  First  Epistle  of  John,  liaving  from  the 
beginning  been  received  as  authentic,  obtained 
the  name  of  catholic,  or  universally  acknowledged 
(and  therefore  canonical),  epistles,  in  order  to 
distinguish  tliem  from  the  Epistle  of  James,  the 
second  of  Peter,  the  second  and  third  of  .I(jhn, 
and  the  Epistle  of  Jude,  concerning  wliich  doubts 
were  at  first  entertained ;  and  they  were  consid- 
ered by  many  as  not  being  a  rule  of  faith.  But, 
their  autlienticity  being  at  lengtli  acknowledged 
by  the  generality  of  the  churches,  they  also  ob- 
tained the  name  of  catholic,  or  universally  ac- 
cepted, ejjistles,  and  were  esteemed  of  ecjual 
authority  with  the  rest.  IIorne  :  Introduction 
(14th  ed.,  London,  1877,  vol.  iv.  p.  589). 

CATHOLIC  or  UNITED  COPTS,  that  portion 
of  the  Coptic  Church  which  acknowledges  the 
supremacy  of  the  Pope.  They  numbered  (1876) 
about  thirteen  thousand. 

CATHOLICUS  was,  in  the  time  of  Constantine, 
a  civil  officer  establislied  after  tlie  organization 
by  law  of  dioceses ;  each  diocese  having  its  ca- 
tliolicus,  or  receiver-general.  As  an  ecclesiastical 
officer  occurring  in  several  Eastern  churches,  the 
catholicus  occupied  a  position  between  the  metro- 
politan and  the  patriarch.  The  Armenian  Cliurch 
has  still  three  catholici,  —  at  Etchmiadzin,  Aylita- 
niar,  and  Sis. 

CATTLE-RAISING  AMONG  THE  HEBREWS. 
From  the  Bible  we  know  that  the  patriarchs  led 
a  pastoral  life.  Their  descendants  continued  this 
life,  in  connection  with  agricidture,  even  after  tlie 
taking  of  Canaan.  From  1  Sam.  xx.  2,  1  Kings 
V.  3,  8,  63,  and  other  passages,  we  get  an  idea  of 
the  extent  of  cattle-breeding  which  existed  at 
different  times.  We  confine  ourselves  to  speak- 
ing of  those  kinds  which  were  generally  used  in 
the  house  and  for  sacrificial  purposes ;  viz.,  — • 

(1.)  Neat-Cattle,  collectively  designated  by  the 
Hebrew  word  bakar.  Single  animals  of  this  kind 
are  aliuph,  an  "  ox,"  or  shor,  a  "  bullock :  "  the 
calves  are  styled  e'gel,  a  "heifer,"  also  a  young 
cow,  even  when  broke  to  the  yoke  (Judg.  xiv.  IS ; 
Hos.  X.  11),  anA  para,  even  when  grown,  but  still 
in  full  youthful  vigor.  There  was  a  great  demand 
for  neat-cattle :  many  hundreds  were  yearly  slaugh- 
tered in  sacrifice ;  others  were  employed  for  food, 
especially  veal  (e.g.,  Deut.  xii.  21 ;  2  Sam.  xii. 
4 ;  1  Kings  iv.  23),  although,  among  some  an- 
cient nations,  it  was  regarded  as  an  act  of  wanton 
prodigality  to  slay  useful  agricultm-al  beasts  in 
order  to  enjoy  their  flesh.  The  milk  was  used 
either  sweet  or  curdled,  and  was  made  also  into 
cheese.  Cattle  were  yoked  to  the  plough  (Deut. 
xxii.  10  ;  1  Kings  xix.  19  sq.),  likewise  for  drauglit 
(Num.  vii.  3  sq.),  but  more  especially  for  thresh- 
ing. They  were  driven  with  a  pointed  stick. 
During  summer,  cattle  ranged  under  the  open  sky. 
In  the  stalls  their  fodder  was  placed  in  a  crib. 
Besides  fresh  grass  and  meadow-plants  (Dan.  iv. 
29 ;  Num.  xxii.  4),  meslin  (.Tob  vi.  5 ;  Isa.  xxx. 
24,  to  which  salt  was  also  added,  Isa.  I.e.)  is  men- 
tioned. 


CAUSSIN. 


424 


CECIL. 


Concerning  the  cattle  the  following  legal  en- 
actments were  given :  — 

1.  An  ox  and  an  ass  must  not  be  yoked  to- 
gether to  the  plough .  (Deut.  xxii.  10) ;  2.  The 
mouth  of  the  threshing-oxen  \Yas  not  to  be  bound 
(Deut.  sxv.  4);  3.  A  goring  ox  was  to  be  stoned, 
and  his  flesh  not  to  be  eaten  (Exod.  xxi.  28  sq.)  ; 
4.  Whoever  stole,  and  then  sold  or  slaughtered, 
an  ox,  must  give  five  oxen  in  satisfaction  (Exod. 
xxii.  1)  ;  but,  if  the  animal  was  found  alive  in  the 
possession  of  the  tliiet,  he  was  merely  required  to 
make  double  restitution  (Exod.  xxii.  4);  5.  Who- 
ever met  an  ox  that  had  fallen  or  strayed  was 
under  obligation  immediately  to  help  it  up,  and 
bring  it  back  to  the  ow^ler  (Exod.  xxiii.  4 ;  Deut. 
xxii.  1,  4);  6.  The  law  of  the  sabbath  had  also 
reference  to  the  cattle  (Exod.  xx.  10,  xxiii.  12). 

(2.)  Small  Cattle,  collectively  designated  by  the 
Hebrew  word  tson,  "  sheep,"  singly  by  scli,  "  lamb." 
Sheep-breeding  formed  the  chief  employment  of 
a  large  part  of  the  people,  and  even  kings  had 
their  shepherds.  The  flesh  of  the  sheep,  espe- 
cially that  of  wethers  and  lambs,  was  a  highly 
esteemed  food  (1  Sam.  xxv.  18;  Isa.  xxii.  13). 
The  milk  of  sheep,  as  well  as  their  wool,  was  also 
made  use  of;  the  former  for  culinary  purposes, 
the  latter  for  garments.  Slieep-shearing  was  a 
rural  festive  occasion  (1  Sam.  xxv.  4  ;  2  Sam. 
xiii.  23);  of  the  wool,  tithes  were  to  be  paid 
(Deut.  xviii.  4).  The  color  of  sheep  is  in  the  East 
generally  white  (Isa.  i.  18),  although  black  ones 
are  also  found  (Gen.  xxx.  32),  as  well  as  spotted 
and  grizzled. 

Along  with  the  sheep  are  classed  the  goats. 
They  were  used  not  only  for  sacrifice,  but  also 
for  food  (Deut.  xiv.  4).  Their  milk  was  also  used 
(Prov.  xxvii.  27),  it  being  more  wholesome  than 
that  of  sheep.  Tlieir  skins  were  employed  as 
clothing  by  poor  persons  (Heb.  xi.  37),  whilst  their 
hair  was  often  the  material  of  tent-cloth  (Exod. 
xxvi.  7)  as  well  as  of  mattresses  and  bedding 
(1  Sam.  xix.  13,  16).  On  the  Mosaic  enactment 
respecting  cooking  a  kid  in  its  mother's  milk 
(comp.  Exod.  xxiii.  19,  xxxiv.  26;  Deut.  xiv.  21), 
comp.  the  art.  Viehzucht,  in  Herzog's  Real-Ency- 
klnpwlie  (1st  cd.)  bv  T-eyrer.  B.  TICK. 

CAUSSIN,  Nicholas,  b.  at  Troyes,  l.'JSS ;  d.  in 
Paris,  .July  2.  lfi.')l  ;  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  in 
1607  ;  became  confessor  to  Louis  XIII.,  and  wrote 
Cour  Saintc.  translated  into  English,  T!ic  Hobj 
Court,  by  Thomas  Hawkins,  London,  1063.  His 
De  Elnqnentin  Sacra  el  Humana  was  also  a  iiuich- 
usccl  iKKik,  .-iMcl  oftcni  reprinted. 

CAVALIER,  Jean.     Sc(!  C.\misai{i>s. 

CAVE,  William,  a  learned  patristic  scliolar 
ami  aiitlior;  li.  at  Pickwell,  Leicestershire,  Dec. 
30,  1637;  d.  at  Windsor,  Aug.  4,  1713.  He  was 
made  M.A.  of  St.  .lolui's  College,  Cambridge,  in 
1G60,  and  D.D.  1672,  and  by  Oxford  in  1681.  In 
1662  he  was  appointed  vicar  of  Islington,  and 
afterwards  one  of  the  King's  chaplains ;  in  1679 
rector  of  All  Hallows  the  (treat,  I>ondon  ;  and 
canon  of  Windsor  in  1681  ;  and  in  1690  vicar  of 
Lsleworth.  His  repute  rests  njion  liis  eminent 
attainments  in  patristics.  In  his  different  works 
he  makes  use  of  over  two  thousand  fathers,  and 
writers  upon  the  fathers.  His  principal  works 
are:  (1)  Apostolici,  or  History  of  the  Apostles  and 
Fathers  in  the  Three  First  Centuries  of'  the  Church, 
London,  1077 ;  Ecclesiastica,  or  History  of  the  Most 


Eminent  Fathers  of  the  Fourth  Century,  London, 
1683,  folio.  (2)  Scriptorum  Ecclesiasticorum  Hi.tlo- 
ria  Literaria  (from  the  birth  of  Christ  to  the  four- 
teenth centm-y),  London,  1688,  2  vols,  folio.  The 
first  two  were  republished  bv  Rev.  Henry  Carj% 
Oxford,  1840,  3  vols.  8vo,  under  the  title.  The 
Lives  of  the  Most  Eminent  Fathers  of  the  Churchk 
that  Flourished  in  the  First  Four  Centuries.  The 
latter  work  was  brought  down  from  1098  to  1.517, 
and  finally  appeared  (best  edition).  Oxford,  1740- 
43,  2  vols,  folio,  reprinted  Basel,  1741-45,  2  vols, 
folio.  (3)  Primitive  Christianity,  London,  1672; 
reprinted,  Oxford,  1840,  along  with  Cave's  Disser- 
tation on  the  Government  of  the  Ancient  Church 
(London,  1683).  (4)  Tahulce  EcclesiasticcE,  tables 
of  ecclesiastical  writers,  London,  1674.  (5)  Charto- 
phylax  Ecclesiasticus  (an  improved  edition  of  the 
preceding),  London,  168.5. 

Cave  was  uncritical,  but  extremely  industrious. 
He  did  not  know  how  to  use  the  collections  he 
made  ;  but  othei's,  such  as  INIohler,  have  drawn 
from  his  reseiToir.  So,  althougli  he  was  not  a 
scientific  patristic  scholar,  he  yet  greatly  helped 
patristic  learning. 

CAWDRY,  Daniel, aNonconforniist;  d.  October, 
1664;  educated  at  Peterhouse,  Cambridge;  be- 
came rector  of  Great  Billing,  Northamptonshire, 
1635;  ejected,  166'3;  amembcr  of  the  Westminster 
Assembly  of  Divines,  and  author  of  numerous 
works  of  a  controversial  character,  principally 
against  the  liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England, 
against  independency,  and  also  of  a  work  on  the 
sabbath,  which  was  his  masterpiece. 

CAYET,  Pierre  Victor  Palma,  b.  at  Mont- 
richard  in  Touraine,  1525;  d.  in  Paris,  1610; 
studied  at  Geneva;  was  ordained  minister  at 
Poitiers,  and  became  chaplain  to  Catherine  of 
Bourbon,  but  was  deposed  by  the  thirteenth  gen- 
eral synod  (1594)  on  account  of  two  scandalous 
treatises  he  wrote  on  sins  against  the  Sixth  Com- 
mandment; embraced  Romanism,  and  was  made 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  Sorbonne.  The  Re- 
monstrances and  .-idynonitions  he  addressed  to  his 
former  co-religionists  attracted  no  attention ;  and 
he  is  now  known  only  on  account  of  his  historical 
works,  —  the  Chronologic  Novcnaire,  1608,  and  the 
Chronologic  Septenaire,  1608,  and  his  translation 
of  the  German  tale  of  Dr.  Faustus. 

CAZALLA,  Augustin,  b.  1.506 ;  d.  May  21, 1559 ; 
stiidii'd  at  ^'alhulolid  and  Alcala;  became  a  pupil 
of  Carranza,  and  was  in  1545  appointed  chaplain 
and  almoner  to  Charles  V.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  Smalcaldian  war  he  accompanied  the  emperor 
to  Germany,  and  returned  in  15,52  to  Spain,  —  a 
Lutheran.  '  He  preached  his  new  ideas  in  Valla- 
dolid  and  Saianiauca  with  more  and  more  open- 
ness, but  was  in  1558  arrested  by  the  Inquisition, 
brought  before  the  tribunal,  .and  conih^nined  to 
death,  together  with  his  motlier,  brethren,  sisters, 
and  a  large  circk;  of  friends.  At  the  A  uto  da  fe 
some  of  the  guilty  were  burnt  alive ;  but  others, 
among  whom  Augusthi,  were  first  strangled  be- 
fore tlicy  were  bui'nt. 

CECIL,  Richard,  an  eminent  evangelical,  b.  in 
London,  Nov.  S,  1748;  d.  at  Hampstead,  Aug. 
15,  1810.  In  Ids  early  life  lie  professed  infidelity, 
but  about  1772  was  converted,  and  the  next  year 
entered  Queen's  College,  Oxford ;  was  ordained 
priest  1777,  and  lield  scvi-ral  clerical  appoint- 
ments.     Ho   was   distinguished   as   an   eloquent 


CEILLIER. 


CELIBACY. 


preacher  of  gospel  trntlis,  aiul  for  liis  skill  in 
music  and  painting;  See  Memoir  in  the  U'«/7..v, 
London,  LSll,  1  vols  ,  reprinted  New  Yoik,  l-S-tf), 
3  vols  ;  also  his  Eleiiuiiiluri/  Ilelu/iuus  Truths  from 
the  Five  liiiois  oj  Mu.ifs,  London,  lfJ8L  -  vols 

CEILLIER,  RemI,  1..  1088;  d.  1761;  entered 
the  Ccin^ legation  of  Saint  Valines  (Reformed 
Benedictini')  in  1715,  and  published  llistiure  Gc- 
ne'rale  tins  A  iiteurs  Surres  cl  Eci'li'siaftique.i,  23  vols., 
I'aris,  172l)-(i3,  new  edition,  18.58-65,  14  vols. 

CELESTINE  is  the  n.anie  of  tive  popes.  —  Celes- 
tine  I.,  September,  422-Jnly  2(i,  4;i2 ;  tried  to 
assert  hi.s  authority  over  the  African  t'hurch  by 
claiming  the  right  to  receive  appeals,  but  was 
severely  rebuked  by  an  African  synod.  In  the 
controversy  between  Nestorius  and  Cyrillus  he 
was  more  successful.  The  latter  addressed  the 
Bishop  of  Borne  as  the  supreme  judge  and  arbi- 
ter of  tile  Christian  Churcli ;  and  Celestine  was 
not  slow  in  condemning  Nestorius,  and  intrusting 
the  execution  of  the  verdict  to  Cyrillus.  — Celes- 
tine II.,  Sept.  26, 114:5-Maich  8,  lU4.  —  Celestine 
III.,  March  30,  1191-.Jan.  8,  1198;  began  his  pon- 
tificate by  crowning  Ilenry  VI.,  and  continued 
during  his  whole  reign  to  be  contemptuously  de- 
pendent on  the  emperor.  Kven  in  the  case  of 
Kicliard  I.  of  England,  who  on  his  return  from 
the  Holy  Land  was  taken  prisoner  by  Duke 
Leopold  of  Austria,  he  dared  not  interfere  with 
the  necessary  energy,  though  the  case  was  a 
breach  of  international  law,  and  the  Pope  just 
based  his  claims  to  political  supremacy  on  his 
office  as  the  guardian  of  international  law.  — 
Celestine  IV.,  Oct.  26 -Nov.  17,  1241. —  Celestine 
v.,  .Inly  .5-Dec.  13,  1294.  After  the  death  of 
Nicholas  IV.  there  occurred  a  vacancy  of  two 
years  and  three  months ;  until  finally  the  cardi- 
nals, compelled  by  Charles  of  Aiijoii,  King  of 
Naples,  agreed  to  raise  Pietro  di  Murrone,  a 
hermit,  founder  of  the  order  of  tlie  Celestines, 
and  eighty  years  old,  to  the  papal  throne.  In 
moving  from  his  cell  at  Muri-one  to  the  Vatican 
in  Rome,  the  poor  old  man  simply  lost  his  head; 
but,  feeling  his  own  unfitness  for  the  assumed 
task,  he  alidicated,  and  determined  to  return  to 
his  solitude.  His  successor,  liowever,  Boniface 
VIII.,  feared  that  somebody  miglit  use  the  former 
pope  as  a  suitable  material  for  a  schism,  had  him 
seized,  and  kept  liim  in  prison  till  his  death,  Jlay 
19,  1296. 

CELESTINES,  The,  a  monastic  order,  founded 
in  1254  by  Pietro  di  Murrone,  afterwards  Pope 
Celestine  V.,  followed  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict, 
and  spread  rapidly  in  Germany,  France,  and 
Italy;  but  at  present  there  are  only  a  few  con- 
vents left.  There  is  a  Franciscan  congregation 
which  bears  the  same  name. 

CELIBACY,  in  the  Roman  Church,  is  the  state 
of  virginity  to  which  a  person  pledges  himself, 
either  by  a  special  vow,  or  by  receiving  the  conse- 
cration of  one  of  the  higher  ecclesiastical  orders. 
The  Jewish  priests  and  liigh  priests  lived  in  mar- 
riage ;  but,  on  account  of  the  holiness  of  their 
office,  they  were  forbidden  to  marry  a  harlot,  a 
jirofane  or  a  divorced  woman.  The  high  priest 
",vas  even  forbidden  to  marry  a  widow  (Lev.  xxi. 
7,8,  13,  14;  comp.  Saalschutz:  Das  Mosaische 
Jtecht,  II.  786-788).  When  preparing  for  actual 
service  they  were  furthermore  demanded  to  abstain 
xrom  their  wives,  as  was  the  whole  people  at  the 


time  when  the  law  was  given  them  on  Mount 
Sinai  (Kxod.  xix.  15;  comp.  Si-F..V(;Kii:  De  Lci/ihiis 
Ifchriioruiii  liitunlilim,  Tiiliingcn,  1732,  jip.  189 
sqq.).  The  holy  books  of  the  new  dispensation 
contain  no  prohibition  of  marriage.  Several  of 
the  apostles  were  married  (Matt.  viii.  14;  1  Cor. 
ix.  5),  and  recommended  even  the  chief.s  of  the 
congregation  to  marry  (1  Tim.  iii.  2),  though 
witliout  overlooking,  that,  under  certain  circum- 
stances, it  would  be  better  not  to  marry  (1  Cor. 
vii.  38).  From  this  last  notice  and  others  of  the 
same  bearing,  there  arose  very  early  in  the  Church 
an  idea  that  the  unmarried  state  ought  to  be 
preferred  to  the  married  {Hennas,  lib.  I.  vision 
II.  3;  Ignatius  ad  I'ohjcarp.  c.  V.),  and  the  idea 
soon  developed  into  actual  contempt  of  marriage 
(Ori(/enes  in  Num.  Hum.  VI.,  ed.  de  la  Rue, 
Tom.  II.  p.  288 ;  Hieroni/mus  a<l  Joi-inianum,  I.  4). 
Already,  in  the  second  century,  instances  occur  of 
voluntary  vows  of  virginity ;  and  the  demand  of 
abstinence  before  officiating  was  generally  ac- 
knowledged as  just  (comp.  Schweglkk  :  Der 
Moutanismus,  Tubingen,  1841,  p.  122).  In  the 
fourth  century,  laws  were  issued  w-ith  the  same 
tendencv,  such  as  c.  1,  Cone.  Neociesar.  a.  314  (e. 
9,dist.  XXVIII.) ;  c.  10,  Cone.  Aneyran.  a.  314 
(c.  8,  eod.).  Unmari'ied  men  were  preferred  for 
ecclesiastical  offices,  though  ecclesiastics  were  as 
yet  not  forbidden  to  mai-ry :  nay,  it  was  even  for- 
bidden to  dissolve  a  man-iage  for  religious  reasons 
(c.  5  Apostolorum  in  c.  14,  dist.  XXVIII.  ;  comp. 
the  account  of  the  close  of  the  Council  of  NicKa 
by  Socrates,  Hist.  Eeel.  lib.  I.  e.  11,  and  Sozo- 
JIENUS,  Historia  Tripartita,  lili.  I.  c.  23,  in  e.  12, 
dist.  XXXI.).  Siricius,  Bishop  of  Rome  in  38.5, 
declared  {Ad  Himerium  Tarraennensem,  Ep.  1.  c.  7, 
in  c  3.  4  dist.  LXXXIL),  that,  under  the  old 
dispensation,  the  priesfs  marriage  had  been  al- 
lowed liecause  priests  could  be  taken  only  from 
the  tribe  of  Levi;  but  with  the  abrogation  of  this 
limit  also  the  license  was  abrogated,  as  the  ob- 
seance,  eupiditates,  i.e.,  marrriage,  greatly  imjieded 
the  ecclesiastical  duties.  The  next  bishops  of 
Rome  followed  in  the  same  track  (see  the  decretals 
of  Innocent  I.  from  404  and  405  in  e.  4-6,  dist. 
XXXI.  and  of  Leo  I.  from  446  and  458  in  e.  1, 
dist.  XXXII.  and  c.  10,  dist.  XXXI.,  etc.),  and 
the  whole  Western  Church  soon  joined  issue  with 
Rome  {Cone.  Cartha(/..  II.  a.  390,  c.  2  in  e.  3,  dist 
-XXXL,  e.  3,  dist.  LXXXIV.  :  Cone.  Carthag.,Y. 
a.  401,  e.  3  in  c.  13,  dist.  XXXII.,  c.  4,  dist. 
LXXXIV.,  etc.).  The  prohibition  regarded  at 
first  oidy  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons,  but  from 
the  fifth  century  also  subdeacons,  who  were  not 
allowed  to  enter  into  man-iage  after  ordination 
(Leo  I.,  a.  446  in  c.  1,  dist.  XXXII.  ;  Gregory  I., 
a.  591  and  593  in  e.  1,  dist.  XXXL,  c.  2,  dist. 
XXXII. ,  etc.  ;  and  Cone.  Agath.  a.  506,  c.  39  in 
e.  19,  dist.  XXXIV.).  The  clergy  of  the  lower 
orders  were  allowed  to  marry,  though  not  widows, 
or  for  a  .second  time  {Cone.  Carthag.,Y.  a.  401,  c. 
3  in  e.  13,  (//.^■^  XXXII. ;  Gregory  I.  a.  601  in 
c.  3  eod.).  The  civil  law  confirmed  these  ordi- 
nances. Married  persons,  or  such  as  had  chil- 
dren, could  not  be  elected  bishops.  The  marriage 
of  the  clergy  of  the  higher  orders  was  declared 
null  and  void,  and  the  children  sprung  from  such 
a  marriage  illegitimate  {e.  10.  14  Cod.  Theod.  de 
Episeopis  et  C/erieis  by  Constantius  and  Constans, 
a.  353  and  357 ;  Theodosius  and  Valentiaii,  a.  434 


CELIBACY. 


426 


CENSORSHIP  OF  BOOKS. 


in  c.  20  Cod.  Just.  cil.  I.  3-c.  42,  §  1.  c.  45  C. 
J.  de  Episc.  et  Cler. ;  Justinian,  a.  528  and  530, 
Xoc.  v.,  c.  8,  a.  535;  Nov.  VI.,  c.  1,  .5,  a.  535; 
A-«f.  XXII.,  c.  42,  a.  536;  iVoy.  CXXIII.,  c.  1, 14, 
29,  a.  546). 

At  this  point  the  Greek  Church  halted ;  and 
its  present  arrangement  of  the  matter  rests  upon 
the  ancient  canon  law.  But  the  Latin  Church 
pushed  onwards.  Its  conception  of  the  duty  of 
virginity  grew  more  and  more  severe,  though  it 
met  with  great  resistance  from  the  side  of  the 
clergy.  From  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century, 
Ilildebrand,  afterwards  Pope  Gregory  VII.,  exer- 
cised a  decisive  influence  on  the  question,  as  is 
apparent  from  the  decretals  of  Leo  IX.  (c.  14, 
.ilisl.  XXXII.,  a.  1054),  Stephen  IX.  (c.  14,  disl. 
XXXI.,  a.  1058).  Xicholas  II.  (c.  5,  di^.  XXXIL, 
<i.  10.59),  and  Ale.xander  II.  (c.  6,  disl.  XXXIL, 
r.  16-18,  dist.  LXXXL,  a.  1063).  At  a  synod  of 
1074  he  revived  the  decree  of  1059  and  1063  ac- 
cording to  which  a  married  priest  who  admin- 
istered the  Lord's  Supper,  and  a  layman  who 
received  the  sacrament  from  a  married  jiriest, 
should  be  exconununicated  (c.  15,  disl.  LXXXL). 
In  1089  Ui'ban  II.  decreed  tliat  any  ecclesiastic 
of  the  higlier  orders  who  married  should  lose  his 
otfice  and  benelice  (c.  10,  dist.  XXXIL),  to  which 
the  councils  of  Rheims  (1119)  and  of  the  Lat- 
eran  (1123)  added  that  such  a  marriage  should 
immediately  be  dissolved,  and  the  parties  shut  up 
in  a  place  of  penitence.  When,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  centurj',  the  Keforraers  completely 
abandoned  the  Roman  s3stem,  Charles  V.,  who, 
by  the  Interim  of  1548,  had  tried  to  abrogate  it, 
caused  the  subject  to  be  thoroughly  ventilated  by 
the  Council  of  Trent  (Pall.wicixi  :  Hist.  Cone. 
Trid.  XVII.  4,  8,  XXII.  10,  15,  XXIV.  12; 
SakPI  :  Hist.  Cone.  Trid.  VII.  20;  Wessexbekg  : 
Die  grosscn  Kirchencersamndungen  d.  15  und  IG 
Jahrhunderts,  IV.  pp.  99  sqq.).  The  council, 
however,  generally  confined  itself  to  confirming  the 
existuig  state.  The  duty  of  remaining  in  the  un- 
married state  is,  for  the  higher  orders,  so  absolutely 
binding,  that  it  makes  a  marriage  contracted  after 
consecration  null  and  ^oid.  If  one  belonging  to 
tlie  lower  orders  marries,  the  marriage  is  valid  ;  but 
the  person  loses  his  ecclesiastical  position.  Jlarried 
persons  can  obtain  consecration  to  the  lower  orders 
after  a  vow  of  perpetual  nuirital  abstinence ;  but 
they  cannot  be  promoted  to  any  of  the  liigher 
orders  unless  the  wife  declares  lierself  willmg  to 
take  the  veil,  and  enter  a  convent.  The  Evan- 
j;elical  Church  luis  never  acknowledged  the  iirohi- 
bition  of  marriage.  The  (juestion  is  carefully 
di.scussed  in  tlie  Confession  of  -Vug.sburg  (art. 
XXIIL),  the  Apology  (art.  \l.),  Confcssio  Hel- 
vetica, I.  (art.  37),  II.  (art.  29),  Confcssio  Angli- 
cana  (art.  8,  24),  etc. ;  and  the  various  evangelical 
church  organizations  rest  upon  the  same  ])rinciple. 

Lit.  —  Ki.rr.sciiK  :  Gesckiclitedes  Ciilihats,  Augs- 
l>urg.  1830  ;  Vcr  Cijlilml,  Regensburg,  1811,  2  vols.  ; 
Ko.skovAnv  :  Cccliliatus  it  Bicvarium,  I'est,  1861, 
containing  in  its  first  three  volumes  a  collection 
nf  all  decrees  concerning  the  subject,  and  in  the 
fourth  an  index  of  the  pertaining  literature ; 
niK.NUY  C.  Lea  :  .in  Hislorirrd  Sketch  of  Saecrdo- 
Jul  Celibacy  in  the  Christian  Church,  Phila.,  1867]; 
^'<»^•  Scimi.TE  :  Der  Ciilibalszwanc/,  Bonn,  1876; 
f  r.  L.vuiti.v:  Der  CccUbat  der  Cri.sllichen,  Vienna, 
itio  )].  Mli.)li«  ,JAC'0B80N). 


CELLARIUS.     See  Chapter. 

CELLARIUS,  Martin,  b.  at  Stuttgart,  1499;  d. 
at  Basel,  Oct.  11,  1564;  studied  Oriental  lan- 
guages and  theology  under  Reuchlin  and  Me- 
lanchthon,  but  joined  in  1522  the  Anabaptists, 
and  was  even  arrested  at  Konigsberg  as  a  spir- 
itual vagabond ;  recovered  slowly  fi-om  this  error, 
bj'  the  aid  of  Capito  and  CEcolarapadius ;  settled 
at  Basel  in  1536,  and  was  in  1546  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  the  Old  Testament  there.  A  list  of  his 
writings  is  found  in  the  Athenie  Rauricce,  p.  24 

CELLIT/C.      See  Alexians,  Beghards. 

CELSIUS,  Olaus,  b.  1670;  d.  1756;  was  pro 
fessor  of  Oriental  languages  and  theologj'  in  the 
University  of  Upsal,  Sweden ;  undertook,  with 
the  support  of  King  Charles  XL,  extensive  bo- 
tanical excursions,  and  published  Hierobotanicon 
seu  de  Plantis  SanctCE  Scrijjturee  Dissertationes 
Breves,  Upsal,  1745-47. 

CELSUS,  a  Greek  philosopher  who  in  the 
second  century  (about  178)  wrote  a  hook  against 
the  Christians,  to  which  Origen  replied  with  his 
Contra  Celsum.  Nothing  is  known  either  of  th» 
book  or  of  the  author,  except  what  can  be  gath 
ered  from  Origen's  reply.  Keim  has  attempted 
to  reconstruct  the  book  from  these  fragments : 
Celsus  tcahres  Wort  .  .  .  widerhergestelll,  Zurich, 
1873.     .See  Orige-v. 

CELTIC  CHURCH.    See  Keltic  Church. 

CEN'CHRE/E,  the  eastern  harbor  of  Corinth, 
on  the  .Sarouic  Gulf,  about  nine  miles  east  of  the 
city.  A  Christian  Church  was  established  there, 
of  which  Phoebe  was  deaconess  (Rom.  xvi.  1). 
Paul  sailed  from  thence  to  Ephesus  (Acts  xviii. 
18).  The  modern  name  among  the  educated  is 
still  Kcvxpiat  (Kenchrece),  although  the  vulgar 
name  is  Kikries. 

CENSER.  It  is  certainly  reasonable  to  sup- 
pose that  the  censer  used  by  the  Hebrews  was 
similar  to  that  of  the  Egyptians,  which  consisted 
of  a  box  in  winch  were  the  live  coals,  a  straight 
or  slightly  curved  handle  by  which  to  carry  it, 
and,  at  a  convenient  place  on  the  handle,  a  little 
cup,  in  which  were  the  small  round  pellets  of  the 
incense.  The  priest  projected  these  pellets  into 
the  coals  by  means  of  his  thumb  and  finger.  The 
fact  that  the  Jewish  incense  was  a  paste  lends 
additional  likelihood  to  the  supposition. 

CENSER,  In  Roman-Catholic  Worship.  See 
Thurihle. 

CENSORSHIP  OF  BOOKS   is   an   institution 
which  examines  all  litrrary  works  destined  to  be 
published,  and  either  authorizes  or  forliids  their 
])ublication.     Institutions   of   this   kind   are   not 
older  than   the   invention   of  the  printing-pre.ss ; 
while  prohibition  of  books  as  dangerous  to  reli- 
gion, morals,  and  the  State,  dates  back  to  a  much 
earlier  time.     Thus  all  works  on  magic  were  con- 
denmed  to  be  destroyed  as  books  of  bad  contents 
during  the  reign  of  Alexander  Severus ;  and  Con- 
I  stantine  issued  an  eilict  that  the  works  of  Arius 
sho\ild   be   burnt,   those  who    used   or  po.ssessed 
them    were   threatened    with    death.       Also   the 
1  Church  forbade,  on  its  own  account,  the  reading 
I  of  Pagan  or  heretical  liooks  (see  Ajxisl.  Const,  lib. 
I  I.,  cap.  VI. ;    Coned.   Cnrlhag.    IV.,   c.  398,  can. 
1  XVI.,  etc.).    During  the  middle  ages,  lioth  Clmrcli 
and  State  adhered  firndy  to  these  maxims. 
I      After  the  discovery  of  tlie  printing-press,  Jiow- 
I  ever,  and  more  especially  since  this  invention  bo 


CENSUS. 


427     CENTURI^  MAGDEBURGENSES. 


caiMc  so  foriiii<lalilc'  a  weai>oii  in  the  liaiids  of  the 
Kel'oi-iiiatioii,  siiMjile  jiroliiliition,  in  tlie  form  of 
tlestructioii  of  books  ahvady  printed,  proved  im- 
practical; and  preventive  measures,  taking  effect 
before  tlie  publication,  were  i-esorted  to.  It  was 
the  Konian  Church  which  introduced  the  censor- 
ship of  books.  In  a  letter  addressed  to  the  Arch- 
bishops of  Cologne,  Mayence,  Treves,  a,nd  Magde- 
burg, Ale.xander  VI.  ordered,  in  l.'idl,  that  no 
book  shoiihl  be  printed  without  special  authoriza- 
tion. Jn  151.5  the  Council  of  the  f^ateran  de- 
creed that  no  book  should  be  printed  without 
having  been  exanuned,  in  Home,  by  the  l"ope  oi- 
the  iiiiii/isler  nacrl  ptilatii :  in  the  other  dioceses,  by 
the  bishop,  or  the  inquisitor  of  heresies.  Further 
and  more  detailed  legislation  followed,  and  the 
Council  of  Trent  sanctioned  the  measures  by  its 
decrelum  de  editioiie  et  iiau  sacroruin  lihroniiu.  But 
while  the  State,  which  at  first  adopted  the  insti- 
tution, and  used  it  for  its  own  purposes,  after- 
wards abolished  it  as  inadequate  and  vicious  (in 
which  it  was  followed  both  by  the  Lutheran  and 
the  Reformed  Churches),  the  Koman  Church  still 
maintains  it  in  all  its  rigor.  No  ecclesiastic  is 
permitted  to  publish  any  thing  without  the  au- 
thorization of  his  superior. 

As  the  Roman  Church  could  exercise  no  censor- 
ship over  the  literatures  of  Protestant  countries, 
it  was  necessary  to  continue  the  old  prohibition. 
Hy  the  Council  of  Trent  the  whole  suliject-niatter 
had  been  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  committee ; 
and  the  results  of  the  labors  of  this  committee, 
which  were  nevei'  laid  before  the  council,  but  sent 
directly  to  the  Pope,  were  the  ten  rules  concerning 
jirohibited  books  and  the  Index  Lihronim  Prohibi- 
lorum.  The  rules  have  been  further  enlarged 
and  improved  by  Clement  VIII.,  Sixtus  V.,  Alex- 
ander VII.,  and  especially  bj'  Benedict  XIV.,  by 
his  constitution  of  July  10,  1753.  The  Index 
was  continued  by  a  Congregalio  Judicis ,  but  it 
has  never  been  acknowledged  in  Germany,  and 
in  France  it  has  been  formally  rejected  (see  De 
V Aulnrite  de  I'lndex  en  France,  Paris,  1853).  Be- 
sides its  Index  Lihr.  Proliilil.,  the  Roman  Church 
also  keeps  an  Index  Lib.  Expurgatorum  and  an 
Index  Lib.  Expurijandonim.  MEJER. 

CENSUS.  In  tlie  Old  Testament  there  is  men- 
tion made  of  twelve  censuses:  1.  Under  I\Io.ses 
(Exod.  xxxviii.  20;  Num.  i.  2,  xxvi.)  ;  2.  Under 
David  (2.  Sam.  xxiv.  0) ;  o.  Under  Solomon 
(2  Chron.  ii.  17,  bS) ;  4.  Rehoboam  (1  Kings  xii. 
21);  5.  Abijah  (2  Chron.  xiii.  3);  0.  .Jehoshaphat 
(2  Chron.  xvii.  U-19) ;  7.  Amaziah  (2  Chron. 
XXV.  5,  6)  ;  Uzziah  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  13) ;  12.  Under 
Zerubbabel  (Ez.  ii.  64,  viii.  1-14).  Some  impor- 
tant facts  are  evinced  by  a  .scrutiny  of  these  pas- 
sages;  e.g.,  the  kingdom  of  Judah  was  largest 
under  Jehoshaphat ;  the  ratio  of  population  was 
five  hundred  and  thirty  to  the  square  mile,  a 
dense  population ;  but  then  Palestine  had  a  very 
fertile  soil ;  nor  is  the  number  unparalleled  in 
modern  times. 

In  the  New  Testament,  there  is  incidental  refer- 
ence to  the  census  of  the  Roman  Empire  ordered 
by  Ca'sar  Augustus  :  "  Now  it  came  to  pass,  in 
those  days  there  went  out  a  decree  from  Caesar 
Augustus,  that  all  the  world  should  be  enrolled, 
i.e.,  counted  "  (Luke  ii.  1).  We  know  that  there 
were  at  least  three  such  enrolments  during  his 
reign.     The  Roman   method   differed   from   the 


.lewi.sh  in  requiring  the  enrolment  of  women : 
hence  .Jo.seph  takes  i\Iary  with  him  to  Bethlehem, 
and  there  .Jesus  is  born.  Thus  upon  the  peculi- 
arity of  the  Roman  census,  we  may  say  the  Betli- 
lehemic  birth  of  .lesus  depended.  'The  ultimate 
object  of  the  census  was  taxation  :  this  design 
was  probably  at  first  concealed,  for  there  is  no 
recorded  outbreak  under  Ilerod;  but  one  later  on 
occurred  (.\cts  v.  37).  For  critical  questions  and 
difficulties  in  connection  with  Luke's  .statement, 
see  QuiiUNius. 

CENTRAL  AMERICA  comprises,  geographical- 
ly, Guatemala,  Honduras,  .San  Salvador,  Nicara- 
gua, Costa  Rica,  Pananui,  and  the  British  Colony 
Honduras  or  Balize  ;  but  politically  Panama  be- 
longs to  Columbia.  The  number  of  inhabitants 
is  only  approximate  :  Guatemala.  1,194,000  ;  Brit- 
ish Honduras,  24,700;  Honduras,  351,700;  San 
Salvador,  600,000;  Nicaragua,  250,000;  Costa 
Rica,  165,000.  The  majority  of  the  population 
ai-e  Indians.  The  whites,  descendants  of  the  Span- 
ish emigrants,  form  only  a  small  minority,  and  the 
Ladinos,  a  mixture  of  Indians  and  Europeans,  an- 
other minority  equally  small.  The  general  stand- 
ard of  civilization  has  been  considerably  lowered 
in  these  states  since  their  separation  from  the 
mother-country ;  and  the  cause  is  undoubtedly 
the  rough  treatment  which  the  Church  experi- 
enced during  the  Revolution  and  the  next  follow- 
ing decades.  1'he  property  of  the  Church  was 
confiscated,  the  monasteries  were  abolished,  the 
monks  banished,  and  the  secular  clergy  heavily 
persecuted.  The  clergy  still  represents  nearly  all 
the  civilization  wliich  the  nation  possesses ;  but, 
impoverished  and  down-trodden  as  it  is,  it  can 
exercise  no  decisive  influence,  though  the  mass  of 
the  people  is  fervently  devoted  to  the  Church. 
At  the  head  of  the  clergy  stands  the  Archbishop 
of  Guatemala;  his  suffragans  ai-e  the  Bishops  of 
Leon  (Nicaragua),  Comayagua  (Honduras),  San 
Salvador,  and  .San  Jos^  (Costa  Rica).  The  popu- 
lation is  Roman  Catholic  throughout.  The  num- 
ber of  Protestants  is  insignificant:  only  in  British 
Honduras  is  there  an  Anglican  Church.  The 
legal  position  of  the  Protestants  is  somewhat  dif- 
ferent in  the  different  states. 

Guatemala  and  Costa  Rica  concluded  in  18.52 
concordats  with  the  Pope.  In  Guatemala  the 
monastic  orders,  even  the  Jesuits,  were  allowed 
to  return,  and  the  Jesuits  take  care  of  the  popu- 
lar education.  In  the  city  of  Guatemala  there 
is  a  university,  the  best  educational  institution 
in  Central  America.  In  Costa  Rica  the  Roman- 
Catholic  faith  was  declaied  the  religion  of  the 
republic,  but  the  Jesuits  were  not  admitted.  In 
botli  states  free  worship  has  been  secured  to  the 
Protestants.  In  Honduras,  San  Salvador,  and 
Nicaragua,  the  Church  has  suffered  exceedingly 
from  poverty.  It  has  no  regular  revenue,  and 
the  tax  which  is  levied  in  San  Salvador  under  the 
name  of  "  Religious  Gift "  has  proved  a  barren 
source.  \  great  number  of  the  clergy  are  igno- 
rant negroes.  In  Honduras  the  Roman-Catholic 
Church  has  the  exclusive  right  of  public  worsliip  ; 
but  other  denominations  are  allowed  to  worship 

I  in  private.  tt.  PLITT. 

CENTURI/E  MAGDEBURGENSES  ("The 
Magdeburg  Centuries  ").  The  first,  and.  for  a  long 
time,  unsurpas.sed  attempt  to  write  the  hi.story  of 

!  the   Church  from  an  evangelical  point  of  vie\\ , 


CENTURION. 


428 


CHALMERS. 


was  planned  by  Flacius.  and  executed  by  liini  and 
a  number  of  other  scholars,  —  .Johaini  Wigaiul, 
Matthseus  Judex,  Ba.silius  Fabev,  Andreas  C'orvi- 
nus,  Thomas  Holzhutei-,  etc.  The  headquarters 
of  the  enterprise  was  Magdeburg,  and  hence  the 
name  under  which  the  work  is  generally  known, 
thougli  its  real  title  is  Ecclesiaslica  Hisloria  Nori 
Teslameitli.  It  was  printed  at  Basel,  and  appeared 
in  thirteen  volumes  folio,  from  15.59  to  1574.  It 
comprises  the  thirteen  first  centuries  of  the  history 
of  the  Church,  and  gives  a  volume  to  each  centu- 
ry, arranging  the  nuiterials  under  the  following 
fifteen  heads :  de  h>ci>  el  propagatione  ecdesice  ;  de 
per.tecutione  et  tranijuillilate  ejus  ;  de  doclrliia  ejusque 
intlinattone ;  de  hceresihus ;  de  creremoniis  diversis 
in  locisj  de  guhernalione  ecclesm;  de  nchismatibus 
el  cerlaminihus  leiioribus  ;  de  concilns ;  de  personis 
llluslribus  in  ecclesiaj  de  hfcrelicisy  de  murtijribus  ; 
de  mirncuiis ;  de  rebus  jiidalciis  exiernis  seu  polili- 
cus ;  de  aliis  religinnibus  extra  ecclesiam ;  de  mula- 
lionibus  polilicis  in  imperiis.  The  style  is  tasteless 
and  repulsive,  the  arrangement  mechanical  and 
awkward,  the  tone  controversional ;  but  the  learn- 
ing is  immense,  the  criticism  bold  and  upright, 
the  spirit  enthusiastic ;  and  thus  it  became,  in 
spfte  of  its  defects,  the  inauguration  of  the  free 
study  of  church-history.  8eeB.\UR:  Die  Ejmclnn 
d.  kircli.  Geschichtschreibung,  Tubingen,  18.52; 
Scii.\ff:  Church  Hitlory,  vol.  I.  p.  37,  revised 
editiiin.  Xcw  York,  1882. 

CENTURION,  from  centum,  "one  hundred," 
occurs  ^latt.  viii  5,  8,  13,  Luke  vii.  2,  G,  Acts 
xxi.  .32.  xxii.  25,  20,  etc.;  and  denotes  an  ofBcer 
in  the  Koman  army,  conmianding  one  hundred 
men. 

CEOLFRID,  b.  about  642  in  the  kingdom  of 
Xorthnniberland ;  d.  at  Langres,  France,  Sept. 
25,  716:  w.as  abbot,  first  of  Jarrow,  and  after- 
wards of  Jari-ow  and  AVearmoth.  A  letter  by 
him,  addressed  to  Xaitou,  King  of  the  Picts,  has 
been  preserved  by  Bede  (Hist.  EccL,  V.  21).  His 
life  was  written  by  an  anonymous  contemporary 
printed  iu  Stephenson's  edition  of  Bede,  and  by 
Bede  in  his  Lires  of  the  Five  First  Abbots  of  Wear- 
mouth  and  Jarrow. 

CERDO,  a  Gnostic  teacher  from  the  second 
century,  the  predecessor  of  Marciou,  and  known 
only  through  him ;  was  a  native  of  SjTia,  and 
came  about  137  to  Rome,  where  Marcion  became 
liis  pupil.     He  left  no  writings.    See  Gxosticism. 

CERINTHUS,  a  Gnostic  teacher  who  came 
from  Kgypt,  and  was  active  in  Asia  Jlinor  towards 
the  close  of  the  apostolic  age.  He  w^as  a  con- 
verted Jew,  and  represents  a  mixture  of  Gnosti- 
cism and  Judaism.  He  left  no  writhigs,  and  the 
sect  he  founded  .soon  died  out.  See  Gnosticism 
ancl  J<)M\  TiiK   .VrosTi.K. 

CESTIUS  CALLUS  was  procurator  promncia: 
in  Syria  wlien  tlie  .Jewish  rebellion,  which  ended 
with  tlie  destruction  of  the  temple,  liroke  out. 
From  Antioch  lie  moved  slowly  tow.ards  .Icrusa- 
lein;  and  thougli  he  easily  drove  the  Jews  back  to 
the  upper  part  of  the  city,  and  everj-  thing  .seemed 
to  indicate  a  rapid  close  of  the  campaign,  he 
sudileiily  retreated,  harassed  in  the  rear  by  the 
exultant  Jews.  When  Nerva  heard  of  these  ]iro- 
ceedings,  lie  immediately  sent  Vespasian  to  Pales- 
tine to  take  the  command;  but  tialliis  died 
before  Vespasian's  arrival. 

CHADERTON,  Laurence,    the  first  master  of 


;  F^mmanuel  College,  Cambridge  ;  b.  at  Lees  HalL 
Lancashire,  Sept.  14,  1536;  d.  Xovemlier,  1640. 
He  was  born  of  a  Uoman-Catholic  family,  and 
I  was  disinherited  when  he  joined  the  E.stablished 
i  Church.  He  w.as  a  fellow  of  Christ's  College, 
Cambridge,  and  preached  in  Cambridge  for  many 
I  years  with  great  applause.  Sir  A^'alter  Mildmay,. 
on  refounding  Emmanuel  College  in  1.584.  chose 
liim  for  master,  and,  indeed,  conditioned  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  foundation  upon  his  acceptance. 
He  was  one  of  the  five  Puritan  representatives  in 
the  Hainj)ton  Court  Conference  (see  title),  and 
also  one  of  the  Bible  translators,  translating  from 
Chronicles  to  Canticles  inclusive.  He  published 
a  treatise  On  Jiistijication.  and  a  sermon  preached 
at  St.  Paul's  Cross  in  1578.  Some  other  of  his 
theological  works  remain  in  manuscript. 

CHALD/EANS.  In  the  Old  Testament,  from 
the  time  of  Jeremiah  and  the  establishment  of  the 
new  Bal)ylonian  Empire  under  Nabopolassar  and 
Xabuchadrezzai",  the  terms  Chalda>ans  and  Chal- 
dees  denote  the  inhabitants  of  Babylonia,  or  the 
subjects  of  the  Babvlonian  F'mpiire  (Jer.  xxi.  4,. 
xxxii.  4.  5 ;  Ilab.  i.  6  ;  Ezek.  xxiii.  14.  1.5).  AVith 
this  terminology  agree  both  Strabo,  who  makes 
the  territory  inliaViited  by  the  Chaldees  border  on 
.\rabia  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  monuments, 
which  on  the  one  side  (west)  place  the  Chaldees 
opposite  to  the  Syrians,  and  on  the  other  (south) 
extend  their  country  to  the  sea.  There  was 
another  nation  of  the  name  Chaldasans,  or  Chal- 
dees, an  Armenian  mountain-tribe,  related  to  the 
Kurds  and  Karduches,  and,  according  to  Strabo,. 
originally  called  the  Chalybes.  But  they  were  of 
.\rvan,  Indo-(!ermanic  descent,  and  had  nothing 
to  do  with  the  Babylonian  Chalda^ans.  who  were 
Shemites.  In  the  inscriptions,  the  name  Chaldee 
can  be  traced  back  till  about  900  B.C. ;  but  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is  much  older ;  and  it 
seems  originally  to  have  denoted  a  sjiecial  part  — 
the  southern  Sliinar  —  of  the  whole  Babylonian 
territory.  When  the  Book  of  Daniel  (ii.  2,  5,  IIV 
iv.  4,  V.  7,  11),  and  the  profane  historians  Cur-  ■ 
tins,  Strabo,  and  Diodorus,  speak  of  the  Chaldne- 
•ans  as  the  learned  class  of  the  Babylonian  people, 
or  even  as  a  peculiar  section  of  this  ela.ss,  —  the 
astrologer.s, — the  terminology  has  no  foundation 
whatever  in  reality.  See,  for  furtlier  information, 
Assviu.\,  B.\HYi,ONiA,  etc.  (Add  to  literatura 
under  .\ssNTia,  Assgrioloi/isrlie  liibliothek.  ed.  by 
FuiKnuuii  Dklitzscii  and  P.\il  Haiji't,  iu 
course  of  publication  at  Leipzig  since  1881.) 

CHALCEDON,  a  city  of  Bithynia,  on  the  Bos- 
phorus,  near  Constantinople.  Here  the  fourtli 
(ecumenical  council  was  convened  (451)  by  the 
Emperor  Marcianus.  Six  hnndred  and  thirty 
bisliops  were  present  (mostly  from  the  Orient), 
the  legates  of  the  Pope  Leo  I.,  and  the  com- 
missioners of  the  em|)eror.  The  .sessions  began 
Oct.  8,  and  ended  Oct.  31.  'I'he  principal  result 
of  the  debates  was  the  <M)ndemnation  of  Eutychi- 
anism,  and  tlie  .symbolical  statement  of  the  ortho- 
dox Christology.     See  CiimsToi.ocY. 

CHALMERS,  Thomas,  the  leader  of  the  Free- 
Church  i)f  Sciilland:  b.  in  East  .\nstruther,  Fife- 
.sliire.  March  17,  17S0;  d.  in  Edinlmrgh,  Sunday 
night.  May  30,  1.S47.  The  family  to  which  he 
belonged  were  middle-cla.ss  peo]ile  of  the  strictest 
type  of  Calvinism ;  and  hence,  in  his  opi'iiiiig 
years,  he  received  thorough   indoctrination.     He- 


CHALMERS. 


429 


CHALMERS. 


entered  St.  Andrew's  ruiversity  when  only  eleven 
years  old,  and  ciinfined  his  attention  almost  exclu- 
sively to  niatheuiatics,  l>iit  did  not  give  up  his 
original  intention  of  becoming  a  preacher,  and 
accordingly  was  licensed  by  tlict  presbytery  of  !St. 
Andrew's,  .lanuary,  17!)!).  His  character  early 
developed  into  maturity.  Instead  of  beginning 
his  professional  work,  he  contiiuied  the  study  of 
mathematics  and  natural  science ;  and  during 
the  winter  of  180J-()3  he  acted  as  assistant  of  the 
professor  of  mathenuitics  at  St.  Andrew's.  lie 
.showed  an  extraordinary  power  to  awaken  enthu- 
siasm in  ahnost  any  topic  ho  took  up ;  although 
it  was  this  very  fact  which  at  that  time  cost  him 
his  place,  the  authorities  disliking  the  novelty  of 
his  methods.  He  settled  as  minister  of  Kihnany, 
nine  miles  from  St.  Andrew's,  Ma}',  180:i,  and  in 
the  following  winter,  while  preaciiing  regularly, 
opened  voluntary  and  independent  cla.s.ses  in 
mathematics  at  the  university,  which  were  largely 
attended,  although  vigorously  discouraged  by  the 
authorities.  He  was  a  faithful  pastor  at  Kil- 
juany,  but  his  heart  was  not  in  his  work.  lie 
was  trammelled  by  the  prevailing  moderatism, 
which  put  culture  above  piety,  and  state  support 
above  independence.  In  1808  evidence  of  the 
trend  of  his  thirdiing  appeared  in  his  Inquirij 
into  the  Extent  and  Stabiliti/  of  National  Resources. 
The  supply  of  man's  physical  and  social  eeds 
was  uppermost  in  his  mind.  But  God  was  pre- 
paring him  by  these  very  studies  for  a  glorious 
career  of  divine  service.  In  the  midst  of  such 
work  he  was  visited  with  severe  domestic  afflic- 
tions, and  a  serious  illness  brought  him  to  death's 
door ;  but  he  recovered  after  a  year.  Dr.  Brew- 
ster asked  him  to  contribute  to  his  Edinbui-gh 
Eucyclopaxlia.  He  at  fii'St  chose  "  Trigonometry," 
but  at  length  took  "Christianity."  And  as  he 
exanuned  the  doctrines  of  this  religion,  and  went 
deeper  into  its  mysteries,  he  realired  its  importance, 
and  by  studying  about  Christianity  he  became 
a  Christian.  The  congregation  quickly  became 
awai'e  that  he  had  really  not  so  much  lesumed 
his  work  among  them  as  begun  it.  His  whole 
soul  was  on  fire,  and  his  culture  was  now  used  to 
make  the  saving  truth  of  saving  power.  He  cut 
loose  from  the  moorings  of  moderatism,  and  be- 
came a  decided  Evangelical.  His  eloquence  was 
expended  in  new  channels,  and  with  great  results. 
In  July,  1815,  he  was  fornuilly  admitted  as 
minister  of  the  Tron  Church,  Glasgow.  In  1816 
he  delivered  the  famous  series  of  seven  Discourses 
on  the  C/irislian  Ilevelation,  viewed  in  Connection 
loith  Modern  Astronomij.  In  September,  1819,  he 
removed  from  the  Tron  parish  to  that  of  St. 
John's,  in  order  that  he  might,  in  a  newly-consti- 
tuted parisli,  have  an  opportimity  of  testing  the 
practicability  in  a  large  city  of  the  old  Scottish 
scheme  of  providing  for  the  jioor.  In  the  parish 
there  were  two  thousand  families.  These  he  dis- 
tributed into  twenty-five  divisions ;  and  over  each 
such  district  he  put  an  elder  and  a  deacon,  —  the 
former  to  attend  to  their  spiritual,  the  latter  to 
their  temporal,  needs.  Two  conuuodious  school- 
house.s  w  ere  built ;  four  compietent  teachers  were 
employed,  and  by  school-fees  of  two  and  three 
shillings  each  per  quarter,  seven  lumdred  children 
were  educated ;  while  on  Sunday  the  forty  or  fifty 
local  schools  supplied  religious  instruction.  Dr. 
Clialmers  not  only  presided  over  all  this  system 


of  work,  but  made  him.self  familiar  with  all  the 
<letails,  even  visiting  personally  every  two  years 
each  family  of  the  pari.sli,  and  holding  evening 
meetings.  He  als<j  assumed  complete  charge  of 
the  ixior  ;  and  by  thorough  system,  and  con.seciuent 
weeding-out  of  unworthy  cases,  he  reduceil  tin- 
cost  of  maintaining  them  from  fourteen  hunilred 
to  two  hundred  and  eighty  pounds  per  annum. 
This  ellicient  .system,  however,  in  18:!7  was  given 
up;  and  the  "  Englisli  "  plan  of  compulsory  a.s.ses.s- 
menls,  which  requires  nmch  less  trouljje,  and 
probably  does  nnich  less  good,  was  substituted. 
In  Novend)er,  1823,  Dr.  Chalmers  became  profe.s.s- 
or  of  moral  philo.sophy  in  St.  Andrew's  Univer- 
sity, and  in  November,  1828,  professor  of  theology 
in  Edinburgh.  In  18lj;3  he  issued  his  Bridgewater 
Treatise,  On  the  Ailiijilatlon  of  External  Nuture  to 
the  Moral  anil  Intellectual  Constitution  of  Man. 
This  work  made  a  great  sensation  ;  and  his  biog- 
rajiher,  Kev.  Dr.  Hanna,  says,  that,  in  con.sequence, 
he  received  "  literary  honors  such  as  were  never 
united  previously  in  the  person  of  any  Scottish 
ecclesiastic."  In  1834  he  was  elected  fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  soon  after 
one  of  its  vice-presidents,  in  the  same  year  a  cor- 
responding member  of  the  institute  of  France ; 
and  in  1835  the  University  of  Oxford  conferred 
on  him  the  degree  of  D.C.L. 

Up  to  this  time  he  had  taken  little  part  in 
church  government ;  from  then  on  he  was  des- 
tined to  do  more  than  any  other  man  of  the  cen- 
tury. The  friction  between  Churcii  and  State  in 
Scotland  was  rapidly  producing  trouble.  The 
attenipt  to  settle  nduisters  who  were  obnoxious 
to  the  congregations  was  the  commonest  com- 
plaint. The  historic  case  is  that  of  Marnoch. 
Here  only  one  person  in  the  parish  signed  the 
call ;  and  yet  the  presbytery  of  Strathbogie  de- 
cided, by  a  vote  of  seven  to  three,  to  proceed  with 
the  ordination,  and  did,  although  these  seven 
were  suspended.  In  so  doing  they  W'ere  upheld 
by  the  civil  authority,  which  annulled  their  sus- 
pension. But  this  case  was  only  an  aggravation 
of  a  common  ill.  INIatters  became  so  serious  in 
all  parts  of  Scotland,  that  a  convocation  was  held 
in  November,  1812,  to  consider  the  matter;  and 
a  large  numVier  of  ministers  resolved,  that,  if  re- 
lief was  not  afforded,  they  would  withdraw  from 
the  Establishment.  No  help  came ;  and  accord- 
ingly, on  the  18th  of  May,  1843,  four  hundred 
and  seventy  clergymen  withdrew  from  the  Gen- 
eral .'\ssembly,  and  constituted  themselves  into 
the  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  electing  Dr.  Chal- 
mers as  their  first  moderator.  He  had  foreseen 
the  separation,  and  drawn  up  a  scheme  for  the 
support  of  the  outgoing  ministers.  But,  after  he 
had  safely  piloted  the  new  Church  througli  the 
stormy  waters,  he  gave  himself  up  more  exclu- 
sively to  professional  work,  especially  in  connec- 
tion with  the  New  College,  Edinburgh,  of  which 
he  was  principal,  and  to  the  composition  of  his 
Institutes  of  Theoloijy.     He  died  suddenly. 

Dr.  Chalmers  is  to-day  a  moulding  influence. 
All  the  churches  of  Scotland  unite  to  do  him 
reverence.  He  was  a  greater  worker  than  w  I'itei-, 
and  a  greater  man  than  either.  It  was  surely 
enough  honor  for  one  life  to  inspire  spiritual  life 
throughout  an  entire  land ;  and  as  the  tireless 
and  practical  reformer,  as  the  Christian  philan- 
throjiist,  and,  above  all,  as  the  founder  of  the 


CHAMIER. 


480 


CHANNING. 


Free  Cliurch  of  Scotland,  lie  will  live.  See 
Memoir  of  his  life  and  writings  by  his  son-in- 
law,  Kev.  WiLLiAJi  Haxxa,  Edin!,  1849-52,  4 
vols. ;  J.  L.  Watsox  :  The  Life  of  Thomas  Chal- 
jners, /)./).,  Edinburgh,  ISSl ;  Donald  Fkaser  : 
Thomas  Chalmers,  DID.,  LL.D.,  London  and  Xew 
York,  18S1. 

CHAMIER,  Daniel,  b.  1565;  d.  Oct.  17,  1621; 
studied  theology  at  Geneva,  and  had  charge  of 
various  Reformed  congregations  in  France,  at  last 
in  ilontauban,  where,  during  the  siege,  he  was 
killed  by  a  cannon-ball.  He  distinguished  himself 
by  the  courage  and  energy  with  which  he  fought 
for  the  rights  of  his  churcli  at  every  occasion,  but 
especially  during  the  discussions  which  preceded 
the  Edict  of  Nantes.  Ilis  writings,  which  are 
mostly  polemical,  comprise  Dispute  de  la  Vocation 
des  ilinistres  en  I'lirjlise  Ri-formi-e,  LarocheUe, 
1598;  £;j/4'/6i/cE /esHiVicn;,  Geneva,  1599  ;  La  Honte 
de  Babylon,  LarocheUe,  1612  ;  PanstraticcE  Catholi- 
c(e,  unfinislied,  published  by  his  son,  Geneva, 
1626,  etc.  See  Memoir  of  D.  Chamier,  London, 
18.52;   Read:  Ihmiel  Chamier.  Paris,  1858. 

CHANOIEU,  Antoine  de  la  Roche,  b.  at  the 
Chateau  of  Chabot  in  Maconnais  (Saone-Loire), 
1534;  d.  at  Geneva,  Feb.  23,  1591;  embraced  the 
Reformation;  studied  theology  at  Geneva;  was 
the  minister  of  the  Reformed  congregation  of 
Paris,  1555-62,  and  convoked  the  first  national 
synod  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  France,  Pai'is, 
May  26,  1559 ;  retired  in  1564  to  his  estates  in 
Maconnais,  but  did  not  cease  to  take  the  most 
active  part  in  all  the  business  of  the  Reformed 
Church,  in  the  synods,  and  at  the  court,  as  a 
preacher  and  as  an  author ;  fled  to  Switzerland 
after  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  and  lived, 
first  in  Lausanne,  afterwards  in  Geneva,  as  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew.  His  principal  works  are, 
Histoire  des  persecutions  et  martyrs  de  VajUse  de 
Paris  depuis  I'an  1557  jusqu'au  temps  de  Charles 
JX.,  Lyons,  1563;  Locus  de  Verba  Dei  Scripto, 
1584;  De  Christi  Sacerdotio,  15SS ;  De  Vera  Pecca- 
torum  Remissione,  1591,  etc.  Most  of  his  writings 
were  published  either  anonymously,  or  under  the 
pseudonymes  of  Sadeeand  Zamariel.  Collected 
editions  apiicared  in  1.592  and  1,599. 

CHANDLER,  Edward,  opponent  of  Collins;  b. 
at  Dublin,  1670;  d.  in  London,  July  20,  1750. 
He  was  made  Bishop  of  Lichfield,  1717,  and  trans- 
ferred to  the  see  of  Durham,  17.30.  He  is  best 
known  by  his  Defence  of  Chri.ilianily  from  the 
Prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament  (London,  1725), 
in  reply  to  Collins's  Discourse  on  the  Grounds  and 
Reasons  of  the  Christian  Reliyion.  The  work  went 
over  the  whole  ground  with  remarkable  biblical 
and  rabbinical  learning.  In  1727  Collins  replied 
to  it  in  his  Scheme  of  Literal  Pro/thecy  considered : 
and  the  controversy  closed  by  tlie  publication  of 
Chandler's  Vindication  of  the  Dtfence  of  Christi- 
anity from  the  Propliecies  of  the  Old  Testament,  Lon- 
don, 1728.  The  point  in  debate  was  the  existence 
of  an  expectation  of  the  Messiah  at  the  time  of 
Christ's  birth.  This  Collins  denied.  See  CoL- 
l,i.N.s,  A.;  also  Caikns,  Unbelief  in  the  Eiyhtcenth 
Century.  ]<]>.  77-7!'. 

CHANDLER,  Samuel,  b.  at  Hungerford  in 
Berkshiic  in  1693;  d.  in  L(jndon,  May  8,  1766. 
His  father,  who  wa.s  an  eminent  Nonconformist 
minister,  gave  him  a  good  education,  .sending  him 
first  to  Gloucester,  where  lie  formed  what  proved 


to  be  lifelong  friendships  w  ith  Bishop  Butler  and 
ArchV>ishop  Seeker,  and  then  to  Leyden.  In 
1716  he  was  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at 
Peckham ;  and  from  1726  pastor  of  the  Presbjiie 
rian  Church,  Old  Jewry,  London,  to  which  he  nan- 
istered  for  forty  years.  His  learning  and  talent.? 
were  recognized  liy  his  election  to  the  Royal  and 
Antiquarian  Societies,  and  doctorate  -in  theology, 
both  from  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow.  On  the 
death  of  George  II.  (1760),  Chandler  published  a 
sermon  in  which  he  compared  the  deceased  king 
to  David.  This  drew  out  a  pamphlet  which  set 
fortli  David  as  a  bad  man.  Chandler  replied 
briefly,  but  was  led  to  give  more  study  to  David's 
history,  and  so  wrote  his  best-known  and  most 
valuable  work,  finished  just  before  his  death,  A 
Critical  History  of  the  Life  of  David,  London,  1766, 
2  vols.  8vo,  reprinted,  Oxford,  1853.  Among  his 
other  works  of  note  (all  published  in  London), 
are,  A  Vindication  of  the  Christian  Religion 
(against  A.  Collins),  1725;  A  Vindication  of  Dan- 
iel's Prophecies,  1728  ;  The  History  of  Persecution, 
1736 ;  A  Vindication  of  the  History  of  the  Old 
Testament,  1741  ;  Connnentaries  on  Galatians, 
Ephesians,  and  1  and  2  Thessaloniatis,  1777,  and 
on  Joel,  1735 ;  four  volumes  of  posthumous  Ser- 
mons, 1768.     In  theology  he  was  a  senii-Arian. 

CHANNING,  William  Ellery,  the  most  cele- 
brated and  influential  Unitarian  theologian  and 
philanthropist  of  America,  and  better  known  in 
Europe  than  most  American  authors ;  b.  at  New- 
port, R.I.,  April  7,  1780;  d.  at  Bennington,  Vt., 
Sunday,  Oct.  2,  1842.  His  father  was  an  hon- 
ored judge  and  a  moderate  Calvinist;  his  mother, 
a  refined  and  pious  woman  :  under  such  influences 
he  early  manifested  a  deeply  religious  nature,  and 
chose  the  clerical  profession.  He  traced  his  con- 
version to  the  influence  of  the  funeral  of  his 
father,  and  a  religious  reviv.al  wliicli  then  swept 
over  New  England.  He  wa,s  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College.  He  devoted  his  leisure  hours  chiefly 
to  the  study  of  Shakspeare.  In  1798  he  went  as 
private  tutor  to  Richmond,  "\'a.,  and  while  there 
had  such  mental  agony  from  religious  doubts, 
that  he  was  physically  enfeebled,  anil  returned  to 
Newport  in  1800  a  "thin  and  pallid  "  invalid,  with 
a  constitution  permanently  impaired.  At  home 
he  associated  much  with  the  Kev.  Dr.  Samuel 
Hopkins,  —  the  famous  Calvinist,  and  follower  of 
Jonathan  Edwards,  —  whom  Iw  warmly  esteemed. 
In  1802  he  was  licensed  to  preadi,  and  at  once 
distinguished  himself  by  his  fire,  his  unction,  and 
elegant  style.  Although  jiopularly  supposed  to 
be  orthodox,  he  was  really  an  Arian,  but  with  the 
ethical  principles  of  Dr.  Ilniikins.  On  June  1, 
1803,  he  was  ordained,  and  installed  pastor  of  a 
puritanical  Calvinistic  Congregation  in  Federal 
Street,  Boston.  His  audience  increased  rapidly 
with  his  reputation  for  ekKjuence  and  devotion. 
His  church  was  alw.ays  well  filled.  At  the  close 
of  his  sermons  he  was  often  physically  exhausted. 
He  introduced  a  new  era  in  iireaching,  and  enli- 
vened the  iiuljiit  by  themes  of  Christian  philan- 
thropy and  social  reform. 

Not  very  long  after  this  time,  it  became  appar- 
ent that  many  of  the  Congregational  churches  of 
New  England,  <'siiecially  in  Boston  and  its  neigh- 
borhood, had,  through  various  influences,  become 
gradually  Antilviuitarian  and  ,\nti-Calvinistic. 
In  the  separaiioii  which  I'olloweil,  Channing  allied 


CHANNING. 


4:]1 


CHAPEL. 


himself  with  tlie  so-called  "  Liberal  "  jiaity,  and 
lifcanie  thi'iv  ackiiDwlcdj^cd  head.  lie  is  coiii- 
iiionly  called  a  Unitarian ;  lint  in  his  own  language 
he  vvisiird  to  regard  hiniselt'  as  "  belonging  not  to 
a  sect,  but  to  the  comnuniity  of  free  minds,  of 
lovers  of  truth,  and  followers  of  Christ,  both  on 
earth  and  in  heaven."  This  catholicity  of  sfiirit 
secured  him  the  esteem  of  men  of  all  schools  and 
parties.  In  a  letter  of  Aug.  2'J,  1841,  addressed  to 
an  Englishman,  he  expressed  tlie  noble  sentiment : 
"  As  I  grow  older  ...  I  distrust  sectarian  influ- 
ence more  and  more.  I  am  more  detached  fi'om 
a  denomination,  and  gtrive  to  feel  more  my  con- 
nection witii  the  Universal  Church,  with  all  good 
and  holy  men.  I  am  little  of  a  Unitarian,  have 
little  synipatliy  with  the  system  of  Priestley  and 
Befeiham,  and  stand  aloof  from  all  but  those  who 
strive  and  pray  for  clearer  light,  who  look  for  a 
purer  and  more  effectual  manifestation  of  Chris- 
tian truth"  (Memoir,  vol.  TI.  p.  380).  From  this 
confession  some  have  inferred  that  towards  the 
close  of  his  life  he  leaned  more  to  orthodoxy; 
but  this  is  emphatically  denied  by  his  nephew  and 
biographer,  and  by  I)i'.  Gannett,  his  colleague  and 
successor.  In  anotlier  letter,  written  three  luonths 
later  (November,  1841),  he  says,  "  I  value  Unitiv 
rianism,  not  because  I  regard  it  as  in  itself  a  per- 
fect system,  but  as  freed  from  many  great  and 
pernicious  errors  of  the  older  .systems,  as  encour- 
aging freedom  of  thought,  as  raising  us  above 
the  depotism  of  the  Church,  and  as  breathing  a 
mild  and  tolerant  spirit  into  all  the  members  of 
the  Christian  body"  (Memoir,  II.  400). 

Channing  opposed,  on  the  one  hand,  the  hard 
and  bony  Puritan  orthodoxy  of  his  day,  and 
combated  vigorously  the  traditional  views  on  the 
trinity,  the  atonement,  and  total  depravity ;  while 
on  the  other  he  eipially  opposed  the  rationalistic 
and  radical  Unitariauisni,  and  sought  a  middle 
■way.  He  emphasized  the  human  element  in 
Christ  and  Christianity,  M'hich  was  too  much 
overlooked  by  Calvinism,  and  paid  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  elocpient  tribxites  to  the  per- 
fection of  tlie  moral  character  of  Christ.  He  held 
up  his  example  as  the  great  ideal  to  be  followed. 
He  found  in  Christ  a  perfect  manifestation  of 
God  to  men,  and  at  the  same  time  the  ideal  of 
humanity,  who  spake  with  divine  authority.  He 
firmly  believed  in  his  sinlessness  and  miracles, 
especially  his  resurrection.  He  was  "  always 
inclined,"  he  wrote  as  late  as  March  31,  1832,  "to 
the  doctrine  of  the  pre-exUtence  of  Christ"  (Me- 
moir, II.  416).  He  was,  therefore,  not  a  liumani- 
tariau,  like  Priestley,  but  rather  an  .^rian,  as  his 
nephew  calls  him  (Memoir,  II.  93).  He  paid 
little  attention  to  metaphysical  questions,  and 
preferred  to  dwell  on  the  historical  Christ.  But 
he  remained  a  supernaturalist  to  the  end  ;  and 
his  last  utterances  on  the  Gospels  and  the  char- 
acter of  our  Lord  are  among  the  strongest  and 
noblest.     See  Memoir,  II.  431,  436,  442.  ' 

Channing,  however,  was  not  so  much  a  theolo- 
gian as  a  preacher  and  a  philanthropist.  He  was  no 
dreamer,  but  a  practical  reformer.  He  labored  for 
the  purification  and  elevation  of  life  and  society, 
and  entered  heartily  into  schemes  for  the  abolition 
of  slavery,  of  intemperance,  of  prison-aliuses,  and 
for  the  circulation  of  the  Bible.  He  had  an  ex- 
alted idea  of  the  nobility  of  human  nature,  and 
an  unbounded  faith  in  freedom  and  progress. 


He  was  reserved  and  reticent,  but  earnest  and 
ardent  when  aroused.  He  was  short  and  slender. 
He  had  a  devout  and  unworldly  spirit.  H<;  was 
singularly  free  from  selfishness,  and  full  of  sympa^ 
tliy  for  others.  A  French-Catholic  writer  calls 
liini  the  "American  Fenelon."  The  impression 
he  nuide  upon  Coleridge,  whom  he  met  in  Eng- 
land in  1822,  was  so  favorable  as  to  draw  forth 
the  expression,  "  Channing  has  the  love  of  wis- 
dom, and  the  wisdom  of  love."*  Dr.  II.  "W.  Bel- 
lows, one  of  his  pupils,  says  (in  his  Centenary 
Address,  1880,  p.  6),  "  He  belonged  to  the  order 
of  Christians  called  Unitarians,  but  he  belonged 
still  more  to  the  Church  Universal ;  and  nothing 
would  have  grieved  him  more  than  any  attempt 
to  shut  him  into  any  enclosure  that  shuts  out  the 
pure  and  good  of  any  name,  —  Catholic  or  Protes- 
tant, Trinitarian  or  Unitarian." ' 

Channing's  Works  were  pidilished  in  six  vol- 
umes, Boston,  1848,  and  in  London,  180."),  two  vol- 
umes ;  German  translation  by  Sydow  and  Schulze, 
Berlin,  1850.  The  best  known  of  them  are  his 
Evidences  of  Christianity,  delivei'ed  at  Cambridge 
1821 ;  his  treatise  on  Slavery,  1841 ;  his  discourses 
on  the  Character  of  Christ ;  and  his  critical  essays 
upon  Milton,  Fenelon,  Bonaparte,  Self-Culture. 
liis  3femoir,  ivith  Extracts  from  his  Correspondence 
and  Manuscripts,  was  prepared  by  his  nephew,  tlie 
Rev.  William  Henry  Channing,  London  and  Bos- 
ton, 1818,  3  vols..  10th  ed  ,  1874.  (Cf.  the  French 
work,  Channiny,  sa  vie  et  ses  ceurres,  with  a  Pref- 
ace by  Cli.  de  Kemusat,  1857,  enlarged  ed.,  1861.) 
An  abridgment  was  published  as  a  Centennial 
Jlemorial  Edition  in  1880  by  the  American  Uni- 
tarian Association. 

On  the  7tli  of  April,  1880,  the  centenary  of  his 
l.)irth  was  celebrated  at  Newjiort,  K.I.  In  the 
morning  the  Rev.  Dr.  Henry  ^\'.  Bellows  of  Xew 
York  delivered  a  Discourse  (afterwards  published. 
New  York,  by  G.  P.  Putnam)  ;  in  the  afternoon 
tlie  corner-stone  of  the  Jlemorial  Church  was 
laid,  and  an  address  delivered  by  the  Rev.  W.  H. 
Cliaiming.  Another  meeting  was  held  in  the 
evening.  Memorial  meetings  were  also  held  in 
New  Y'ork,  Brooklyn,  and  Washington,  and  in 
several  cities  of  England.  Among  the  books 
more  or  less  called  forth  by  this  centenary,  al- 
though all  published  before  it,  were  C.  T.  Brooks's 
William  Ellery  Channiny :  A   Centennial  Memory; 


'  To  this  I  may  add  au  extract  from  a  private  letter  of  Dr. 
Bellows  (Oct.  10,  1881)  :  "I  have  read  with  genera!  assent  your 
.article  on  Channing,  and  do  not  feel  disposed  to  change  it. 
1  am  convinced,  that  although  tlie  survival  of  many  ideas  of  his 
youth  (and  the  pre-existence  of  Christ  among  them)  makes  it 
])Ofisible  to  say  that  Channing  was  nut  a  iuimanitarian  in  the 
strict  theological  sense,  and  not  a  Unitarian  after  the  prevail- 
ing modern  type  of  Unitarianism,  yet  that  he  was  as  much  a 
Unitarian  as  any  of  his  contemporaries,  and  that  his  whole  influ- 
ence went  toward  the  support  of  the  Unitarian  movement.  It 
would  be  as  absurd  to  cut  him  ofl'  from  the  body  that  aciinowl- 
edged  him  as  its  head  as  to  deny  that  Wesley  was  a  Method- 
ist, because  he  had  tender  an<l  strong  leanings  towards  the 
English  Church.  .  .  .  Channing  did  not  belong  to  us  in  any 
cxeLtiHive  sense.  Neither,  I  may  add,  do  an}'  of  our  leading 
men." 

By  Dr.  Bellows's  kind  permission  I  make  also  the  following 
extract  from  a  letter  to  him  by  William  F.  Channing,  il.D.,  a 
son  of  Dr.  Ch.inning,  d.ated  Oct.  10, 1881  :  "  In  the  autumn  of 
1841,  the  year  before  his  death,  1  improved  the  opportunity  to 
ask  him  what  his  view  then  was  of  the  nature  of  Clirist.  His 
answer  was, '/ rt7n  Wior^  ««(/  more  <iinpoi<f(i  to  heli've  in  hi^ 
ahnpte  humtmity.^  .  .  .  During  my  boyhood  and  earlier  youth 
I  had  discussed  long  and  often  with  my  father  the  great  ques- 
tions of  theology  and  religion ;  and  I  knew  that  during  many 
years,  while  liolding  the  most  exalted  view  of  Christ's  position 
and  office,  he  yet  refused  to  dogmatize  or  delinitely  affirm 
Christ's  rank  and  place  in  the  scale  of  being."    But  see  above. 


CHAPEL. 


CHAPTERS. 


C.  A.  Bartol's  "  Portrait,"  in  Principles  and  Por- 
traits; and,  most  important  of  all,  Miss  Elizabeth 
Palmkr  Pe.\bodv's  Ihniiniscences  of  Rcr.  Wil- 
liam EUery  Channing,  D.D.,  all  published,  Bos- 
ton, ISSO.  The  Channiny  Centenary,  edited  by 
Russell  Morris  Bellows,  Boston,  1881  (532  pages), 
contains  an  account  of  the  memorial  meetings  in 
America  and  Great  Britain,  and  reports  of  the 
addi-esses  made  on  those  interesting  occasions, 
which  show  the. extent  of  the  impression  which 
Dr.  Channing  made  upon  his  age,  especially  in 
Kew  England.  The  Channing  Memorial  Church 
was  dedicated  Oct.  10,  1881.       I-IIILIP  SCILiFF. 

CHAPEL  (Latin,  capella),  a  small  church,  des- 
tined for  a  family  or  a  convent,  but  without  paro- 
chial rights;  or  an  addition  to  a  large  church, 
destined  for  occasional  service,  or  for  a  mission 
congregation.  The  derivation  of  capella  is  ob- 
scure, but  generally  referred  back  to  the  capa,  or 
cloak,  of  St.  Martin,  which  the  French  kings 
carried  with  them  in  liattle,  deposited  in  a  small, 
transportable  structure,  hence  called  a  capella. 

CHAPIN,  Edwin  Hubbell,  D.D.,  a  Universalist 
minister,  b.  at  Union  Village,  Washington  Coun- 
ty, New  York,  Dec.  29,  1811;  d.  in  New-York 
City,  Dec.  26,  1880.  In  1837  he  was  ordained 
to  the  Universalist  ministry,  and  until  1840 
preached  to  a  society  composed  of  Universalists 
and  Unitarians  in  Richmond,  Va.  After  a  six- 
years'  pastorate  in  Charlestown,  and  two  years  in 
Boston,  !Mass.,  he  came  to  New  York  in  1848,  as 
minister  of  the  Fourth  Universalist  Society,  and 
from  that  time  until  the  last  few  years  of  his  life, 
he  was  one  of  the  most  admired  and  popular 
preachers  and  lecturers  of  the  city.  Harvard 
College  bestowed  upon  him  the  degrees  of  A.M. 
and  D.D.  His  publications  were  numerous,  al- 
though ephemeral,  consisting  in  the  main  of  ser- 
mons. Among  them  are  Moral  Aspects  of  City 
Life,  18.")3;  True  ^/anliness,  18.54;  Lessons  of 
Faith  and  Hope,  1877  ;  The  Church  of  the  Living 
God,  anil  Other  Sennons,  1881 ;  God's  Reijuiremcnts 
and  Other  Serninns,  1881. 

CHAPLAIN  (capellanus),  in  the  Roman-Catho- 
lic Church,  means  a  parson's  assistant,  ordained 
priest  himsell',  and  aiding  the  parson  in  the  dis- 
charge of  his  p;istoral  duties.  According  to  canon 
law,  a  parish  has  only  one  parson ;  Init  when 
the  flock  is  very  large,  or  other  circumstances 
prevent  the  par.son  from  fulfilling  his  whole  duty. 
the  bishoj)  can  order  him  to  procure  one  or  more 
assistants  (Trid.  Sess.  21,  e.  4  de  ref).  These 
assistants  (capeltaui,  chaiilains)  are  in  the  .service 
of  the  parson,  are  paid  by  him,  and  may  be  dis- 
mis.sed  by  him  at  pleasure,  though  the  bishop's 
approbation  is  nece.s.sary  to  their  appointment. 
In  ca.ses  in  whicli,  by  endowments,  means  have 
been  provided  for  the  establishment  of  a  per- 
petual chaplaincy,  the  incundient,  whether  a  cap- 
ellanus ciiralus  (that  is,  appointed  for  the  general 
assistance  of  tlie  parson),  or  a  capellanus  sacel- 
lanus,  or  vicarius,  or primissarius  (that  is,  appointed 
for  some  special  service),  ceases  to  be  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  parson,  and  cannot  be  dismissed  by 
him,  though  lie  still  remains  in  a  certain  depend- 
ence. As  tlie  word  "  capellanus  "  originally  meant 
any  one  olliciating  in  a  cnpilla,  there  aie,  of 
course,  capellani  reijii,  capcllani  cpiscojtalcs,  t-tc. 
The  Pope  has  al.so  a  number  of  cliaplains,  divided 
into   three   groups,  —  capellani   honorurii,  a  mcro 


title ;  capellani  ceremoniarii,  who  assist  him  in 
officiating ;  and  capellani  secreti,  who  serve  as  pri- 
vate secretaties.  See  V.\N  Espen  :  Jus.  Eccl. 
Unicers. pars.ll.;  Resold:  Parochialrechte.  \SK, 
I.  332.<!77;  Hixscmus:  System  des  Kath.  Kirchcn- 
rechts,  2.  321  sq.  MEJER. 

CHAPTERS,  in  the  Roman-Catholic  Church, 
mean  ecclesiastical  coi-porations,  organized,  both 
at  the  cathedrals,  and,  later  on,  also  at  collegiate 
churclies,  with  special  regard  to  the  regulation  of 
the  divine  service.  They  grew  up  from  the  pres- 
byteries ;  that  is,  from  those  colleges  of  priests 
and  deacons  which  in  the  old  church  stood  by 
the  side  of  the  bishop  as  his  council  or  senate ; 
and  they  assumed  a  more  distinct  form,  when, 
from  the  fourth  centiu'y,  the  monastical  vita  com- 
munis (conmuuial  life)  began  to  be  transferred 
to  the  secular  clergy. 

Eusebius  of  Vercelli,  and  Augustine,  introduced 
the  vita  communis  at  Vercelli  and  Hippo.  The 
clergy  lived  together  in  one  house  {monasteiium) ; 
and  in  the  latter  city,  also,  the  monastic  vow  of 
perpetual  poverty  was  adojjted.  This  arrange- 
ment was  imitated  in  Africa,  Spain,  and  Gaul ; 
but  it  was  not  generally  accepted,  nor  fully  de- 
veloped, until  the  eighth  century.  At  that  time 
the  cita  canonica  (canonical  life),  based  upon 
Acts  iv.  32,  and,  by  its  idea  of  common  property, 
distinguished  from  the  monastical  life  Q-eyularifer 
virere),  with  its  absolute  poverty,  was  organized 
in  France  by  Chrodegang  of  jletz,  about  700. 
See  M.\xsi :  Cone,  14,  313;  W.\lter  :  Pontes 
Jur.  Eccle.,  p.  29.  This  organization  spread  so 
rajiidly,  that,  under  Louis  the  Pious,  the  synod 
of  Ai.x-la-Chapelle  (816)  elaborated  a  new  regula- 
tion, resting  on  Chrodegang's  rules,  as  they  rested 
on  the  rules  of  Benedict,  and  comprising  not  only 
the  cathedral,  but  also  the  collegiate  churches. 
According  to  both  these  regulations,  the  clergy 
should  live  together  in  one  house  (daustrum), 
with  the  Inshop  and  their  special  head,  who, 
according  to  Chrodegang,  is  the  archdeacon, 
according  to  the  synod  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  the 
pra'positus,  to  whose  discipline  they  were  subject. 
From  pure  monasticisni  this  organization  differed 
by  retaining  that  gradation  of  rank  which  fol- 
lows with  the  gradation  of  ecclesiastical  order 
and  function,  and  the  right  of  the  individual  to 
hold  jirivate  property.  In  the  ninth  century  this 
organization  generally  came  to  bear  the  name 
capitulum,  N\hich  at  first  simply  referred  to  the 
chapter  of  the  Bible  which  was  read  aloud  at 
their  daily  gatherings,  then  to  the  room  or  house 
in  which  the  a.ssend)ly  was  held  (the  chapter- 
house), and  finally  to  tlie  a.ssenibly  itself  and  the 
whole  organization. 

In  the  latter  part,  however,  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, a  division  of  the  connnon  property  began  to 
take  i>lac(!  between  the  bishop  and  the  chapter, 
and  between  the  members  of  the  chapter,  each 
retaining  tor  himself  individually  a  certain  por- 
tion of  the  connnon  mass.  At  the  .same  time  it 
became  custonuiry  for  the  members  of  the  chap- 
ter, at  least  for  those  of  the  higher  gi-ades,  to 
have  hou.ses  of  their  ow'ii  (mansioncs)  ;  and  th\is 
the  very  foundation  of  the  .so-called  rita  canonica 
was  gradually  broken  up.  In  the  cour.se  of  the 
eleventh  century  the  transformation  was  lu'arly 
completed  ;  but,  in  the  latter  jiart  of  the  eleventh 
and  the  lioi^innim;-  of  the  twelfth  century,  a  re- 


CHAPTERS. 


433 


CHAPTERS  AND  VBRSEU. 


action  arose.  The  ascetic  and  monastic  tendency 
was  still  iu  tlie  ascendency;  and  .suiipdi-ted  by 
men  like  Petrus  of  Damiani,  and  (Jei'lioli  of  Uei- 
chensberg,  and  favored  by  tlie  popes,  an  attempt 
at  restoration  was  made.  At  many  placets  Hk; 
canonki  smculares  were  replaced  with  cantmici 
regidarcs,  and  at  some,  even  the  latter  were  re- 
placed with  PKBUionstratensian  monks.  Never- 
theless, the  ascetic  tendency  proved  too  weak,  or, 
rather,  the  relations  wliich  tlie  holding  of  prop- 
erty had  established  between  the  clergy  and  the 
world  were  too  manifold  and  too  strong :  tlie 
restoration  failed.  From  the  thirteentli  century, 
the  vita  canonica  in  its  original  form  was  of  very 
rare  occurrence. 

The  members  of  a  chapter  (rdniiiuci  majiires  or 
cathedralcs,  at  a  cathedral  church,  and  canonici 
■cotlegiales,  at  a  collegiate  church)  consisted  of  two 
groups,  which,  liowever,  were  not  so  very  sharply 
distinguished  from  each  other.  The  canonici 
seniores,  or  capitulares,  had  a  vntum  in  caj/ilidn,  a 
stallum  in  chorn,  and,  generally,  a  prcchenila ;  that 
is,  an  individual  revenue  derived  from  real  estate, 
ground-rent,  tithes,  tolls,  etc.  Tlie  canonici  juni- 
ores,  non  capitulares,  domicelli,  or  canonici  in  pul- 
vere,  were  young  men  admitted  into  the  chapter 
for  further  ecclesiastical  development,  and  per- 
haps still  frequenting  the  scliool  (non  emancipali). 
The  conditions  for  admittance  into  the  chapter 
were  the  tonsure,  an  age  of  fourteen  years,  a  sound 
body,  legitimate,  and  sometimes,  also,  noble  birth, 
etc.  Originally  it  was  the  bishop  or  the  jmcposi- 
tus  who  selected  the  fit  subjects  for  vacant  places  ; 
afterwards  it  was  the  older  members  of  the  chap- 
ter itself ;  and  finally,  when  by  its  participation 
in  the  administration  of  the  diocese,  and  by  its 
great  wealth,  the  chapter  liad  obtained  an  impor- 
tant political  and  social  position,  and  a  canonry 
had  become  the  usual  way  in  which  the  nobility 
provided  for  their  j-ouiiger  sons,  the  pope,  the 
emperor,  the  ruler  of  the  country,  the  patron  of 
the  Church,  and  others,  claimed  a  vote  in  the  de- 
cision. For  admission  into  the  class  of  canonici 
seniores  a  higlier  ecclesiastical  consecration  than 
the  tonsure  was  necessary ;  and  the  degree  as 
inagister,  or  doctor,  or  licentiate,  in  theology  or 
canon  law,  here  formed  a  counterbalance  to  no- 
bility of  birth  and  secular  influences. 

At  the  head  of  the  chapter  stood  tlie  prarpositus, 
whose  business  it  was  to  administer  tlie  property 
of  the  institution.  Tlie  decanus  had  to  watch 
over  the  discipline  among  the  members,  and  their 
proper  discharge  of  the  duties  of  the  service,  ile 
accordingly  exercised  a  certain  power  of  punish- 
ment. The  primiceriits,  or  cantor,  or  jircccenlor, 
had  charge  of  tlie  singing ;  the  scholasticus,  of  the 
cathedral  school;  the  cuslos,  of  the  utensils  and 
paraphernalia  belonging  to  the  service ;  the  sa- 
crista  or  thesauri  us,  of  the  treasures;  the  cellarius, 
of  the  internal  economy,  etc.  As  the  chapter 
grew  in  wealth  and  impiortance,  these  officers  got 
one  or  more  substitutes,  who  did  the  work  while 
they  themselves  enjoyed  the  revenues,  —  the  deca- 
nus,  a  sulidecanus  ;  the  cantor,  a  succenlor,  etc.  The 
rights  and  the  duties,  which  originally  referred 
chiefly  to  the  ser\'ice,  assumed  gradually  a  more 
and  more  secular  character.  Though  the  whole 
institution  continued  to  stand  under  the  authoi'ity 
of  the  bishop,  the  bishop  could  not  sell  or  mort- 
gage the  property  of  any  of  the  cathedral  or  dio- 

29  —  1 


cesan  establishments,  or  make  any  important 
clianges  in  the  economical  arrangements  of  the 
diocese,  or  take  a  coadjutor,  etc.,  without  the 
consensus  of  the  chapter;  and  even  in  minor  mat- 
ters, by  appointments  or  disrais.sals,  by  dispeiisar 
tions  or  confirmations,  etc.,  he  was  bound  to  hear 
the  consUium  of  the  chapter,  thougli  Iks  was  not 
bound  to  follow  it.  After  tlie  sixtcenlh  century, 
however,  the  institution  disappeared  abnost  en- 
tirely in  countries  in  which  tlie  I^eformation  pre- 
vailed ;  and  even  in  Roman-Catholic  countries  it 
has  since  that  time  undergone  a  number  of  sim- 
plifications and  curtailments  which  have  bereft 
it  of  a  great  deal  of  its  importance. 

Lit.  —  Aug.  Bauuosa  :  iJc  Canonicis  et  Dig- 
nitatibus,  etc.,  Lyons,  IG-IO;  Scaukantonius  : 
De  C«/7(7h/w,  Lucca,  1723  ;  Gkhkinc;:  Die  kallioL 
Domcapitel  Dcutscldands,  Regensburg,  l.S.jl ;  Ro- 
uix  :  Tractul.  de  Capitulis,  Paris,  18.'52  :  Fi.v.A.zzi ; 
Dei  capilidi  cidlicdrali,  Lucca,  1SC.3;  Jacobson  : 
Des  ecanrjl.  Kirchenrecld  d.  Preuss.  Staates,  Halle, 
1864. 

CHAPTERS  AND  VERSES,  Modern.  The  pur- 
pose of  the  presi'ut  division  into  chapters  and 
verses  was  to  facilitate  reference.  They  some- 
times, but  not  generally,  ignore  logical  and  natu- 
ral divisions.  Of  the  chapters  the  origin  is 
obscure.  Common  opinion  attributes  thein  to 
Cardinal  Hugo  de  Sancto  Caro  (Hugues  de  St. 
Cher,  d.  circa  1262),  who  is  alleged  to  have  made 
the  division  for  use  in  his  concordance  to  tlie 
Latin  Vulgate  (circa  1210,  first  printed,  with 
modification,  at  Bologna,  1470).  This  opinion 
rests  on  the  direct  testimony  of  Gilliert  Genebrard 
(d.  1597)  ;  though  that  is  greatly  weakened  by  his 
well-known  statement,  —  alleged  as  an  inference 
from  the  seeming  fact  that  theologians  earlier 
than  Hugo  were  ignorant  of  these  chapters,  while 
later  ones  knew  them,  —  that "  tlie  scholastics  who 
with  Cardinal  Hugo  were  authors  of  the  concord- 
ance "  made  the  division.  Quetif  and  P>chard,  a 
century  and  a  half  later  tlian  Genebrard,  who 
wrote  competently  and  carefully  aliout  Hugo, 
ascribe  to  him  only  the  subdivision  of  the  chap- 
ters presently  to  be  mentioned.  The  better 
opinion  is,  that  Stephen  Langton,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  (d.  1228),  made  it  for  purposes  of 
easier  citation.  This  rests  on  the  direct  testi- 
mony of  several  writers,  many  of  whom,  again, 
seem  to  repeat  that  of  Trevet  or  Trivetus  (1258- 
1328).  Before  the  invention  of  printing,  this  di- 
vision had  already  passed  from  Latin  manuscripts 
to  those  of  other  tongues,  and  after  the  invention 
of  printing  it  became  general.  It  has  undergone 
slight  variations  from  the  beginning  to  the  present 
day.  Many  early  printed  Bibles,  especially  Greek 
Testaments,  besides  these  chapters  retain  also  the 
old  breves  or  titWui  noted  in  the  margin. 

The  chapters  were  at  first  subdivided  into  seven 
portions  (not  paragraphs,  as  we  now  use  the  word), 
marked  in  the  margin  by  the  letters  A,  B,  C,  L), 
E,  F,  G ;  reference  in  the  concordance  being 
made  by  the  chapter-number  and  the  letter  under 
which  the  passage  occurred.  In  the  shorter 
Psalms,  however,  the  division  did  not  always  ex- 
tend to  seven.  In  Ps.  cxix.  (cxviii.  in  the  Vul- 
gate) it  seems  not  to  have  been  used  at  all.  This 
division  (except  in  the  Psalms)  was  modified  by 
Conrad  von  Ilalljerstadt  (circa  1290),  who  reduced 
the  divisions  of  the  shorter  chapters  from  seven  to 


CHAPTERS  AND  VERSES. 


434 


CHAPTERS  AND  VERSES. 


four ;  so  that  the  letters  were  always  either  A-G  or 
A-D.  This  subdivision  continued  long  after  the 
introduction  of  tlie  present  verses.  But  in  the 
seventeenth  century  it  became  much  modified ; 
some  chapters  having  more  than  four,  and  less 
than  seven,  subdivisions,  and,  though  still  used  to 
nuirk  liturgical  readings  or  lessons,  apparently 
useless  for  concordantial  purposes. 

The  present  verses  differ  in  origin  for  the  Old 
Testament,  Xew  Testament,  and  Apocr\'pha.  In 
tlie  canonical  Old  Testament  they  go  back  to 
the  obscurity  of  the  JIassoretic  division  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible,  appearing  in  the  oldest  known 
manuscripts  marked  with  the  accent  soph  pam'tk. 
They  are  thus  older  than  the  ninth  century,  tliough 
not  used  for  citation  by  the  Jews  till  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  Hebrew  concordance  of  Rabbi 
Xathan  (finished  1448,  first  printed  at  Venice 
1.524)  seems  to  have  been  made  upon  the  basis  of 
aniuneral  for  each  verse;  but  the  earlier  printed 
Hebrew  Bibles  marked  each  fifth  verse  only  with 
its  Hel>rew  numeral.  Aral.iic  numerals  were  first 
added  for  the  intervening  verses  by  Joseph  ,\tliias, 
at  Amsterdam,  1600,  at  the  suggestion  of  .John 
Leusden.  The  first  portion  of  the  Bible  printed 
witli  the  Massoretic  vei'ses  mnnbered  was  the 
J'salleriiiin  Qiiincitpltx  (Latin)  of  Faber  Stapulen- 
sis  (.James  or  .lacciues  Le  Fevre),  printed  at  Paris 
bv  Henrv  StHjiliPus  (Stephanas,  Estienne,  father  of 
Robert)in  1.509  (iM  ed.,  1513;  3d  ed.,  by  another 
jirinter,  1515).  In  1.528  Sanctes  Pagninus  pub- 
lished at  Lyons  a  new  Latin  version  of  the  whole 
Bible,  with  the  JIassoretic  verses  marked  and 
numbered.  He  also  divided  the  Apocrypha  and 
New  Testament  into  numbered  verses ;  Ijut  these 
were  three  or  four  times  as  long  as  tlie  present 
ones.  The  jMassoretic  verses  have  been  some- 
times modified  in  translating,  in  a  few  places ;  as, 
e.g.,  by  Luther,  for  which  subsequent  historians 
(e.g.,  Mayer)  ha\'e  felt  called  upon  to  defend 
liinr 

The  present  Xew- Testament  verses  were  intro- 
duced by  Kobert  Stephens  in  his  Greek-Latin 
Testament  of  1551  (some  copies  erroneously  have 
MDXLI.  on  the  titlepage,  not  MDLXL,  as  stated 
by  Wright  and  Tregelles).  printed  at  Geneva. 
This  contains,  in  parallel  columns,  the  Vulgate 
(always  in  the  inner  column),  the  Greek  (in  the 
centre),  and  the  Latin  of  Erasnms  (in  the  outer). 
In  Erasmus  a  smaller  type  serves  the  purjiose  of 
the  Italics  of  modern  English  Bibles.  Of  the 
ver.ses,  Stepliens  says  in  his  preface  that  the  divis- 
ion is  made  to  follow  the  most  ancient  (ireek 
and  Latin  copies,  and  that  the  more  willingly 
'•  (/uiiil  hue  raliuiif  vlraijiie  Irannlalio  ponsel  oiitiiiiio 
ereylunr  Ontcii  coiiltxlul  resjinnilere."  But  it  will 
be  ditlicult.  if  nol  impossilile,  to  find  any  (irecik 
or  Latin  manuscripts  wliose  divisions  (even  the 
iater  Latin,  marked  with  (i,  like  Paguinus's  v<^r.ses) 
coincide  vei-y  nearly  with  Stejihens's  ver.ses.  It 
is  likely,  as  Maseh  intimates,  tliat  he  made  this 
statement  to  forestall  opposition  from  known 
enemies.  His  son  Henry,  in  the  preface  to  liis 
Greek  concordance;  (published  in  1.501,  afler  Rob- 
ert's death),  rebates  that  this  divisiou  was  made 
l>y  liis  father  on  a  journey  from  Paris  to  Lyons, 
and  a  great  part  of  \t  "  iitlKr  ei/uihntdiim,"  ov  on 
lior.HeliJick.  Doubtless  this  division  was  made 
with  reference  to  his  concordani  e  to  the  Vulgate, 
then  preparing,  published  in  1555,  in  the  preface 


of  which  he  announces  his  Greek  concordance  a.* 
also  in  hand.  This  Latin  concordance,  like 
former  ones,  contains  references  to  the  letters  A, 
B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  but  also  tlie  numbers  of  the 
verses  of  each  chapter  "  after  the  Hebrew  method  " 
of  division.  This  latter,  the  preface  states,  has 
special  reference  to  an  "  op('ri  puldwrrimo  el  pne- 
clarissimo  "  which  he  is  now  printing  ;  w  hicli  must 
mean  his  .splendid  Bible  of  155(i-.57,  3  vols.,  con- 
taining the  Vulgate,  Pagninus,  and  the  first  edition 
of  Beza's  Latin  X^ew  Testament.  Meanwhile,  for 
present  convenience,  he  is  is.suing  a  [more  modest] 
Bible  (Vulgate),  with  the  verses  marked  and  num- 
bered. This  latter  was  his  Vulgate  of  1.555  [Ge- 
neva], —  the  first  whole  Bible  divided  into  the 
present  verses,  and  the  first  in  which  they  were 
introduced  into  the  Apocrypha.  The  text  is  con- 
tinuous, not  having  the  verses  in  separate  para- 
graphs, like  the  X'^ew  Testament  of  1551,  but 
separated  by  a  ^  and  the  verse-number.  On 
the  titlepage  is  a  reference  to  the  concordance, 
with  a  statement  substantially  tlie  same  as  that 
just  mentioned  in  the  latter's  preface.  Theverse- 
di\isioii  differs  in  only  a  very  few  places  from 
that  of  1551 ;  and  a  comparison  shows  that  the 
concordance  agrees  rather  with  that  of  1551  than 
with  that  of  1555. 

While  Stephens  was  meditating  this  divi.sion, 
as  Ills  son  Henry  relates  (^ubi  supra),  most  people 
thought  his  plan  useless,  if  not  ridiculous.  "  But 
lo  !  contrary  to  their  condemnatory  opinion  .  .  . 
no  sooner  did  the  invention  come  to  light  than  it 
met  with  universal  favor,  and  at  once  obtained 
such  influence  that  other  editions  of  the  X'^ew 
Testament  which  did  not  adopt  that  invention  — 
whether  Greek,  or  Latin,  or  German,  or  in  any 
other  vernacular  tongue  —  were,  so  to  speak,  cash- 
iered." This  is  nearly  the  truth.  In  other  lan- 
guages the  division  appeared  first  as  follows  t 
French,  Xew  Testament,  (ieneva,  1552,  Bible, 
Geneva,  1553  (both  R.  Stepliens) ;  Italian,  X'ew 
Testament,  L.  Paschale  [Geneva?],  1555;  Dutch, 
X^ew  Testament,  (iellius  C'tematius  (Gillis  van 
der  Erven),  Embden,  155(i,  Bible,  Xicolaus  Biest- 
kens  van  Diest,  Embden,  15(j() ;  Engli.sli,  Gene- 
van X^ew  Testament,  1557,  (ienevan  Bible,  1560; 
(ternian,  Luther's  Bible,  perhaps  Heidelberg,  1568, 
but  certainly  Frankfurt-a.-M.,  1582. 

In  Beza's  editions  of  (he  Greek  Testament 
(1565-1G04)  sundry  variations  were  introduced, 
which  were  followed  bj'  later  editors,  notably  the 
Elzevirs  (1033,  etc.).  But  many  minor  changes 
have  been  made,  quite  down  to  the  present  day. 
(For  variations  in  the  Greek  Testament  see  Dr. 
Ezra  .Vbbot's  collation  in  C.  R.  Gregory's  Proleg. 
lo  Tisch.  Gr.  N.  T.,  ed.  viii.)  These  Stephanie 
verses  have  met  with  bitter  criticism;  but  their 
utility  for  reference  outweighs  their  disadvantage, 
at  least  when  they  are  confined,  as  they  should 
be,  to  a  numbering  in  the  margin. 

Lit. — Art.  "  Verse,"  by  W.  WnuHiT,  in  Kit- 
to's  Ci/chp.  of  liihl.  Lil.,  2-vol.  edition,  London 
and  X.Y.  (in  which  the  art.  is  fuller  than  in  the 
three  vol.,  and  latest  edition)  ;  art.  "  Bible,"  by  E. 
II.  Pi.i'.Mi'THK,  in  Smith's  Did.  of  the  Bible, 
Hackett  &  Abbot's  ed.,  N.Y.,  1870;  C.  R.  Gueg- 
onv  :  Prole;/,  lo  Tisch.  Gr.  N.  T.,  ed.  viii.  ; 
Lki'sdkn  :  PhiloldijHs  Ihb.-Gr.;  art.  "Chapters 
and  Ver.ses,"  by  the  writer,  in  'Die  Snndoii-Schdiil 
Times,   Pliila.,"April  2,   1881.     ALso    LkLon(;; 


CHAPTERS. 


CHARITY. 


liwk-Zaal,  Amsterdam,   17.32.     Sea    ait.    Bihi.k 
'J'kxt.,  pp.  200-69.  ISAAC;  ii.  hai.i,. 

CHAPTERS,  The  Three.     See  Tiikkk  Ciiap- 

TKUS. 

CHARIOTS  for  war,  altliou,i<li  used  liy  "k" 
Philistines,  wei'e  introduced  among  the  .lews  by 
David  (2  Sam.  viii.  i)  ;  but,  as  these  in  general 
use  under  the  kings  came  from  Egy|it  (1  Kings  x. 
29;  2  Kings  xviii.  24;  Isa.  xxxi.  1),  a  description 
of  an  Egyptian  chariot  will  answer  for  the  .Jew- 
ish. It  was  an  "almost  semicircular  wooden 
frame  with  straiglitiMied  sides,  resting  posteriorly 
on  the  axle  of  a  ]iair  of  wheels,  a  rail  of  wood  or 
ivory  being  attachecl  to  the  frame  by  leathern 
thongs,  and  a  wooden  upright  in  front.  The 
back  of  tlie  car  was  open  ;  and  the  sides  were 
strengtliened  and  end)ellished  with  leather  and 
metal  binding :  the  floor  was  of  rope  net-work,  to 
give  a  springy  footing  to  the  occupants.  On  the 
off-side  were  the  bow-case,  sometimes  the  quiver, 
and  spear  case,  crossing  diagonally;  the  last- 
named  inclined  backward.  If  two  warriors  were 
in  the  chariot,  there  was  a  .second  bow-case.  The 
wheels  had  usually  six  spokes,  fastened  to  the 
axle  by  a  linchpin,  secured  by  a  thong.  The 
horses  had  a  breastband  and  girths  attached  to 
the  saddle,  but  were  without  traces.  They  wore 
head-furniture,  often  ornamented,  with  a  bearing- 
rein.  The  driving-reins  passed  through  rings  on 
each  side  of  both  horses.  Two  persons,  generally, 
were  in  a  chariot ;  but  there  was  sometimes  a 
third,  holding  the  umbrella  of  state "  (^VILKIN- 
son:  Ancieiil  Ei/i/ptiaiis,  \o\.  I.  pp.  222-211,  vol. 
II.  pp.  201-203).  The  occupants  sometimes 
fought  from  them,  sometimes  used  them  merely 
for  purjioses  of  transportation. 

CHARISMATA.     See  Gifts,  Spiritual. 

CHARITY,  Brothers  of,  a  religious  order  found- 
ed by  .Johannes  C'iudad,  or  di  Dio,  a  Portugiiese, 
b.  1495,  d.  1550,  who  in  1540  hired  a  small 
liou.se  in  Granada,  and  filled  it  witli  poor  sick 
peojile,  whom  he  nursed,  working,  begging,  and 
praying  for  them.  He  was  soon  joined  by  others, 
wlio  were  roused  by  his  example  of  self-sacrifice ; 
and  at  his  death  he  left  a  well-regulated  associa- 
tion, which  ill  1572  was  confirmed  by  Pius  V.  as 
a  religious  order  under  the  rules  of  Augustine 
(Fralres  Misereconlke).  To  the  common  nioiias- 
tical  vows  was  added  that  of  nursing  the  sick,  and 
this  became  the  characteristic  feature  of  the  order. 
It  sjiread  rapidly  in  Italy  (Fate  hen  Fralelli),  in 
France  (Freren  <le  la  Charile),  in  Germany  {Bann- 
!ier:ir/e  Briider),  etc.  Its  monasteries  were  hospi- 
tals, in  which  poor  sick  people  were  taken  in  and 
cared  for,  without  distinction  of  religion.  Such 
hospitals,  on  a  grand  scale,  are  found  in  Madrid, 
Paris,  Rome,  Naples,  Vienna,  and  Prague.  In 
the  order,  tlie  study  of  theology  is  generally  re- 
placed by  that  of  medicine. 

CHARITY,  Sisters  of.  Daughters  of  Charity, 
Gray  Sisters  (from  their  dress),  names  applied 
to  several  orders  of  celibate  women  in  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Church,  who  devote  themselves  to  the 
care  of  the  sick,  and  children.  Some  of  these 
orders  are  very  small,  others  very  large ;  but  the 
tw'o  most  important  are  "  The  Sisters  of  St.  Vin- 
cent de  Paul,"  and  "  The  Daughters  of  St.  Carlo 
Borromeo." 

1.  The  first  was  founded  in  Paris,  by  Vincent 
de  Paul  and  Madame  Louise  de  Marillac  le  Gras. 


The  providential  occasion  was  an  appeal  for  lielp 
to  a  suffering  family,  made  to  Vincent  de  Paul  at 
Ch.atiliou,  just  as  lie  was  about  to  enter  his  pulpit, 
which  affected  him  so  that  he  laid  aside  his  ser- 
mon, and  preached  jiowerfully  upon  their  duty 
toward  this  case.  The  congregation  were  deejdy 
interested,  and  help  was  at  once  offered.  But  the 
incident  led  him  to  think  upon  the  needs  of  the 
poor  in  times  of  sickness,  and,  under  divine  direc- 
tion, to  the  foundation  of  an  as.sociation  of  women 
for  the  care  of  the  poor.'  It  began  with  a  mem- 
bership of  about  fifteen,  but  quickly  spread,  so 
that  in  a  few  years  it  was  found  in  more  than 
thirty  places.  But  the  very  spread  of  tlu^  order 
weakened  it;  for  when  Vincent  de  I'aul  and  his 
missionaries  could  not  longer  give  it  their  per- 
sonal direction  and  encouragement,  the  love  of 
many  waxed  cold,  and  many,  especially  in  the 
country,  who  required  instruction  in  nursing, 
could  not  get  it.  But  at  this  juncture  Madame 
Louise  le  Gras,  ne'e  de  Marillac,  left  a  widow  in 
1625,  and,  by  the  advice  of  her  bishop,  under 
the  spiritual  direction  of  A'incent  de  Paul,  made 
Iciiown  her  deterniination  to  devote  her  life  to  the 
poor.  Vincent  de  Paul  determined  to  avail  him- 
self of  her  help  ;  but  for  four  years  he  tested  her, 
ere  he  sent  her  out  to  visit  the  order  of  women 
he  had  founded.  She  rendered  him  such  efticient 
service,  that  she  is  entitled  to  be  linked  with  him 
in  the  history  of  the  order.  But  considerations 
for  her  family  held  her  back  from  nursing  very- 
bad  cases ;  and  so  Vincent  de  Paul  found  it  expe- 
dient to  enlist  only  virgins,  and  give  them  over 
to  iMadame  le  Gras  for  instruction.  'I'he  order 
became  very  popular.  Not  only  [loor  girls,  but 
those  of  the  highest  rank  of  society,  I'olunteered ; 
and  the  world  learned  how  much  women  will 
sacrifice  and  suffer  for  the  sake  of  Christ.  In 
1633  the  Archbishop  of  Paris  raised  the  asso- 
ciation into  a  distinct  order,  to  be  called  the 
"  Daughters  of  Christian  Love,"  although  they 
are  commonly  known  as  the  "  Sisters  of  Charity." 
In  the  lifetime  of  Vincent  de  Paul  the  order 
spread  all  over  France,  and  also  into  Poland. 
Tlie  rule  which  he  gave  it  was  confirmed  by 
Pope  Clement  IX.,  when  in  1668  the  order  was 
officially  acknowledged  and  indorsed.  This  rule 
was,  that  the  Sisters  should  rememljer,  that,  in 
nursing  the  sick,  they  were  nursing  Christ,  whose 
servants  they  were,  and  therefore  go  about  their 
duty  irrespective  of  the  praise  or  blame  of  men  ; 
that  they  should  rise  daily  at  four  a.ji.  ;  twice 
in  the  day  engage  in  earnest  prayer ;  live  very 
simply ;  never  drink  wine  except  in  case  of  sick- 
ness; never  refuse  to  nurse  the  sick,  even  in  the 
most  repulsive  and  infectious  diseases ;  never  to 
stand  in  awe  of  death  ;  always  to  render  implicit 
obedience  to  their  superior.  Moreover,  they  were 
to  dress  in  uniform,  to  cultivate  mutual  trust  and 
peace  of  spirit,  and  to  do  all  and  bear  all,  out  of 
love  for  Clirist.  The  vow  is  not  perpetual  or  ir- 
revocable, but  is  renewed  every  year;  but  it  is  not 
given  until  after  a  probation  of  five  years.  The 
simplicity  and  flexibility  of  the  rule  has  worked 
admirably  in  favor  of  the  order.  In  France  it 
took  sucii  a  hold  that  it  survived  the  storm  of 
the  Revolution  ;  for,  notwithstanding  the  edict  of 
1790,  suppressing  all  religious  orders,  it  did  not 
stop  its  work;  and  no  sooner  had  the  storm 
passed  in  1800,  when  Napoleon  gave  them  public 


CHARLEMAGNE. 


436 


CHARLEMAGNE. 


support,  thau  it  showed  a  more  vigorous  life  than 
before.  The  community  was  introduced  into  the 
United  States,  under  a  distinct  rule,  liowever,  by 
Mrs.  Elizabeth  Ann  (Bayley)  Seton  (1774-1821) 
of  Maryland,  a  pervert  from  Protestantism,  who, 
with  her  sisters-in-law  Harriet  and  CecUia  Seton, 
took  the  veil  as  "Sisters  of  Charity,"  Jan.  1, 
1800.  at  Erametsburg,  ^Nld.  There  she  opened  a 
religious  house  in  1812 ;  and  "  Mother "  Seton 
became  the  head,  or  superior-general,  of  the  order 
in  America,  iiother  Seton's  rule  is  still  followed 
in  several  dioceses,  but  in  more  the  French.  See 
Seton,  Mother,  and  art.  "Schwestern,  barmher- 
zige,"  in  Wetzer  u.  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexicon,  1st 
•ed.  vol.  ix. 

2.  Different  from  the  order  of  "  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul "  is  that  of  the  "  Sisters  of  St.  Borronieo," 
founded,  and  provided  with  a  rule  in  16.32,  by 
Epiplianius  Louys,  Abbot  of  Estival,  general  of 
the  order  of  the  Prjemonstrants.  The  Sisters  who 
that  year  took  the  vow  to  dedicate  their  whole 
lives  to  the  sick  and  to  children  chose  this  name 
for  the  order,  because  they  then  served  in  the 
Hospital  of  St.  Carlo  Borromeo,  at  Xancy.  Tliis 
community  also  was  wide-spread  in  France,  and 
outlived  the  Revolution. 

The  idea  of  an  order  of  single  women  devoted 
to  the  care  of  the  sick,  of  the  poor,  and  of  chil- 
dren, particularly  foundlings,  was  surely  divine ; 
and  noble  have  lieeu  the  services  of  the  different 
comnumities  of  Sisters  of  Charity.  They  are  the 
glory  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  All  credit  and 
praise  to  these  women  who  liave  braved  the 
horrors  of  war  and  plague,  wlio,  undeterred  by 
dangers  seen  and  unseen,  have  nursed  tlie  sick, 
bound  up  the  wounds  of  soldiers,  soothed  the 
troubled  sjiirits  of  the  sutferers,  and  broiiglit  calm 
upon  nuiny  a  brow,  v  nd  peace  into  many  a  heart, 
by  their  promise  to  ;ai'  ;  for  tlie  children.  They 
ha\e  been,  with  few  exceptions,  genuine  daugh- 
ters of  that  divine  love  and  charity  which  bless 
the  world ;  and  it  is  a  pity  and  a  shame  that 
Protestants  should  often  speak  of  them  so  dis- 
paragingly, for  surely  all  who  do  good  to  Christ's 
little  ones  deserve  respect  and  recognition.  The 
charge  against  them  is  that  they  proselyte  tlie 
sick  :  but,  whi^n  we  bear  in  mind  that  these 
sisters  believe  that  all  outside  of  the  Koman- 
Catholic  Church  are  lost,  we  can  surely  excuse 
and  exi'laiu  their  action  ;  for  how  can  they  con- 
scientiously do  otherwi.se?  Then  as  to  tlieir 
enforced  celibate  life :  such  a  life  is  tlie  only 
one  befitting  their  occupation.  Tliere  is  no  sin 
in  being  unmarried,  but  rather  virtue,  if  mar- 
riage be  foregone  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven's 
sake. 

For  general  information,  see  Buss  :  Dcr  Onlen 
tier  harmlicrzifjKu  SrltircMern,  .Scliafthauscn,  1844. 
Also  in  tliis  Cyclop;edia,  see  Deaconness  ;  Sis- 
terhoods; also  AUGUSTl.NE,  SiSTEU  ;  l)oi!A, 
SlSTEH. 

CHARLEMAGNE,  b.  April  2,  742;  d.  Jan.  28, 

811:  sur Ird,  iiii^f  Ihcr  wilh  his  yoimgiM- brotlier 

Carloman,  his  father,  Pepin  the  Sliort,  as  King 
of  tlie  Franks  in  708;  became  sole  ruler  of  the 
Frankish  Empire  by  Carlonian's  death  in  774; 
was  clowned  Roman  emperor  l)y  Leo  HI.  in  tiie 
Church  of  .St.  Peter  in  Roiik;,  Christmas  Day,  81)0, 
ji;id  stood,  in  tlie  latter  part  of  his  reign,  as  oik; 
<;i  llie  tlireo  greak  rulers  of  the  world,  the  eipial  of 


the  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  and  the  Calipli 
of  Bagdad. 

Xo  layman  has  exercised  so  gi-eat  an  influence 
on  the  liistory  of  the  Church  as  Charlemagne ; 
though  his  influence  was,  properly  speaking, 
merely  that  of  extension,  organization,  and  con- 
solidation. Personally  he  probablv  did  not  reacli 
far  beyond  a  tolerably  accurate  fulfilmeiit  of  the 
precepts  of  the  Church.  His  character  has,  no 
doubt,  been  much  embellished  by  tlie  legendary 
poetry  of  the  Church.  His  want  of  cluvstity,  and 
disregard  of  the  marriage-vow,  must  be  freely  ad- 
mitted. I'ractically  the  Church  was  to  him,  not 
only  the  visible  representative  of  Clirist  on  earth, 
but  also  an  organ  of  civilization,  an  iustrunient  of 
government ;  and  he  was  sometimes  unscrupulous 
enough  in  the  use  of  this  instrument,  as,  for  in- 
stance, when  he  compelled  the  Saxons,  by  force 
and  with  unexampled  cruelty,  to  receive  baptism. 
Nevertheless  he  contributed  perhaps  more  than 
any  one  else  to  make  the  Church  a  power  in  the 
history  of  the  I'ace,  and  enabled  it  to  form  during 
the  middle  ages  a  much-needed  and  highly  bene- 
ficial counterpoise  to  the  military  despotism  of 
feudalism. 

His  relation  to  the  Church  is  strikingly  charac- 
terized by  a  total  absence  of  any  distinction  be- 
tween spiritual  and  temporal  power.  Both  were 
i<leiitieal  to  him  ;  and  as  he  unquestionably  was 
the  holder  of  the  one  he  necessarily  came  to  con- 
sider himself  as  holder  of  the  other  too.  AMthout 
paying  the  least  regard  to  the  Pope,  whom,  under 
other  circumstances,  he  was  not  unwilling  to  rec- 
ognize as  the  representative  of  the  Church,  he 
condemned  at  the  synod  of  Francfort  (794)  the 
decrees  of  the  second  council  of  Xiciea  concerning 
image-worship,  and  with  as  little  ceremony  he 
introduced  the  FiHorjue  of  the  Spanish  cliuix'hes 
into  the  Nicene  Creed  at  the  synod  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  (809).  He  was  liberarto  the  Church. 
The  exarchate  of  Ravenna  was  his  splendid  dona- 
tion to  the  papal  see.  Churches  and  moniusteries 
received  enormous  endowments  everywhere  in  his 
realm  ;  and  the  first  business  he  took  in  hand 
after  conquering  a  new  territory  was  the  forma- 
tion of  dioceses,  the  building  of  churches,  the 
foundation  of  niissionarv-stalions,  etc.  But  of 
this  church,  made  gri'at  and  rich  by  his  liberality, 
he  demanded  absolute  obe<lieiice.  The  metro- 
politans received  the  /Ktllium  from  the  Pope,  but 
only  with  his  consent ;  and  the  bishops  he  chose 
and  appointed  himself  alone.  He  would  liave 
been  very  much  surprised  if  any  one  liad  inti- 
mated to  him  —  what,  a  century  later  on,  was 
preached  from  the  roofs  —  that  there  was  within 
the  Church  a  spiritual  power  to  which  even  tlu^ 
emperor  owed  obedience.  Church  and  State 
were  one  to  him.  His  idea  of  government  was 
theocratic,  with  the  distinction,  though,  that,  in 
his  ca.se,  it  was  not  the  Cliurch  which  liad  ab- 
.sorbed  the  State,  but  the  State  which  iilentified 
itself  with  the  Churcli. 

Nothing  shows  more  jilainly  than  the  circle  of 
great  men  wliicli  gathered  around  Charlemagne 
that  the  priiicijial  problem  which  he  expected  the 
{■liurch  to  solve  had  a  general  civilizing  bearing. 
.Ml  the  great  men  of  his  age,  such  as  Alcuiii, 
I.eidrade,  Angilbert,  Egiiihanj,  Agobard,  Pa-scha- 
sius  Radbcrtus,  Rabanus  Mauriis,  Scotns  Krigena, 
Iliucmar,  were  connected,  either  as  teachers  or  iw 


CHARLES  V. 


437 


CHARLES  V. 


pupils,  with  t.liat  school  which  he  had  founded  in 
his  piilacfi,  and  which  became  the  fevtile  genu  of 
the  niediicval  university.  All  these  men  were 
tlieolonians,  but  not  exclusively :  on  the  con- 
trary, their  greatness  was  their  many-sidedness. 
They  had  studied  grammar,  rhetoric,  iihilosophy, 
classical  literature,  canon  law,  etc.  They  were 
poets,  philosophers,  statesmen,  practical  adminis- 
trators, etc.  They  were  exactly  what  Charle- 
magne wanted,  — men  whom  he  could  .send  out  as 
legates  to  see  how  the  counts  wen^  doing  in  the 
marches,  or  could  settle  as  bishops  in  a  dioce,se  to 
take  care,  not  only  of  the  Chiu-ch  jii'oper,  but  also 
of  the  school  and  the  court ;  for,  according  to 
his  ideas,  the  Church  was  an  institution  with 
many  worldly  duties  of  education  and  jurisdic- 
tion'; and  consequently  it  became,  under  his 
liands,  an  institution  with  many  worldly  interests 
of  property  and  ambition. 

Lit.  —  The  sources  of  Charlemagne's  life  are 
found  in  Picktz  :  Monuiiienia  Gi'rmanke.  IlislDricd; 
tlie  biographies  (among  which  that  by  Egiuhard 
occupies  the  first  place)  and  chronicles  in  Scrip- 
tnrcs  I.  and  II.,  1820  and  1829  ;  the  capitulares  in 
Leges  I.,  18;S5  ;  in  Jaffe  :  Bihliolheca  Reruiit  Ger- 
manicaram,  IV.,  1807,  also  containing  his  letters; 
and  in  Mignk:  Patrologia,  87-88,  1851,  giving 
his  opira  omnia.  Of  modern  treatments  of  the 
.'•abject  we  mention  :  G.  P.  K.  James  :  Life  of 
Cliarlemiigne,  1832  ;  Gaston  :  Hislnire  poetique  de 
Ckarleiimgne,  Paris,  1805;  Abel:  Jahrhiidier  ties 
Frcinkisc/ien  Reiclis  itnler  Karl  dent  Grosscn,  1800  ; 
W.4ITZ :  Deutsche  Verfassunysyesdiic/ilc,  III-IV., 
1809;  Wyss:  Karl  der  Grosse  als  Gesetzgeher, 
Ziirich,  1809;  B.\ss  Mullingeu:  77ie  Schools  of 
Charles  the  Gn-at,  1877.       CLEMENS   PETERSEN-. 

CHARLES  v.,  b.  at  Ghent,  Feb.  24,  1500;  d. 
at  the  mona.stery  of  Yuste,  Sept.  21,  1558;  son 
of  the  Archduke" Philip  of  Austria  and  Joanna  of 
Aragon ;  was  educated  in  Flanders  by  William 
de  Croy,  an  acute  statesman,  and  Adrian  of 
Utrecht,  afterwards  Pope  Adrian  V\. ;  and  in- 
herited in  1517,  after  his  maternal  grandfather, 
Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  Spain,  with  Naples,  .Sar- 
dinia, .Sicily,  and  the  newly-discovered  America, 
and  in  1519,  after  his  paternal  grandfather  Maxi- 
milian, Emperor  of  Germany,  Austria  and  Bur- 
gundy. On  June  38,  1530,  he  was  elected  Emperor 
of  Germany.  Goaded  onward  bj'  the  idea  of  a 
world-empire,  lie  spent  thirty-six  years  in  war, 
and  hardships  of  every  kind,  but  gained  no  other 
result  of  his  enormous  exertions  than  a  clear 
understanding  of  the  impossibility  of  his  own 
aim.  Disenchanted,  and  finding  a  kind  of  rest 
by  occupying  his  mind  with  bagatelles,  he  abdi- 
cated in  1550,  leaving  Spain  and  the  Xetherlands 
to  his  son,  Philip  II.,  and  Austria  and  the  im- 
perial crown  of  Germany  to  his  brother  Ferdi- 
nand, and  retired,  a  sutfering  cripple,  but  a 
sl.ave  to  gluttony,  to  the  niounstery  of  Yuste, 
in  Estremadura  in  Spain,  where  he  die<l. 

His  conduct  wdth  respect  to  the  Reformation 
did  not  spring  from  a  settled  religious  convic- 
tion, but  from  worldly  and  selfish  policy.  The 
rumors  which  spread  after  his  death,  and  which 
cost  Carranza,  his  confessor,  and  some  of  Car- 
ranza's  pupils,  so  dear,  may  have  been  unfound- 
ed; but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  cruel  measures 
which  he  actually  employed  in  Flanders,  and 
tried  to  employ  in  Germany,  for  the  suppression 


of  the  Protestants,  were  nothing  but  political 
plans,  colored  by  the  innate  despotism  of  hig 
nature.  Charles  had  no  devotedne.ss  to  any  thing 
but  liini.self  :  he  would  in  religious  resjiects  have 
been  ciinqiletely  indifferent,  but  lor  the  habits  of 
his  childhood.  There  was  only  one  idea  which 
had  root  in  his  heart,  beside  his  many  whims 
and  vices;  and  that  was  the  idea  of  the  renewal 
of  tlie  empire  of  Charlemagne.  When  this  idea 
brought  him  into  a  deadly  duel  with  Francis  I.,^ 
he  proved  himself  ready  to  sacrifice  any  thing  in 
order  to  reach  his  goal.  It  was  necessary  for 
him  to  have  peace  in  (iermany  in  order  to  be 
strong  against  France ;  and  he  found  it  easiest 
to  maintain  peace  by  sacrificing  the  Protestants. 
Had  the  opportunity  pointed  the  other  way,  he 
would  have  sacrificed  the  Pope  without  a  mo- 
ment's hesitation. 

Immediately  after  his  coronation  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  (Oct.  22,  1520)  he  convoked  a  diet  at 
Worms,  at  which  (April  20,  1.521)  Luther  was 
outlawed.  Soon  after,  however,  the  duel  with 
Francis  I.  began;  and  the  religious  conflict  in 
Germany  was  left  so  far  to  itself,  that  a  diet  of 
Spires  (1520)  allowed  the  (ierman  princes  to 
regulate  the  religious  affairs  of  their  respective 
states  according  to  their  own  judgment.  At  a 
second  diet  at  Spires  (1529),  held  during  a  pause 
in  the  wars  with  France,  the  Roman  Catholics 
obtained  a  decree  purporting  to  stop  the  further 
progress  of  the  Reformation ;  and,  when  the 
Protestant  princes  met  this  decree  with  a  Protest 
(April  19,  1529),  an  outburst  of  the  despotism  in 
Charles's  nature  followed,  and  might  have  led 
him  to  some  decisive  step,  if  he  had  not  felt  the 
pressure  of  the  Turk  so  heavily  at  the  same 
moment.  At  the  diet  of  Augsburg  he  seemed  to 
have  been  gained  completely  over  by  the  Roman- 
ists;  and  a  decree  of  Nov.  19,  1530,  not  only 
condemned  the  Confession  of  the  Protestants,  but 
demanded  their  unconditional  submission.  How- 
ever, when  this  decree  was  answered  by  the 
Protestants  with  the  league  of  Smalcald  (Feb. 
27,  1531),  and  Solyman  on  the  one  side,  and 
Francis  I.  on  the  other,  began  to  move,  Charles- 
was  ready  with  the  truce  of  Nuremberg  (July 
23,  1532),  which  granted  freedom  of  conscience. 
It  was  evident,  however,  that  sooner  or  later  it 
must  come  to  an  armed  conflict  between  the 
Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics  in  Germany; 
and,  from  the  decided  preponderance  which  the 
Roman-Catholic  interests  possessed  in  tlie  policy 
of  the  emperor,  it  was  easy  to  infer  which  side 
he  would  take.  But  after  the  victory  of  Miihl- 
berg  (1.540),  which  was  almost  crushing  for  the 
cause  of  the  Reformation,  lie  treated  the  Protes- 
tants, in  general,  with  great  leniency.  After  his 
entrance  in  Wittenberg,  the  Protestant  service 
ceased  in  the  churches ;  but  it  was  taken  up 
again,  and  continued,  on  his  express  order.  He 
had  at  this  time  fully  made  up  his  mind  that  the 
religious  conflict  should  come  to  an  end,  and 
unity  be  restored  within  the  Church  ;  and  he  had 
his  hands  free  to  do  what  he  liked.  Francis  I. 
was  dead,  also  Henry  VIII.;  and  the  Turk  had 
fallen  asleep.  But  when  the  Pope  transferred 
the  council  from  Trent  to  Bologna,  and  proved 
himself  unyielding  at  every  point,  Charles  showed 
him  his  displeasure  as  openly  as  he  ever  had 
done  with  the  Protestants,  and  chose  his  allies 


CHARNOCK. 


438 


CHASSIDIM. 


in  the  Evangelical  camp.  The  Interim  proved, 
liowever,  better  than  any  thing  else  could  have 
done,  how  incapable  he  was  to  deal  with  such  a 
question  :  and  tlie  affair  suddenly  took  a  pitiful 
turn  for  him.  when  Duke  Maurice  of  Saxony  fell 
upon  him  at  Insbruck.  and  compelled  him  to  sign 
the  treaty  of  I'assau  (Aug.  2,  1552),  which  gave 
to  the  Protestants  complete  religious  liberty. 

^yhile  in  his  retirement  at  Yustc,  the  idea  of  the 
restoration  of  unity  in  the  Church  occupied  his 
attention  nearly  as  much  as  his  clocks.  He  be- 
gan to  understand  that  tliat  which  had  thwarted 
all  his  plans,  and  baffled  all  his  hopes,  was  not 
so  much  Francis  I.  as  the  Reformation  ;  and,  like 
an  old  woman  whose  brain  has  only  one  wheel 
going,  he  began  to  repeat  over  and  over  again, 
*'  Put  it  down  !  put  it  down  !  "  But  he  jjrobably 
never  understood  that  it  was  he  who  had  com- 
pletely mistaken  the  time  in  which  he  lived,  and 
wasted  his  power,  while  history  went  onward, 
pretty  nearly  undisturbed  by  him. 

Lit.  —  The  sources  of  the  life  of  Charles  V. 
are,  Sleidanus:  De  Slalu  Relii/ionis  el  lieipublicie 
Carolo  V.  Casare,  1555,  best  edition,  Francfort, 
1785;  Sepulveda  :  Hislorkt  Caroli  I'.,  Madrid, 
1780;  L.ANz:  Corresjioiidenz  ties  Kakers  Kurl  T'., 
Leipzig,  1841-46,  3  vols. ;  Actcnsliicke  tind  Briefc 
zur  Oeschichte  Carls  I'.,  Vienna,  1853;  G.\chari): 
Correspondence  de  Ch.  V.  el  d'Adrteii  TV.,  Brus- 
sels, 1859  ;  De  Let iexhove  :  Commenluires  de 
Ch.  v.,  Brussels,  1802  (Eng.  trans.,  London, 
1862);  L.em.meu:  Antdecla  Vtilicanu,  1521-46, 
Freiburg,  1863.  Of  modern  treatments  of  the 
subject,  we  mention  Robektson  :  Ilitttar;/  of  Ike 
Emperor  Charles  v.,  London,  1764;  the  great  his- 
torical works  on  the  age  of  Charles  V.,  by  Hanke, 
Prescott,  Motley,  etc.,  and  monographs  by  Ga- 
chaud,  Pkhot,  JIignet,  especially  H.  Baumgar- 
ten,  Stuttgart,  188.5,  sqcj.   cxemens  petehsen. 

CHARNOCK,  Stephen,  D.D.,  tlie  author  of 
Diaroiimes  on  the  Allribules :  b.  in  London,  1628; 
il.  there  July  27,  1680.  lie  studied  at  Cambridge, 
but  bi'came  (1650)  a  fellow  of  New  College,  Ox- 
ford, and  idtiniately  proctor.  In  16.53  he  went 
to  Dublin  as  chaplain  to  Henry  Cromwell  ;  but 
in  1061)  the  Act  of  Uniformity  put  an  end  to  his 
useful  ministry  there,  and  lie  returned  to  Eng- 
land. He  preached  afterwards  irregularlj'  until  i 
1675.  when  lie  accepted  the  charge,  in  London, 
which  lie  lield  at  his  death,  llis  Discourses  upon 
Ihe  Ejisleni'e  and  Allrdiulcs  of  Cod  (often  re- 
printed) are  acknowledged  masterpieces,  and 
surely  take  rank  witli  the  greatest  of  the  many 
great  ]n-oducts  of  the  Xoiiconformist  clergy. 
Charnock  published  only  one  sermon;  but  after 
ills  di'cease  two  volumes  appeared,  edited  by 
Adams  and  Veel  from  liis  manuscri)its,  London, 
1682-83,  fol.  Best  edition  of  his  coni))leti^  works 
in  Xichol's  Series  of  Standard  Divines,  with  in- 
troduction by  Uev.  Dr.  James  McCosh,  Edin- 
liurgh,  1801,  5  vols.  Svo. 

CHARRON,  Pierre,  b.  in  I'aris.  1.541;  d.  there 
10.13;  studied  law  at  Orleans,  and  jiractised  for 
.several  year.s  at  Bourges  as  an  advocate,  but  gave 
up  this  career,  studied  theology,  was  ordained  a 
priest,  and  was  very  actives  in  Soutliern  France 
as  a  preacher,  and  finally  as  vicar-general  in  the 
diocese  of  Caliors.  His  Traili'  dis  Irais  rcnii's 
(1594),  and  DIsconrs  chn'tims  (16(10),  exhibit  liiin 
as  a  very  orthodox  Romanist;  but  his  great  work, 


Trade  de  la  Sar/esse  (1601),  suddenly  revealed  him 
as  a  disciple  of  ^lontaigne,  drawing  consequences 
which  the  master  himself  would  have  hesitated 
to  draw.  See  Ch.\xet  :  Coustderalions  sur  la 
Sariesse  de  Charrori,  Rochelle,  1043;  the  article 
in  B.wi.e  ;  and  Saixte-Beive  :  Causeries  du 
lundi,  vol.  XL 

CHASE,  Irah,  D.D.,  one  of  the  founders  of 
Newton  Centre  Baptist  Seminary ;  b.  at  Stratton, 
Vt.,  Oct.  5,  1793;  d.  at  Newton  Centre,  Mivss.. 
Nov.  1,  1864.  He  was  graduated  at  Middle- 
bury  College  in  1814;  a  student  at  Andover,  but 
ordained  in  the  Baptist  Cluirch  in  1817  ;  was  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  Baptist  tlieological  semina- 
ries from  1818  to  1845,  — 1818-25,  in  the  seminarj- 
at  ^^■ashington  ;  1825-45,  in  that  at  Newton  Cen- 
tre, Mass.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  was  spent 
in  literary  pursuits.  Besides  other  books,  and 
many  controversial  articles,  he  published  The 
Woric  cluhning  to  he  the  Conslilutinns  of  the  Holy 
Aposdes,  inchidinr/  the  Canons,  N.Y.,  1848;  Infant 
Bujitism  an  Invention  of  Man,  Phila.,  n.d.,  and  a 
Life  of  liunjitin. 

CHASSlblM,  or  PIOUS,  is  a  name  given  to  a 
Jewish  party  which  became  very  conspicuous  in 
the  time  of  the  Maccab»an  struggle.  "  The  zeal 
and  even  the  fanaticism  of  this  party  had  been 
admirable  qualities  in  the  hour  of  trial  and  exer- 
tion "  (Mi/man).  The  Chassidini  rigidly  ad- 
hered to  the  written  as  well  as  traditional  law  of 
their  fathers.  "  Themselves  austere,"  says  jMil- 
man,  "  they  despised  all  who  did  not  practise  the 
same  austerities.  Earnest  in  tlieir  belief,  they 
branded  as  free-thinkers  all  whose  creed  was  of 
greater  latitude  than  their  own,  and  considered 
it  their  duty  to  enforce  the  same  rigid  attention, 
not  merely  to  every  letter  of  the  law,  but  like- 
wise to  all  their  own  peculiar  observances,  which 
they  themselves  regarded  as  necessary,  and  most 
scrupulously  performed,"  .  .  .  till  they  finally 
degenerated  into  the  "haughty,  tyrannical,  and 
censorious  Pharisees,  the  Sejiaratists  of  the  Jew- 
ish religion."  In  the  course  of  time  they  disap- 
peared, until,  about  the  year  1740,  Rabbi  Israel, 
with  the  epithet  Baal-Shem  ('•  Possessor  of  the 
Name,"  i.e.,  the  mysterious  name  of  God),  ap- 
peared at  the  liead  of  a  small  party  of  men,  first 
at  Ilussti,  and  afterwards  at  iledziboze  in  Podo- 
lia,  who  called  themselves  Chassidini,  or  Saints. 
Rabbi  Israel  was  most  probably  a  man  of  devo- 
tional and  enthusiastic  spirit,  who  felt  the  in- 
surticiency  and  lifelessness  of  Ilabbinism,  and 
thouglit  he  had  discovered  the  essence  of  true 
jiiety  in  llie  mysticism  of  the  cabalistic  system, 
llis  fame  soon  spread,  in  spite  of  the  opposition 
of  the  raVibins;  and  in  a  short  time  his  tbllowers 
were  numbered  by  tens  of  thousands.  As  long 
as  he  lived,  the  sect  formed  one  great  wliole,  of 
which  he  was  tlie  head.  After  his  death,  which 
took  place  in  1760,  it  was  divided  into  separate 
congregations,  each  of  which  had  its  own  rabbi, 
or,  as  the  Chassidini  call  liini,  Tsaddik,  or  Saint. 
They  soon  spread  over  (Jalieia,  South  Hungary, 
West  and  Soutli  Russia,  Wallachia,  and  extended 
to  the  East.  The  Chassidini  have  separate  syna- 
gogues;  and  their  great  object  is  —  at  least  they 
jirofess  it  —  to  .strive  after  a  perfect  union  with 
(iod.  To  effect  this,  they  spend  iiiucli  time  in 
contenqilation,  and  in  prayer  use  the  most  ex- 
traordinary contortions  and  gestures,   jumping. 


CHASSIDIM. 


430 


CHASUBLE. 


writhing,  howling,  in  order  to  exalt  their  minds, 
and  do  certainly  snccecd  in  working  themselves 
into  a  state  little  sliort  ol  frenzy.  Their  chief 
edification  is  the  spemling  of  the  salihath  day  with 
the  Tsaddik,  when  they  listen  to  a  sort  of  moral, 
mystical,  cabalistical  ili.scourse,  which  is  received 
as  the  dictates  of  immediate  inspiration.  For  the 
benefit  of  snch  as  are  too  far  removed  to  come 
on  the  Satnrday,  the  Tsaddik  makes  jonrneys 
through  his  district,  when  he  lodges  with  some 
rich  mend)er  of  the  sect,  and  is  treated  with  all 
the  respect  due  to  one  who  stands  in  inunediate 
communcation  with  Deity.  He  then  imposes 
penances,  dispenses  amulets,  and  slips  of  jiarch- 
ment  with  cabalistic  sentences  written  on  them, 
to  those  who  wish  e.xeraption  from  sickness  and 
danger,  or  protection  against  evil  sjiirits ;  and 
pronounces  on  the  sick  and  the  barren  his  bene- 
diction, wliich  is  supposed  to  remove  all  infirmi- 
ties, and  to  procure  the  fulfilment  of  every  wish. 
The  late  Dr.  Alexander  JNIcCaul,  who  for  a 
number  of  years  labored  as  a  missionary  among 
the  Jews  in  Russian-Poland,  once  saw  one  of  the 
most  famous  of  these  Tsaddikim,  the  Tsaddik  of 
Medziboze,  or  Mezbesh,  during  one  of  these 
periodical  visits  to  a  large  congregation.  "  Ilis 
antechamber,"  says  Dr.  McCaul,  "was  crowded 
with  Jews  and  Jewesses,  anxiously  waiting  for 
admission.  The  Tsaddik  himself  was  seated  in 
an  inner  chamber,  in  an  arm-chair.  He  wore  a 
long  robe,  something  like  a  cassock,  of  sky-blue 
silk,  a  white  girdle,  and  cap.  He  was  a  fine- 
looking,  portly  old  man,  with  a  long  white  beard. 
His  attendants  all  stood  around  him,  attired  in 
the  usual  costume  of  the  Polish  Jews,  excepting 
tlie  cap,  which  was  not  black  velvet,  but  white 
cotton.  His  conversation  was  that  of  a  shrewd, 
sensible  man ;  and  with  us  he  certainly  sliowed 
nothing  either  of  the  mystic  or  fanatic.  The 
Jews  said,  at  his  departure,  tliat  his  receipts  in 
this  town  alone  were  two  thousand  silver  rubles, 
or  about  three  hundred  piounds."  The  articles 
of  faith  of  the  C'ha.ssidira,  which  may  be  gathered 
from  the  Kilsur  Likkute  Muharan,  and  the  Sephcr 
Ilainntiihlh,  may  be  thus  summed  up :  "  The 
most  important  of  all  principles  is  unreserved 
devotion  to  the  Tsaddik ;  never  to  turn  aside 
from  his  precepts  ■  to  reject  wisdom  and  science, 
yea,  one's  own  understanding,  and  to  receive 
only  what  the  Tsaddik  says.  Even  when  one 
lliinks  that  the  Tsaddik  is  acting  contrary  to  the 
law,  he  is  still  to  believe  that  the  Tsaddik  is  in 
the  right :  he  must  therefore  reject  his  own  un- 
derstanding, and  rest  confidently  on  that  of  the 
rabbi."  We  thus  see  an  infallible  Jewish  pope 
before  Pius  IX.  The  number  of  the  Chassidini  is 
still  very  large  in  Poland,  Wallachia,  Moldavia, 
Galicia,  and  Palestine.  Moderji  Jews  do  not  look 
very  favorably  upon  them.  Says  Dr.  D.  C'assel 
(^Lchrhucli  iler  jddinchen  Gefchichle  u.  Lllerotur, 
Leipzig,  1879,  p.  .517)  :  ••  To  tlie  disgrace  of  Juda- 
ism and  modern  culture,  the  Tsaddikim  still  go 
on  with  their  disgraceful  business,  and  are  thus 
the  most  essential  hindrances  to  the  dissemina- 
tion of  literary  progress  in  Galicia  and  Russia. 
There  are  still  thousands  who  behold  in  the 
Tsaddik  the  worker  of  miracles,  the  prophet, 
one  who  is  in  close  communion  with  God  and 
angels,  and  who  present  him  with  rich  gifts,  and 
pr;:):nulgate   the  wonders  which  they  have  seen. 


Covetousne.ss  on  the  one  hand  and  spiritual  nar- 
rowne.ss  on  the  other  are  the  channels  through 
which  this  evil  is  fed  anew."  n.  TICK. 

CHASTITY  is  the  inner  side  of  modesty,  tin! 
condition  of  bodily  and  moral  purity  in  the  sexual 
relations,  and  the  virtue  of  self-control  from  for- 
bidden sexual  longings.  Its  o])positcs  are  lust 
co()uetry,  and  idle  wit.  It  is  a  virtue  known  to 
and  esteemed  by  the  ancients,  though  rarely 
found  among  the  men.  Kven  the  chosen  people, 
as  is  proved  by  the  numerous  allusions  to  unchas- 
tity  in  the  Old  Testament,  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  exceptionally  chaste.  But  Christ  has  made 
chastity  in  word  and  deed  common,  and  laid  its 
obligation  upon  all.  The  New-Testament  writers 
employ  the  word  «yvof  in  this  connection,  the 
original  meaning  of  which  is  de(/iriileil,  tln-'U  clean, 
iiiisjiol/iiil,  and  so  chaste.  The  New-Testament 
idea  of  chastity  is  the  natural  result  of  its  new- 
view  of  the  body  as  the  temple  of  the  Holy  Spiirit. 
Hence  the  obligation  to  be  chaste  was  of  the 
strongest  (1  Cor.  vii.  1.5-20).  But  obedience  is 
difficult,  owing  to  the  force  of  passion  (1  Pet.  ii. 
11).  This  sexual  passion  is  not  in  itself  sinful, 
but  is  to  be  gratified  only  within  the  marriage- 
bond.  Unchastity  is  a  scourge,  a  pestilence 
which  lays  low  body  and  soul.  It  has  a  certain 
and  sad  effect  upon  the  religious  feelings,  killing 
them,  so  that  Ciod  is  utterly  cast  out,  and  there- 
fore the  door  is  open  to  every  sin.  It  leads  to 
imnatural  vice  (Rom.  i.  26,  27).  And  therefore 
according  to  the  Bible  the  unchaste  are  lost  (1 
Cor.  vi.  9;  Eph.  v.  5;  Rev.  xxi.  2,  27). 

Chastity  is  to  be  in  thought  (Matt.  v.  28)  and 
word  (Eph.  v.  3,  12),  as  well  as  in  deed.  In 
regeneration  the  Christian  receives  grace  to  at- 
tain this  high  ideal.  It  is  the  duty  of  both  stxes, 
and  of  all  ages  and  relations,  married  or  not,  to 
be  chaste.  To  some  a  .special  grace  to  this  end 
is  given  (Matt.  xix.  12;  1  Cor.  vii.  7).  To  those 
who  preserve  absolute  chastity  outside  of  the 
mai'ried  state,  there  is  peculiar  honor;  though 
this  is  no  implied  disparagement  to  marriage 
(Rev.  xiv.  4),  which  is  a  divinely-ordered  pro- 
tection. Modern  ways  of  living  have  debarred 
many  from  entering  that  state,  but  their  celibacy 
is  no  excuse  for  uncliastity.  See  the  Elhics  of 
Harless,  Neandeu,   Schmid,  AVuttke,  Mau- 

TENSEN,  and  ROTHE.  KARL   BURGER. 

CHASUBLE,  an  ecclesiastical  garment,  is  de- 
rived from  casula,  a  diminutive  of  caxa,  a  "hut." 
Casuta  seems  originally  to  have  been  a  local  or 
provincial  designation  for  the  panula,  an  outer 
garment  used  by  the  humbler  classes  in  the 
Roman  world,  and  consisting  of  a  single  piece  of 
cloth,  with  a  hole  in  the  centre,  provided  with  a 
hood.  With  the  head  thrust  through  this  hole, 
the  wearer  of  the  casula  was  completely  covered, 
as  if  by  a  portable  house.  The  Christian  clergy 
adopted  this  piece  of  clothing  as  their  common 
outer  garment,  the  monks,  as  their  regular  dress; 
and  after  the  eighth  century  it  became  a  liturgi- 
cal vestment,  though  in  a  somewhat  altered  form. 
It  was  split  open  on  both  sides  in  order  to  give 
free  play  to  tlie  arms;  and  afterwards  the  super- 
fluous laps  were  cut  away,  and  the  whole  vest- 
ment reduced  to  two  broad  strips  hanging  down 
in  front  and  behind.  The  color  varied  according 
to  the  character  of  the  solemnity  at  which  it  was 
used.     The   changes   seem   first   to   have   taken 


CHAUCER. 


440 


CHAUNCY. 


place  in  Italy  and  Spain,  where  the  vestment 
was  known  as  the  jiliincld,  a  century  before  it  was 
generally  adopted  by  the  whole  Western  Church,  j 
CHAUCER,  Geoffrey,  the  first  great  English 
poet.  b.  (]ierhaps  in  London,  where  his  father. 
John  Chaucer,  was  a  vintner)  before  1346  (possi- 
bly in  1340.  though  nothing  is  certain  about  it)  : 
d.  in  London  in  the  autumn  of  1400  (Oct.  25 
has  been  given  as  the  date).  The  most  of  Chau- 
cer's life  was  passed  in  association  with  the 
higher  classes  of  English  society;  and  he  is  pre- | 
eminently  the  poet  of  the  "gentles."  A  person 
of  his  name  entered  the  service  of  Lionel,  third 
son  of  Edward  III.,  probably  as  page,  in  1357; 
and  in  1359  Chaucer  joined  the  army  of  Edward 
III.  as  it  went  to  invade  France.  He  was  made 
prisoner,  but  was  ransomed  in  13G0,  before  the 
peace ;  and  his  importance  may  be  inferred  from 
the  fact  that  the  king  himself  paid  a  portion  of 
the  ran.sora.  The  next  seven  years  are  blank,  so 
far  as  the  record  of  his  doings  is  concerned; 
then  we  find  him  a  pensioner  at  court,  and  one  of 
the  valets  of  the  king's  household,  —  a  position 
always  held  by  ■'gentlemen."  Before  this  time 
he  had  married  one  Philippa,  possibly  sister  of 
Katherine  Koet,  who  became  w'ife  of  John  of 
(iaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster ;  though  there  are 
reasons  for  doubting  his  relation  to  the  duke  in 
this  way.  Upon  this  connection,  and  upon  various 
contemptuous  expressions  regarding  the  clergy, 
found  in  his  poems,  it  has  been  assumed  that 
Chaucer  was  a  follower  of  Wiclif,  or  at  least  a 
sympathizer  with  him.  While  it  is  not  improba- 
ble, that  at  a  time  when  it  was  said  that  every 
third  man  was  a  Wiclifite,  and  when  the  only 
other  great  poet  was  strongly  opposed  to  clerical 
corruption.  Chaucer  should  have  sympathized  in 
the  feelings  of  the  "first  Protestant,"  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  put  out  of  court  the  testimony  of  the 
sentiments  of  devout  Romanism  found  in  some 
of  Chaucer's  verses.  From  1370  to  1380  he  was 
mucti  of  the  time  engaged  in  the  service  of  the 
king  on  the  continent,  visiting  Italy  twice.  The 
incidents  founded  ui)on  passages  in  T/ie  Teala- 
ment  of  I.ove  (a  composition  long  wrongly  attribut- 
ed to  Chaucer)  —  such  as  that  he  was  engaged 
in  the  disputes  between  the  court  and  the  citi- 
zens of  London  about  the  election  of  John  of 
Northampton  to  the  mayoralty  (in  1382),  his 
attempted  arrest,  his  flight  to  Zealand,  his  return 
(in  1380),  his  imprisonment  in  tlie  Tower,  and 
his  release  —  are  all  contradicted  by  official  rec- 
ords. He  retirerl  from  court  in  1380,  but  received 
ni'W  appointments  in  138».  and  again  lost  all  his 
offices  in  13!J1.  He  was  in  emliarrassnient  until 
thi'  accession  of  Henry  Molingbroke  in  1399,  but 
he  died  the  next  year.  His  reputation  rests  upon 
his  Cdnlerhuri)  'J'tilis,  written  at  various  dates 
during  his  life,  and  partially  arranged  in  a  con- 
nected form.  These  are  remarkable  pictures  of 
society.  Two  of  them  are  in  ]irose,  —  T/ie  Paj-- 
soii's  Tale,  which  is  simi)ly  a  sermon  on  penitence, 
from  the  text  Jer.  vi.  Ifi  of  the  Vulgate ;  and  The 
Tale  of  Melilmus,  an  illustration  of  the  law  of  love 
and  mercy.  Unth  of  these;  are  crowded  with 
.Scripture  allusion.s,  as,  in  fact,  an^  most  of  the 
jioems  of  Chaucer.  In  various  parts  of  his  poems 
lie  di.scusseg  the  prescience  of  (Jod,  and  tin;  sub- 
jects of  predestination,  pre-onlinalion,  and  free 
will,     'i'he  latest  complete  eilition  of  the  joems 


of  Chaucer  is  that  edited  by  Arthur  (Tilman 
(3  vols.,  liost.,  1879),  which  is  the  only  one  con- 
taining the  best  text  of  the  Canlerhurij  Talis,  that 
of  the'Ellesmere  ;M.S.  .mithur  oilman. 

CHAUNCY,  Charles,  second  president  of  Har- 
vard College;  b.  in  Yardlevburv,  Hertfordshire, 
Eng.,  Nov.,  1,592;  d.  at  Cambridge,  U.S.A.,  Feb. 
19,  1072.  He  was  educated  at  Westminster 
school  and  Cambridge,  Eng. ;  at  the  latter  was 
chosen  by  the  heads  of  houses  professor  of  He- 
brew, but  by  the  vice-chancellor  made  ]irofessor 
of  Greek.  Shortly  after,  lie  left  the  university, 
and  took  the  vicarage,  first  of  ^Vare,  Hertfordshire 
(1627);  then  of  Marston  St.  Lawrence (1633).  His 
ministry  was  eminently  successful.  By  his  uncom- 
promising Puritanism  he  involved  him.self  with 
the  ecclesiastical  judicatories,  was  imprisoned  and 

;  fined.     In  an  hour  of  weakness  he  recanted  (Feb. 

\  11,  1635).      He   never  forgave   himself  for  this. 

'  and,  overcome  by  shame,  left  the  country,  and 
landed  at  Plymouth  a  few  days  before  the  great 
earthquake,  which  ha]ipened  Jan.  1,  1638.  He 
first  preached  in  Plymouth  for  three  years,  and 
then  at  Scituate.  In  1654  he  received  an  invi- 
tation to  return  to  Ware,  and  was  in  Boston  in 
November  to  make  arrangements  for  his  depart- 
ure, when  he  received  the  appointment  of  presi- 
dent of  Harvard  College,  successor  to  Henry 
Dunster.  Reluctantly  he  accepted  the  position, 
but  faithfully  and  ably  he  fulfilled  its  duties. 
Cotton  Mather,  in  his  MuynuUa  CItrisli  Americana 
(Bk.  iii.  c.  23,  2d  Amer.  ed.,  Hartford,  185,5,  vol. 
1.  pp.  463-476),  devotes  a  chapter  to  Chauncy, 
and  commends  especially  liis  piety.  The  epitaph 
put  on  his  tombstone  in  Cambridge  (in  Latin) 
says  he  was  for  "seventeen  years  a  most  faithful 
president  of  Harvard  College  in  New  England, 
a  man  of  unsullied  integrity,  an  accomplished 
debater,  gifted  with  equal  merit  in  jnety  and 
scholarship."  He  wrote  Greek  and  Latin  poems. 
His  remorse  at  his  weakness  in  yiehling  to  his 
prosecutors  was  incessant,  and  led  to  his  publica- 
tion in  London,  1041,  of  The  Retraclalinii  of  Mr. 
C.  C,  formerhj  Miii.  of  Il'are  in  Ifar/onlshire, 
written  in  1637,  and  published,  as  he  says,  "  for 
the  satisfaction  of  all  such  who  either  are,  or 
justly  might  bee,  offended  with  his  scandalous 
submission,  made  before  the  High  Commission 
Court,  Feb.  11,  anno  1635"  (4to,  pp.  40).  He 
published  also  Anlisi/nodnlia  Scri/ila  Americana, 
or  a  Proposal  of  tlie  Judgment  of  the  Dissenting 
Me.s.senger  of  the  Chiirchi^s  of  N.E.,  Cambridge. 
1662  (ltd.  jip.  38),  and  several  pamphlets  and 
sermons. 

CHAUNCY,  Isaac,  son  of  the  above,  was  ejected 
in  1662;  a  successor  of  Dr.  John  Owen  (d.  1083) 
in  London,  16s7  ;  retired  from  pastorate,  1701;, 
taught  divinity  in  Dissenter's  Academy  in  Lon- 
don; d.  Feb.  28,  1712.  He  wrote,  The  Catholike 
Hierarchie,  or  The  Dirine  Riyht  of  a  Sacred  Do- 
minion in  Church  anil  Conscience,  1681  ;  Kccle.iia 
Emicleala,  a  Clear  DemonMralion  of  the  True  <jos- 
jiel  Church  in  its  Aalure  and  Conslilulion,  1084; 
Ecclcsiaslioim,  or  a  Plain  and  Familiar  Christian 
Conference  concerninij  (lospel  Churches  and  Order, 
1090;  The  Doctrine  ichlch  is  accord  in;/  to  Godliness, 
V-U:,  1694  ;  The  iJicine  Institution  of  Conijri  ijational 
Chnrrhis.  1697,  besides  jiamphlet.s,  etc. 

CHAUNCY,  Charles,  relative  of  the  above,  b, 
at   nosU)n,  Jan.  1,  1705;  d,   Feb.   10,   1787.     He 


CHAUTAUQUA. 


441 


CHEKE. 


was  graduated  at  Harvard.  \~J\,  find  ordained 
pastor  of  tlie  First  Cliurcli  in  liostoii  in  17"J7,  and 
tliere  remained  for  sixty  years.  lie  was  a  learn- 
ed, copious  writer,  and  publicly  tanglit  Kestora- 
tionisni.  or  Universalisin.  lie  wrote,  Srasoinililf 
'/'/inuij/il.i  on  tli(-  Slate  of  Ri'Urjion  in  Ncic  Juif/Zantl, 
ISoston,  174:i ;  several  open  letters  to  Wliitelield,  — 
A  Let/er  to  G.  W/iiteJielfl,  puliticii/  i-nUini/  u/iiiii  liim 
to  Vindicate  liif  C'unilucl,or  Con/ens  liix  JuiHlts,l',os- 
ton,  17-11;  Second  Letter  to  O.  W/iileJielil,  nri/inf/ 
ti/mn  him  t/ie  Ihtti/  of  lie/ientnnce,  l?oston,  1745;  and 
A  Letter  to  liev.  G.  Whitefield,  Boston.  174.'>;  two 
treatises  on  churcli-governnieut,  —  The  Vulidit;/ 
of  Presbyterian  Ordination  Asxerted  and  Maintained, 
ISoston,  1762,  and  A  Comptent  View  of'  E/iisco/iaci/ 
vntil  the  Close  of  the  Second  Ccnliir!/,  lioston,  1771  ; 
several  works  on  universal  salvation,  —  The  Sal- 
ration  for  All  Men  Illnstrated  and  }'indicate<l  as  a 
Scripture  Doctrine,  Boston,  1782;  Dirine  Glorij 
Inoui/ht  to  View  in  the  J'^inal  Salcalion  of  All  Men, 
1783  (in  1784  a  second  ed.,  so  Dexter  supposes) ; 
7'lie  Benevolence  of  the  Deiti/  fairli/  and  iinjiartialli/ 
considered,  Boston,  1784;  Fire  Dissertations  on  the 
Scri/jture  Account  of  the  Fall  ami  its  Consequences, 
17S.J. 

CHAUTAUQUA,  on  Chautauqua  Lake  in  AVest- 
ern  New  York,  is  the  site  of  the  "  Cliautauqua 
Assembly,"  —  a  summer  convocation,  school,  and 
resort,  in  the  interest  of  education,  religious  and 
general,  and  of  legitimate  and  wholesome  recrea- 
tion. The  nioveiuent  was  projected  in  1873  by 
Lewis  Miller,  Esq.,  and  Rev.  Dr.  J.  H.  Vincent, 
the  former  a  wealthy  manufacturer  in  Akron.  O., 
the  latter,  editor,  and  secretary  of  the  Sunday- 
school  department  of  the  Methodist^Episcopal 
(-'hurch.  The  first  Assembly  was  held  in  August, 
1874,  as  a  two-weeks'  normal  (Sunday-school) 
institute,  with  general,  biblical,  and  normal  lec- 
tures, class-drills,  specimen  illustrative  exercises, 
models  of  Palestine,  an  archreological  museum, 
etc.  Its  leaders  early  asked,  and  pronqitly  an- 
swered, the  questions :  "  How  shall  we  increase 
the  power  of  the  Sunday  school  by  connecting  it 
more  intimately  with  tlie  other  departments  of 
the  churcli  and  other  agencies  in  society  ? " 
'•  How  control,  in  the  interest  of  religious  culture, 
the  foi-ces  —  social,  commercial,  indu.strial,  and 
educational  —  wliich  for  good  or  evil  are  affect- 
ing our  pupils  every  d.ay  of  the  week  ?  "  These 
questions  were  practically  answered  at  Chautau- 
(jua  by  the  holding  of  '•  Church  Congresses,"  "  Re- 
form Councils,"  "Scientific  Conferences,"  and 
"  Summer  Schools."  Brilliant  lectures  were  de- 
livered on  chemistry  by  such  men  as  Dr.  Ogden 
Doremus,  and  Professor  S.  A.  Lattimore;  on  as- 
tronomy, by  Drs.  Burr  and  Warren ;  on  geology, 
by  Professor  Alexander  Winchell,  and  Professor 
AVilliam  N.  Rice.  Telescopes  were  in  use  night 
after  night,  season  after  season.  A  department 
of  microscojiy  was  established.  Permanent  or- 
ganizations were  effected  for  the  prosecution  of 
the  several  studies  by  per.sons  at  their  homes. 
The  Chautauqua  Assembly  aimed  to  give  a  start 
and  an  inspiration.  Its  few  weeks'  session  at 
Chautauqua  led  individuals  to  read  and  study  at 
ticmie  during  the  year.  The  C.  L.  S.  C.  (Chau- 
tauqua Literary  and  Scientific  Circle)  was  organ- 
i/.eil  in  1878.  It  is  a  "  home  college,"  and  now 
uumbers  more  than  twenty-five  thousand  mem- 
bers.    Its  course  of  reading  requires  an  average 


of  forty  minutes  a  day.  and  covers  a  period  of 
four  years.  The  C.  P.  AI.  I.  (('hautanqua  Pondgn 
Mi.'isionary  Institute)  held  its  first  session  in 
187!K  The  C.  L.  S.  (Clnud.aucpui  Scliool  of  Lan- 
guages), the  C.  T.  11.  (Chautauqua  Teachers' 
Retreat),  the  C.  S.  T.  (Chautaucpia  .School  of 
Theology),  and  the  C.  Y.  F.  11.  U.  (Chautauqua 
Young  Folks'  Heading  Union),  are  all  depart- 
ments of  this  new  movement,  which  aims  at  pojui- 
lar  literary,  scientific,  and  religious  education,  at 
the  jiromotion  of  ratiomil  recreation,  at  true 
reform.  —  donu'stic,  social,  and  political,  —  and 
whicli  aims  to  cultivate  independent  sell-educa- 
tion at  liome  by  those  who  have  hitherto  lacked 
educational  opportunity.  .1.  II.  VIN'CEXT. 

CHEKE,  Sir  John,  an  eminent  (jreek  scholar, 
1).  at  Candjridge,  June  10,  lol4;  d.  .Sept.  Kt, 
l.')r)7.  lie  was  appointed  by  Henry  \]U.  in  1540 
the  first  Regius  Professor  of  (ireek  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Candiridge.  To  him  and  .Sir  'J'homas 
.Smith  belongs  the  honor  of  reviving  the  knowl- 
edge of  (ireek  in  England.  In  1.044  he  was  ap- 
jiointed  tutcpr  to  Prince  Edward,  and  on  the 
accession  of  the  latter  (January,  1547)  received 
honor  and  w  ealth  ;  for  he  was  appointed  to  vari- 
ous ]Kisitions,  —  from  provost  of  King's  College, 
Cambridge,  1548,  to  secretary  of  state,  and  privy 
councillor,  1553.  But,  having  joined  in  the  at- 
tenq.it  to  establish  Lady  Jane  Grey  in  the  govern- 
ment (155u),  he  was  deprived  of  all  his  lionors, 
an<l  finally  of  all  his  wealth,  by  I\Iary,  and  con- 
fined for  a  year  in  the  Tower.  On  liberation  he 
obtained  permission  to  travel:  visited  Italy  and 
Switzerland;  settled  in  .Strassburg,  where  he  sup- 
ported himself  by  teaching  Greek;  and  took  so 
)irominent  a  part  in  the  Englisli  Church  there,  that 
the  home  government  was  alarmed,  and,  by 
means  of  a  decoy,  caught  him,  and  brought  him 
to  England  (1550).  There  he  recanted,  and  even 
took  part  in  the  judgment  of  Protestants  more 
constant  than  he.  The  Queen  restored  him  to 
wealth  and  position;  but  his  lieart  was  broken, 
and  he  died  from  remorse,  giving  the  best  evi- 
dence that  his  recantation  w;is  insincere,  and 
"carrying  God's  pardon,  and  all  good  men's  pity, 
along  with  him."  Cheke  was  a  remarkable  man, 
and  deserves  a  wider  fame.  His  Greek  learning 
won  the  admiration  of  the  day.  He  knew  quite 
intimately  the  prominent  Protestants  of  Europe. 
He  was  a  sincere,  humlile,  though  a  not  sufficiently 
maidy  Cliristian,  and  inspired  universal  esteem  by 
his  lovely  life.  Curiously  he  anticipated  an  im- 
portant phenomenon  of  the  present  day, — the 
reform  of  the  spelling,  i.e.,  according  to  sound. 
(See  Strype,  pp.  161, 162.)  He  was  also  a  strenuous 
advocate  of  pure  English.  In  exemplification  oi 
his  idea,  he  prepared  a  revised  version  of  Mat- 
thew, and  part  of  Mark,  in  which  Saxon  equiva- 
lents of  Latin  theological  and  ecclesiastical  words 
are  given.  (For  specimen  see  Stougliton's  Our 
EiKjlish  Bible,  pp.  176,  177.)  He  was  a  volumi- 
nous and  learned  writer.  (For  list  see  Strype, 
pp.  165-107.)  The  most  interesting  is  said  to 
be  the  True  Subject  to  the  Rebel,  or  the  Hurt  of 
Sedition,  1.549  (also  Oxford,  1641,  with  a  Me- 
moir). His  translation  of  Matthew,  and  seven 
of  his  letters,  were  edited  and  published  by 
J.  Goodwin,  D.D.,  London,  1843.  His  Life 
was  written  by  Joux  Stbype,  new  edition, 
Oxford,  1821. 


CHEMNITZ. 


442 


CHERUB. 


CHEMNITZ,  Martin,  b  at  Trewenbrietzen, 
Hiaiulfnljius,  Xov  9,  1522;  d.  at  Brunswick, 
April  8.  1536;  lost  his  fatlier  wlieii  he  \v,as  eleven 
years  old,  and  finished  his  education  under  very 
difficult  circumstances.  From  1539  to  1542  he 
studied  at  Magdeburg,  preparing  for  the  univer- 
sity, but  was  then  compelled  to  go  to  Calbe,  and 
afterwards  to  Wrietzen,  and  teach  school,  in  order 
to  earn  money  enough  to  continue  his  studies. 
In  1545  he  came  to  Wittenberg,  and  attached 
himself  closely  to  Melanchthon,  on  whose  advice 
he  studied  mathematics  and  astrology,  and  who, 
in  1547,  sent  him  to  Kbnigsberg  with  a  letter  of 
recoramend.ation  to  Dr.  Sabinus.  In  Konigsberg 
he  lived  as  tutor  to  some  young  Polish  noblemen, 
as  rector  of  the  school  of  Kneiphof,  and  as  a 
practical  astrologer;  which  last  busine.ss  brought 
him  in  connection  with  Duke  Albrecht,  who  in 
15.50  made  him  his  librarian.  From  this  time 
he  began  to  concentrate  himself  on  tlieology,  hav- 
ing ascertained  the  looseness  of  the  found.ation 
on  which  astrology  rested.  He  studied  the  Bible, 
the  Fathers.  Luther,  Lombardus,  etc.  But  his 
theological  interest  allured  him  into  the  Os.si- 
ander  controversy  ;  and  this  became,  at  last,  so 
disagreeable  to  him.  that  in  1552  he  gave  up  his 
position  at  Konigsberg,  and  went  to  Wittenberg. 
There  he  continued  his  studies  of  dogmatics,  and 
beg.an  to  lecture  in  the  university  on  Melanch- 
thon's  I.oci  Tlieotorjici ;  and  his  lectures  attracted 
so  much  attention,  that  in  1554  he  was  called  to 
Brunswick  as  coadjutor  to  the  superintendent. 
In  15(i7  he  was  made  superintendent  himself,  and 
in  that  position  he  remained  until  15S4,  when,  on 
account  of  ill  health,  he  retired  into  private 
life 

Chemnitz  made  his  first  appearance  in  liter.v 
ture  in  the  controversy  concerning  the  Lord's 
Supper,  by  his  memoir,  Anatomc  Proposilionum 
A.  IIiirile)ihirf/i  de  Cvena  Domini,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  ]'eia  el  Sana  Doc/rina  de  Praisentia 
Corpr)ri<  el  .San(/iiinis  Christi  in  C.  D.,  1500;  lle- 
pelilio  Vera  Doctrinal,  etc.,  1501;  Fundamenta 
<San(c  Doctrincc,  etc.,  15G1 ;  and  Di'  Diiahus  Naturis 
in  Chri.itr),  etc.,  1.571.  But  his  greatest  celebrity 
he  gained  by  his  controversy  with  the  Jesuits. 
In  15()0  appeared  in  Cologne  the  Censura  de 
I'rmcipuis  (/iij)itihH.<  Doctrinoi  Ccele.ilis,  ,1  direct 
attack  on  Protestantism,  and  tlio  first  work  of  the 
Jesuits  which  attracted  any  attention.  Cliemnilz 
answered  with  his  'J'/iei/loi/i'C  .Jcsnilarum  J'rcecipna 
Capila.  151)2,  in  which  he  treated  the  Jesuits  as  a 
faction,  a  consi>iracy.  Ho  soon  discovered,  how- 
ever, from  the  works  of  Andrade,  that  the  Jesu- 
its were  in  reality  the  true  exponents  of  the 
Koman-Catholic  Cliurch,  aiul  he  went  to  work  on 
a  greater  scale  :  from  1565  to  1 573  lie  published 
his  Examcn  Cimcllii  Tridenlini  in  four  volumes,  a 
classical  work  as  yet  unsurpassed.  In  the  latter 
p.art  of  his  lifi'  he  was  very  active,  together  witli 
Andreii,  for  tlie  unification  of  the  evangelical 
churdi'S,  but  without  decisive  success;  though 
in  many  respects  he  seemed  to  be  just  the  right 
man  for  such  a  ta.sk.  He  was  not  a  creative 
mind  :  order,  arrangement,  sy.stemati/.ation,  was 
his  talent.  In  that  direction  \\i:  also  liis  literary 
merits.  The  jirectMiing  generation  the  Ueforrn- 
ers  had  been  the  |irodncers:  Cheimiitz  took  th(! 
inhi'ritance,  and  became  the  first  theologian  of 
tlie  Heformation.     His  Loci  Communes,  however, 


were  not  published  until  after  his  death  (1592), 
by  Polycarp  Leyser. 

Lit.  —  C.  G.  H.  Lentz  :  Dr.  Marlin  Chemnitz, 
Gotha,  1866;  Herm.  Hachfeld  :  Martin  Chem- 
nitz, Leipzig,  1867.  ii.  Schmidt. 

CHE'MOSH  (.vuWuer),  the  national  deity  of  the 
Moabites,  who  are  called  the  people  of  Chemosh, 
just  as  the  Israelites  were  the  people  of  Jehovah 
(Num.  xxi.  29;  Jer.  xlviii.  46);  identical  with 
Molech,  the  god  of  the  Ammonites  (Judg.  xi.  24). 
Solomon  introduced  (1  Kings  xi.  7),  and  Josiah 
suppressed,  his  worship  in  Jerusalem  (2  Kings 
xxiii.  13).  The  Moabite  worship  of  Chemosh 
has  received  unexpected  illustration  by  the  Mo- 
abite Stone  [C.  D.  Gixsburg  :  The  Moabite  Stnne, 
2d  ed.,  London,  1871].  It  was  to  Chemosh  that 
Mesha  offered  his  son  (2  King's  iii.  27).  See 
Mesha;  AIoab;  Moahitk  Sto.nk. 

CHER'UB,  CHER'UBIM  (luicertain  derivation, 
perhaps  from  xinmg,  hence  terrible).  Cherubim 
ai-e  a  distinct  order  of  beings  from  angels  ;  for 
they  are  always  in  the  immediate  presence  of 
God,  whereas  angels  are  sent  on  varied  errands. 
They  are  winged,  while  angels  are  not.  The 
Bible  descriptions  of  their  appe.arance  are  rather 
vague.  Nothing  very  intelligible  is  said  about 
their  shape,  except  that  they  are  winged.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Hebrews'  primitive  conception, 
they  were  the  bearers  of  God  when  he  appeared 
in  glory  upon  earth  (Ps.  xviii.  10;  Ezek.  xi.  22); 
the  witnesses  of  God's  presence,  wherever  they 
are,  he  is.  Very  appropriately,  therefore,  were 
representations  of  them  placed  in  the  Holy  of 
holie.s,  both  in  the  tabernacle,  when  the  golden 
figures  stood  upon  the  mercy-seat  (Exod.  xxxvii. 
8),  and  in  the  temple,  when  they  were  of  colossal 
size  (fifteen  feet  higli),  and  stood  on  the  floor, 
overshadowing  the  ark,  which  was  between  them 
(1  Kings  vi.  27).  They  were  pictured  upon  the 
curtains  (Exod.  xxvi.  1,  31,  xxxvi.  8,  35),  and 
upon  all  parts  of  the  temple  (1  Kings  vi.  29,  32, 
35,  vii.  29,  36).  Thus  was  testified  the  truth  that 
God  was  in  the  midst  of  his  people,  and  also  the 
further  ideas,  that  tiie  holy  places  were  under 
sleepless  surveillance,  and  God  by  them  w'as  cov- 
ered from  the  irreverent  gaze  of  men.  God  is 
spoken  of  and  addn'sscd  as  dwelling  between  the 
cherubim  (Num.  vii.  89;  1  !>am.  iv.  4;  2  Sam. 
vi.  2;  2  Kings  xix.  15;  1  Chron.  xiii.  6;  Ps. 
Ixxx.  1,  xcix.  1 ;  Isa.  xxxvii.  16).  After  the  fall, 
it  is  said  (Gen.  iii.  24)  God  placed  at  the  east  of 
the  Garden  of  Eden  the  cherubim,  and  a  flaming 
sword  (a  separate  thing,  not  a  sword  in  the  hand 
of  a  cherub),  to  keep  the  way  of  the  tree  of  life. 
The  garilen,  liaving  been  the  scene  of  (iod's  pres- 
ence, was  an  ajiprojiriate,  indeed  necessary,  place 
for  the  cherubim  (see  above). 

Much  study  lias  been  given  to  the  .supposed 
non-Hebraic  origin  of  the  cherubim  ;  but,  although 
analogous  shapes  are  found  u]ion  Egyptian  and 
Assyrian  monuments,  it  remains  to  be  proven 
thai  these  were  ]iatt.('rns,  in  any  sense,  of  tlie 
cherubim  of  the  tabernacle  and  temple.  What 
is  much  more  likely  is,  that  the  cherubim  of 
Ezekiel  and  the  later  Jewish  thought  were  devel- 
o|iments  of  the  earlier  ideas  under  the  influence 
of  the  surrounding  cultus.  In  regard  to  Ezekiel, 
it  has  be(Mi  noticed  tliat  he  has  two  different  sorts 
of  cherubim  in  his  }iropliecy.  1.  In  xxviii.  14 
he  culls  the  king  of  'i'yre,  in  a  passage  of  great 


CHEYNELL. 


443 


CHILLINGWORTH. 


beauty,  "the  anointed  cherub"  that  covereth 
with  liis  \viiit;.s  the  lioly  tilings :  in  other  words, 
the  king  is  said  to  liave  been  raised  to  a  divine 
throne.  The  cherub  here  appears  as  a  divine 
being,  who  upon  tiie  mount  of  the  gods  has  liis 
fire-encircled  seat.  There  is  no  sucli  u.se  of  hiii- 
guage  in  tlie  non-IIebraic  peoples.  2.  The  second 
sort  of  cherubim  is  that  iu  i.,  iii.  13,  xi.  '22, 
ct.  xli.  IS  sq.  Here  we  find,  for  the  first  time,  a 
description  of  the  shape  of  the  cherubim,  which, 
however,  does  not  go  far.  They  have  four  faces, 
four  arms  and  hands,  four  wings,  are  covered 
over  M'ith  eyes,  stand  between  wheels  which  have 
wheels  in  them,  so  that  they  can  move  in  any 
direction.  They  carry  the  throne  of  God.  ]n 
this  conception  we  trace  Babylonian  influence; 
for  winged  gods,  and  animals  with  men's  faces, 
and  vice  versa,  aie  common  on  their  monuments. 
In  Ezekiel,  as  in  other  parts  of  the  Bible,  we 
trace  the  connection  between  the  chernbim  and 
the  tliundi-r.storm,  in  which  God  manifests  liim- 
self.  There  is  the  same  fire  of  lightning  running 
to  and  fro,  and  the  same  roar  as  of  rumbling 
wheels. 

Later  Jewish  speculation  resulted  in  a  change 
in  the  conception.  The  cherubim  ajipear  in  the 
Book  of  Enoch,  but  not  as  the  guardians  of  the 
places  of  God's  appearance  upon  the  earth,  but 
of  the  hencen!;/  throne  itself.  They  are  higher 
than  the  seraphim  and  tlie  ophanim,  are  nearest 
the  throne,  and  are  its  sleepless  watchers  (Enoch 
xiv.  11,  18,  XX.  7.  Ixi.  10  sq.,  Ixxi.  G  sq.,  cf. 
xxxix.  12  sq.).  In  the  Apocalypse  this  later 
conception  is  again  modified.  The  cherubim 
[who  in  the  authorized  version  misleadingly  are 
called  herixis']  are  four  in  number,  each  resembling 
a  different  animal  (iv.  (i,  7);  have  six  wings  (iv. 
8),  like  Isaiali's  seraphim  (Isa.  vi.  2)  ;  are  the 
guardians  (and  give  the  seer  invitation  to  ap- 
proach, vi.  1,  3,  5,  7),  not  the  bearers,  of  the 
throne  of  God ;  and  are  vocal  (cf.  Isa.  vi.  3),  not 
silent;  are,  indeed,  leaders  of  the  unceasing 
praises  of  heaven  (Rev.  iv.  8-10).  A  remarka- 
ble variation  from  the  old  Hebraic  idea  is  the 
statement  that  one  of  tlie  cherubim  gave  unto 
the  seven  angels  the  seven  golden  vials  full  of 
the  wrath  of  God  (xv.  7). 

As  the  cherub-concept  from  the  beginning 
served  substantially  to  set  forth  a  lively  notion  of 
the  holiness,  and  particularly  of  the  glory,  of 
God  as  the  Creator,  and  as  Employer,  of  all  things 
to  show  forth  his  majesty  and  power,  so  the 
Christian  Church,  as  fruit  of  the  previous  devel- 
opment, holds  fast  to  the  notion  that  in  the  high- 
est rank  of  heavenly  creatures  stand  the  angels, 
who,  in  power  to  reflect,  and  eloquence  to  pro- 
claim, tlie  glory  of  God,  transcend  all  others; 
and  from  them  eternally  goes  forth  the  wondrous 
ascriptions  of  honor  and  power  unto  Him  that  sit- 
teth  upon  the  throne,  and  unto  the  Lamb,  for  ever 
and  ever.     See  Angel.         FRANZ  DELll'ZsciI. 

CHEYNELL,  Francis,  Puritan  theologian,  b.  at 
Oxford,  1608;  d.  at  Preston,  Sussex,  1(305.  He 
was  made  a  fellow  of  Merton  College,  Oxford, 
in  1029.  and  took  orders;  sided  with  the  parlia- 
ment, 1640 ;  was  a  member  of  the  Westminster 
Assembly  of  Divines,  1643;  rector  of  I'etworth, 
Sussex,  and  one  of  the  delegation  sent  in  Septem- 
ber, 1646,  to  obtain  tlie  submission  of  Oxford  to 
parliament.     In  1048  lie  took  forcible  possession 


of  tlie  Lady  Margaret  professorship  of  theology  in 
that  univer.sity,  and  the  i>residency  of  St.  John'."* 
College  ;  but  he  was  quickly  removed.  He  was 
ejected  from  his  rectory,  1062.  He  published 
Jii.<e,  Growth,  tiiiil  Dnnr;er  of  Snrininnlstn,  London, 
1643  (in  which  he  accused  Chillingworth,  Laud, 
and  others,  of  Socinian  leanings);  and  Chillinij- 
irnrthi  NovUsima,  or  Sickness,  Heresy,  Death,  and 
Burial  of  William  Chiltinffworlh,  London,  1644. 
For  his  relations  with  Chillingworth,  see  title. 

CHILDERMAS  DAY.     See  Innocents'  Day. 

CHILI,  The  Republic  of,  established  Feb.  16, 
1817,  and  numbered  1,(138,861  inhabitants  in  1869, 
most  of  whom  were  of  pure  Spanish  descent.  The 
number  of  independent  Indians,  the  so-called 
Araucani<ans,  is  estimated  at  seventy  thousand. 
The  religion  of  the  State  is  Roman  Catholic, 
though  the  public  worship  of  other  denominations 
is  tacitly  allowed.  The  president  of  the  republic, 
however,  appoints  the  bishops;  and  no  papal  bull 
or  episcopal  letter  can  be  published  in  the  coun- 
try without  his  placet.  At  the  head  of  the  Church 
stands  the  Archbishop  of  Santiago,  with  three 
suffragans,  —  of  La  Serena,  or  Coquinibo,  Con- 
cepcion,  and  Ancud,  or  Chiloe.  The  number  of 
priests  is  insufficient,  but  there  are  no  means  to 
provide  for  any  more.  The  Church  of  Chili  was 
never  rich  ;  and  after  the  separation  from  Spain, 
the  State  seized  all  the  estates  of  the  Church, 
and  also  the  tithes.  As  compensation,  the  State 
assumed  the  duty  to  pay  the  clergy,  but  is  not 
always  able  to  fulfil  it.  There  are  two  theo- 
logical seminaries,  and  a  theological  faculty  at 
the  University  of  Santiago.  Twenty  missionary 
stations,  kept  by  the  Capuchins,  Franciscans, 
and  Jesuits,  and  supported  by  the  State,  are 
laboring  among  the  Indians.  Some  of  the 
monasteries  had  their  property  re.stored  to  them 
in  18.30,  on  the  condition  that  they  should  estab- 
lish free  schools  for  poor  people.  In  Valparaiso 
the  foreigners  —  Englishmen,  Americans,  and 
Germans  —  form  two  small  Protestant  congrega- 
tions. In  the  southern  provinces  of  Valdivia  and 
Llanquihue  the  German  settlers  have  an  evan- 
gelical minister  residing  at  Puerto-Montt.  An- 
other evangelical  congregation  was  afterwards 
formed  at  Asorno. 

CHILIASM.    See  Millennium,  Millenarian- 

ISM. 

CHILLINGWORTH,   William,  b.    at    Oxford, 

October,  1002;  d.  at  Chichester,  Jan.  30  (?) 
1044.  He  was  made  a  fellow  of  Trinity  College, 
Oxford,  1628;  and  was  converted  to  Komanisni 
by  the  Jesuit,  John  Piercy,  alias  John  Fisher, 
who,  with  others  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  was  at 
that  time  particularly  active  among  the  talented 
young  men  of  the  universities  and  the  gentry, 
and  succes.sful  in  proselyting.  The  marriage 
of  Charles  I.  with  Henrietta  Maria  of  France 
(1625)  had  deepened  the  interest  in  the  question 
as  to  the  probable  ecclesiastical  fate  of  the  coun- 
try, and  Rome  did  her  best  to  bring  the  nation 
over  to  her  side.  Chillingworth  was  persuaded 
to  go  to  Douay  ;  but  his  godfather.  Laud,  then 
Bishop  of  London,  put  the  Protestant  side  so 
forcibly  to  liim,  that  he  determined  to  leave 
Douay,  return  to  Oxford,  and  investigate  the 
question  de  iioro.  The  result  of  his  investiga- 
tions was  his  hearty  acceptance  of  Protestant 
teaching.     A  controversy  had  sprung  up  between 


CHILLINGWORTH. 


444 


CHINA. 


Dr.  Christopher  Potter,  Provost  of  Queen's  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  and  Mattluas  Wilson,  alias  Edward 
Knott.  Tho  latter  had  published,  in  I60O,  the 
little  treatise,  Chariti/  Mistaken;  and  to  it  Dr. 
Potter  replied  in  1633.  Wilson  replied  to  him, 
iu  Mercy  and  Truth,  1631.  Chillingworth  took  a 
deep  interest  in  the  discussion,  carefully  studied 
the  question,  and  replied  to  AV'ilson,  in  the  famous 
The  Jielii/ion  of  l-'rotcstants  a  Safe.  Watj  tit  Salra- 
tion,  1637,  1638,  — a  work  yet  read  and  prized  as  a 
consummate  argument.  In  its  day  it  was  widely 
circulated:  two  editions  were  sold  within  five 
months  of  publication.  It  is  a  vindication  of 
Protestantism,  and  of  the  author's  return  to  it, 
and  proclaims  tliat  "  the  Bible,  the  whole  Bible, 
and  nothing  but  the  Bible,  is  tlie  religion  of 
Protestants,"  and  that  no  church  of  one  denomi- 
nation is  infallible.  In  the  preface,  however, 
Chillingworth  seems  to  grant  practical  infalli- 
bility in  teaching  to  the  Church  of  England  ; 
and  this  position  is  all  the  more  strange  because 
it  is  notorious,  that  in  1635,  while  busy  with  his 
book,  he  had  said  that  he  could  not  conscien- 
tiously subscribe  to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  and 
considered  that  the  damning  clauses  in  tiie 
Athanasian  Creed  were  "  most  false,  and  also,  in 
»  higli  degree,  schismatical  and  presumptuous." 
Indeed,  previous  to  its  publication.  Laud,  then 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  had  the  book  exam- 
ined by  the  Vice-Chancellor  of  Oxford  and  two 
professors  of  divinity,  because  ''the  young  man 
had  given  cause  why  a  more  watchful  eye  should 
be  held  over  him  and  his  writings."  But,  now 
that  Cliilling"worth  had  expressed  his  unqualified 
assent  to  the  Church,  he  was  willing  and  able  to 
accept  the  preferment  he  had  previously  refused  ; 
and  so  in  1638  he  took  the  chancellorship  of  the 
church  of  Sarum,  witli  the  prebend  of  Brixworth 
in  NorthamptoM.shire  annexed  to  it.  While  an 
advocate  of  rclijious,  he  had  no  idea  of  rivil, 
liberty;  for  he  wrote  (1642)  an  unpublished 
treati.se  on  the  Unlawfulness  if  lii'sislinij  the  Law- 
ful Prince,  althouijJi  most  Imjjimis,  Ti/rannical,  anil 
Idolatrous.  In  the  civil  war  he  of  course  followed 
the  royalists;  was  in  Charles's  camp  at  the  siege 
of  Gloucester  (August,  1643),  and  brought  his 
classical  knowledge  to  bear  upon  the  construction 
of  machines,  like  the  Roman  testuilines  cum 
pluteis,  wliieh  ran  upon  cart-wheels,  and  luid  a 
mu.sket-proof  covering  to  conceal  the  assailants, 
who  shot  through  holes:  tliey  were  further  pro- 
vided with  a  projiiclion  whicli  would  rest  on  the 
breastvvork.s,  and  so  form  a  bridge  over  the  ditch 
into  tho  city.  Jn  DeciMuber,  1613,  he  was  taken 
tirisoner  at  Arundel  Castle,  when  laid  up  by 
illness;  and  in  January,  1611,  he  w.as  conveyed 
to  tlie  bishop's  palace  at  Chichester,  where  he 
died.  A  strange  scene  occurred  at  liis  funeral. 
Francis  Cheyuell  (see  title),  tliat  eccentric  but 
devout  Puritan,  who  hapjiened  lo  be  in  tlie  town, 
had  treated  liini  with  tli((  utmost  kindness, 
Bocured  him  tlie  lodgings  in  tlio  jialace,  nursed 
him,  and  vigorously  defended  his  reputation, 
but,  by  his  further  elTorts  to  convert  liiin,  is  said 
to  have  shortened  his  days:  and  at  the  funeral 
he  outraged  all  decency  by  dinging  a  copy  of  the 
lielii/ion  of  I'rnleslnnts  into  the  iijien  grave,  ex- 
chiiming,  "  Get  thee  gone,  tiiou  cursed  book  I  go 
rot  with  thine  author."  lie  afterwards  i>ubliKhed 
his    ChtlUnijworthi    Novisaima,    1011.       Chilling- 


worth  was  estimable  for  piety,  modesty,  and 
learning,  for  genius,  acutene.ss,  and  enthusiasm. 
"  He  was  the  best  reasoner,  and  the  most  acute 
logician,  of  liis  age."  Tlie  charge  of  .Socinianisni 
was  brought  against  him  by  Cheynell  and  others  ; 
but,  as  Tillotson  sadly  explains,  iu  that  day  every 
one  that  ottered  to  give  a  reasonable  account  of 
his  faith,  and  to  establisli  religion  upon  rational 
principles,  was  presently  branded  for  a  Socinian. 
Besides  his  great  work,  Chillingworth  wrote 
many  treatises  of  much,  though,  iu  comparison, 
minor  value.  The  best  edition  of  liis  Works: 
reprint  of  the  .tenth  folio  edition  of  1742,  contain- 
ing life  by  Dr.  Biich,  Oxford,  1838,  3  vols.  8vo; 
American  r<q)rint,  Phila.,  1840.  See  Dks  Mai- 
ZK.\ux  :  Historical  anil  Critical  Account  of  tlie  Life 
and  Wrilinijs  of  \V.  Chillinijirorth,  London,  1725. 

CHINA,  Christian  Missions  in.  The  knowl- 
edge that  so  populous  an  empire  was  ignorant  of 
the  gospel  of  Christ  was  an  incentive  to  his  fol- 
lowers in  early  times  to  preach  it  to  the  t'liiiiese; 
and  about  A.D.  505  the  Nestorians  had  missions 
among  them.  Very  little  authentic  information, 
however,  concerning  the  extent  and  thoroughness 
of  their  work,  has  been  preserved.  Not  a  single 
fragment  of  their  religious  literature  in  Chinese 
has  been  discovered,  nor  any  portion  of  the 
Bible;  no  legend  or  ruins  of  an  ancient  church 
remain  to  bear  witness  of  their  work.  The  only 
certain  relic  left  is  a  stone  tablet  dated  A.D.  781, 
still  standing  in  Si-ngan,  the  ancient  capital  of 
China.  Its  author  was  Liu  Siii-yen,  a  court-coun- 
cillor; and  it  records  the  establLi^linientof  the  Kinij 
Kiao,  or  llhistriouB  Religion,  in  that  city,  with  the 
consent  of  the  Kmperor  Kien-chung.  Xestorian 
churches  are  mentioned  by  travellers  as  late  as 
the  fourteenth  century  ;  but  their  e.xtiuotion  leads 
to  the  sad  conclusion,  that,  like  the  church  at 
Sardis,  they  were  all  dead,  while  they  had  a  name 
to  live.  Shut  off  from  constant  intercourse  with 
Western  Asia,  dependent  on  a  native  ministry 
alone  for  their  pastors,  and  these  having  no  Chi- 
nese version  of  the  Scriptures  to  guide  and  ani- 
mate them,  it  is  not  surprising  that  ritualism, 
ignorance,  poverty,  and  dissensions,  gradually 
destroyed  their  life  and  coiitiiuiity. 

The  Roman-Catholic  Chuich  took  up  the  mis- 
sionary work  a  little  while  before  the  IS'estorians 
had  ontindy  quitted  it;  and  Nicholas  IV.  sent 
John  de  Monte  Corvino,  who  reached  Peking  iu 
1292,  while  Knblai  khan  was  living.  He  labored 
alone  eleven  years;  when  Clement  V.  made  him 
archbishop,  on  hearing  of  his  zeal  ;ind  success, 
and  .sent  him  .seven  assistants.  He  translated 
the  Psalms  and  New  Testament  into  Rhuigolian ; 
and  at  his  death,  in  1328,  lii^  "had  convcrteil  more 
than  thirty  thousand  infidels.''  At  this  distance 
of  time  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  what  these 
conversions  really  amounted  to.  But  the  seed 
sown  seems  to  have  been  like  that  which  fell  iu 
stony  ground  ;  for  after  the  exinilsion  of  the 
Mongol  rulers  from  CliiiKi  in  1361),  nothing  sur- 
vived of  these  numerous  churches  or  their  bisli- 
op.s.  .lolin  of  Florence,  one  of  tho  Pope's  nuncio.s 
to  China,  returned  to  Europe  in  13.'>3,  after  an 
absence  of  twelve  years. 

The  next  atU'inpt  was  made  by  Xavier  in  1552, 
but  li(!  dii'd  just  at  landing;  and  China  remained 
till  1580  without  a  Christian  teacher.  Matthew 
Ricci  and  Michael  Ruggiero  were  tliea  desiguat- 


CHINA. 


445 


CHINA. 


ed  by  Va]ig:nani,  and  entered  upon  their  work 
with  zeal  and  tact.  The  details  of  their  efforts, 
disappointments,  and  successes  dnrinsj  the  next 
thirty  years,  until  they  and  their  colleagues  were 
settled  in  I'ekiiifj,  Nanking,  and  other  cities,  are 
fully  given  by  Ablie  Hue.  It  is  a  record  of  un- 
ceasing labors,  and  skilful  uses  of  means  an<l 
men  calculated  to  promote  their  puipose.  At 
Ricci's  death,  in  1(110,  he  was  at  the  head  of  a 
large  body  of  coadjutors,  scattered  in  many  cities 
between  the  capital  and  Canton,  who  were  gath- 
ering churches  among  the  people,  and  propagat- 
ing their  tenets  among  all  ranks.  His  body  was 
buried  in  a  plat  of  ground  west  of  the  city,  given 
for  the  purpose  by  the  Emperor  Waulih,  where, 
with  those  of  many  of  his  successors,  it  still 
remains  to  draw  the  homage  of  visitors  and  be- 
lievers. His  work  has  been  minutely  detailed  by 
admiring  friends.  They  have  given  its  modus 
'(ipcranrli  in  the  full  belief  that  its  results  proved 
its  purity  and  power;  and  some  of  them  contin- 
ued it  on  the  same  principles  :  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  his  conduct  has  called  forth  criticism  from 
his  own  church,  and  Protestants,  according  to 
their  differing  views  taken  of  mission-work. 

His  mantle  fell  on  Longobardi,  who  exhibited 
great  jirudence  in  the  trying  times  of  disorder 
and  opposition  while  the  Ming  dynasty  was  has- 
tening to  its  downfall.  The  growing  faith  was 
then  ujiheld  by  the  co-operation  of  its  native 
adiierents,  among  whom  Paul  Sii  and  his  daugh- 
ter Candida  shine  forth  during  many  years  of 
charitable  and  consistent  efforts  among  their 
countrymen.  She  built  thirty-nine  churches  in 
different  provinces,  printed  a  hundred  and  thirty 
Christian  books,  established  foundling  and  other 
hospitals,  and  was  regarded  with  such  considera- 
tion, that  the  emperor  conferred  on  her  the  title 
of  "virtuous  woman." 

Other  societies  also  entered  the  field.  Francis- 
can and  Dominican  priests  began  their  labors  at 
various  points;  and,  as  their  system  of  operations 
was  unlike  that  o(  the  Jesuits,  differences  arose 
which  tended  to  further  separate  them.  Ricoi 
was  disposed  to  gloss  over  the  idolatry  involved 
in  tlie  Chinese  worship  of  ancestors  by  allowing 
its  practice  with  mental  reservations;  and  the 
worship  of  Confucius  was  so  described,  that  no 
one  needed  to  regai'd  it  as  otherwise  than  the 
veneration  due  to  a  great  sage  and  legislator. 
,  The  imperial  state  worship  on  the  altars  of 
Heaven  and  Earth  in  Peking  was  also  divested 
of  its  idolatrous  principle,  and  resolved  into  a 
state  craft  that  possessed  no  religion  at  all.  The 
advocates  on  each  side  took  their  discussions  to 
Rome,  and  each  obtained  a  bull  in  their  favor, 
thus  providing  themselves  with  the  strongest 
proof  of  their  orthodoxy  they  could  desire.  In 
1699  the  Jesuits  appealed  to  the  Emperor  Kanghi 
to  decide  between  them,  stating  the  pith  of  their 
own  belief  in  such  a  manner  that  he  could  not 
fail  to  coincide  with  it.  He  assured  them  that 
"lien  means  the  true  God,  and  that  the  customs 
of  ('hina  are  political." 

Soon  alter  Longobardi  became  superior-general, 
disorders  arose  in  the  ill-governed  empire  ;  and 
many  among  the  converts  desired  to  free  them- 
selves from  their  allegiance  to  their  rulers.  He 
was  aided  in  his  efforts  in  maintain  a  discreet 
neutrality  by  Adam  Schaal,  whose  science  and 


skill  had  become  well  known,  and  who.se  influ- 
ence reached  to  the  farthest  province.  When 
the  Manchus  posse.s.sed  themselves  of  Peking  in 
1()44,  Schaal  and  his  colleagues  made  friends 
with  their  chiefs  during  the  reign  of  Shunchi; 
but  during  the  minority  of  his  son,  in  lOOo,  a 
strong  opposition  developed  at  court,  and  its 
leaders  succeeded  in  banishing,  degrading,  and 
imprisoning  them  and  their  adherents  in  the 
capital  and  provinces.  Schaal  died  of  grief  :  and 
dangers  thickened  over  the  heads  of  his  coadju- 
tors, who  were  beaten,  imprisoned,  and  ordered 
to  leave  the  country  ;  so  that  their  enemies  looked 
for  a  speedy  triumph,  when  an  earthquake  at 
Peking  delivered  the  missionaries  by  terrifying 
their  adversaries.  On  the  majority  of  Kanghi, 
in  1()71,  they  were  gradually  restored  to  their 
positions,  and  Verbiest  took  the  place  of  Schaal 
in  imperial  favor. 

During  his  reign  of  sixty  years,  the  extension 
of  tlie  missions  throughout  the  Chinese  Empire 
suffered  little  real  reverse  :  churches,  schools,  and 
other  religious  establishments,  multiplied  in  the 
provinces;  so  that  it  is  a  cause  for  wonder  that 
the  Romish  Church  did  not  become  dominant 
among  the  people.  No  exact  data  are  given  of 
its  condition  ;  but  we  are  told,  that  when  at 
Kanghi's  death,  in  1722,  an  edict  was  issued  for 
the  suppression  of  the  faith,  "  more  than  three 
hundred  churches  were  destroyed  or  suppressed, 
and  three  hundi'ed  thousand  Christians  aban- 
doned to  the  fury  of  the  heathen."  The  dissen- 
sions which  arose  during  the  last  fifteen  years  of 
his  reign,  about  the  right  of  the  Pope  to  direct 
the  worship  of  his  subjects,  had  aroused  a  spirit 
of  suspicion  among  native  officials  ;  and  he  began 
to  restrain  the  freedom  of  propagating  Christi- 
anity while  employing  the  missionaries  in  state 
duties.  His  son  Yungching  was  sustained  in  his 
repressive  policy  by  the  officers  in  the  capital 
and  provinces ;  so  that  when  he  died  in  1735, 
the  cause  had  suffered  severe  losses.  Its  noble 
army  of  martyrs  had  also  greatly  increased;  and 
the  record  of  their  constancy,  patience,  and  fideli- 
ty, even  unto  death,  does  honor  to  their  profes- 
sion. Their  foreign  teachers  also  suffered  with 
them,  and  many  sealed  their  ministrations  with 
their  blood.  It  is  not  possible  here  to  describe 
in  detail  how  the  great  expectations  entertained 
of  the  prosperity  and  final  triumph  of  the  faith 
were  gradually  destroyed  by  the  dispersion  of 
the  native  clergy,  the  want  of  foreign  teachers, 
and  the  opposition  of  the  educated  class  to  a 
heretical  religion,  until  the  fires  of  persecution 
languished  and  died  for  want  of  fuel,  towards 
the  end  of  the  century.  Between  the  years  1768 
and  1820  the  disturbed  state  of  Europe  crippled 
the  resources  of  missionary  bodies,  and  few  of 
their  agents  went  to  China.  At  the  last  date  an 
estimate  of  the  Roman-Catholic  Church  in  China 
gives  8  bishops  and  coadjutors,  2'i  missionaries, 
80  native  priests,  and  210,000  converts,  as  the 
total  communion.  Since  then  it  has  steadily 
increased  ;  so  that  in  1806  the  report  enumerate,s 
20  bishops,  8  coadjutors,  233  missionaries,  237 
native  priests,  12  colleges  with  331  students,  and 
400,000  converts  :  54  boys' and  114  girls"  schools 
were  opened  in  the  province  of  Szechuen  alone. 

In  1844  Louis  Philippe  sent  M.  Lagrene  as 
Freucli  envoy  to  China ;  and,  after  the  latter  had 


CHINA. 


446 


CHINA. 


si^ed  the  treaty  of  Whampoa,  he  obtained  from 
the  Chinese  plenipotentiary,  in  reply  to  a  memo- 
rial sent  to  court,  an  imperial  rescript,  which 
granted  toleration  to  these  long-persecuted  native 
converts,  and  placed  them  on  a  higher  ground 
than  ever  before.  Fourteen  years  after,  an  ex- 
press article  in  each  of  the  four  treaties  negotiated 
at  Tien-tsin  gave  the  highest  sanction  to  the  ex- 
ercise of  Christianity  in  all  its  forms  throughout 
the  empire.  This  was  about  tliree  hundred  years 
after  Xavier's  death  at  St.  John's  Island,  near 
Macao. 

Tlie  character  of  the  work  of  these  earnest 
laborers,  if  examined  by  the  standard  of  the 
word  of  God,  W'ill  be  found  to  lack  many  vital 
points,  and  goes  far  to  explain  whj'  the  existence 
of  sucli  a  number  of  Christians  scattered  through 
the  land  has  failed  to  elevate  the  morality  and 
intelligence  of  the  natives.  The  greatest  defi- 
ciency in  this  system  of  evangelizing  is  with- 
holding the  Sacred  Scriptures  from  the  people. 
This  keeps  the  great  salvation  hidden  away 
under  a  mass  of  ritual  ceremonies;  and  the  per- 
son of  Christ  is  obscured  by  the  worship  of  the 
Virgin  and  numerous  saints,  whose  pictures  and 
images  too  closely  resemble  the  same  thing  in 
Buddhist  temples  to  be  easily  discriminated  by 
ignorant  converts.  The  hierarchy  which  gov- 
erned and  guided  these  converts  could  therefore 
teach  for  doctrines  the  commandments  of  men, 
and  control  every  part  of  their  dioceses.  If, 
therefore,  a  struggle  arose  between  the  civil  and 
religious  duties  of  the  converts,  their  choice  was 
in  favor  of  the  new  faith  ;  and  the  officers  of  the 
Chinese  Government  naturally  resorted  to  force, 
oppression,  and  injustice,  to  maintain  their  power. 
This  struggle  has  already  developed  some  in-ita- 
tion  and  suspicion  on  the  part  of  influential 
scholars  and  liigh  officers,  and  contains  in  it  the 
germs  of  serious  troublfs  in  the  future. 

The  results  of  over  two  hundred  years  of  un- 
opposed proselytism  in  China  by  Roman-Catholic 
missionaries,  as  shown  in  the  morals,  learning, 
enterjirise,  and  self-sustaining  power  of  their 
converts,  are  sufficient  iiro(]fs,  tliat  without  the 
direct,  continual  instruction  in  the  word  of  God, 
no  heathen  nation  can  ever  be  elevated  to  become 
a  free  and  intelligent  Christian  people.  Yet  it  is 
likewise  true,  that  the  good  effects  of  so  many 
years  of  careful  labor  are  seen  in  many  villages 
and  communities  of  peaceable,  industrious,  and 
obedient  believers  attached  to  their  worship. 
These  Chretiiinlcs  are  found  in  all  the  provinces ; 
and  their  members  are  generally  superior  to  their 
pagan  countrymen. 

It  was  therefore,  in  the  providence  of  God,  a 
preparation  for  the  new  relations  into  which  the 
ultra-Ciangetic  nations  were  to  be  forced  by  Chris- 
tian powers  during  this  century,  that  the  Protes- 
tant cluin-hes  in  Europe  and  America  were  led 
to  cstalilish  their  missions  in  all  of  them  as  soon 
as  the  way  was  opened.  China  was  occ\ipied 
first.  Robert  Morrison,  the  pioneer  of  Protestant 
missions  to  all  that  region,  was  told  by  the  officers 
of  the  London  Missionary  .Society,  at  his  departure 
in  iJiOT,  that,  after  he  had  learned  the  Chinese 
language,  "ho  might  \\h\h:  the  honor  of  forming  a 
Chinese  dictionary  more  compn-in  iisive  and  cor- 
rect than  any  preciMling  one,  or  the  still  gri-ater 
honor  of  translating  the  Sacred  Scriptures  into  a 


language  spoken  by  a  third  part  of  the  human 
race."  He  earned  both  these  honors,  and  pub- 
lished the  dictionary  and  translation  before  hia 
return  to  England  in  18'J4.  The  cordial  recep- 
tion extended  to  him  by  all  classes  —  from  King 
George  IV.  to  the  cottagers  in  his  home  at 
Newcastle  —  indicated  the  national  sense  of  his 
services. 

The  year  of  his  death  (1834)  saw  the  winding- 
up  of  the  East  India  Company's  establishment  in 
China,  and  the  commencement  of  the  new  era. 
During  the  jiast  half-century  the  evangelizing 
labors  of  both  divisions  of  Christians  have  gone 
on  among  the  Chinese.  The  same  toleration-acts 
contained  in  the  treaties  now  give  each  of  them 
access  to  all  parts  of  the  empire,  and  allow  a 
candid  comparison  of  their  modes  of  operation, 
many  of  which,  are,  of  course,  alike;  as  schools, 
tiieological  seminaries,  erection  of  chapels,  or- 
phanages, and  churches,  etc. 

Protestant  missions  in  China  really  date  from 
1844,  when  their  agents  first  occupied  the  five 
newly  opened  ports.  The  missionaries  presently 
procured  chapels  in  convenient  positions  for  the 
daily  preaching  of  the  gospel,  and  thereby  soon 
became  known  to  the  common  people  in  and 
around  the  cities.  Connected  with  the  missions 
was  usually  a  hospital,  where  diseases  and  wounds 
were  attended  to  by  a  trained  physician  as  far  as 
the  means  allowed ;  and  the  crowd  of  patients 
became  also  a  company  of  auditors  to  hear  the 
message  of  salvation.  The  first  institution  of 
this  kind  was  opened  at  Canton  in  1835,  by  Dr. 
Peter  Parker,  and  has  since  been  imitated,  with 
uniform  success,  at  about  twenty  other  places. 
The  Canton  hospital  has  received  about  seven 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  patients  since  it  be- 
gan ;  and,  like  the  others,  its  operations  have 
been  aided  by  the  donations  of  foreign  residents 
in  China. 

Printing-offices  were  also  opened  in  three  or 
four  central  stations,  and  four  or  five  fonts  of 
movable  metallic  types  (each  containing  nearly 
eight  thousand  sorts)  cut  and  cast,  with  which 
printing  could  be  cheaply  done.  These  types 
have  also  furnished  the  natives  with  facilities  for 
issuing  newspapers,  thus  incidentally  starting 
one  of  the  powerful  agencies  of  their  education. 
The  printing-offices  and  foundries  at  Shanghai, 
Hongkong,  Canton,  Foochow,  and  Peking,  have 
i.ssued  millions  of  copies  of  works  upon  religion, 
science,  history,  and  geography,  besides  many 
copies  of  the  Bible  in  wliole  or  in  part,  nearly 
all  of  which  were  written  and  translated  by  the 
missionaries.  Their  cpiality,  variety,  and  suita- 
bleness vary  greatly,  of  course ;  but  all  t('n<l  to 
one  point.  —  the  ex|ilanation  and  enforcement  oE 
God's  truth  and  works.  In  addition  to  purely 
Chinese  books,  aliout  three  hundred  others  have 
been  printed  at  these  olhces,  —  dictionaries,  vocab- 
ularies, phra.se-books,  grammars,  and  numerous 
.separate  treatises  of  ,a  more  scientilic  character, 
besides  periodical  publications  in  the  English  as 
well  as  Chinese  languages.  From  all  these 
sources  the  natives  have  learned  more,  in  thirty- 
five  years,  .about  God  and  their  fellow-men,  and 
their  duties  to  each,  than  they  had  previously 
learned  since  they  were  a  i)eople. 

In  schools  and  seminaries  the  Labors  of  Protes- 
tant missiuus  have  kept  pace  with  the  means  at 


CHINA. 


447 


CHORAZIN. 


their  command.  Through  thesR  schools  and  the 
public  prcachiiiH',  the  missionuries  liave  aimed 
more  directly  to  carry  out  Christ's  command: 
"Teaching'  them  to  observe  all  things  whatsoever 
I  have  comuKuided  you."  Calling  in  the  aid  of 
native  converts  to  supplement  their  own  teachings, 
it  has  been  shown,  as  it  was  in  apostolic  times,  that 
no  agency  can  take  the  place  of  the  living  voice 
in  arousing  dull  intellects,  vivifying  dead  con- 
sciences, and  leading  men  to  the  cross  of  Clirist. 
In  a  country  where  common  schools  are  within 
the  reach  and  means  of  even  the  very  poor,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  spend  time  and  money  in  exten- 
sive plans  of  education.  The  children  of  con- 
verts, are,  liowever,  gathered  under  the  care  of 
the  Church,  and  parents  thereby  taught  their  new 
responsibilities  in  training  their  offspring  in  the 
nurture  and  admonition  of  the  Lord.  Chinese 
education  does  not  include  girls  in  ordinary 
cases;  and  the  energies  of  the  ladies  who  have  in 
recent  years  joined  the  missions  are  much  directed 
to  the  training  of  girls. 

In  no  one  respect  is  the  difference  between  the 
two  bodies  of  missionaries  no\T  pursuing  their 
work  in  China  more  apparent  to  the  mass  of 
people  than  in  the  oral  preaching  of  the  gospel. 
The  open  door  of  the  wayside  chapel,  where  usu- 
ally stands  a  foreign  or  native  teacher  to  invite 
the  passers-by  to  enter,  and  hear  the  Word,  is 
known  in  the  neighborhood  or  village  as  one  of 
the  common  tokens  of  their  presence.  Curiosity, 
for  a  while,  draws  the  residents  and  strangers  to 
fill  the  house.  Out  of  the  hundreds  who  hear 
little  or  nmch,  with  more  or  less  comprehension  of 
the  truth,  some  are  led  to  inquire  more,  and  their 
hearts  become  the  honest  ground  where  fruit 
grows  up  to  eternal  life.  But  everybody  at  first 
is  aroused,  and  learns  something  of  the  foreigner 
and  his  message.  It  is  difficult  for  a  stranger  to 
understand  the  utter  ignorance  of  the  great  body 
of  natives  of  every  thing  pertaining  to  otlier 
lands  ;  but  a  few  years'  chapel-preaching  in  a 
town  iias  the  result  of  removing  much  of  this 
ignorance  and  prejudice.  The  divine  declaration, 
"  The  entrance  of  thy  words  giveth  light,  it  giveth 
understanding  unto  the  simple,"  is  found  to  be 
constantly  verified.  The  erection  of  large  and 
expensive  churclies  at  foreign  expense  has  been 
usually  discouraged  by  Protestants.  Such  is  not 
tfie  plan  of  the  Romish  missions.  An  imposing 
edifice  for  the  ceremonies  of  their  Church  l)y  its 
bishops  and  priests  is  erected,  and  thus  becomes 
a  centre  to  attract  and  hold  their  converts,  around 
which  they  group  their  schools  and  seminaries, 
and  provide  retreats  for  their  missionaries.  Some 
of  these  establishments  have  grown  to  large 
dimensions,  and  prepare  hundreds  of  catechists 
and  native  clergymen. 

The  growing  power  of  the  Christian  Church 
in  China  renders  statistics  of  its  condition  at  a 
given  time  of  comparatively  little  value.  In 
1879  the  enlargement  of  Protestant  missions  was 
pushed  with  vigor.  Out  of  a  total  of  460  men 
and  women  sent  out  by  twenty-five  societies  from 
the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  Germany, 
about  280  wei-e  ordained  ministers  and  physicians, 
distributed  over  92  stations  and  532  out-stations 
in  ten  provinces,  and  aided  in  their  work  bv  93 
native  pastors  anil  1,039  helpers. coljiortenrs,  and 
schoolmasters.     They  reported   1S,7U7  communi- 


cants of  botli  sexes  in  their  churches,  and  6,227 

children  in  day  and  boarding  schools,  for  whose 
education,  and  other  religious  objects,  ?!»,.''>71 
had  been  contributed  by  the  Christians  in  1876. 
About  72.5 churches  and  chapels  had  been  erected 
up  to  that  year;  an<l  18  hospitals  were  opened, 
where  nearly  100,000  jiatients  had  been  treated. 
No  satisfactory  data  of  the  myriad  copies  of  Sa- 
cred Scriptures,  in  whole  or  in  part,  and  of  tracts, 
sold  and  distributed,  can  be  obtained.  The  esti- 
mates derived  from  these  figures  and  statements, 
showing  the  progress  made  in  leavening  the  dor- 
mant mind  of  China  with  religious,  scientific, 
and  political  truths,  will  be  very  imperfect  if  their 
collateral  results  on  the  vast  mass  of  people  not 
yet  reached  personally  by  foreigners  is  not  also 
considered. 

These  figures  need  only  to  be  contrasted  with 
the  condition  of  mission-work  at  Morrison's  death, 
in  1834,  when  two  missionaries  and  four  converts 
formed  the  entire  working-force  in  the  empire, 
to  be  assured  that  God's  time  for  the  fulfilment 
of  his  ancient  promise  through  Isaiah  (xlix.  12), 
"  Lo  these  from  the  land  of  Sinim,"  has  at  last 
fully  come.  s.  WELLS  WILLIAMS 

(formerly  Sec.  of  the  U.S.  Legation,  IVIilng). 

CHOIR,  a  body  of  men,  or  of  boys,  or  of  men 
and  boys,  or  of  men  and  women,  performing  or 
leading  the  song  which  forms  part  of  the  Chris- 
tian service.  There  was  a  choir  in  the  Jewish 
temple  :  after  the  time  of  David  it  was  at  certain 
occasions  composed  of  no  less  than  four  thousand 
singers.  There  w.as  also  a  choir  at  the  worship 
of  Bacchus,  singing  and  dancing  around  his  altar; 
and  this  choir  became  the  nucleus  of  the  Greek 
tragedy.  Indeed,  the  choir  seems  to  liave  formed 
part  of  all  public  religious  worship.  For  '  choir," 
as  an  architectural  term,  see  Architecture, 
Christian. 

CHORA'ZIN,  a  city  of  Galilee,  not  mentioned 
in  the  Old  Testament,  nor  by  Josephus,  and  only 
twice  in  the  New  Testament  (Matt.  xi.  21;  Luke 
X.  13),  where  it  is  associated  with  Capernaum 
and  Bethsaida.  The  etymology  of  the  name  is 
uncertain.  Origen  (Migne'sed.  ii.  p.  280)  makes 
it  a  Greek  name,  Xupa  Zfi"  ("district  of  Zin  ")  ; 
but  the  manuscripts  give  XopaCiv,  or  XopaCciv, 
which,  if  of  Hebrew  derivation,  might  mean 
"woodland."  Its  identification  is  still  a  matter 
of  sharp  controversy,  along  with  that  of  Caper- 
naum and  Bethsaida.  Ritter,  who  was  never  in 
Palestine,  puts  Bethsaida  at  Klian  Minyeh,  Cho- 
razin  at  Tabiga,  and  Capernaum  at  Tell  Hum. 
Some  writers  put  Bethsaida  at  Tabiga,  Caperna- 
um at  Tell  Hilm,  and  Chorazin  at  Ker.azeh  (two 
miles  north  of  Tell  IlClin),  without  assigning 
any  place  to  Khan  Minyeh.  Robinson  puts  Ca- 
pernaum at  Khan  Minyeh,  Bethsaida  (about  two- 
thirds  of  a  mile  farther  north)  at  Tal'iga,  and 
Chor.azin  (about  a  mile  and  a  half  north  of  Ta- 
biga) at  Tell  Ilflm.  In  support  of  this  theory  we 
have  first  of  all  the  positive  statement  of  Jerome 
(Migne's  ed.,  iv.  p.  124),  that  these  three  places 
were  all  of  them,  with  Tiberias,  on  the  shore  of 
the  Lake  of  Gennesaret.  Kerazeh  is  a  good  long 
two  miles  away  from  the  lake,  and  tlie  remains 
of  buildings  found  there  are  not  apparently  very 
ancient.  The  inhabitants  of  Chorazin,  which,  in 
the  time  of  Eusebius  (^Oiiomasticon,  Larsow  and 
Parthey's  cd.,  p.  07-')),  v.as  already  deserted,  may 


CHOREPISCOPI. 


448 


CHRIST. 


bave  taken  the  old  name  along  with  them  to  the 
new  site  ;  as  in  the  case  of  Sarepta  hy  the  seaside. 
whieli  is  now  Surafend  upon  the  hill,  a  mile  and 
a  quarter  off.  We  have  also  tha  itinerary  of 
the  German  bishop.  Willibald,  who  visited  Pales- 
tine about  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century,  and, 
in  going  up  on  the  west  side  of  the  lake,  went 
from  Tiberias,  through  Magdala,  to  Capernaum, 
Hethsaida,  and  Chorazin  (Toblkr's  Descriptiunes 
Terrcc  Sacrw,  1874.  p.  03).  This  order  of  places 
is  exactly  that  of  Robinson.  [For  another  view, 
see  Capeun'.\um.]       koswell  d.  hitchcock. 

CHOREPISCOPI,  i.e.,  lit.  "country  bishops," 
those  who  acted  as  bishops  in  distant  rural  dis- 
tricts under  the  authority  of  .some  city  bishop. 
They  w-ero  a  class  between  bishops  proper  and 
pre.sbyters,  and  appeared  first  in  Asia  Minor, 
at  the  close  of  the  third  century,  because  there 
and  then  the  impossibility  of  careful  oversight  of 
all  the  interests  of  large  dioceses  was  first  felt. 
In  the  A\'est  they  are  mentioned  first  in  the  fifth 
century.  They  performed  such  episcopal  duties 
as  the  ordination  of  readers,  exorcists,  subdea- 
cons,  but  only  rarely  of  deacons  or  presbyters,  and 
never  of  bishops,  confirmation  in  their  own  dis- 
trict, and  the  granting  of  letters  dimissory ;  they 
also  assisted  at  the  Lord's  .Supper  in  the  mother- 
church  in  the  city.  One  of  the  subsidiary  yet 
important  uses  to  which  the  office  coidd  lie  put 
was  to  nialie  a  place  for  schismatical  bishops  who 
had  returned  to  tlie  Church.  In  both  parts  of 
the  Cliurch  they  were  common.  But  the  office 
declined  and  vanished.  In  the  West  its  place 
was  taken  by  the  archdeacons,  although  in  France 
and  Germany  the  title  was  long  given  to  an  alto- 
gether different  office.  In  the  East  it  continued 
for  a  time  among  the  schismatics.  .\  modern 
analogy  is  the  English  suft'ragan  bishop.  See 
art.  Chorcpiscopus,  in  Smith  and  Cheetham  : 
Did.  Clir.  An/it/,  vol.  i.  pp.  'ioH-'d'K). 

CHRISM  (from  Aviia/ira,  "  oil,"  or  "  unction  "),  the 
consccrati'd  oil,  or  mixture  of  oil  and  balsam, 
which  is  used  in  the  Greek  and  Koni:in  Church 
in  the  administration  of  baptism,  confirmation, 
and  extreme  miction,  applied  respectiv(>ly  to  the 
crown  of  the  head,  the  forehead,  and  the  organs 
of  the  five  senses,  the  loins,  and  the  feet.  The 
usage  dates  far  back  into  the  Christian  Church. 
'J'he  earliest  testimonies  are,  Ti;uTt;M.i.\N  :  De 
Jinplixmn,  c.  7;  .St.  CvruiAx:  Epist.  70,  c.  2; 
Apost.  Constil.,  VII.  4;5,  §  .J ;  41  §  1.  The  right 
to  consecrate  chrism  is,  since  the  Co\mcil  of 
Toledo  (398),  an  episcopal  privilege  in  the  \V'est- 
ern  Church  :  in  the  Eastern  it  is  reserved  for  the 
patri.irchs  alone. 

CHRISMAL.  The  word  is  applied  to,  (1)  The 
vessel  cir  llask  which  held  the  chrism,  ("i)  A 
cloth  I'm-  cnviM'ing  relics,  (3)  Chrisom,  see  below. 

CHRISOM,  the  white  cloth  with  which  the 
Roman  prii'st  covers  tiie  head  of  an  infant  after 
the  administration  of  baptism  :  hence  tlie  expres- 
sion, a  "chri.somed  child."  Before  the  inlroiluc- 
tion  of  infant  baptism,  the  cateehnmen  received 
a  white  lobe,  cliri.iinitli.i :  which  word  is  also  used 
of  the  vessil  in  which  tin;  chrism  was  jireserved. 

CHRIST  JESUS.     .See.Iiisis  CiiitisT. 

CHRIST,  Monogram  of.  In  tin'  Koman  cata- 
combs is  loiiuil  a  niiiiKigram  of  Cliiist,  consisting 
of  the  two  first  letters  of  his  name,  .X  and  I', 
I  ombined  in  various  manneis,  and  .sometimes  fur- 


*  .g^-F 


ther  adorned  with  an  added  Alpha  and  Omega; 
which  article  see.  By 
Constantine  this  mono- 
gram was  a]iplied  to 
the  military  standards, 
coins,  etc.  See  l\Irs.  .Iamkson  and  Lady  East- 
L.\KK  :  Nlalory  of  our  Lord  as  exemplified  in  Worku 
of  Art.  2d  ed.",  London,  18(J5. 

CHRIST,  Offices  of.  See  Jesus  Christ,  Of- 
fices of. 

CHRIST,  Sinlessness  of.     .See  Christology. 

CHRIST,  The  Order  of,  was  founded  in  1317 
by  Dionysius,  King  of  Portugal,  under  the  name 
of  the  Knights  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  for  the  pur- 
pose of  defending  Algarbia  against  the  Moors. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  the 
order  had  four  hundred  and  fifty  canonries,  and 
enormous  revenues.  In  1550  the  grand-master- 
ship was  forever  combined  with  the  Portuguese 
crown  by  Pope  Julius  III.  In  1789  the  order 
was  abolished,  and  its  estates  confiscated.  Its 
titles  and  insignia  are  now  simply  a  token  of 
royal  favor. 

CHRIST,  Pictures  of.  None  of  the  evangel- 
ists gives  us  the  least  hint  with  respect  to  the 
personal  appearance  of  Christ;  and  when  after- 
wards a  tradition  began  to  form,  it  was  evidently 
the  product  of  incidental  circumstances.  The 
persecuted  Church  of  the  first  three  centuries 
liked  to  imagine  Christ  in  his  state  of  humilia- 
tion, starting  from  the  prophetic  description  of 
the  suffering  Messiah  in  Ps.  xxii.  and  Isa.  Hi.  ; 
the  victorious  Church  liked  to  imagine  him  in 
his  state  of  elevation,  starting  from  the  i\Ie.ssianic 
jiictures  in  Ps.  xlv.  and  the  Song  of  Solomon. 
The  first  formal  description  of  the  personal  a]i- 
pearance  of  Christ  is  found  in  a  Latin  letter, 
which  pretends  to  have  been  written  by  Publius 
Lentulus,  a  contemporary  of  Pil.ate,  and  "presi- 
dent of  the  people  of  Jerusalem"  (there  was 
no  such  office),  and  sent  to  the  Roman  Senate. 
Christ  is  here  described  as  "  a  man  of  noble  and 
well-proportioned  stature,  with  a  face  full  of 
kindness  and  3-et  firmness,  so  that  the  beholders 
both  love  and  fear  him.  His  hair  is  wine-colored, 
golden  at  the  root,  straight,  lustreless,  parted 
down  the  middle  of  the  crown,  afbu-  the  fashion 
of  the  Xa/.arenes  [Xazarites?] ;  his  beard  is  full, 
but  short,  forked,  and  hazel-colored  ;  and  his 
eyes  are  V)lne  and  brilliant.  In  reproof  and 
rebuke  he  is  formidable ;  in  exhortation  and 
teaching,  gentle  and  amiable.  He  has  been  never 
seen  to  laugh,  but  oftentimes  to  weep."  The 
letter  was  first  discovered  in  a  manuscript  copy 
of  tlie  works  of  Anselm  from  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, and  it  is  certainly  not  ohler  than  the  fourth 
century.  Another  description  is  found  in  the 
works  of  John  of  Daimiscus,  ICpisl.  wi  'J'/ieoplt. 
Imp.  lie  venf.raitdi.i  Imat/.,  from  the  eiglith  century; 
and  a  third,  in  the  Church  History  of  Nicejihorus 
I.  '10,  from  the  fourteenth  century.  Christ  is 
here  representee!  with  long,  waving,  blond  hair, 
and  pale  olive  complexion.  Besides  these  tradi- 
tions and  formnl  descrijilions  may  be  mentioni'd 
as  mab'rials  utilized  by  modern  ai'tists  in  piidnre.s 
of  Christ,  tlie  two  .so-called  portiaits  «!  Christ,  -- 
that  sent  U)  King  Abgarns,  and  th;it  imprinted 
on  the  silken  handkerohi<'f  of  Veronica.  .See  the 
articli'S  on  .\ii<;  Alt  and  Vkhonka.  iModi'rn  ]iic- 
i  lures  of  Christ  show  generally,  either  the  iSalvalor 


CHRISTIAN. 


449 


CHRISTIAN  CONNECTION. 


type,  witli  its  expression  of  calm  serenity  and 
dignity,  or  the  Ecce  Homo  type,  with  the  crown 
of  tliorns  mid  tlie  tears  of  suffering. 

Lit. — J.  B.  (J.^ui'zow:  De.  oris  cl  corporis 
Christi  forma,  etc.,  Hehnstedt,  1777;  V.  K. 
.Iabi.onski:  De  orir/ine  imaffinum  C/in.<(/,  Lugd., 
Hatav.,  1804  ;  W.  Gkim.m  :  Die  Sage,  vom 
I'rsprunij  tier  Chrishtshiider,  Berlin,  IS-lPi;  L. 
(iiAicKSELiG  :  Chri.tlus-Arc/idologie,  Prague,  18(5:!; 
Mrs.  Jameson  and  Lady  Eastlake  :  T/n-  Histari/ 
of  our  Lord  as  exemplified  in  Works  of  Art  (illus- 
trated), London,  2d  edition,  1805. 

CHRISTIAN,  Origin  of  the  Name.  The  (".reek 
.fpioridwif  is  <i  tran.sliter.atiou  of  the  Latin  Vliristi- 
anu.i,  the  nickname  meaning  "  partisan  of  Christ," 
given  by  the  people  of  Antioch  to  the  believers 
in  the  new  religion  brought  there  bytho.se  driven 
from  .Jerusalem  by  the  persecution  after  Stephen's 
death  (.\cts  xi.  19,  26).  The  name  may  have 
been  given  in  ridicule,  for  the  Antiochians  were 
known  for  their  scurrilous  wit;  hut  the  time  had 
come  for  naming,  in  some  popular,  intelligible 
way,  those  who  were  in  religion  neither  Gentiles 
nor  Jews.  The  name  arose,  probably,  in  the 
mistake  that  Christ  was  a  proper  name ;  never- 
theless, it  was  tlie  fittest,  most  honorable,  possi- 
ble :  it  expressed  the  distinguishing  features  of 
the  Christian  religion.  It  is  a  Person,  not  a  sys- 
tem of  ethics  or  of  divinity ;  it  is  a  Life,  not  a 
thought;  it  is,  moreover,  Christ,  the  Messiah,  the 
Son  of  God,  whose  partisans  we  are,  not  Jesus, 
the  Son  of  man,  —  a  name  common  among  the 
.Tews.  And  it  is  striking,  that  whereas  "  Chris- 
tian "  is  a  term  of  respect  all  the  world  over, 
"Jesuit"  is  just  the  opposite,  even  in  Roman- 
Catholic  lands.  See  Conybeare  and  Howson's 
Life  of  Paid,  vol.  I.  chap.  4.  The  form  of  the 
word  is  suggestive.  (Bishop  Lightfoot  is  in 
the  minority  in  denying  the  Greek  form  of  this 
Latin  word.  See  his  Com.  on  Philippians,  p.  16, 
n.)  It  is  a  combination  of  the  two  widespread 
languages,  Greek  and  Latin,  reminding  us  that 
Christianity  desires  not  concealment,  but  pub- 
licity, and  prophesying  that  in  all  tongues  the 
name  of  Christ  shall  be  heard. 

CHRISTIAN  COMMISSION,  The  United  States, 
one  of  the  grandest  fruits  in  history  of  combined 
Christianity,  patriotism,  and  philanthropy.  It 
was  first  proposed  by  Mr.  Vincent  Colyer  of  New 
York,  in  a  letter  written  Aug.  22,  18G1,  to  his 
colleagues  of  the  New- York  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association  Committee,  and  originated  by  a 
call  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  of 
New  York  (Sept.  23,  1861)  upon  all  similar  asso- 
ciations in  the  North,  to  unite  in  a  convention  to 
consider  the  religious  needs  of  the  soldiers.  The 
idea  was  approved  by  the  National  Committee 
of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  who  alone  had  the 
authority  to  call  the  convention ;  and  on  Oct.  28 
an  official  call  was  issued,  and  the  convention  was 
accordingly  held  in  the  rooms  of  tlie  Young 
Men's  Cliristiau  .\ssociation  of  New-York  City  on 
Thursday  and  Frid.ay,  Nov.  M  and  15,  1801.  The 
result  of  their  deliberation  was  the  organization 
of  a  commission  of  twelve  to  take  charge  of  the 
wliole  work,  wliich  reported  to  the  Young  Men's 
C'liristian  Association  and  the  public,  collected 
money  and  contributions  of  various  kinds,  and 
kept  up  the  interest  in  the  movement.  The 
30  —  1 


amount  of  good  done  was  of  cour.se  incalculable. 

The  Sanitary  Commission  looked  after  the  bodies 
of  tlie  soldiers;  the  Christian  Commission,  after 
their  souls  ;  but  at  the  same  time  the  bodily  wants 
were  cared  for,  and  the  soldier's  comfort  was 
much  increased.  The  .soldiers  knew  there  were 
at  home  daily  prayers  on  their  behalf  ;  and  on 
the  very  battlefield  God  was  invoked  to  bless  the 
right.  The  evils  of  camp-life  were  ameliorated  ; 
the  wounded  were  tended,  and  given  spiritual 
comfort.  Into  a  Christian's  ear  the  dying  told 
his  seci'et,  or  gave  his  last  bequests.  An  aggres- 
sive work  for  Christ  was  carried  on  amid  all  the 
distractions  of  war.  Bible.s,  hymnals,  tracts,  re- 
ligions newspapers  and  books,  were  distributed, 
and  personal  work  was  done.  Two  special  works 
were  taken  up.  The  Commission  was  the  medium 
of  speedy  and  safe  communication  between  the 
soldiers  and  sailors  and  their  friends  at  home ; 
and,  besides,  it  circulated  "Loan-Libraries"  of 
general  literature  through  the  army.  The  money 
collected  for  this  cause  was,  in  the  aggregate, 
nearly  $2,750,000;  but  counting  in  the  gifts  of 
books,  etc.,  and  tlie  value  of  the  facilities  gratui- 
tously given,  the  official  Annals  of  the  United  States 
Christian  Commission  reckon  the  total  amount  as 
!3!0,291,107.68  (p.  729).  Of  course  these  figures 
do  not  tell  the  whole  story ;  but  they  show  how 
ready  the  Christian  public  was  to  give,  to  carry 
on  the  work  of  the  Commission.  The  final  meet- 
ing of  the  Christi.an  Commission  was  held  on 
.Sunday  evening,  Feb.  11,  1806,  in  the  hall  of 
the  House  of  Repi'esentatives,  Washington,  D.C. 
The  leading  men  in  this  movement  were  the  presi- 
dent, Mr.  George  H.  Stuart  of  Philadelphia,  and 
Dr.  Nathan  Bishop  of  New  York.  For  a  full 
and  very  interesting  account  of  the  grand  work, 
see  Lemuel  Moss:  Annals  of  the  U.  S.  Christian 
Commission.  Phila.,  1868. 

CHRISTIAN  CONNECTION,  or  CHRISTIANS 
(often  pronounced  Christ-yans).  The  denomin.a- 
tion  is  the  resultant  of  three  independent  sece.s- 
sion  movements.  The  first  was  in  1793,  in  North 
Carolina,  when  certain  seceders  from  the  Method- 
ist-Episcopal Church  called  themselves  "  Repub- 
lican Methodists,"  but,  influenced  chiefly  by  Rev. 
J.  O'Kelley,  adopted  the  name  of  "Christians." 
The  second  movement  was  in  Vermont,  in  180(1. 
among  the  Baptists;  and  a  church  was  organ- 
ized at  Lyndon.  The  third  movement  was  in 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  among  the  Presbyte- 
rians, in  1801  ;  and  the  Springfield  presbytery, 
which  proclaimed  the  principles  of  the  denomi- 
nation, was  formed  in  1804.  But  a  union  wa.s 
quickly  effected  between  these  different  organiza- 
tions, inasmuch  as  the  expulsive  force  was  found 
to  be  in  each  case  the  same,  —  the  desire  to  be  free 
from  the  "  bondage  of  creed."  But  although  the 
Bible  is  their  only  authoritative  rule  of  faith  ami 
practice,  yet  the  general  characteristics  of  their 
belief  may  be  determined.  They  are  antitrini- 
tarians,  yet  call  Christ  a  divine  Saviour,  and  ac- 
knowledge the  Holy  Spirit  to  be  the  power  and 
energy  of  God  ;  immersionists,  yet  open  coin- 
munionists  of  the  widest  kind,  extending  their 
fellowship  to  Christians  of  every  name.  In 
ecclesiastical  polity  they  are  congregational,  but 
have  annual  State  conferences,  and  quadrennial 
general  conventions.  At  first  their  ministry  was 
not  well  educated  ;  but  now  the  sect  has  several 


CHRISTIAN  UNION  CHURCHES.     450 


CHRISTMAS. 


institutions  of  learning,  innludincf  the  Christian 
Union  CoUecje  at  Merom,  Ind.  They  are  distrib- 
uted throughout  tlie  United  States  and  Canada. 
Their  menil>ership  in  the  United  States  is  about 
two  hundred  thousand.  See  the  general  histo- 
ries of  the  different  denominations  in  the  United 
States  by  Winebrenneu  (1844),  and  by  Bel- 
CHKit  (1855);  also  B.\ird  :  Religion  in  America 
(18.30). 

CHRISTIAN  UNION  CHURCHES  OF  THE 
WEST.  This  body  of  Christians  arose  in  the 
West  in  lS(i3-64:.  The  official  statement  of  their 
principles  is  as  follows :  1.  The  oneness  of  the 
Church ;  2.  Christ  the  only  head ;  3.  The  Bible 
the  only  rule  of  faith  and  practice  ;  4.  "  Good 
fruits"  the  only  condition  of  membership;  5.  The 
repudiation  of  controversy  ;  6.  Each  local  church 
self-governed;  7.  No  partisan  politics  preached. 
They  have  no  creed ;  but  they  unite  cordially 
with  organized  Christian  churches  in  supporting 
such  institutions  as  the  American  Bible  and  the 
American  Tract  Society ;  and  their  pulpits  are 
open  to  all  denominations  which  they  recognize 
as  sound.  The  body  holds  a  general  council  every 
four  years,  and  each  State  a  separate  yearly  coun- 
cil. They  claim  to  number  about  a  hundred 
thousand  members.  It  seems  to  be  a  purely 
ephemeral  movement.  See  art.  in  supplemen- 
tary volume  to  Appleton's  Cydupcedia,  pp.  803, 
804. 

CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  JOHN.  Some  Carmel- 
ite missionaries  laboring  in  the  regions  of  Basrah 
and  Susa,  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, met  there  with  a  body  of  Christians  who 
called  themselves  Nazarieans  or  Mend?eans,  but 
by  the  Mohammedans  were  called  Sabinians. 
They  pretended  to  be  the  descendants  of  the  dis- 
ciples of  John  the  Baptist,  and  to  have  been 
driven  away  from  the  regions  of  the  .Jordan  by 
the  Mohammedans  ;  hence  their  name,  "  Chris- 
tians of  St.  John,"  given  to  them  by  the  mis- 
sionaries. Their  holy  books  are  written  in  an 
Aram^an  dialect.  One  of  them  has  been  pub- 
lished, with  a  Latin  translation,  Codex  Nazareus, 
by  Matth.  Norberg,  London,  1S15-1C,  3  vols.  See 
Ignatius  a  Jesu  :  Narratio  Orif/inis,  llittmm,  el 
Errorium   Clirixdniiorum  S.  Jnhannix,  Home,  l(i")2. 

CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  THOMAS,  or,  as  they 
call  themselves,  T/ie  Syrian  Cliurck  of  Malar/ala; 
a  Christian  sect  living  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  Malabar  coast  of  India  ;  pretend  to  be  the 
descendants  of  the  converts  of  the  apostle  Thomas 
on  his  visit  to  India,  but  originated,  probablv, 
from  some  early  Nestorian  colony.  In  the  sixth 
century  they  were  in  regular  communication  with 
the  Nestorian  Church  of  Western  Asia;  and, 
though  tliis  connection  was  afterwards  <listurbed, 
their  whole  tradition  rests  on  a  Nestorian  basis. 
Wn.-n  the  l'.)rtuguese  readied  India,  they  found 
the  eliurch,  numl>ering  about  sixteen  tliousand 
families,  in  a  very  poor  condition,  and  under 
their  protectorate  its  very  independence  and 
natural  character  were  threatened.  In  159.")  tlie 
Archbishop  of  Goa  brought  it  in  connection 
with  Home.  The  .lesuits  came,  and  the  conver- 
sion began;  but  in  l(i.'>3  most  of  the  converts 
again  broke  off  from  tlie  llonian  Church,  and  at 
presi'ut  one-half,  comprising  about  ninety-seven 
churi-lies,  follow  their  old  Syri.in  riles,  while 
the  rest  confoniis  to  the  Church  of    Uoiiie.      I'hu 


language  of  the  liturgy  is  not  the  Malabar,  but 
the  Syriac.  See  AV.  Geumann  :  Die  Kirche  cler 
Thomaschristen,  Gutersloh,  1877. 

CHRISTMAS,  a  Christian  festival  celebrated 
on  Dec.  25,  in  memory  of  the  l)irth  of  Jesus 
Christ.  The  English  name  Christinas,  like  the 
Dutch  Kersimisse.  or  Kerf7nis,  is  formed  analogous 
to  such  names  as  Candlemas,  Michaelmas,  etc. 
In  the  Romanic  languages  the  name  is  derived 
from  the  Latin  Natalis,  Natnlilia,  or  Nalivilas, 
Italian  Natal,  Spanish  Nadal,  or  Aalividail. 
French  Noel.  The  German  Weihnacht  is  a  literal 
translation  of  the  Hebrew  Cliaind-a.  the  name  of 
the  Jewish  festival  of  the  dedication  or  purifica- 
tion of  the  temple  by  Judas  Maccaba-us.  The 
Scandinavian  Juul,  and  the  Anglo-Saxon  Geol, 
mean  "  wheel,"  and  refer  to  the  winter  solstice. 

When  the  festival  of  Christmas  is  fir-st  spoken 
of  in  the  ancient  Church  (Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria :  Stromala,  lib.  I.,  cap.  21).  it  was  celebrated 
by  the  Eastern  Church  on  Jan.  tJ,  under  the  name 
of  Epiphania,  and  by  the  Western  Church  on 
Dec.  2.5,  under  the  name  of  Akitali.i.  This  dis- 
crepancy is  easily  accounted  for,  however,  by  the 
circumstance  that  the  gospel  gives  no  date  of 
Christ's  birth,  but  simply  tells  that  it  took  place 
during  night.  But  the  date  of  the  Epiphania  is 
arbitrary,  so  far  as  it  rests  upon  an  inference  of 
merely  allegorical  import,  —  the  first  Adam  was 
born  on  the  sixth  day :  consequently  the  second 
Adam  ought  also  to  be  born  on  a  sixth  day.  — 
and  the  festival  itself  had  something  allegorical 
in  its  character.  It  was  celebrated,  not  so  much 
in  memory  of  the  actual  birth  of  Christ,  as  in 
memory  of  the  first  manifestation  of  the  divinity 
of  Christ ;  the  name  E/>lpliania  being  the  word 
commonly  used  in  the  Greek  language  to  denote 
the  manifestation  of  a  god  in  human  sha]ie.  Later 
on,  however,  from  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
century,  when  the  restless  searchings  of  the  nature 
and  person  of  Christ  drave  men's  mind  into  many 
singular  errors,  the  Eastern  Church  began  to  feel 
the  importance  of  emphasizing  the  actual  birth 
of  Christ  by  a  separate  festival  distinct  from  the 
Ejiiphania,  with  its  somewhat  v.ague  historical 
bearing;  and  from  a  sermon  of  Chry.sostom,  de- 
livered, it  is  believed,  on  Christmas  Day,  380,  it 
appears  that  the  Nalalis  of  the  \\'estern  Church 
was  rapidly  though  gradually  adopted  tlirougliout 
the  East. 

What  foundation  tliere  originally  w.as  for  the 
Roman  date  of  Dec.  25  is  difficult  to  decide.  On 
account  of  this  date,  some  coniuM^l  the  Christian 
festival  of  Christmas  with  the  above-mentioned 
Jewish  feast,  Clianidd ;  and  many  features  seem 
tosjieak  for  such  a  relation  between  thi'ni.  Others 
connect  it  witli  the  Sitlurnaliii,  or  Jinimdlia,  or 
some,  other  Pagan  Ucunaii  feast;  and  here,  too.  the 
single  features  are  often  strikingly  re.semblant. 
Others,  again  (Lightfoot,  Jablonsliy,  Munter), 
inveigh  against  tlie  date  as  arbitrary,  and  not  in 
harmony  with  the  gos]iel  narrative,  etc.  Never- 
theless th(^  fact  remains,  that  the  wliole  Western 
Church  unanimously  agree<l  upon  liiis  date,  and 
that  the  Ivistern  Cliurch  adojited  it  without  nuich 
contr.adiction  ;  whicli  fact  goes  far  to  show  tliat 
the  date  cannot  well  havi!  been  a  mere  assump- 
tion, but  must  liave  liad  some  kind  of  tradition 
to  support  it. 

The  dale  once  fixed,  Christmas  gradually  be- 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


451 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


came  one  of  the  three  great  annual  festivals  of 
the  CImvcli.  The  whole  period  from  Nativity 
to  EpiphiUiy  was  consecrated,  —  Dec.  '2(j  as  a  me- 
morial of  the  martyr  Stephen;  Dec.  27,  of  St. 
John  ;  Dec.  28,  of  the  Massacre  of  the  Innocents, 
etc.  The  four  Sundays  preceding  Christnias  were 
incorporated  with  the  cycle,  under  the  title  of 
Advent,  as  a  preparation  for  the  festival.  The 
day  itself  was  celebrated  by  three  masses, — one 
in  the  night,  one  at  daybreak,  and  one  in  the 
morning;  and  the  costliest  utensils  and  furni- 
ture were  used.  During  the  middle  ages  the 
celebration  assumed,  in  accordance  with  the  taste 
of  the  time,  quite  a  theatrical  aspect.  The  man- 
ger was  shown,  with  the  Virgin  sitting  beside  it, 
surrounded  with  chanting  angels.  The  wi.se 
men,  the  shepherds,  Joseph,  etc.,  were  also  rep- 
resented ;  and  a  complete  Mystery  was  formed. 
As  a  remnant  of  this  symbolical  representation 
of  biblical  events  which  formerly  found  so  much 
favor  both  with  the  piiests  and  with  their  flocks, 
it  may  be  mentioned,  that,  in  the  third  decade  of 
the  present  century,  the  custom  was  still  kept  up 
of  rocking  a  doll,  in  a  cradle  adorned  with  lights, 
on  the  top  of  the  spire  of  the  Cathedral  of  Tii- 
bingen  at  twelve  o'clock  Christmas  night,  while 
a  band  of  wind  instruments  blew  the  Hymn  of 
the  Nativity. 

No  other  Christian  festival  penetrated  so  deeply 
into  the  household  as  Christmas,  probably  be- 
cause its  character  is  essentially  joy.  Such  as  it 
appears  in  the  household,  however,  many  features 
indicate  that  there  were  non-Christian  elements 
present  in  its  origin.  The  use  of  lighted  tapers 
reminds  forcibly  of  the  Jewish  festival  of  jiuri- 
fication.  The  giving  of  presents  was  a  Roman 
custom.  The  Yule-tree  and  the  Yule-log  are  rem- 
nants of  old  Teutonic  nature-worship.  In  the 
household,  also,  the  festival  gradually  sank  down 
into  a  mere  revelry.  In  England  an  abbot  of 
misrule  was  chosen  in  every  large  household  ;  in 
Scotland,  an  abbot  of  unreason  ;  and  during  the 
term  of  the  festival  he  was  the  master  of  the 
house.  By  an  act  of  Parliament  this  custom  was 
forbidden  in  15.35;  and  in  England,  as  everj'- 
where,  the  Reformation  brought  in  a  kind  of 
refinement  in  the  celebration  of  Christmas  by 
emphasizing  its  Christian  elements,  and  exclud- 
ing every  feature  which  had  not,  or  could  not  be 
given,  a  religious  character.  Under  the  influence 
of  evangelical  Christianity,  Christmas  has  be- 
come a  children's  feast,  and  the  Roman-Catholic 
Church  has  followed  the  example.  The  dissent- 
ers of  the  Church  of  England,  taking  offence 
at  the  coarse  and  un-Christian  character  which 
the  festival  had  retained  from  the  middle  ages, 
abolished  it  altogether;  but  of  late  years  the 
celebration  of  Christmas  in  some  form  or  other 
has  become  well-nigh  universal  in  England  and 
America.  See  Paul  Cassel:  Wcihmichten-Ur- 
uprunr/,  Braiiche  und  Aherglauhen,  Berlin,  1861; 
Chambers:  Book  of  Ikii/s,  Edinburgh,  1864; 
Marbach  :  Die  heilige  Weihnachtszeit,  Frankfort, 
1365. 

CHRISTOLOGY  {TipiaToXoyia,  from  Xpwrrof  and 
f-oyoi,  as    "theology"  is  from   iJrof  and  Aoj'of).! 


'  Tlic  length  of  this  article  nriees  from  the  fact  that  it  is  a 
complete  tllou£;h  condensed  liisturical  summary  of  all  the 
c<ttiiicctc'd  topics;  such  as  Apolliimriaiiisiu,  Kutychianism, 
Xcsturianism,    Cbalcedoii,    Muuoptiysitism,    MonothclutisDl, 


It  embraces  the  doctrine  of  Christ's  person  ;  while 
soteriology  is  the  doctrine  of  Christ's  n'orl\  or 
the  doctrine  of  salvation.  Some  writers  include 
both  the  person  and  work  under  the  term ;  but 
we  confine  it  here  to  the  former,  although  we 
ailmit,  of  course,  the  iiise|)arable  connection. 
The  word  was  used  by  the  English  divines  in 
the  seventeenth  century,-  and  has  recently  been 
re-introduced  from  Germany.  Christology  is 
based  upon  the  life  and  testimony  of  Christ,  as 
represented  historically  in  tLe  uospels,  and  as 
reflected  doctrinally  and  experimentally  in  the 
Acts  and  E])istles.  It  tre' 6S  of  the  mystery  of 
the  incarnation  (in  the  wider  sense  of  the  term), 

(1)  the  humanity,  (2)  the  divinity,  of  our  Lord, 
and  (3)  their  relation  to  each  other  in  his  one 
person.  This  divine-human  personality  forms 
the  basis  of  his  work,  which  is  the  redemption, 
reconciliation,  and  re-union  of  men  with  God. 
It  is  the  central  doctrine  of  Christianity  (pre- 
ceded by  theology  and  anthropology,  and  followed 
by  pneumatology,  soteriology,  ecclesiology,  and 
eschatology).  It  was  the  one  article  of  St. 
Peter's  creed,  and  it  forms  the  heart  of  the  Apos- 
tles' Creed.  The  leading  evangelical  divines  of 
Europe  and  America  come  to  agree  more  and 
more  in  this  estimate  of  its  importance;  and 
the  ever-increasing  number  of  Lives  of  Christ 
strengthens  the  christocentric  character  of  mod- 
ern theology.  Yet  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
emphasize  the  incarnation  at  the  expense  of  the 
equally  important  doctrines  of  the  atonement  by 
Christ's  death,  and  the  regeneration  by  the  Holy 
Spirit. 

I.  The  Biblical  Christology  embraces,  (1) 
The  Messianic  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament; 

(2)  The  christology  of  the  New  Testament,  (a) 
The  testimony  of  Christ  in  the  Gospels ;  (i)  The 
christology  of  the  apostles,  —  (aa)  of  James,  (bb) 
of  Peter,  (tr)  of  Paul  (including  that  of  the  au- 
thor of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews),  (</</)  of  John 
(including  the  Apocalypse).  Christ  is  the  heart 
of  the  Scripture,  and  the  key  to  its  spiritual  un- 
derstanding. All  revelations  of  God  look  to  him 
as  the  final  revelation. 

(1)  The  Old  Testament  is  the  preparation  for 
the  New.  The  soul  of  the  Old  Testament  is  the 
promise  of  the  Messiah,  wliich  began  in  Paradise 
with  the  protevangelium  of  the  serpent-bruiser, 
and  culminated  in  the  testimony  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist, pointing  to  Jesus  of  Nazareth  as  the  Lamb 
of  God,  which  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world. 
See  Messiah  and  BIessiaxic  Prophecies,  and 
the  literature  quoted  there. 


Coramunicatio  idiomatuin,  Kenosis,  Kcnoticists,  etc.  The 
author  has  made  some  use  (by  permission)  of  his  own  articles 
in  McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyclop. ^  III.  277--S5,  and  Smith 
and  Wace's  Dictionary  of  Cttristian  Biography,  I.  489-495, 
and  of  the  third  volume  of  his  own  Chm-ch  IHntory  ;  but  tlie 
whole  is  reconstructed,  adapted,  and  virtually  a  new  article, 
especially  the  exposition  of  the  modern  theoiies. 

'  Dr.  Thomas  .Jackson  (1595-1640)  defined  it  correctly  as 
'*  that  part  of  divinity  which  displays  the  great  mystery  of 
godliness,  —  God  manifested  in  the  human  tiesh."  .Tohn  Owen 
used  the  terra  ;  and  Robert  Fleming,  jun.,  a  Scotch  divine  (d. 
1716) ,  wrote  a  Christology,  in  3  vols.,^  London,  1705-1708.  Some 
French  writers  also  use  "it;  although  they  have  not  paid  much 
attention  to  the  doctrine,  notwithstanding  the  sensation  of 
Renan's  Life  of  Jvfum.  Lichtenberger  (A'ncyc/.,  III.  129)  cor- 
rectly defines  it :  "  On  comprend  sous  ce  nom  "  [ChristologieJ 
"  I'ensemble  des  doctrines  toucbant  la  personne  de  Jesus-Christ 
dans  ses  rapports  avec  Dieu  et  avec  i'bumanit^,  telles  qu'ellcs 
sont  contcnues  dans  le  Noiiv.  Test,  et  telles  qu'eiles  ont  et6 
developpccs  dans  le  cours  des  siccles,  au  stin  de  rEglise  chre. 
tieune." 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


452 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


(2)  It  is  the  unanimous  teaching  of  the  New- 
Testament  writings,  that  Christ  combines  in  a 
most  real,  thougii  mysterious  way,  tlie  double 
character  of  a  unique  divine  sonship  and  a  unique 
sinless  manhood  in  one  harmonious  personality ; 
and  that  by  this  very  constitution  of  his  person 
lie  is  qualified  to  be  the  Lord  and  Saviour  of  the 
human  race,  and  the  only  Mediator  between  God 
and  man.  He  represents  at  once  the  nearest 
approach  which  God  can  make  to  man,  and  the 
nearest  approach  which  nuxn  can  make  to  God. 
The  orthodox  christology  is  an  attempt  to  formu- 
late this  "  mystery  of  godliness,"  and  to  guard 
it  against  error ;  but  every  age  must  grapple 
anew  with  this  problem  of  problems,  and  make 
it  alive,  and  fruitful  for  its  own  intellectual  and 
spiritual  benefit. 

Christ  strongly  asserts  his  humanity,  and  calls 
himself  about  eighty  times  in  the  Gospels  Ihe  Son 
of  man;  not  a  son  of  man  among  other  descend- 
ants of  Adam,  but  (lie  Son  of  man  emphatically; 
as  the  representative  of  the  whole  race;  as  the  sec- 
ond Adam,  descended  from  heaven  (comp.  Rom. 
V.  and  1  Cor.  xv.) ;  as  the  ideal,  the  perfect, 
the  absolute  man,  the  head  of  a  new-  race,  the 
King  of  Jews  and  Gentiles,  the  model  man  for 
universal  imitation.  While  putting  himself  on 
a,  par  with  us  as  man,  he  claims  at  the  same  time, 
as  the  Son  of  man,  superiority  over  all,  and  free- 
dom from  sin,  and  thus  stands  solitary  and  alone 
as  the  one  and  only  spotless  human  being  in  the 
midst  of  a  fallen  race,  as  an  oasis  of  living  water 
and  fresh  verdure,  surrounded  by  a  barren  desert 
of  sand  and  stone.  lie  never  fell  out  of  harmony 
with  God  and  with  himself:  he  alone  needed  no 
repentance,  no  conversion,  no  regeneration,  no 
pardon.  This  sinle.ssness  of  Christ  is  the  great 
moral  miracle  of  history  which  underlies  all  his 
miraculous  works,  and  explains  tliem  as  natural 
manifestations  of  his  mir.aculous  person. 

On  the  otiier  hand,  Christ  as  emphatically  as- 
serts his  divinity,  and  calls  himself  not  simply  a 
.son  of  God  among  other  chihlren  of  (iod  by  adop- 
tion, but  the  Son  of  God  above  all  others,  in  a 
peculiar  sense;  the  .Son  by  nature;  the  Son  from 
eternity;  the  Son  who  alone  knows  the  Father, 
■who  reveals  the  Father  to  us,  who  calls  him,  not 
"our"  Father  (as  we  are  directed  to  pray),  but 
"my"  Fatlier.  He  is,  as  liis  favorite  disciple 
calls  him,  the  "only-begotten  Son"  (according 
to  some  of  the  oldest  manuscripts,  "the  only-be- 
gotten God,"  i9f6f) ;  or,  as  the  Nieene  tlieology 
expresses  it,  "eternally  begotten  of  the  essence 
(oiiaia)  of  tlie  Father."  lie  is  thus  represented 
to  us  by  himself  and  his  disciples  as  ,a  divine- 
liuman  being,  truly  (iod  and  truly  man  in  one 
person ;  and  his  words  and  acts  and  sufferings 
have  a  corresponding  character  and  elTect.  Hence 
lie  |iuts  forth  claims  which  in  the  mouth  of 
every  other  man,  no  matter  how  wise  and  how 
pooii,  would  sound  like  blasphemy  or  lunacy,  but 
which  from  his  lips  ai)pear  as  natural  as  the  rays 
of  light  emanaling  from  the  sun,  and  which 
commanil  the.  njspect  even  of  unbeli<'vers,  so  far 
as  to  jirevent  any  charge  of  pride  and  presump- 
tion, lie  re.pres<'nt.s  himself  constantly  as  being 
sent  from  God,  or  as  liaving  come  directly  from 
(iod,  to  teach  this  worhl  wliat  he  liad  not  learned 
from  .any  school  or  any  book.  He  calls  himself 
the  Light  of    the   world,    the   Way,   the  Truth, 


and  the  Life;  he  invites  all  men  to  come  to  him, 
that  they  ni.ay  find  rest  and  peace;  he  claims  the 
power  to  forgive  sins,  and  to  raise  the  dead  ;  he 
says,  "  I  am  the  Resurrection  and  the  Life,"  and 
promises  eternal  life  to  every  one  that  believeth 
in  him.  Even  in  the  moment  of  his  deepest 
humiliation,  he  proclaimed  himself  the  King  of 
truth,  and  the  Ruler  and  Judge  of  mankind. 
His  kingdom  is  to  be  co-extensive  with  the  race, 
and  everlasting  as  eternity  itself.  And  with  this 
consciousness  he  sent  forth  his  disciples  to  pro- 
claim the  gospel  of  salvation  to  every  creature, 
forewarning  them  of  persecution  and  martyrdom, 
and  promising  no  reward  in  this  life,  but  pledg- 
ing them  his  presence  to  the  end  of  the  world, 
and  a  crown  of  glory  in  heaven.  He  co-ordi- 
nates himself  in  the  baptismal  formula  with  the 
eternal  Father  and  the  eternal  Spirit,  .and  allows 
himself  to  be  worshipped  by  the  sceptical  Thonuas 
as  his  "  Lord "'  and  his  "  God." 

This  central  truth  of  Christ's  divine-liuman 
person  and  work  is  set  forth  in  the  New-Testa- 
ment writings,  not  as  a  logically-fornmlated 
dogma,  but  as  a  living  fact  and  glorious  truth, 
as  an  object  of  faith,  a  .source  of  comfort,  and  a 
stimulus  to  a  holy  life,  in  humble  imitation  of  his 
perfect  example.  This  is  sufticient  for  all  practi- 
cal purposes.  The  simple  narative  of  the  Gos- 
pels is  far  more  powerful  for  the  general  benefit 
of  mankind  than  all  the  systems  of  theology. 
But  the  mind  of  the  Church  must  meditate,  and 
try  to  grasp  this  truth ;  and  the  New  Testament 
itself  furnishes  ever  new  impulse  and  food  for 
theological  speculation.  The  beginning  of  a 
christology  we  find  already  in  Paul  and  John. 

Lit.  • —  See  the  works  on  the  'Thcologi/  of  the 
New  Testament,  by  Sciimid,  B.\uu,  Van  ()ostei{- 
ZEE,  Reuss,  Weiss.  Ullmann's  Sinlcssness  of 
Christ;  Schavf's  Person  of  Christ ;  Busiinell'.s 
God  in  Christ,  and  Moral  Character  of  Christ; 
Gess  :  Christi  I'eison  itnd  Werk  nach  Chrisli 
Selbstzeiiijniss  tuid  den  Zeurjnissen  der  Apostel, 
2d  ed.,  1870-1870  ;  Nosgen  :  Christiis  der 
Menschen-  und  Gottcssohn  ;  Beysciilag:  Christulo- 
i/ie  des  N.  Test.,  ISOG  ;  Van  Oostekzee  :  The 
Ima//e  of  Christ  as  presented  in  Scripture,  trans- 
lated by  JL  J.  Evans,  Loud.,  1874;  R.  RorilE  : 
rJoi/mal'ik;  1,87(1,  vol.  II.  81  sqq.;  Douner:  Christi. 
GlaubcnsU-hre,  ISSO,  vol.  H.  2.'J7  sqq.  Dr.  Dorner 
sums  up  the  New-Testament  teaching  concerning 
Christ  in  the  thesis :  "  In  Christ  has  appeared  the 
perfect  revelation  of  God,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  perfection  of  humanity." 

11.  The  Ante-Nicenk  Christology  (from 
A.I).  100  to  the  Council  of  Nicoca,  325).  The 
ecclesiastical  development  of  this  fundamental 
dogma  started  from  I'eter's  confession  of  the 
Messiahshiii  of  Jesus  (Matt.  xvi.  18),  and  from 
John's  doctrine  of  the  incarnate  Logos  (John 
i,  11).  It  was  stimulated  by  two  opiiosite  here- 
sies,—  EiiioNisiM  and  (iNosTicisM;  the  one  essen- 
tially .lewish.  the  other  essentially  heathen;  the 
one  attirining  the  liumanity  of  Christ  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  his  divinity,  the  other  running  into  the 
opposite  error  by  resolving  his  humanity  into  a 
delusive  show  (A""?"!;,  fiivranua)  ;  both  .agreeing 
in  the  denial  of  the  incarnation,  or  the  real  and 
abiding  union  of  the  divine  and  human  in  the 
person  of  our  Lonl. 

Besides,  there  arose   in    tlio  second  .and  third 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


453 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


centuries  two  forms  of   Unkarianism  or  Monarchi- 
anism. 

(1)  The  Rationalistic  or  Dynamic  Unitari- 
anisiii  —  represented  by  the  Alogiaxs,  Tiikodo- 
rus,  AuTEMOx,  anil  Paul  of  Samosata  —  either 
denied  the  divinity  of  Christ  altogetlier,  or  re- 
solved it  into  a  mere  power  (ilwa/jir),  altliough 
they  generally  admitted  his  suiiernatiiral  genera- 
tion by  tlie  Holy  Spirit. 

(2)  The  Patripassian  and  Sahelliax  Unita- 
rianisni  maintained  the  divinity  of  Christ,  but 
merged  it  into  the  essence  of  the  Father,  and  so 
denied  the  independent,  pre-existent  personality 
of  Christ.  So  Puaxeas,  NoiiTus,  Callistus 
(Pope  Calixlus  I.),  Ueryllus  of  Bostra,  and 
Sabellius. 

In  antagonism  with  these  heresies,  the  Church 
taught  the  full  divinity  of  Christ  {versus  Ebinn- 
ism  and  rationalistic  Monarchianisin),  his  full 
humanity  {versus  Gnosticism  and  Mauichjeism), 
and  his  independent  personality  {versus  Patri- 
passianisni  and  Sabellianism).  The  dogma  was 
developed  in  close  connection  with  the  dogma  of 
the  Trinity,  which  resulted,  by  logical  necessity, 
from  the  deity  of  Christ  and  the  deity  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  on  the  basis  of  the  fundamental  truth 
of  Monotheism. 

The  ante-Nicene  Christology  passed  through 
many  obstructions,  loose  statements,  uncertain 
conjectures  and  speculations;  but  tlie  instinct 
and  main  current  of  the  Churcli  was  steadily 
towards  the  Nicene  and  Chalcedonian  creed- 
statements,  especially  if  we  look  to  tlie  worship 
and  devotional  lite  as  well  as  to  theological  litera- 
ture. Christ  was  the  object  of  worship,  prayer, 
and  praise  (which  implies  his  deity)  from  the 
very  beginning,  as  we  must  infer  from  several 
passages  of  the  New  Testament  (John  xx.  28; 
Acts  vii.  50,  60,  ix.  14,  21 ;  1  Cor.  i.  2  ;  Phil.  ii. 
10;  Heb.  i.  C  ;  1  John  v.  13-15;  Rev.  v.  0-13), 
from  the  heathen  testimony  of  Pliny  the  Younger 
concerning  the  singing  of  hymns  to  Christ  as 
God  ('•  Carmen  Chrislo  quasi  Deo  dicere,"  Ep.  x. 
97),  from  the  "Gloria  in  Excelsis,"  which  was 
the  daily  morning  hymn  of  the  Eastern  Church 
as  early  as  the  second  century,  from  the  "  Ter- 
sanctus,"  from  the  Hymn  of  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria to  the  divine  Logos  {Pwdarj.  HI.  12),  from 
the  statements  of  Origen  {Contra  Cels.  VIH.  07), 
Eusebius  {Hist.  Eccl.  V.  28),  and  many  other  tes- 
timonies. Christ  was  believed  to  be  divine,  and 
adoreil  as  divine,  before  he  was  clearly  taught  to 
be  divine.  Life  preceded  theology  {•'  Fides  jirce- 
ccdil  inlellectum").  Many  a  martyr  in  those  daj's 
of  persecution  died  for  his  faith  in  the  divinity 
of  our  Lord,  with  very  imperfect  knowledge  of 
this  doctrine.  It  is  unfair  to  make  the  Church 
responsible  for  the  speculative  crudities,  the 
experimental  and  tentative  statements,  of  some 
ante-Nicene  fathers,  who  believed  more  than  they 
could  clearly  express  in  words.  In  the  first 
efforts  of  the  human  mind  to  grapple  with  so 
great  a  mystery,  we  must  expect  many  mistakes 
and  inaccuracies.  The  ante-Nicene  rules  of 
faith  as  we  find  them  in  the  writings  of  Irengeus, 
Origen,  TertuUian,  Cyprian,  etc.,  are  essentially 
agreed  among  themselves  and  with  the  Apostles' 
Creed,  so  called,  as  it  appears,  first  in  the  fourth 
century,  especially  at  Rome  and  Aquileia.  (See 
RuKiNus,  De  Symbolo.)       They  all  confess   the 


divine-human  character  of  Christ  as  the  chief 
object  of  the  Cliristian  faith,  but  in  the  form 
of  facts,  and  in  simple,  popular  style,  not  in  the 
form  of  doctrinal  or  logical  statninent.  The 
Nicene  Creed  is  inucli  more  exjilicit  ami  dogmat- 
ic in  consequence  of  the  preceding  contest  with 
heresy;  but  the  substance  of  the  faith  is  the 
same  in  the  Nicene  and  Apostles'  Creeds.  See 
these  ante-Nicene  Rules  of  Faith  in  Sciiaff, 
Creeds  of  Christendom,  vol.  II.  11-4.'). 

In  the  Apostolic  Fathers  we  find  only  simple 
practical,  biblical  statements,  and  reminiscences 
of  apostolic  j)reachiiig  for  the  pnri'oses  of  edifica- 
tion. Ignatius  of  Antioch  does  not  hesitate  to 
call  Christ  God  without  qualification  {Ad  Ephes. 
c.  18;  6  yap  Qtb^  iifxtov  'lijoov^  o  Xp.,  c.  7;  iv  napKi 
ynio^cvor  Ofof,  comp.  Ad.  Rom.  c.  0).  Polycarp 
calls  him  "  the  eternal  Son  of  (Jod"  {Ail.  I'hil.  c. 
2,  8),  and  as.sociates  him  in  his  last  prayer  with 
the  Father  and  the  Spirit  {.Vlurl/jr.  t'oli/c.  c.  14). 

The  theological  speculation  on  the  person  of 
Christ  began  with  Justin  Martyr,  and  was  carried 
on  by  Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Origen.  in  the 
East;  by  Irensus,  Ilippolytus,  and  TertuUian,  in 
the  West. 

Justin  Martyu  (d.  100)  takes  up  the  Johan- 
nean  Logos  idea,  which  proved  a  very  fruitful 
germ  of  theological  speculation.  It  was  prepared 
by  the  Old-Testament  personification  of  the  word 
and  wisdom  of  God,  assumed  an  idealistic  shape 
in  Philo  of  Alexandria,  and  reached  a  realistic 
completion  in  St.  John.  Following  tlie  siigge.s- 
tion  of  the  double  meaning  of  the  Greek  Aojof 
{ratio  and  oratio),  Justin  distinguislies  in  the 
Logos  two  elements,  —  the  immanent  and  the 
transitive;  the  revelation  of  God  ad  intra,  and 
the  revelation  ad  extra.  He  teaches  tlie  procession 
of  the  Logos  from  the  free  will  (not  the  essence) 
of  God  by  generation,  without  division  or  dimi- 
nution of  the  divine  substance.  This  begotten 
Logos  he  conceives  as  a  hypiostatical  being,  a 
person  distinct  from  the  Father,  and  subordinate 
to  him.  He  co-ordinates  God,  the  Son,  and  the 
prophetic  Spirit,  as  objects  of  Christian  worship 
{aefiofietia  nal  -pnoKVinv/jiti,  Apol.  I.  6).  Peculiar  is 
his  doctrine  of  the  Myog  aTTipfiariKor:,  the  seminal 
Logos,  or  the  Word  disseminated  among  men, 
i.e.,  Christ  before  the  incarnation,  who  scattered 
elements  of  truth  and  virtue  among  the  heathen 
philosophers  and  poets,  although  they  did  not 
know  it. 

Cle.mext  of  Alkxaxdiua  (d.  220)  sees  in  the 
Logos  the  ultimate  iirinciple  of  all  existence 
(without  beginning,  and  timeless),  the  revealer 
of  the  Father,  the  sum  of  all  intelligence  and 
wisdom,  the  personal  truth,  the  author  of  the 
world,  the  source  of  light  and  life,  the  educator 
of  the  race,  who  at  last  became  man  to  make  us 
partakers  of  his  divine  nature.  Like  some  other 
ante-Nicene  fathers  (Justin  Martyr,  TertuUian, 
and  Origen),  he  conceived  the  outward  appear- 
ance of  Christ's  humanity  in  the  state  of  humilia- 
tion to  have  been  literally  without  form  or 
comeliness  (Isa.  liii.  2,  3) ;  but  he  made  a  distinc- 
tion between  two  kinds  of  beauty,  —  the  outward 
beauty  of  the  flesh,  which  soon  fades  away ;  and 
the  moral  beauty  of  the  soul,  which  is  perma- 
nent, and  shone  even  through  the  servant  form 
of  our  Lord  {Pad.  IIL  c.  1). 

Origen  (d.  254)  felt  the  wliole  weight  of  the 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


454 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


christolosjical  problem,  hut  obscured  it  by  foreicm 
speculations,  and  prepared  the  way,  both  for  the 
Arian  heresy  and  the  Athanasian  orthodoxy, 
thougli  more  fully  for  the  latter.  On  the  one 
hand  he  closely  approaches  the  Nicene  Homo- 
ousion  by  bringing  tlie  Son  into  union  with 
the  essence  of  the  Father,  and  ascribing  to  him 
the  attribute  of  eternity.  He  is,  properly,  the 
author  of  the  !>vicene  doctrine  of  eternal  genera- 
tion of  the  Son  from  the  essence  of  the  Father 
(though  he  usually  represents  the  generation  as 
an  act  of  the  irill  of  the  Father).  But  on  the 
other  hand  he  teaches  subordinationism  by  call- 
ing the  Son  simply  God  (Sfof),  and  a  second  God 
(devTcpo^  Qi6(),  but  not  the  God  (J>  6t6f,  or  niro- 
Qfof).  In  his  views  on  the  humanity  of  Christ, 
he  approached  the  senii-linostic  doketism,  and 
ascribed  to  the  glorified  body  of  Christ  ubiquity 
(in  which  he  was  followed  by  Gregory  of  Nyssa). 
His  enemies  charged  him  with  teaching  a  double 
Christ  (answering  to  the  lower  Jesus,  and  the 
higher  Soter  of  the  Gnostics),  and  a  merely  tem- 
porary validity  of  the  body  of  the  Redeemer. 
As  to  the  relation  of  the  two  natures  in  Christ, 
he  was  the  first  to  use  the  term  "  (iod-man " 
(Qci'ivDpuTrni'),  and  to  apply  the  favorite  illustra- 
tion of  fire  heating  and  penetrating  the  iron, 
without  altering  its  character. 

The  Western  Churcli  was  not  so  fruitful  in 
speculation,  but,  upon  the  whole,  sounder  and 
more  self-consistent.  The  keynote  was  struck  by 
Irenasus  (d.  202),  who,  tliongh  of  Eastern  origin, 
spent  his  active  life  in  the  south  of  Fr.ance.  He 
carries  special  weight  as  a  pupil  of  Polycarp  of 
Smyrna,  and  through  him  a  grand-pupil  of  St. 
John,  the  inspired  master (6  flroXoyof).  He  likewise 
uses  tlie  terms  "  Logos  "  and  "  Son  of  God  "  in- 
terchangeably, and  concedes  the  distinction,  made 
also  by  the  Valentinians,  between  the  imcnnl 
and  the  ittlereit  word,  in  reference  to  man,  but 
conU'sts  the  application  of  it  to  God,  who  is 
above  all  antitheses,  absolutely  simple  and  un- 
changeable, and  in  whom  before  and  after,  think- 
ing and  speaking,  coincide.  He  repudiates  also 
speculative  or  a  priori  attempts  to  explain  the 
derivation  of  the  Son  from  the  Father.  This  he 
liolds  to  lie  an  incomprehensilile  mystery.  He  is 
content  to  define  the  actual  distinction  between 
Fatlier  and  Son  by  saying  that  the  former  is  God 
revealing  himself;  the  latter,  God  revealed.  The 
one  is  the  ground  of  revelation  :  the  other  is  the 
actual,  appearing  revelation  itself.  Hence  he 
calls  the  Father  "the  invisible  of  the  Son;"  and 
the  Son.  "the  visible  of  the  Father."  He  dis- 
criminates most  rigidly  the  conceptions  of  genera- 
tion and  of  creation.  The  .Son,  thougli  begotten 
of  the  Father,  is  still,  like  him,  distinguished 
from  the  created  world  as  increate,  —  without 
beginning,  and  eternal ;  all  plainly  showing  that 
Ireiiaius  is  much  nearer  the  Nicene  dogma  of  the 
essential  identity  of  the  Son  with  the  Father 
than  Justin  Martyr  and  tiifi  Alexandrians.  If,  as 
lie  does  in  several  passages,  he  still  subordinates 
tlie  Sou  to  the  Father,  lie  is  certainly  inconsis- 
tent, and  that  for  want  of  an  accurate  distinction 
between  the  eternal  Logos  and  the  incarnate 
(,'hrist.  Fxpressions  like  "  My  Father  is  greater 
than  I,"  which  apply  only  to  the  Christ  of  his- 
tory, ill  the  state  of  huiuiliation,  he  refers  also, 
like  Justin  and  Origeii,  to  tlie  eternal  Logos.    On 


the  other  hand  he  is  charged  with  leaning  in  the 
opposite  direction,  —  towards  the  Sabellian  and 
Patripassian  views,  —  but  unjustly.  Apart  from 
his  frequent  want  of  precision  in  expression,  he 
steers  in  general,  with  sure  biblical  and  churchly 
tact,  equally  clear  of  both  extremes,  and  asserts 
alike  the  essential  unity  and  the  eternal  personal 
distinction  of  the  Father  and  the  Son.  The  in- 
carnation of  the  Logos  he  ably  discusses,  viewing 
it  both  as  a  restoration  and  redemption  from  sin 
and  death,  and  as  the  completion  of  the  revelation 
of  God  and  the  creation  of  man.  In  the  latter 
view,  as  finisher,  Christ  is  the  perfect  Son  of 
Man,  in  whom  the  lil:eness  of  man  to  God  (the 
simitiliiilo  Dei),  regarded  as  moral  duty,  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  imar/e  of  (Jod  (ima(/o  Dei)  as  an 
essential  property,  becomes  for  the  first  time 
fully  real.  According  to  this,  the  incarnation 
would  be  grounded  in  the  original  plan  of  God 
for  the  education  of  mankind,  and  independent 
of  the  fall.  It  would  have  taken  place  even  with- 
out the  fall,  though  in  some  other  form.  Yet 
Irenieus  does  not  expressly  say  this :  specula- 
tion on  abstract  possibilities  was  foreign  to  his 
realistic  cast  of  mind.  He  vindicates  at  length 
the  true  and  full  liumanity  of  Christ  against  the 
doketism  of  the  (jnostic  schools.  Christ  must  be 
man,  like  us,  in  body,  soul,  and  spirit,  though 
without  sin,  if  he  would  redeem  us  from  sin,  and 
make  us  perfect.  He  is  the  second  Adam,  the 
absolute,  universal  man,  the  prototype  and  sum- 
ming-up (^avaiie<tiaAacuai(,  recapilulatio)  of  the  whole 
race.  Connected  with  this  is  the  beautiful  idea 
of  Irenseus  (repeated  by  Hippolytus),  that  Christ 
made  the  circuit  of  all  the  stages  of  human  life 
to  redeem  them  all  {AdtK  Hcer.  IL  22,  §  4:  omnes 
venit  per  semel  ipsuni  sulrare  .  .  .  inj'iinles  el  par- 
Bulos  et  pueros  el  juvenes  et  seninres,  etc).  To 
carry  this  out  he  extended  the  life  of  Jesus  to 
fifty  years,  and  supported  it  by  a  mistaken  infer- 
ence from  the  loose  conjecture  of  the  Jews  (John 
viii.  57),  and  by  an  appeal  to  tradition.  He  also 
teaches  a  close  union  of  the  divinity  and  humanity 
in  Christ,  in  which  the  former  is  the  active  prin- 
ciple, and  the  seat  of  personality,  the  latter  the 
passive  and  receptive  principle. 

Tertui.i.i.\.\"  (about  22u)  cannot  escape  the 
charge  of  subordinationism.  He  bluntly  calls  the 
Father  the  whole  divine  substance,  and  tlie  Son  a 
part  of  it,  illustrating  their  relation  by  the  figures 
of  the  fountain  and  the  stream,  the  sun  and  the 
beam.  He  would  not  h.ave  two  suns,  he  says; 
but  ho  might  call  (Uiri.st  God,  as  I'aul  does  in 
Rom.  ix.  ••>.  The  sunbeam,  too,  in  itself  consid- 
ered, may  be  called  sun.  but  not  the  sun  a  beam. 
.Sun  and  beam  are  two  distinct  things  (species)  in 
one  essence  (sulislanliti),i\s  God  and  th(;  WonL 
as  the  Father  .and  the  Son.  Rut  we  shoiilil  not 
take  figurative  language  too  strictly,  and  must 
remember  that  Tertiillian  was  especially  inter- 
ested to  distingnisli  the  Son  from  the  Father,  in 
opposition  to  the  I'alrijiassian  I'raxeas.  In  other 
respects  he  did  tlie  Chiiroh  christology  material 
service.  He  ]iro]iounds  a  threefold  liYI'ostatical 
existence  of  the  Son  (Jilinlia):  (1)  The  )ir('- 
existi'iit,  eternal  immanence  of  the  Son  iu  tin' 
Fatlu'r,  they  being  as  inseparable  as  reason  ;iud 
word  in  man,  who  was  created  in  the  im.age  of 
God,  and  lience  in  a  measure  reflects  liis  being; 
(2)  The  coraing-forth  of  tlie  Son  with  the  Father 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


455 


')0 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


for  the  purpose  of  the  creation  ;  (3)  The  mani- 
festation of  the  Son  in  the  world  by  tlie  incar- 
nation, lie  advocates  the  entire  yet  sinless 
luunanity  of  ('lirist,  against  both  the  doketistic 
(inostics  (,!'/(:.  Mdrrinni'in,  and  Dc  cnnie  C/irixli) 
and  tlie  I'atripassians  {Ado.  Praxecnn).  lie  ac- 
cuses the  former  of  making  Christ,  who  is  all 
truth,  a  half  lie,  and,  by  the  denial  of  his  liesh, 
I  resolving  all  his  work  in  the  flesh  into  an  empty 
show.  He  urges  against  the  latter  that  God  the 
Father  is  incapable  of  suffering  and  change. 

CvpitiAN  (d.  '2oS)  marks  no  progress  in  this  or 
any  other  doctrine,  except  that  of  the  Catholic 
unity  and  the  episcopate.  He  was  not  so  much 
a  theologian  as  an  ecclesiastic,  and  a  typical 
Iligh-Churchman. 

DioNYsius,  15ishop  of  Rome  (262),  came  near- 
est the  Nicene  view.  He  maintained  distinctly, 
in  the  controversy  with  Bionysius  of  Alexandria, 
the  unity  of  essence,  and  the  threefold  personal 
distinction  of  Father,  Son,  and  Spirit,  in  opposi- 
tion to  Sabellianism,  tritheism,  and  subordina- 
tionism.  His  view  is  embodied  in  a  fragment 
preserved  bv  Athanasius  (De  sent.  DionysU,  c.  4, 
and  Kouth  Rcliiiic.  s.  HI.  384). 

Lit.  —  On  the  ante-Nioene  christology  see 
especially  Dion.  Petavius  :  De  llieoloij.  dorpnali- 
hus,  1044  sqq. ;  Boll  :  Defensio  Fiilei  Niccenw 
de  (Sterna  d'winitate  Fdii  Dei  (first  ed.  Oxf.,  1685, 
ed.  Grabe,  1703);  Edw.  Burton:  Testimonies  of 
the  anIe-Nicene  Fathers  to  the  Diviniti/  of  Christ 
(2d  ed.  Oxf.,  1829);  Bauk:  Die  cliristl.  Lehre 
von  der  Dreicinirjheit  und  Menschtcerduiiif  Gottes 
in  ihrer  f/cschichtliehen  Entwickiunri,  Tubingen, 
1841-43,  3  vols.  (vol.  1  down  to  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon)  ;  Uounek  :  Entwicklungsgeschiehte  der 
Lehre  von  der  Person  Christi,  2d  ed.,  Stuttg.  and 
Berlin,  1845  and  1853,  2  vols.,  vol.  I.  pp.  122- 
829  (Kng.  trans,  by  W.  L.  Alexander  and  D.  W. 
Simon,  Edinb.,  1864,  5  vols.)  ;  Schwane  :  Dor/- 
mengesch.  der  vornicdnischen  ^Tc/V,  Miinster,  18G2; 
Fu.  NiTzsCH  :  Dogmengeschichte,  Berlin,  1870 
(first  part,  the  patristic  period);  Schafk  :  Hist, 
of  the  Christ.  Ch.,  first  vol.;  Hefele  :  Concilien- 
geschichte,  first  vol.  2d  ed.  (Eng.  trans,  by  W.  R. 
Clark  and  H.  M.  Oxenham,  Edinb.,  1871" sqq.). 

HI.  The  Nicene  christology  (from  325  to 
381)  is  the  result  of  struggle  with  Ani.^NisM 
and  Semi-Arianism,  which  agitated  the  Eastern 
Church  for  more  than  half  a  century.  The  Arian 
heresy  denied  the  strict  deity  of  Christ  (his  co- 
equality  with  tlie  Father),  and  taught  that  he  is 
a  subordinate  divinity,  dilferent  in  essence  from 
God  (iTtpooiatoc) ,  pre-existing  before  the  world, 
yet  not  eternal  (?;»'  rrure  ore  oiia  5/k),  himself  a  crea- 
ture of  the  will  of  God  out  of  nothing  (Kriafia  i^ 
ova  uvTov),  who  created  this  present  world,  and 
became  incarnate  for  our  salvation.  Semi-Arian- 
ism  held  an  untenable  middle  ground  between 
the  Arian  hetero-nusia  and  the  orthodox  homo-ousia, 
or  co-equality  of  the  Son  with  the  Father,  and 
asserted  the  homoi-ousia,  or  similariti;  of  essence, 
which  was  a  very  elastic  term,  and  might  be  con- 
tracted into  an  Arian,  or  stretched  into  an  ortho- 
dox, sense,  according  to  the  general  spirit  and 
tendency  of  the  men  who  held  it. 

In  opposition  to  these  heresies,  Athanasius  of 
Alexandria  ("the  father  of  orthodoxy."  at  one 
time  "  un us  versus  mundum"),  and  the  three  Cap- 
padocian  bishops,  —  Basil,  Gregory  of  Nazianzus, 


and  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  —  maintained  and  defended 
with  su|M'ri(n'  ability,  vigor,  and  perseverance,  the 
homo-ousia,  i.e.,  the  essential  oneness  of  the  Son 
with  the  Father,  or  his  eternal  divinity,  as  the 
corner-stone  of  the  whole  Christian  system. 

This  doctrine  trimnphed  in  the  first  (ecumeni- 
cal council,  convene<l  by  Constantine  the  (Jreat; 
and,  after  a  new  and  longer  struggle,  it  was  ri'- 
iisserted  in  the  second  oecumenical  council.  It  is 
briefly  and  tersely  laid  down  in  the  chief  article 
of  the  JCica?no-Constantinopolitan  C'reed,  which 
has  stood  ever  since  like  an  immovable  rock  :  — 

"  (We  believe)  ...  in  one  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the 
only-bcgottcu  Son  of  Ooii,  liegotten  of  tlie  Father 
before  all  worlds  [God  of  God],  Liglit  of  Light,  Very 
God  of  Very  God,  Begotten,  nut  iiiaile,  licing  of  one 
substance!  witli  tlie  Father;  liy  wlioiii  ;ill  tilings  were, 
made;  who  for  us  men  and  for  our  salvation  came 
down  from  lieaven,  and  was  incarnate  by  the  Holy 
Ghost  of  the  Virgin  Wary,"  etc. 

Lit.  —  On  the  Nicene  christology  see,  besides 
the  general  works  already  quoted  of  Bi'll,  Pet.\- 
vius,  Baur,  Dorner,  Hefele,  etc.,  Mohler's 
monograph  on  Athanasius  (1844);  J.  II.  New- 
M.\x,  on  the  yl nans  of  the  Fourth  Century  (IS'^H 
and  1854)  ;  Bishop  Kaye,  on  the  Council  of 
Niccea  (18.53);  Voigt  :  Die  Lehre  des  Athanasius 
(1861);  and  Dean  Stanley's  Lectures  on  the 
Eastern  Church  (1802,  lect.  H.-VH.);  also  the 
art.  Arianism. 

IV.  The  CliALCEDONiAN  christology  finds  its 
normal  expression  in  the  Chalcedonian  statement 
of  451.  It  was  the  answer  of  the  Orthodox 
Church  to  the  heresies  which  related  to  the 
proper  constitution  of  Christ's  theanthropic  per- 
sou. 

These  heresies  are  chiefly  three  ;  viz.,  — 

(1)  Apollinarianism,  a  partial  denial  of  the 
humanity,  as  Arianism  is  of  the  eternal  deity, 
of  Christ.  Apollinaris  the  Younger  of  Laodicea 
(d.  390),  on  the  basis  of  the  Platonic  trichotomy, 
ascribed  to  Christ  a  human  body  {oC.>iia)  and  ani- 
mal soul  (J>vx!i  (iAoj'of),  but  not  a  human  spirit  or 
reason  (V'l'.W  loymi],  lov;,  irviifia')  ;  he  put  the  divine 
Logos  in  the  place  of  the  rational  soul,  and  thus 
substituted  a  Ofoc  CTopso^opof  for  a  real  ticiivepu~o;, 
—  a  mixed  middle  being  for  a  divine-human  per- 
son. From  this  error  it  follows,  either  that  the 
rational  soul  of  man  was  not  redeemed,  or  that  it 
needed  no  redemption. 

(2)  Nestorianism  (from  Nestorius,  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  d.  in  exile  440)  admitted  the 
full  deity  and  the  full  humanity  of  Christ,  but 
put  them  into  loose  mechanical  conjunction,  or 
affinity  (awitipeia)  rather  than  a  vital  and  personal 
union  (iuumj);  and  hence  it  objected  to  the  un- 
scriptural  term  "  mother  of  Oml  "  (Sforoxof,  Dei- 
para},  as  applied  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  while  will- 
ing to  call  her  '•  mother  of  Christ  "  (XpiororoKOt). 

(3)  Eutychianism  (from  Eutyches,  presbyter 
at  Constantinople,  d.  after  451)  is  the  very 
opposite  of  Nestorianism,  and  sacrificed  the  di.s- 
tinction  of  the  two  natures  in  Christ  to  the  unity 
of  the  person,  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  the 
incarnation  an  absorption  of  the  human  nature 
by  the  divine,  or  a  deification  of  human  nature, 
even  of  the  body  :  lience  the  Eutyehians  thought 
it  proper  to  use  the  phrases  "  God  is  born,"  "  God 
suffered."  "  (Jod  was  crucified,"  "God  died." 

The   third   and   fourth    oecumenical    councils 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


456 


CHRISTOLOaY. 


(Ephesus,  431,  and  Chalcedon,  451)  settled  the 
question  of  the  precise  relation  of  the  two  natures 
in  Christ's  person,  as  the  first  and  second  (32u 
and  3S1)  liad  decided  tlie  doctrine  of  his  divinity. 
The  decree  of  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  under  the 
lead  of  tlie  violent  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  was 
niereh'  negative,  a  condemnation  of  the  error  of 
Nestorius,  and  leaned  a  little  towards  the  oppo- 
site error  of  Eutyches.  This  error  triumphed 
temporarily  in  the  justly  so-called  "  Robber 
Synod "  of  Ephesus,  in  449,  under  the  lead  of 
Dioscurus  of  Alexandria,  who  inherited  all  the 
bad,  and  none  of  the  good,  qualities  of  his  prede- 
cessor, Cyril  But  Dyophysitism  re-acted;  and 
Uioscurus  and  Eutyches  were  condemned  a  few 
years  afterwards  by  the  Council  of  Chalcedon. 
This  council  gave  a  clear  and  full  statement  of 
the  orthodox  christology  as  follows  (see  the 
(Ireek  and  Latin  text  in  Act  v.  in  M.\Nsi'.s  Con- 
til.  torn.  vii.  p.  115,  and  in  Sch.vfk's  Creeds  of 
Christendom,  II.  62-64):  — 

"  Following  the  holy  Fathers,  we  all  with  one 
consent  teach  men  to  confess  one  and  the  same  Son, 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  same  perfect  in  Godhead 
and  also  perfect  in  manhood;  truly  God  and  truly 
man,  of  a  reasonable  [rational]  soul  and  body:  con- 
substantial  [co-equal]  witli  the  Father  according  to 
the  Godhead,  and  consulistantial  with  us  according 
to  the  Manhood;  in  all  things  like  unto  us,  without 
.Min;  begotten  before  all  ages  of  the  Father  according 
to  the  Godliead,  and  in  tliese  latter  days  for  us  and 
for  our  salvation,  born  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  the 
Mother  of  God,  according  to  the  Mahliood;  oiie  and 
the  same  Cluist,  Son,  Lord,  Only-begotten,  to  lie 
acknowledged  in  two  natures,  incon/tisedlii,  rindiaiii/c- 
abl>/,  iiidirisiblfj,  inscparttblit ;  the  tlistinction  of  na- 
tures being  by  no  means  taken  away  by  the  union, 
but  rather  the  property  of  each  nature  being  pre- 
served, and  concurring  in  one  Per.son  ami  one  Sul)- 
sistence,  not  parted  or  divided  into  two  persons,  but 
one  and  tlie  same  Son,  and  onlj'  begotten,  God  the 
Word,  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ;  as  the  proplii^s  from 
the  beginning  [have  declared]  concerning  him,  and 
tlie  Lord  Jesus  Christ  himself  has  taught  us,  and  the 
Creed  of  the  holy  Fathers  has  handed  down  to  us." 

The  same  doctrine  is  set  forth  in  a  more  con- 
densed form  in  the  second  part  of  the  ,Si/tid/ohiin 
Quicunqnfl,  or  the  falselj'  so-called  Athaniisian 
Creed  (see  the  Latin  text,  with  notes,  in  Scn.\FF, 
Creeds,  etc.,  II.  66-71)  :  — 

"  Furthermore  it  is  necessary  to  everlasting  salva- 
tion: that  he  also  believe  rightly  [faithfully]  the 
Incarnation  of  our  Lord  .Te.sus  Christ.  For  tlie  right 
Faith  is,  that  he  Ijelievo  and  confess:  tliat  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  tlic  Son  of  God,  is  God  and  Man;  Goil, 
of  the  Substance  [Essence]  of  the  P'atlicr;  begotten 
before  the  worlds;  and  Man,  of  the  Sulwtance  [Ks- 
aonco]  of  his  MoMier,  born  in  the  world.  Perfect  (iod 
and  perfect  Man;  of  a  reasonable  soul  and  human 
licsh  sulisistinp;  eriual  to  the  Father,  as  touching  his 
Godhe.ad;  and  inferior  to  the  Father  as  toucliiiig 
Iiis  Manhood.  Who  altliougli  he  is  God  and  Man ;  yet 
lie  is  not  two,  Imt  one  Clirist.  One;  not  by  conver- 
f\\ti\\  of  tlie  (rodhcad  into  iii-sh,  but  by  assuniption  of 
fho  Manhood  into  (iod.  One  altogetiicr:  not  by  con- 
fusion of  Sulislanco  [Essence],  Imt  liy  unity  of  I'er- 
Hon.  For  as  tli<:  reasonalile  soul  and  flesh  is  one  >ian ; 
.so  Goil  and  .Man  is  one  (Christ;  wlio  snlTcfrcd  for  our 
salvation;  descended  into  Hell  [Hades,  sjiirit  world], 
rose  again  the  third  day  from  the  dead,"  i:tc. 

Lit.  —  ALvxsi:  Ada  Cone,  torn.  VII.;  H.Mt- 
i)t;iN:  Cone,  torn.  III.;  Oalla-VDI  :  BihI.  /'.  ]'. 
lorn.  XL;  LiHKUATUS :  JJrevl'.iritan  cuusik  IVcslo- 
ritmnrumel  Knh/rliianislarum;  Aukndt:  I'a/isl  I.eo 
df.r  Grossr  (1835);  IlErKi.i; :  Concilii'ni/cscUiclile, 
vol.  II.  302  stjfp  ;  .ilso  Uauk,  Dok.mji,  Nirzscii, 


already  quoted.  On  the  Athanasian  Creed,  see 
the  lit.  iu  Sciiaff's  Creeds  of  Christendom,  I. 
34  sq. 

V.  The  PosT-CnALCF,DOXi.\N  christology.  — 
The  Chalcedonian  decision  did  not  stop  the  contro- 
versy, and  called  for  a  supplement.ary  statement 
concerning  the  two  wills  of  Christ,  corresponding 
to  the  tu-o  natures. 

Eutychianism  revived  in  the  form  of  Monoph- 
)/silism  {iiovrj  ^Sioif),  or  the  doctrine  that  Christ 
had  but  one  composite  nature  (/^ia  ^iVif  oi'i'Sfrof,  or 
/ua  di'aig  dirri/).  It  makes  the  humanity  of  Christ . 
a  mere  accident  of  the  immutable  divine  sub- 
stance. The  liturgical  shibboleth  of  the  Jlonophy- 
sites  was  "  God  has  been  crucified,"  which  they 
introduced  into  the  Trisagiou  (nyioc  i  Qfof  uyiuc 
vcxx'po^.,  uyioi;  uOuvarog,  &  aravpuOdc^  ()l'  7/uuf,  l?Jrioov 
7//i(2f) :  hence  they  are  also  called  TheopascMtes 
(Oeo-ctaxiTai).  The  tedious  Monophysite  contro- 
versies convulsed  the  Eastern  Church  for  more 
than  a  hundred  years,  weakened  its  powei',  and 
facilitated  the  conquest  of  Mohammedanism. 

The  fifth  cEcumenical  council  (held  at  Constan- 
tinople 553)  made  a  partial  concession  to  the 
Monophysites,  but  did  not  reconcile  them.  They 
.separated,  like  their  antipodes,  the  Nestorians, 
from  the  orthodox  (Jreek  Church,  and  continue 
to  tills  day  under  various  names  and  organiza- 
tions, — ^  the  J;icobites  in  Syria,  the  Copts  in  Egypt, 
the  Abyssinians,  and,  the  most  important  of 
them,  the  Armenians. 

Closely  connected  with  Monophysitism  was 
MoNOTiiF.LETiSM  Qwvov  and  OfAtifia),  or  the  doc- 
trine that  Christ  had  but  one  will,  as  he  had  but 
one  person.  The  orthodox  maintained  that  will 
is  an  attribute  of  nature,  rather  than  of  person, 
and  consequently  that  Christ  had  tu-o  wills,  —  a 
human  will  and  a  divine  will,  —  both  working  in 
harmony.  The  Monothelite  controversy  lasted 
from  033  to  680.  The  Emperor  Ileraclius  pro- 
posed a  compromise  formula,  —  one  divine-human 
energy  (fiia  demdpin^  h/ipyeia')  ;  but  it  was  opposed 
in  the  West. 

The  sixth  oecumenical  council  (held  in  Con- 
stantinople, 68!) ;  also  called  the  Third  Constanti- 
nopolitan  Council,  or  the  Cone.  Trullanum  I.) 
condemned  the  Monothelite  heresy,  and  repeated 
the  Chalcedonian  Creed,  with  the  following  sup- 
plement concerning  the  two  wills  (Artie,  xviii.  in 
Mansi'.s  Cone,  tom.  XI.  p.  637,  and  in  Schakf's 
Creeds,  II.  72,  73)  :  — 

"Anil  we  likewise  preach  two  7}nfin-al  n-ith  in  him 
rtjesus  t'liristj,  and  liro  nutund  I'ln  i-ations  undivided, 
ineonverlilih;,  iiiseparalile,  uiinii.xed,  aeccirding  to  the 
doctrine  of  tlie  holy  fathers;  and  the  two  natural 
wills  [arc]  not  contrary,  far  from  it!  (as  the-  impious 
heretics  assert),  but  his  Iiuiiian  will  follows  the  divine 
will,  and  is  not  n^sisting  or  reluctant,  Imt  rather  suli- 
ject  to  his  divine  and  oiuiiipiiteiit vill.  For  it  was 
proper  that  the  will  of  the  tiesli  sliould  be  moved, 
but  lie  sulijeeted  to  the  divine  will,  according  to  tho 
wise  Athanasius." 

The  samo  council  condemned  Po]ie  Iloiiorius 
as  a  Monothelite  heretic,  and  his  successors  con- 
firmed it.  This  undeniable  fact  figured  con- 
siiicuously  ill  the  Yatiean  Council  (1870)  as  an 
niiaiiswer;ible  argument  tigaiiist  jiajial  infallibili- 
ty, and  was  pressed  liy  Hishop  Ilebde  and  other 
learned  members  of  the  council,  .aUhough  they 
afterwards   submitted    to   an    infallible    modern 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


451 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


pope  and  council  versus  infallible  old  popes  and 
councils.  Moiiotheletism  continued  among  the 
Maronites  on  Mount  Lebanon  (who,  however, 
afterwards  submitted  to  the  Roman  Church),  as 
well  as  among  the  Monopliysites,  \Yho  are  all 
iVIonothelites. 

With  the  sixth  oecumenical  council  closes  the 
development  of  the  ancient  Catholic  christology. 
The  Ailoptioii  controversy,  which  arose  in  Spain 
and  France  towanl  the  close  of  tlio  eightli  cen- 
tury, turned  upon  the  question  whetiier  Christ  as 
man  was  the  Son  of  God  by  nature  Qinturalilrr), 
or  simply  by  adoption  (itimcupatice).  The  Adop- 
tionists  maintained  the  latter,  and  shifted  the 
whole  idea  of  sonship  from  the  person  to  whom  it 
belongs  to  the  nature.  Their  theory  was  a  modi- 
fication of  the  Nestorian  error,  and  was  condemned 
in  a  synod  at  Frankfort-on-the-Maine,  791 ;  but 
it  did  not  result  in  a  positive  addition  to  the 
creed  statements. 

The  scholastic  theology  of  the  middle  ages 
made  no  real  progress  in  christology,  and  confined 
itself  to  a  dialectical  analj'sis  and  defence  of  the 
Chalcedonian  dogma,  with  a  one-sided  reference  to 
the  divine  nature  of  Christ.  John  of  Damascus 
in  the  East,  and  Thomas  Aquinas  in  the  West, 
were  the  ablest  exponents  of  the  Chalcedonian 
dogma.  The  mediaeval  Church  almost  forgot, 
over  the  glorious  divinity  of  our  Lord,  his  real 
humanity  (except  his  passion),  and  substituted 
for  it  virtually  the  worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
who  seemed  to  appeal  more  tenderly  and  effec- 
tively to  all  the  human  sensibilities  and  sympa- 
thies of  the  heart  than  the  exalted  Saviour. 

VI.  An.^lysis  op  the  Ecumenical  Chris- 
tology.—The  following  are  the  leading  ideas 
of  the  Chalcedonian  or  cecumenical  christology, 
as  taught  in  common  by  the  doctrinal  standards 
of  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  Evangelical  Protestant 
Churches :  — 

1.  A  true  incarnation  of  the  Logos,  i.e.,  the  sec- 
ond person  in  the  Godhead  (IvavDpuTrrimg  Otov,  haup- 
liuaic  Toil  Ao-jov,  incarnatio  Verbi).  This  is  an  actual 
assumption  of  the  whole  human  natui-e  —  body, 
soul,  and  spirit — into  an  abiding  union  with  the 
divine  personality  of  the  eternal  Logos,  so  that 
they  constitute,  from  the  moment  of  the  super- 
natural conception,  one  undivided  life  forever. 
The  incarnation  is  neither  a  conversion  or  trans- 
mutation of  God  into  man,  nor  a  conversion  of 
man  into  God,  and  consequent  absorption  of  the 
one,  nor  a  confusion  (Kpuaig,  aiiyxvaig)  of  the  two. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  a  mere  indwelling 
(evoinrjcii,  inhahitatio)  of  the  one  in  the  other,  nor 
an  outward,  transitory  connection  (am'a<pcia,  con- 
junctio)  of  the  two  factors. 

2.  The  distinction  between  nature  and  person. 
Nature  or  substance  (essence,  ovala)  denotes  the 
totality  of  powers  and  qualities  which  constitute 
a  being  ;  while  person  (^vTrdaTaaii;,  Trpocuirov)  is  the 
Ego,  the  self-con.scious,  self-asserting,  and  acting 
subject.  The  Logos  assumed,  not  a  human  per- 
son (else  we  should  have  two  persons.  —  a  divine 
and  a  human),  but  human  nature,  which  is  com- 
mon to  us  all;  and  hence  he  redeemed,  not  a 
particular  man,  but  all  men.  Yet  no  council  has 
denied  the  human  personality  of  Christ. 

3.  The  God-man  (JimvdpuKog)  as  the  result  of 
the  incarnation.  Christ  is  not  a  (Nestorian) 
double  being,  with  tico  persons,  uor  a  compound 


(ApoUinarian,  or  Monophysite)  middle  being,  a 
terlinm  rjuid,  partly  divine,  and  partly  human; 
but  ho  is  one  person,  both  wholly  divine,  and 
wholly  human. 

4.  The  dualitij  of  the  natures.  The  orthodox  j 
doctrine  maintains,  against  Eutychianism,  the  ! 
distinction  of  natures,  even  after  the  act  of  in- 
carnation, without  confusion  or  conversion  (unvy- 
XVTijg,  inron/usf,  and  urpe'irruf,  immntabiliter),  yet, 
on  the  other  hand,  without  division  or  separation 
{udioipiTuc,,  inilii'ise,  and  uxupiarug,  ijjseparabiliter); 
so  that  the  divine  will  ever  remain  divine,  and 
the  human  ever  human;  and  yet  the  two  have 
continually  one  common  life,  and  interpenetrate 
each  other,  like  the  persons  of  the  Trinity  (Trepix<J- 
priaii;).  According  to  a  familiar  figure,  the  divine 
nature  pervades  the  human  as  the  fire  pervades 
the  iron.  The  two  natures  are  complete,  and 
embrace  every  tiling  which  pertains  to  them 
separately,  even  will  (according  to  the  anti-Mo- 
nothelite  decision).  Christ  has  all  the  properties 
which  the  Father  has,  except  the  property  of 
being  unbegotten  (the  uyeivijaia^  ;  and  he  has  all 
the  properties  which  the  first  Adam  had  before 
the  fall :  he  has,  therefore  (according  to  John  of 
Damascus),  two  consciousnesses,  and  two  physical 
wills,  or  faculties  of  self-determination  (nvrt^ov- 
cia).  This  is  the  extreme  border  to  which  the 
doctrine  of  two  natures  can  be  carried,  without 
an  assertion  of  two  full  personalities;  and  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  draw  the  line. 

5.  The  unity  of  the  person  (Svuaic  KaS'  moaracnv, 
Ivuaig  vKoaTanKri,  unio  hi/postatica,  or  unio  persona- 
lis). The  union  of  the  divine  and  human  nature 
in  Christ  is  a  permanent  state,  resulting  from 
the  incarnation,  and  is  a  real,  supernatural,  per- ; 
sonal,  and  inseparable  union,  in  distinction  from  i 
an  essential  absorption  or  confusion,  or  from  a 
mere  moral  union,  or  from  a  mystical  union,  such 
as  holds  between  the  believer  and  Christ.  The 
two  natures  constitute  but  one  personal  life,  and 
yet  remain  distinct.  "  The  same  who  is  true 
God,"  says  Pope  Leo  I.  in  his  famous  Epistle, 
wdiich  anticipated  the  decision  of  Clialcedon,  "is 
also  true  man;  and  in  this  unity  there  is  no 
deceit,  for  in  it  the  lowliness  of  man  and  the 
majesty  of  God  perfectly  piervade  one  another. 

.  .  .  Because  the  two  natures  make  only  one 
person,  we  read,  on  the  one  hand,  'The  Son  of 
7nan  came  down  from  heaven'  (John  iii.  13), 
while  yet  the  Son  of  God  took  flesh  from  the 
Virgin ;  and,  on  the  other  hand.  '  The  Son  of 
God  was  crucified  and  buried,'  while  yet  he  suf- 
fered, not  in  his  Godhead  as  co-eternal  and  con- 
substantial  with  the  Father,  but  in  the  weakness- 
of  human  nature." 

G.  The  whole  work  of  Christ  is  to  be  attributed 
to  his  per.son,  and  not  to  the  one  or  the  other 
nature  exclusively.  The  person  is  the  acting 
subject;  the  nature,  the  organ  or  medium.  It  is- 
the  one  divine  human  person  of  Christ  that 
wrought  miracles  by  virtue  of  his  divine  nature, 
and  that  suffered  through  the  sensorium  of  his 
human  nature.  The  superhuman  effect  and  in- 
finite merit  of  the  Redeemer's  work  must  be  as- 
cribed to  his  person,  because  of  his  divinity ; 
while  it  is  his  humanity  alone  that  made  him 
capable  of,  and  liable  to,  temptation,  sufl'ering, 
and  death,  and  renders  him  an  example  for  our 
imitation. 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


458 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


7.  The  AnJij/posfaxia,  or,  more  accurately,  the 
£nlii/postas!a  (Impersonalili/)  of  the  human  nature 
of  Christ.  The  meaning  is,  that  Christ's  human 
nature  had  no  independent  personality  of  its 
•own,  and  that  the  divine  nature  is  the  root  and 
basis  of  his  personality.  His  humanity  was  en- 
hypostatized  through  union  with  the  Logos,  or 
incorporated  into  his  personality.  The  synod  of 
Chalcedon  says  nothing  of  this  feature  :  it  was  an 
after-thought  developed  by  John  of  Damascus. 
It  seems  inconsistent  with  the  dyotheletic  theory  ; 
for  a  being  with  consciousness  and  will  has  the 
two  essential  elements  of  personality,  while  an  im- 
personal will  seems  to  be  a  mere  animal  instinct. 

8.  Critical  Estimate.  The  Chalcedonian  chris- 
tology  is  regarded  by  the  Greek  and  Roman,  and 
the  majority  of  the  orthodox  English  and  Ameri- 
can divines,  as  the  ne  plus  ultra  of  christological 
knowledge  attainable  in  this  world.  Dr.  Shedd 
(flislorif  of  Christ.  Doctrine.  I.  408)  thinks  it 
probable  that  "  the  human  mind  is  unable  to  go 
beyond  it  in  the  endeavor  to  unfold  the  mystery 
of  Christ's  complex  person ; "  and  he  therefore 
serenely  ignores  all  subsequent  christological  con- 
troversies and  speculations.  Dr.  Ilodge,  in  his 
Systematic  Theology,  vol.  11.  .397  sqq.,  notices  and 
criticises  several  of  the  more  recent  "  erroneous 
and  heretical  doctrines,"  as  he  calls  them,  but 
abides  in  the  Chalcedonian  statement  as  adopted 
by  the  scholastic  Calvinists  of  the  seventeenth 
century. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Chalcedonian  chris- 
tology  has  been  subjected  to  a  rigorous  criticism 
in  Germany  by  evangelical  as  well  as  rationalis- 
tic divines,  —  by  Schleiermacher,  Baur,  Dorner, 
I  Kothe,  and  the  modern  Kenoticists.  It  is  charged 
with  a  defective  psychology,  and  now  with  dual- 
ism, now  with  doketism,  according  as  its  distinc- 
tion of  two  natures,  or  the  personal  unity,  is  made 
its  most  prominent  feature.  It  oscillates  between 
two  extremes,  without  truly  reconciling  them  ;  as 
the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  stands  be- 
tween tritheism  and  modalisra,  now  leaning  to  the 
•one,  now  to  the  other,  when  either  the  triperson- 
<dity  or  the  unity  is  emphasized.  It  assumes  two 
natures  in  one  person :  while  the  dogma  of  the 
Trinity  assumes  three  persons  in  one  nature.  It 
teaches  a  complete  hunuin  n.ature  with  reason 
aud  will,  and  yet  denies  it  personality.  It  does 
not  do  justice  to  the  genuine  humanity  of  Christ 
in  the  Gospels,  and  to  all  those  passages  which 
assert  its  real  growth.  It  overshadows  th.;  human 
by  the  divine.  It  puts  the  final  result  at  the 
beginning,  and  ignores  the  intervening  process. 
If  we  read  the  gospel  history,  we  find  that  Clirist 
■wasalielpless  infant  on  his  mother's  breast,  —  and 
therefore  not  onmipot  ■iit  till  after  the  resurrec- 
tion, wlien  "all  authority  in  lieaveu  and  on  earth  " 
was  riiiten  unto  him  (^Iatt.  xxviii.  18)  ;  ho  grew 
in  wi.sdoni,  and  learned  olx'dience  (Luke  ii.  40; 
ileb.  v.  8),  and  was  ignorant  of  tlie  day  of  judg- 
ment (Mark  xiii.  '-VS),  therefore  not  omniscient; 
lie  moved  from  place  to  i>laci',  and  was  tlierefore 
not  omnipresent  before  liis  ascension  to  heaven  ; 
he  was  destitute  of  his  divine  glory,  which  he 
was  to  regain  after  his  death  (John  xvii.  5).  To 
confine  these  limitations  and  imperfections  to  Iiis 
human  nature,  while  in  his  divine  nature  he  was, 
at  one  and  the  same  lime,  omnipotent,  omniscient, 
iiiid  omnipresent,  even  in  thv  manger  and  on  the 


cross,  is  to  destroy  the  personal  unity  of  life,  and 
to  make  two  Christs,  or  a  double-he.aded  Christ. 
How  can  ignorance  and  omniscience  simulta- 
neously co-exist  in  one  and  the  same  mind  ?  How 
can  one  and  the  same  individual  pervade  and  rule 
the  universe  in  the  same  moment  in  which  he 
exclaims,  "  My  God.  my  God,  why  hast  thou  for- 
saken me  ?  "  Christ  speaks  and  acts  throughout 
as  one  undivided  Ego.  We  must,  therefore,  so 
reconstruct  or  improve  the  Clialcedonian  chris 
tology  as  to  conform  it  to  the  historical  realness 
of  his  humanity,  to  the  full  meaning  of  his  own 
sayings  concerning  himself,  and  to  all  the  facts 
of  his  life.  This  is  now  generally  felt  among 
the  evangelical  divines  in  Germany,  where  cliris- 
tological  speculation  has  been  most  active  since 
the  Reformation,  and  b3Miot  a  few  in  other  conn- 
tries.  If  any  thing  has  resulted  from  the  multi- 
tude of  Lives  of  Christ,  written  by  learned  and 
able  men  in  this  nineteenth  century,  it  is  the  fact 
of  the  perfect  and  unique  divine-human  personali- 
ty of  Jesus  of  Nazareth. 

At  the  same  time,  the  Chalcedonian  dogma  is 
the  ripest  fruit  of  the  christological  speculations 
and  controversies  of  the  Ancient  Church,  and  can 
never  be  lost.  It  gave  the  clearest  expression  to 
the  faith  in  the  incarnation  for  ages  to  come.  It 
saves  the  full  idea  of  the  Ctod-man  as  to  the 
essential  elements,  however  imperfect  the  foi-m 
in  which  it  is  cast.  It  defines  with  sound  reli- 
gious judgment  the  boundary-line  whicli  separates 
christological  truth  from  christological  error.  It 
guards  us  against  two  opposite  dangers,  —  the 
8cylla  of  Nestorian  dualism,  and  the  Charybdis  of 
Eutychian  Monophysitism.  or  against  an  abstract 
separation  of  the  divine  and  human,  and  an  ab- 
sorption of  the  human  bj'  the  divine.  It  excludes 
also  every  kind  of  mixture  of  the  two  natures 
W'hich  would  result  in  a  being  which  is  neither 
divine  nor  human.  With  these  safeguards,  theo- 
logical speculation  may  boldly  and  liopefully  move 
on,  and  penetrate  deeper  and  deejier  into  the 
central  truth  of  Christianity.  Protestantism 
cannot  consistently  adopt  any  doctrinal  or  disci- 
plinary decisions  of  popes  or  councils  as  an  infalli- 
ble finale,  but  must  reserve  the  right  of  furtlier 
research  and  progress  in  the  .appreliension  and 
appropriation  of  Christ  and  his  infallible  teach- 
ing according  to  the  Scriptures  as  the  only  rule 
of  faith. 

VII.  The  Orthodox  Pkotkst.vxt  Ciiristol- 
OGY.  The  churches  of  the  Reformation  (Luther- 
an, .\nglican,  and  Calvinistic)  adopted  in  their 
confessions  of  faith,  either  in  form  or  in  substance, 
the  three  oecumenical  creeds,  and  with  tliem  the 
ancient  Catholic  doctrines  of  the  Trinity,  and 
of  Christ's  divine-human  character  and  work. 
They  condennu'il  the  old  and  new  .\ntitrinitari- 
ans,  and  the  peculiar  doctrine  of  the  Socinians, — 
tliat  Christ  was  raised  by  his  own  merit  to  a  par- 
ticipation in  the  divine  honor  and  dignity.  The 
Unitarians,  like  the  .\nal>aptists,  were  everywhere 
(except  in  Poland  and  Transylvania)  imprismied, 
exiled,  or  executed;  and  the  unfortunate  Serve- 
tus  was  burnt  as  a  heretic  and  blasiiliemer,  under 
the  eyes  of  Calvin,  and  with  the  full  approval 
of  the  mild  Hullinger  and  Melanchthon.  Wo 
quote  from  the  principal  Protestant  t^onfessions. 

The  .-I  ni/shuri/  Confession  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  (1.V:J0).  Art.  111.  (l>r  Filio  Dei):  — 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


450 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


"  Also  they  teach  that  the  Word,  that  is,  the  Son 
of  God,  took  unto  him  man's  nature  in  th(!  woml) 
of  tlie  lilessed  Virgin  Mary,  so  that  tlicro  are  two 
natures,  the  divine  and  tlie  luiman,  inseparably 
joiiHjd  together  in  unity  of  person  ;  one  Christ,  true 
God  and  true  man:  who  was  liorn  of  the  Virgin 
Mary,  truly  suffered,  was  erueirted,  dead,  and  liuried, 
that'  he  might  reeoneile  the  Father  uuto  us,  and 
might  be  a  sacrifice,  not  only  for  original  guilt,  but 
also  for  all  actual  sins  of  men." 

The  Second  Heluelic  Confession,  by  Bullinger 
(1.506),  chap.  11:  — 

"  We  acknowledge,  therefore,  that  there  are  in  one 
and  the  same  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord,  two  natures, 
the  divine  and  tins  human  nature  ;  and  we  say  that 
these  two  are  so  conjoined  or  imited,  that  they  are 
not  swallowed  up,  confounded  or  mingled  together, 
hut  rather  united  or  joined  together  in  one  j^erson, 
the  properties  of  each  nature  being  safe  and  remain- 
ing still;  so  that  we  do  worship  one  Clirist  our  Lord, 
and  not  two;  I  say,  one,  true,  God  and  man;  as 
touclung  his  divine  nature,  of  the  same  substance 
with  the  Father,  and  as  touching  his  human  nature, 
of  the  same  substance  with  us,  aud  '  like  uuto  us  in 
all  things,  sin  only  excepted.'  " 

The  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of 
England,  Art.  II. ;  — 

"  The  Son,  which  is  the  Word  of  the  Father,  be- 
gotten from  everlasting  of  the  Father,  the  very  and 
eternal  God,  and  of  one  substance  with  the  Father, 
took  man's  nature  in  the  womb  of  the  blessed  Virgin, 
of  her  substance;  so  that  two  whole  and  perfect 
natures,  that  is  to  say,  the  Godhead  and  Manhood, 
were  joined  together  in  one  Person,  never  to  be 
divided,  wliereof  is  one  Christ,  very  God  and  very 
man;  who  truly  suffered,  was  crucified,  dead,  and 
buried,  to  reconcile  his  Father  to  ns,  and  to  be  a  sac- 
rifice not  only  for  original  guilt,  but  also  for  [all] 
actual  sins  of  men." 

The    Westminster   Confession,   which  gives   the 

clearest  and  strongest  expression  to  the  faith  of 

tlie   strictly  Reformed   or   Calvinistic   churches, 

I  thus   states  tlie   doctrine   of   Christ's  person  in 

ch;ip.  viii.  §  2:  — 

"  The  Son  of  God,  the  second  person  in  the  Trinity, 
heing  very  and  eternal  God,  of  one  substance  and 
equal  with  the  Father,  did  when  the  fulness  of  time 
was  come,  take  upon  him  man's  nature,  with  all  the 
essential  properties  and  common  infirmities  thereof, 
yet  without  sin,  bein"  conceived  bj'  the  Holy  Ghost 
in  the  womb  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  of  her  substance; 
so  that  two  whole,  perfect,  and  distinct  natures,  the 
(iodhead  and  the  Manhood,  were  inseparatily  joined 
logetlier  in  one  person,  without  conversion,  composi- 
tion, or  confusion.  Which  person  is  very  God,  and 
very  man,  yet  one  Christ,  the  only  Mediator  between 
God  and  men." 

The  Westminster  Shorter  Catechism,  whicli  is 
famous  for  clear  and  terse  definitions,  savs 
(Qu.  21);- 

"The  only  Redeemer  of  God's  elect  is  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  who  being  the  eternal  Son  of  God, 
became  man,  and  so  was,  and  continueth  to  be,  God 
and  man,  in  two  distinct  natunis,  and  one  per.son, 
forever." 

VIII.  The  SciiOL.\STic  LuTMERA>f  Christol- 
OGY.  On  this  general  basis  of  the  Chalcedonian 
christology,  and  following  the  indications  of  the 
Scriptures  as  tlie  only  rule  of  faith,  the  Protes- 
tant, especially  the  Lutheran,  scholastics,  at  the 
close  of  the  sixteenth,  and  during  the  seven- 
teentli,  centiuy,  built  some  additional  features, 
and  developed  new  aspects  of  Christ's  person. 
The  propelling  cause  was  the  Lutheran  doctrine 
of  the  real  presence  or  omnipresence  of  Christ's 
body  in  the  Lord's  S\ipper,  and  the  controversies 


growing  out  of  it  with  the  Zwinglians  and  Cal- 
vinists,  and  among  the  Lutherans  themselves. 

There  is,  however,  a  cliavacteristic  difference 
between  the  christology  of  the  Lutheran  aud  that 
of  the  Reformed  churches,  which  affects  the 
whole  .system.  The  former  has  a  leaning  towards 
the  ICutychian  confusion  of  the  divine  and  human 
natures ;  the  latter,  to  the  Nestorian  separation : 
yet  both  distinctly  disown  the  Eulychi;in  and 
Nestorian  heresies.  Tlie  Lutheran  christology 
started  from  the  principle  that  tlie  finite  is 
callable  of  receiving  the  infinite  (finitum  capax 
injiniti),  and  went  to  the  very  border  of  doketism, 
which  destroys  the  realness  of  Christ's  humanity. 
The  Reformed  christology  held  fast  to  the  in- 
separable gulf  which  separates  the  finite  from 
the  infinite  as  to  their  essence  or  nature  (fnilum 
non  capax  in/initi),  and  kept  open  the  possibility 
of  a  full  appreciation  of  the  humanity  of  Christ 
in  its  actual  growth  and  development. 

The  progress  made  in  christology  since  the 
Reformation,  on  the  basis  of  the  Chalcedonian 
orthodoxy,  relates  to  the  communion  of  the  two 
natures,  and  to  the  states,  and  the  offices  of 
Christ.  Tlie  first  was  the  production  of  the 
Lutheran  Church,  aud  was  never  adopted,  but 
partly  rejected,  by  the  Reformed  :  tlie  second  and 
third  were  the  joint  doctrines  of  both,  but  with  a 
very  material  difference  in  the  understanding  of 
the  second. 

(1)  Tlie  communicatio  idiomatum,  the  communi- 
cation of  attributes  or  properties  {idiuiiaTu,  proprie- 
tates)  of  one  nature  to  the  other,  or  to  the  whole 
person.  It  is  derived  from  the  unio  personalis 
and  the  communio  nuturarum.  The  Lutheran 
divines  distinguish  three  kinds  or  genera. 

(a)  The  genus  idioiuaticion  (or  Idioiroirirtiiuv'), 
whereby  the  properties  of  one  nature  are  trans- 
ferred and  applied  to  the  whole  person,  for  which 
are  quoted  such  passages  as  Rom.  i.  3  ;  1  Pet. 
iii.  18,  iv.  1. 

(i)  The  genus  apotelesmatictim  (^koivohoujtikov'), 
whereby  the  redemptory  functions  and  actions 
which  belong  to  the  whole  person  (the  u-ore^a- 
/jara)  are  predicated  only  of  one  or  the  other 
nature  (1  Tim.  ii.  5  sq.  ;  Ileb.  i.  2  sq. ). 

(c)  The  genus  auchemaiicum  {avx'llJ-aTihiiv),  or 
majestaticum,  whereby  the  human  nature  is  clothed 
with  and  magnified  by  the  attributes  of  the  divine 
nature  (John  iii.  13,  v.  27;  Matt,  xxviii.  18,  20; 
Rom.  ix.  5;  Phil.  ii.  10).  Under  this  head  the 
Lutheran  Cliurch  claims  a  certain  ubiquity  or 
omnipresence  for  the  body  of  Christ,  on  the 
ground  of  the  personal  union  of  the  two  natures; 
but  as  to  the  extent  of  this  omnipresence  there 
were  two  distinct  schools,  which  are  both  repre- 
sented in  the  Formula  of  Concord  (1.577).  Bren- 
tius  and  the  Swabian  Lutherans  maintained  an 
absolute  ubiquity  of  Christ's  humanity  from  his 
very  infanc}-,  thus  making  the  incarnation  not 
only  an  assumption  of  the  human  nature,  but 
also  a  deification  of  it,  although  the  divine  attri- 
butes were  admitted  to  have  been  concealed 
during  the  state  of  humiliation.  Chemnitz  and 
the  .Saxon  divines  called  this  view  a  monstrosity, 
and  taught  only  a  relatice  ubiquity,  depending  on 
Christ's  will  (hence  called  voliprasentia,  or  multi- 
voliprmsentia),  who  may  be  present  with  his  whole 
person  wherever  he  pleases  to  be,  or  has  promised 
to  be. 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


460 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


(d)  A  fourth  kind  would  be  the  genus  kenoliciim 
(from  Kevuaic),  or  tapeinolicum  (from  rairt/i'uoif), 
Phil.  ii.  7,  8;  i.e.,  a  communication  of  the 
properties  of  the  human  nature  to  the  divine 
nature.  But  this  is  decidedly  rejected  by  the 
old  Lutherans  as  inconsistent  with  tlie  nnchan- 
geableness  of  the  divine  nature,  and  as  a  '•  horri- 
ble and  blasphemous"  doctrine  {Form.  Cone.  p. 
612),  but  is  asserted  by  the  modern  Keuoticists 
(see  below). 

The  Reformed  divines  never  committed  them- 
selves to  the  communicatio  idlomatum  as  a  whole 
(althoun;h  they  might  approve  of  the  first  two 
kinds,  at  least,  by  way  of  what  Zwingli  termed 
u/.?Miucic,  or  a  rhetorical  exchange  of  one  part  for 
another)  ;  and  they  decidedly  rejected  the  third 
kind,  because  omnipresence,  whether  absolute  or 
relative,  is  inconsistent  with  the  necessary  limita- 
tion of  a  human  body,  as  well  as  with  the  Scrijv 
ture  facts  of  Christ's  ascension  to  heaven,  and 
promised  return.  The  third  genus  can  never  be 
fully  carried  out,  unless  the  humanity  of  Christ 
is  also  eternalized.  The  attributes,  moreover,  are 
not  an  outside  appendix,  but  inherent  qualities 
of  the  substance  to  which  they  belong,  and  in- 
separable from  it.  Hence  a  communication  of 
attributes  would  imply  a  commiuiication  or  mix- 
ture of  natures.  The  divine  and  human  natures 
can  indeed  hold  free  and  intimate  intercourse 
with  each  other;  but  the  diviue  nature  can  never 
be  transformed  iuto  the  human,  nor  the  human 
nature  into  the  divine.  Christ  possessed  all  the 
attributes  of  both  natures;  but  the  natures,  never- 
theless, remain  separate  and  distinct.  The  famil- 
iar illustrations  of  the  iron  and  the  fire,  of  the 
body  and  the  soul,  favor  the  Reformed  rather 
than  the  Lutheran  theory ;  for  the  fire,  while  it 
pervades  the  iron,  does  not  communicate  its  prop- 
erties to  the  iron,  nor  the  iron  its  properties  to 
the  fire.  The  soul  resides  in  and  interpenetrates 
the  body ;  but  its  spiritual  qualities,  as  cognition 
and  volition,  are  not  communicated  to  the  body  ; 
nor  are  the  physical  qualities  of  the  body,  as 
weight  and  extension,  communicated  to  the  soul. 
The  .Scripture  passages  quoted  by  the  Lutherans 
are  inconclusive. ^ 

(2)  The  doctrine  of  the  twofold  slate  of  Christ, 
—  the  state  of  humiliation  and  the  state  of  exalta- 
tion. This  is  based  upon  Phil.  ii.  5-9,  and  is 
no  doubt  substantially  true.  The  status  exina- 
nitionis  (humiliationis)  embraces  the  supernatural 
conception,  birth,  circumcision,  education,  earthly 
life,  passion,  death,  and  burial  of  Christ:  the 
statu.'!  exaltationis  includes  the  resurrection,  ascen- 
sion, and  the  sitting  at  the  right  hand  of  God. 

But  here,  again,  the  two  confessions  differ  very 
considerably.  First  as  to  the  descent  into  liell, 
or  Hades  ratlier.  The  Lutherans  regarded  it  as  a 
triumph  over  hell,  and  made  it  the  first  stage  of 
e.\altation  ;  while  the  Reformeil  divines  viewed  it 
as  the  last  stage  of  the  stale  of  humiliation.  It 
is  projierly  the  turning-point  from  the  one  state 
to  the  other,  and  thus  belongs  to  both. 

Secondly,  the  Lutheran  Creed  refers  the  two 


«  Dr.  IlodjfC  (.Synt.  Tlirol.,  II.  41B)  objects  to  tlic  Ltitliornn 
doctrine,  tliut  it  "  UeHtroys  the  InleKrlty  of  the  Iniiniin  niitiire 
of  C'hrlHt.  A  body  which  filU  hiiineiiwlty  U  not  a  biiniiiii  body; 
a  Boul  wldcli  1»  omiilBcicnl,  otnnlprcHent,  mid  nlmli;bly,  In  luit  a 
tiuman  kouI.  The  ChrUt  of  the  bible  anil  uf  the  Imiuaii  heart 
Is  lost,  If  the  doctrine  be  true." 


states  only  to  the  human  nature  of  Christ,  regard- 
ing the  divine  as  not  susceptible  of  any  humilia- 
tion or  exaltation.  The  Reformed  divines  refer 
them  to  both  natures ;  so  that  Christ's  human 
nature  was  in  a  state  of  humiliation  as  com- 
pared with  its  future  exaltation,  and  his  divine 
nature  was  in  the  state  of  humiliation  as  to  its  ex- 
ternal manifestation  {ratione  occullalionis).  With 
them  the  incarnation  itself  is  the  beginning  of 
the  state  of  humiliation ;  while  the  Lutheran 
symbols  exclude  the  incarnation  from  the  hu- 
miliation. 

Finally,  the  Lutherans  regard  the  humiliation 
only  as  a  partial  concealment  of  the  actual  use- 
(Kpvtjni  j-pi/OTuf)  of  the  divine  attributes  by  the- 
incarnate  Logos. 

The  proper  exegesis  of  the  classical  passage  in 
the  second  chapter  of  Philippians  decides  here 
in  favor  of  the  Reformed,  and  against  the  Luther- 
an theory.  The  nivuni^.  or  self-humiliation,  can- 
not refer  to  the  incarnate  Logos,  who  never  was 
tv  fiop(;>>i  i?ff',  but  must  refer  to  the  pre-existent 
Logos  (the  Aojof  uTOpKof).  This  is  admitted  by 
the  Greek  fathers,  and  by  the  best  modern  com- 
mentators, Lutheran  as  well  as  Reformed.  (See 
quotations  in  Schaff's  Creeds,  etc.,  I.  328  sq.)- 

(.3)  The  threefold  office  of  Christ,  (a)  The 
prophetical  office  (inuniis,  or  officium  propheticum)' 
includes  teaching  and  the  miracles  of  Christ. 
(b)  The  priestly  office  (munus  sacerdotnle)  consists 
of  the  satisfaction  made  for  the  sins  of  the  world 
by  the  death  on  the  cross,  and  in  the  continued 
intercession  of  the  exalted  Saviour  for  his  people 
(redemptio  et  intercessio  sacei-dotalis).  (c)  The 
kinglij  office  {munus  re/jitim),  whereby  Christ 
founded  his  kingdom,  defends  his  Church  against 
all  enemies,  and  rules  all  things  in  heaven  and 
on  earth.  The  old  divines  distinguish  between 
the  reign  of  nature  {regnum  natiirce  sice  potentice), 
which  embraces  all  things ;  the  reign  of  grace 
(i-ei/num  gratice),  which  relates  to  the  Church 
militant  on  earth  ;  and  the  reign  of  glory  (rer/num 
gloriw),  which  belongs  to  the  Church  triumphant 
in  heaven. 

This  convenient  threefold  division  of  the  office 
of  Christ  was  already  approved  by  Calvin,  and 
used  by  the  divines  of  both  Confessions  during 
the  seventeenth  century.  Ernesti  opposed  it, 
but  Schleiermacher  restored  it. 

Lit.  —  On  the  Lutheran  side :  The  Formula 
Concordiic  (1577) ;  Brenz  :  De  personali  unione 
duarum  tHitu7-aru7n  in  Christo  (1551)  ;  De  Ma/estate 
Domini  no.itri  J.  C.  (1562);  Ciikmxitz:  De 
duabus  naturis  in  Christo,  de  hypostatica  earum 
unione,  de  communicutione  idiomatum  (1.^71,  re- 
vised 1576).  —  On  the  Reformed  side:  the  Ad- 
monitio  Ncostadiensis  (1577)  and  the  christological 
writings  of  Beza,  Uksi.nus,  Sadkei.,  DAN.ia's 
{Examen  tibri  de  duabus  naturis  a  Chemnitio  con- 
scripti,  Genev.,  1581).  Zanxtiius  {De  Incarnutione 
Filii  Dei,  Ileidelb.,  1593). 

On  the  difference  between  the  Lutheran  and 
Reformed  christology,  see  especially  Matthias 


'  Dr.  LlKlilfoot,  also.  In  his  Com.  on  th<  Philippians,  p.  130, 
(jivos  the  Keformed  interpretation:  "The  |)olnt  of  time  is 
clearly  prior,  not  only  to  our  Lord's  open  ministry, )>nt  also  to 
his  boconiliiif  man.  Even  if  tlio  words  /iopipr/v  dnvMiii  ?M^(Jl' 
did  not  directly  refer  to  tlie  Incarnation,  as  they  appear  to  do, 
iiotiilnK  else  can  bo  understood  by  h  u/wuJpaTi  I'lVtlpCinuv 
yw6iuvo{," 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


461 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


■■ScHNECKENUUllGEU  :  Zur  IcircMichen  Christolof/ie. 
Die  orthoiloxc  Lehre  vom  doppcllen  Slande  Chrisli 
>i(wh  lut/n'rischer  unil  rcformirliT  J-'assiiiK/,  Pfor- 
■Au'jm,  1848,  2d  (title) 'ed.  18(il  ;  also  iiis  Ver- 
yliiichende  iJamtelLunij  des  lutkcnxclien  u.  rcjoniiirlcn 
Le/irhefjrifli,  herausf/cgeben  ilurch  Kdic.  (lililcr, 
Stiittsjart,  1855,  2  parts.  Very  accurate  and  dis- 
■criminatino-.  (Schiieckenburger  was  a  Swabian 
Lutheran,  but  jirot'essor  at  the  Reformed  Univer- 
sity of  Berne,  and  hence  well  qiuilified  to  appre- 
■ciate  the  strength  and  the  weakness  of  both 
Confessions.  He  made  the  first  preparations  for 
IlEii/.oG's  Encijkl.  before  his  death,  1848.)  —  On 
the  JjUtheran  side,  see  Fhank  :  Theologie  der 
Concordicnfonnel,  Erl.,  1805,  vol.  III.  pp.  165- 
■3.90 ;  Chakles  p.  Krauth  :  The  Conservative 
Ileformatiun  and  its  Thealogy,  Phila.,  1872,  pp. 
45U  sqq.  —  On  the  Reformed  side,  IIeppe  :  Re- 
formiiie  Dogmatik,  Elberf.,  1861,  pp.  351  sqq.  ; 
SciiAFF  :  Creeds  of  Christendom,  New  York,  vol.  I. 
.285  sqq.  and  317  sqq.  Compare  also  the  great 
historical  monographs  of  Bauk  and  Dokner, 
-already  quoted,  and  the  most  recent  work  on 
tlie  subject  by  Hermann  Schultz  :  Die  Lehre 
von  der  Goltheit  Chrisli.  Communicatio  idiornatum, 
>Gotha,  1881  (an  attempt  to  reconstruct  the  Lu- 
theran theory  on  a  modern  critical  and  ethical 
instead  of  a  dyophysitic  basis). 

IX.  The  Kenosis  Controversy  between 
■Giessen  and  Tubingen.  This  is  the  last  chapter 
in  the  development  of  the  orthodox  Lutheran 
■ohristology  on  the  basis  of  the  Formula  of  Con- 
cord. The  Reformed  churches  had  no  share  in  it; 
since  they  rejected  the  deification  of  Christ's  hu- 
manity, which  it  presupposes.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  there  arose  a  subtle 
^  controversy  between  the  Lutheran  divines  of  the 
I'niversity  of  Giessen  and  those  of  Tubingen 
aliout  the  Kenosis  and  Kri/psis ;  that  is,  about  the 
c]uestion  whether  Christ,  in  the  state  of  humilia- 
tion, entirely  abstained  from  the  use  of  his  divine 
■iittributes  (Kcvuat^,  abstinentia  ah  usu,  Phil.  ii.  7), 
or  whether  he  used  them  secretly  (/(pwi/"f>  occulta- 
iio).  The  divines  of  Giessen  (Bathasar  Mentzer, 
iua  son-in-law  Feuerborn,  and  Winkelmaun)  de- 
fended the  Kenntic ;  those  of  Tubingen  (Thumm, 
Hafenreffer,  Osiander,  Nicolai),  the  Krrjptic 
view.  Both  schools  were  agreed  as  to  the  posses- 
sion (KT?/(T(f)  of  the  divine  attributes  by  Christ, 
including  omnipotence,  omniscience,  and  omni- 
-presenoe,  during  all  the  stages  of  his  humiliation, 
and  differed  only  as  to  the  use  (VP'/"";)  of  them,  — 
whether  it  was  a  Kpi'i/xf  XP>1'":"C  (a  concealed  use), 
•or  a  Kcvucic  XP>!<":<JC  (a  non-use).  The  Kryptic 
view  of  Tubingen  is  logically  (i.e.,  from  Lutheran 
premises)  more  consistent,  but  carries  the  theory 
of  the  communicatio  iiliomatum  to  the  very  verge 
•of  Gnostic  doketicism,  which  resolves  the  human 
life  of  Christ  on  earth  into  a  magical  illusion. 
The  Kenotic  view  of  Giessen  is  more  in  accord- 
ance with  the  facts  of  Christ's  life,  but  agrees 
with  the  other  in  principle,  and  admits,  after 
all,  an  exceptional  use  in  the  performance  of 
miracles.  The  controversy  was  waged  with  vio- 
.lence,  and  threatened  to  weaken  tlie  Protestant 
cause  at  a  very  critical  period.  The  Lutheran 
princes  interfered.  In  their  name.  Hoe  von 
Hoenegg,  court-preacher  at  Dresden,  issued  a 
Solida  Decisio  (1624),  essentially  favoring  the 
tCAuse  of  tlie  Giessen  Kenoticists ;  but   the  Tu- 


bingen divines  defended  their  position  till  the 
controver.sy  was  lost  in  the  disastrous  events  of 
the  Thirty-years'  War,  without  leading  to  any 
positive  result.  The  Kenotic  controversy  was 
renewed  recently,  but  in  a  modified  form,  and  on 
a  new  basis  (see  below). 

Lit.  on  the  Giessen-Tubingen  Kenosis  contro- 
versy :  — 

(1)  On  the  Giessen  side ;  The  Saxon  Solida 
decisio,  Latin  and  Germ.,  Leipz.,  1624;  Feuek- 
BORN :  Sciagrapliia  de  div.  Jes.  Christo  juxta 
humanit.  communicatw.  majestatis  usurpatione,  1021. 
By  the  same :  Ktvumjpa^in  xP"""'''^o}'"''/,  JLarburg, 
1627  ;  Mentzer  :  Ncccssaria  el  Jusla  Dcfcnsio, 
against  the  Tiibingen  divines,  Giess.,  1624. 

(2)  On  the  Tubingen  side :  Luc.  Osiander  : 
Do  omniproisentia  Christi  hominis,  Tiib.,  1620; 
Thummius  :  Majestas  J.  Christi  dcavSpu-nov,  Tiib., 
1021;  by  the  same:  Taixcivuciypaijiia  sacra,  h.  e. 
Repetitio  sancE  el  orthod.  doctrinee  de  humilialione 
Jesu  Christi,  Tiib.,  1623  (900  pp.  4to)  ;  by  the 
same  :  Acta  Mentzeriana,  1625. 

(3)  On  the  Roman-Catholic  side :  Bellum  uhi- 
quisticwn  velus  el  novum,  Dilling.,  1627;  Alter  und 
neuer  lutherischer  Katzenkrieg  v.  d.  Ubii/uitat, 
Ingolst.,  1629. 

(4)  Historical  and  critical :  Cotta  :  Historia 
doctrinee  de  duplici  statu  Christi  (in  his  edition  of 
Gerhard's  Loci  theologici,  vol.  IV.  pp.  60  sqq.)  ; 
Walch  :  Lehrstreitigkeiten  der  luth.  Kirche,  vol. 
I.  p.  206;  vol.  IV.  p.  551;  Baur:  Gesch.  der  L. 
V.  d.  Dreieinigkeil,  vol.  III.  pp.  450  sqq.  :  Thoma- 
sius :  Christi  Person  und  TFcr^-,  vol.  II.  pp.  391- 
450;  DoRNER,  vol.  II.  pp.  788-809;  G.  Frank: 
Gesch.  der  protesl.  Theol.  vol.  I.  p.  336  ;  Rocholl: 
Realprcisenz,  pp.  198  sqq.  (Giitersloh,  1875) ; 
Wagemann  :  Kenotiker  und  Kryptiker,  in  Herzog, 
VII.  640-646. 

X.  Modern  Christologies.  The  orthodox 
christology  emphasized  the  divinity  of  Christ, 
and  left  his  humanity  more  or  less  out  of  sight 
(although  it  was  always  recognized  in  tkeory), 
and,  in  the  last  stage  of  its  Lutheran  develop- 
ment, arrived  at  the  brink  of  Gnostic  doketism. 
Rationalism  arose,  towards  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  as  a  re-action  against  sym- 
bolical and  scholastic  orthodoxy,  and  ran  into 
the  opposite  extreme :  it  ignored  the  divine 
nature,  and  fell  back  upon  a  purely  human  or 
Ebionitic  Christ.  Its  force,  as  well  as  its  weak- 
ness, consists  in  the  examination  of  the  human 
element  in  Christ  and  in  the  Bible. 

With  the  revival  of  evangelical  faith  in  Ger- 
many, the  divine  element  in  Christ  was  again 
duly  appreciated  by  theologians.  Hegel  and 
Schleiermacher  mark  a  new  epoch  in  christologi- 
cal  speculation,  with  two  tendencies,  —  the  one 
pantheistic,  the  other  humanistic;  and  these, 
again,  were  followed  by  original  reconstructions 
and  modifications  of  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  the 
God-man.  The  pantheistic  tendency  of  Hegel  is 
more  congenial  to  the  maxim  of  the  Lutheran 
Confession,  that  the  finite  is  capable  of  the  in- 
finite :  the  humanistic  of  Schleiermacher,  to  the 
tendency  of  the  Reformed  Confession,  which 
guards  the  genuine  humanity  of  Christ  against 
confusion  with  the  divine.  The  former  starts 
from  the  divine,  the  latter,  from  the  human  ele- 
ment; but  both  may  unite,  and  do  often  unite 
when  they  proceed  from   naturalistic   premises. 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


462 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


Both  Hegel  and  Scbleiermacher  j;ave  impulse  to 
orthodox  as  •nell  as  negative  and  destructive 
tendencies.  To  most  of  his  pupils  Schleier- 
macher  was  a  sort  of  John  the  Baptist,  who  led 
them  to  Christ. 

1.  The  Humanitarian  or  Unitarian  Chris- 
TOLOGY  makes  Christ  a  mere  man,  though  the 
wisest  and  best  of  men,  and  a  model  for  imit.v 
tion.  It  is  held  in  various  forms,  from  tlie  com- 
municated semi-divinity  of  the  old  Socinians 
down  to  the  pure  Immanity  of  modern  Unitarians 
and  Humanitarians.^  Kant  may  be  said  to  have 
inaugurated  the  modern  Humanitarian  view.  He 
regarded  Christ  as  the  representative  of  the 
moral  ideal,  but  made  a  distinction  between  the 
ideal  Christ  and  the  historical  Jesus.  The  more 
conservative  Unitarians  admit  the  sinless  perfec- 
tion of  Christ.  Dr.  Channing  (see  that  art.) 
was,  at  least  in  his  earlier  period,  a  firm  believer 
in  the  pre-existence  of  Christ :  hence  lie  is  some- 
times called  an  Arian.  He  certainly  rose  above 
the  mere  Humauitarianism  of  Priestley.  He  saw 
in  Christ  the  perfect  manifestation  of  (Jod  to 
man,  and  the  highest  ideal  of  humanity,  and 
paid  one  of  the  noblest  and  most  eloquent  trib- 
utes to  Christ's  character  and  inspiring  example. 

Lit. — The  writings  of  the  Socinians,  espe- 
cially the  Racooian  Calechism,  1605  (Eng.  trans, 
by  Thomas  Rees,  London,  1S18);  Jos.  Priestly: 
Hhlonj  of  Early  Opinions  concerning  Jesus  C/irist, 
178G,  4  vols.,  and  other  works;  Kant:  Religion 
innerhalb  der  Grenzcn  ties  blossen  Vernunfl,  1793; 
A.  CoQUEREL  :  Ckrislolngie,  Paris,  1858,  2  vols.  ; 
the  writings  of  Willum  Ellery  Ch.\xn"ixg, 
Boston,  1848  (especially  vol.  IV.  1-20);  James 
IMartineau:  Studies  of  Christianiti/  (1858),  Essays 
Pliilosophical  and  Theological  (1869),  Religion  and 
Modern  Materialism  (1876)  ;  Theodore  Parker 
(radical  Unitarian):  Discourse  of  Matters  pertain- 
ing to  Religion,  Boston,  1847. 

2.  The  Pantheistic  Christology,  suggested 
by  Sohelling  and  Ilegel,  and  best  represented  by 
Daub,  Marheineke,  and  Goschel  (of  the  right  or 
conservative  wing  of  Ilegel ianisni),  and  by  Baur, 
Strauss,  and  Biedermann  (of  the  left  or  radical 
wing),  starts  from  the  idea  of  the  essential  unity 
of  the  divine  and  hiinuui,  and  teaches  a  continuous 
incarnation  of  (iod  in  the  human  race  as  a  whole, 
but  denies,  for  this  viM-y  reason,  the  .specific  dig- 
nity of  Christ  as  the  one  and  only  God-man. 
This,  at  least,  is  the  theory  of  the  "  left  "  or  radi- 
cal and  negative  wing  of  the  Hegelian  School, 
altliough  Ilfgc'l  himself  had  no  .syiupathy  witli 
rationalism,  but  despi.scil  it.  "Tlie  infinite," 
says  Strauss,  "cannot  pour  out  its  fulness  into 
a  single  individual."  The  peculiar  [losition  of 
Christ,  however,  is  that  he  Jirst  awoke  to  a  con- 
sciousness of  this  unity,  and  that  he  represents 
it  in  its  purest  and  strongest  form.  Under  this 
view  Biederin.-inn  (Chrislliclie  Dogmatik)  places 
Christ  highest  in  tlie  scale  of  humanity,  not  only 
in  the  past,  but  for  all  time  to  come.  Even 
Strauss  was  at  one  time  willing  to  go  so  far;  but 
he  destroyed  nearly  the  wiiole  historic  founda- 
tion of  his  lite,  and  ended  in  the  pliilosopliical 
bankruptcy  of  materialism. 

Lit. — i).  Fu.  Strauss:  D/c  christl.  Glauhcns- 
telire  in  ihrer  geschichll.  Entwicklung  und  im  Kampfe 


'  Bruce,   ffumiltntton  of  Christ,  Bccoml  p<!.,  Lcct.  V.  p. 
3K3,  (IlntlD^ulnli^-il  lUc  cluHHCM  uf  nuiimulturlurii). 


viit  dcr  modcrnen  Wisscnschaft,  Tiib.,  1840,  II.  193 
sqq.  (a  work  as  destructive  of  Christian  dog- 
matics as  his  Leben  lesu  is  of  the  evangelical  his- 
tory) ;  A.  E.  Biedermann  :  Chrisdiche  Dogmatik; 
Zurich,  1869  (more  serious,  but  almost  equally 
unsatisfactory  in  its  results)  ;  Emanuel  Mari- 
us :  Die  Persiinlichkeit  lesu  Christi.  Mit  besond. 
Rucksicht  auf  die  Mytliologien  und  Myslerien  der 
alten  VOlker,  Leipz.,  1881  (first  ed.,  1878),  — a 
strange  compound  of  the  mythical  views  of 
Strauss,  and  the  mystical  interpretation  of  Swe- 
denborg. 

3.  Schleiermacher's  Christology  repre- 
sents the  highest  form  of  Humauitarianism  with 
an  important  admission  of  the  supernatural  or 
divine  element.  He  regards  Christ  as  a  perfect 
man,  in  whom,  and  in  whom  alone,  the  ideal  of 
humanity  (the  Urbild)  has  been  fully  realized  :  at 
the  same  time  he  rises  above  Humauitarianism  by 
emphatically  asserting  Christ's  essential  sinless- 
ness  and  alisolute  perfection  ("  wesentliche  Unsund- 
lichkeit,"  and  "  schlechthinige  Vollko?mnenheit  "'),  anA 
a  peculiar  and  abiding  indwelling  of  the  Godhead 
in  him  ("  ein  eigentliches  Sein  Gottes  in  ilim  "),  by 
which  he  differs  from  all  men.  He  admits  him 
to  be  "  a  moral  miracle,"  which  means  a  great 
deal  for  a  divine  of  the  boldest  and  keenest  criti- 
cism in  matters  of  history.  He  was  willing  to- 
surrender  almost  every  miracle  of  action  in  order 
to  save  the  miracle  of  the  person  of  Him  whom 
he  adored  and  loved,  from  his  Moravian  childhood 
to  his  deathbed,  as  his  Lord  and  Saviour.  He 
adopts  the  Sabellian  view  of  the  Trinity  as  a 
threefold  manifestation  of  God  in  creation  (in 
the  world),  redemption  (in  Christ),  and  sanctifi- 
cation  (in  the  Church).  Christ  is  God  as  Re- 
deemer, and  originated  an  incessant  flow  of  a 
new  spiritual  life,  with  all  its  pure  and  holy 
emotions  and  aspir.ations,  which  must  be  traced 
to  that  source.  Sabellian  as  he  was,  Schleier-  ■ 
macher  did  not  hold  an  eternal  personal  pre- 
existence  of  the  I^ogos  which  would  correspond 
to  the  historical  indwelling  of  God  in  Christ. 
His  conception  of  the  abstract  unity  and  sim- 
jilicity  of  the  Godhead  excluded  an  immanent 
Trinity.  See  his  christology  in  liis  Der  christi. 
Glauhe,  §§  92-99  (vol.  II.  26-93),  and  the  sharp 
criticism  of  Strauss,  I.e.  II.  175  sqq. 

Ullmaxn  (d.  1865),  originally  a  pupil  of 
Schleiermacher,  but  more  orthodox,  wrote  the 
very  best  book  on  tlie  ini|)ortant  topic  of  the  sin- 
lessness  of  Christ,  which  has  an  abiding  doctrinal 
and  apologetic  value,  independently  of  all  .specu- 
lative theories  (i)/e  SUndlosigkeit  Jesu,  7th  ed., 
1853). 

Somewhat  similar  is  the  christology  of  Rich- 
ard Rotiie  (d.  1806),  the  greatest  speculative 
divine  of  the  century  next  to  .Schleiermacher  (d. 
1834).  He  was  influenced  by  Hegel  and  Schleier- 
maciier,  but  wrought  out  an  original  .system  of 
ethics  of  tlio  liighest  order.  He  abandons  the 
orthodox  dogma  of  the  Trinity  and  the  Chalce- 
donian  dyopliysitism  (wliich  lie  thinks  goes  far 
beyond  tlie  simplicity  of  biblical  teaching,  and 
makes  the  union  jihysical  rather  th.an  moral), 
but  fully  admits  tlie  divine-human  character  of 
the  one  personality  of  Christ,  and  lays  great 
stress  on  the  ethical  feature  in  the  develojunent 
of  Clirist,  by  which  alone  he  can  become  our 
Redeemer  and  Example.     God,  by  a  creative  act,. 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


463 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


calls  the  scoond  Adam  into  existence  in  the 
bosom  of  the  old  natural  humanity.  Christ  is 
hori)  of  a  woman,  yet  not  lui/ollen  by  man,  but 
createil  by  Ciod  (iis  to  his  humanity),  hence  free 
from  all  sinful  bias,  as  well  as  aetual  sin. 
His  development  is  a  real,  but  normal  and  har- 
monious, religious  moral  growth,  and  a  corre- 
spondingly increasing  indwelling  of  God  in  him. 
There  was  not  a  single  moment  in  his  con.scious 
life  in  whicli  he  stood  not  in  personal  union  with 
God ;  but  the  absolute  union  took  place  with  the 
completion  of  the  personal  development  of  the 
second  Adam.^  This  completion  coincided  with 
his  perfect  self-sacrifice  in  death.  Henceforth  he 
was  wholly  and  absolutely  God  (f/anz  und  sdilecht- 
Jiiii  Golt),  since  his  being  is  extensively  and  in- 
tensively filled  with  the  true  (iod ;  but  we  cannot 
say,  ck-e  ycns-a,  tliat  God  is  wholly  the  second 
Adam ;  for  God  is  not  limited  by  an  individual 
person.  The  death  of  Christ  on  earth  was  at  the 
same  time  his  ascension  to  heaven  and  his  ele- 
vation above  all  the  limitations  of  material  exist- 
ence into  the  divine  mode  of  existence  (a  return 
to  the  /^op(('7j  iSfoS)  which,  however,  implies  also 
his  perpetual  presence  with  his  Church  on  earth 
(Matt,  xxviii.  20). 

Here  is  the  place  also  for  the  theory  of  Houace 
BusH.NELL  (d.  at  Hartford.  Conn.,  1S7(5),  which 
strongly  resembles  those  of  Schleiermacher  and 
Rothe,  but  differs  from  them  by  adhering  to  the 
eternal  pre-existence  of  Christ  (though  only  in  a 
Sabellian  sense).  It  was  fii-st  delivered  in  his 
('iiiirio  ad  Clerum,  at  the  annual  commencement 
of  Yale  College,  New  Haven  (Aug.  15,  1848),  and 
was  published,  together  with  two  other  dis- 
courses (delivered  at  Cambridge  and  Andover), 
and  a  preliminary  dissertation  on  the  Nature  of 
Lanijtmge  as  related  to  ThougiU  and  Spirit,  under 
the  title,  God  in  Christ  (new  ed..  New  York, 
1877).  It  gave  rise  to  his  trial  for  heresy.  Bush- 
nell,  one  of  the  most  independent  and  vigorous 
American  thinkers,  was  not  a  German  scliolar; 
but  he  read  Schleiermacher's  essay  on  Sabellius 
as  translated  by  Professor  Moses  Stuart  in  the 
Biblical  Reposilori/,  and  says  that  "the  general 
view  of  the  Trinity  given  in  that  article  coin- 
c'des  "  with  his  own  view,  and  confirmed  him  in 
the  results  of  his  own  private  struggles  (/  c.  p.  Ill 
8q.).  He  maintains  tlie  full  divinity  of  Christ  on 
the  Sabellian  basis.  He  rejects  the  theory  of 
"three  metaphysical  or  essential  persons  in  the 
being  of  God,"  with  three  distinct  con.scious- 
nesses,  wills,  and  understandings;  and  he  substi- 
tutes for  it  simply  a  trinity  of  revelation,  or  what 
he  calls  (p.  175)  an  "  instrumental  trinity,"  or 
three  impersonations,  in  which  the  one  divine 
being  presents  himself  to  our  human  capacities 
and  wants,  and  which  are  necessary  to  produce 
mutuality,  or  terms  of  conversableness,  between 
us  and  him,  and  to  pour  his  love  most  effectually 
into  our  feeling  (p.  137).  '•  God  may  act."  he 
says  (p.  152),  "a  human  personality,  without 
being  measured  by  it."  The  real  divinity  came 
into  the  finite,  and  was  subject  to  human  condi- 
tions.    There  are  not  two  distinct   subsistences 


'  See  his  Dogmatik  (published  .after  hie  death,  from  MSS., 
by  Schenkel,  1S70),  vol.  II.  168:  "  Der  Process  der  sitttichni 
Lelti'nsenttrickhtng  ties  ziceiten  Adams  ist  gteich  wesenttich 
leides,  eiite  stdtige  Menschwerdung  GoUvs  und  tine  stdtige 
Gottwerdung  dea  Jfenschen  (dtfs  eweiteii  Adams)  " 


in  the  person  of  Christ,  —  one  infinite,  and  the 
other  finite;  but  it  is  the  one  infinite  God  who 
expresses  himself  in  Christ,  and  brings  himself 
down  to  the  level  of  our  humanity,  without  any 
loss  of  his  greatness,  or  reduction  of  his  majesty. 
At  the  same  time,  Bushnell  holds  to  the  full  yet 
sinless  humanity  of  Christ ;  and  the  tenth  chap- 
ter of  his  work  on  Nature  and  tlie  Supernatural  is 
one  of  the  ablest  and  most  eloquent  tributes  to 
the  sinless  perfection  of  the  moral  character  of 
Christ. 

4.  The  modern  Kenotic  theory  differs  from 
the  theoi-ies  just  noticed,  by  its  ortho<lox  premises 
and  conclusions  as  far  as  the  dogma  of  the  Trini- 
ty and  of  the  eternal  Deity  of  Christ  is  concerned; 
but  it  likewise  departs  from  the  Clialcedoniau 
dyophysitism,  by  holding  to  one  divine  human 
Christ,  with  one  consciousness  and  one  will.  It  is 
chiefly  based  on  the  famous  passage  Phil.  ii.  6-8 
(iai'Tdv  hh.cvuntv,  he  emptied  hiinstlf,  etc.,  the  subject 
of  the  Kenosis  being  the  pre-existent,  not  the 
incarnate.  Logos),  and  also  on  2  Cor.  viii.  9 ; 
John  i.  14  (iyiviTu,  became);  Heb.  ii.  17,  18,  v.  8, 
9 ;  and  on  the  general  impression  which  the  gos- 
pel history  makes  of  Christ  as  a  truly  human, 
yet  divinely  human  being,  speaking  of  himself 
always  as  a  unit.  It  was  suggested  by  Zinzen- 
dorf  in  the  form  of  devout  sentimentalism,  that 
brought  the  divine  Christ  down  to  the  closest 
intimacy  with  men ;  it  was  scientifically  devel- 
oped, though  with  various  modifications,  by  a 
number  of  eminent  German  divines  of  the  Lu- 
theran Confession  (Thomasius,  Liebner,  Ge.ss, 
Von  Hofmann,  Kahnis,  Belitzsch,  .Schoberlein, 
Kiibel),  and  several  Reformed  divines  (Lange, 
Ebrard,  Godet,  Pressense,  in  Europe,  Henry  M. 
Goodwin  and  Howard  Crosby  in  America).  It  is 
hardly  just  to  call  it  (with  Dr.  Dorner)  a  revival 
of  Apollinarianism  and  Patripassianism,  or  Theo- 
paschitism ;  for,  while  it  resembles  both  in  some 
features,  it  differs  from  them  by  assuming  a  truly 
humanized  Logos  dwelling  in  a  human  body.  It 
carries  the  Kenosis  much  farther  than  the  Giessen 
Lutherans,  and  makes  it  consist,  not  in  a  conceal- 
ment merely  (spinlnc),  but  in  an  actual  abandon- 
ment, of  tlie  divine  attributes  of  omnipotence, 
omniscience,  and  omniiiresence,  during  the  whole 
period  of  humiliation  from  the  incarnation  to  the 
resurrection ;  the  differences  between  the  advo- 
cates of  this  theory  referring  to  the  degree  of  the 
Kenosis.  It  substitutes  a  genus  kenoticuin,  or  tapei- 
noticum,  for  the  genus  -maj estaticum  of  the  Luther- 
an Ci'eed :  in  other  w olds,  a  communication  of 
the  properties  of  humanity  to  the  divinity  for  a 
communication  of  the  properties  of  the  divine 
nature  to  the  human.  It  proceeds  from  the 
maxim,  infnituia  capax  est  Jiniti,  which  the  old 
Lutheran  theology  rejected  ;  while  it  held  to  the 
opposite  maxim,  finitum  capax  infinili,  which  the 
Calvinists  rejected.  Instead  of  raising  the  finite 
to  the  infinite,  the  Kenotic  theory  lowers  the  infi- 
nite to  the  finite.  It  teaches  a  temporary  self- 
exinanition  or  depotentiation  of  the  pre-existent 
Logos.  In  becoming  incarnate,  the  second  Per- 
son of  the  holy  Trinity  reduced  himself  to  the 
limitations  of  humanity.  He  literally  emptied 
himself  ((nt.76i'  iKcvuaci:,  Phil.  ii.  7),  not  only  of 
his  divine  glory,  but  also  of  his  divine  mode  of 
existence  (the  fioptpi)  dcoi),  and  assumed  the  hu- 
man mode  of  existence  (the  lioptpij  6ov?jov),  subject 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


464 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


to  the  limits  of  space  aud  time,  and  the  laws  of 
development  and  growth.  He  ceased  to  be  omni- 
1  otent  aud  omnipresent:  he  became  ignorant 
and  helpless  as  a  child.  But  he  retained  what 
Thomasius  calls  the  essentia!  attributes  of  trutli, 
holiness,  and  love,  and  revealed  them  fully  during 
his  humiliation.  The  incarnation  is  not  only  an 
assumption  by  the  Son  of  God  of  human  nature, 
but  also  a  self-limitation  of  the  divine  Logos; 
and  both  constitute  one  divine-human  personali- 
ty. Otherwise  the  infinite  cousciousness  of  the 
Logos  could  not  coincide  with  the  human  con- 
sciousness of  the  historical  Christ :  it  would  tran- 
scend and  outreach  it,  aud  the  re.sult  would  be 
a  double  personality.  The  self-limitation  is  to 
be  conceived  as  an  act  of  will,  an  act  of  God's 
love,  which  is  the  motive  of  the  incarnation;  and 
Ids  love  is  absolutely  powerful,  even  to  the  extent 
of  the  utmost  self-surrrender. 

This  is  the  view  of  Tho.m.\sius,  a  Bavarian 
Lutlieran.  He  and  Lieb.ver  held,  fii-.st,  that  the 
Logos  actually  became  a  rational  human  soul ; 
but  afterwards  tliey  assumed  a  truly  human  soul 
alongside  with  the  Kenosis  of  the  Logos,  and 
thereby  they  lost  the  chief  benefit  of  the  Kenosis 
theory. 

Gkss,  a  Swabiau  divine  brought  up  under  the 
influence  of  the  school  of  Bengel,  CEtinger,  and 
Beck,  and  starting  from  a  theosophic  biblical 
realism,  carries  the  Kenosis  to  the  extent  of  a 
suspension  of  self-consciousness  and  will.'  He 
identifies  it  with  the  outgoing  of  the  Son  from 
the  Father,  or  his  descent  from  heaven,  which 
resulted  in  a  temporary  suspension  of  the  influx 
of  the  eternal  life  of  the  Father  into  the  Son,  and 
a  transition  from  a  state  of  equality  with  God 
into  a  state  of  dependence  and  need.  Gess  and 
Ebrard  assume  an  actual  transformation  of  the 
Logos  into  a  human  soul,  i.e.,  he  assumed  a  hu- 
man body  from  the  flesh  of  the  Virgin,  but  became 
a  rational  human  soul,  so  that  he  had  no  need  of 
assuming  another  soul.  Consequently  the  soul 
of  Christ  was  not  derived  from  Mary:  it  was  the 
result  of  a  voluntary  Kenosis,  while  an  ordinary 
human  soul  derives  its  existence  from  a  creative 
act  of  God.  This  view,  therefore,  is  inconsistent 
with  traduciauism,  and  presupposes  the  theory  of 
creationism.-  It  is  very  questionable  wliether 
such  a  soul,  which  is  the  result  of  a  transforma- 
tion whicli  begins  witli  divinity,  and  ends  with 
divinity,  can  be  called  a  truly  hunum  soul  any 
juore  than  the  .Vpollinarian  Logos,  who,  remain- 
ing unchanged,  occupied  the  place,  and  exercised 
tlie  functions,  of  the  human  soul.  The  bond  of 
syini)atliy  with  Christ,  on  the  ground  of  the 
identity  of  his  nuuital  constitution  aud  condition, 
seems  to  be  broken  by  this  form  of  the  Kcnotic 
theory. 

Mautense.n,  a   very  able   Danish  tiieologian, 


'  JtewuHttttoKigkeit  uiul   WiUniRhnigkr-it. 

-  tie«»  (In  the  Hint  i-il.  p.  3ao)  :  "  IJer  Logon  indem  er  in'a 
Werdrn  fringing und  Flfinvh  wnrde,  int stfr infnir/iUrhfn  Sfflf 
gewordent  wie  (leint  defi  J.fbentt  von  GitU  \ii  ftnurhi  in  die 
durctt  OoUen  Wunderkra/t  aun  Staut}  bfrtitftr  J.rihlii'ltkfii  en 
Adamn  Seeiff  und  (Pj>  (Jriit  dm  I^fttrni  von  Otdt  gi'hauc/it  in 
die  von  unn^ren  Kltfm  grttngie  LfiiAirhkeit  »u  unsrrrr  .Sffte 
tcurdf.  Die  Lfibtir.hkrit  aher,  tu  dtren  Hffte.  der  Logoii 
wurdr,  indetn  er  in*n  tVerden  cinuing  und  sich  mil  ihr  Vfr- 
indtiltr,  war  durch  den  heiligen  (reitl  in  Mnrienn  Schoonti  ge- 


Jtrufjt."      Dorni-r  ulxl    KoOie  uhji'ct  thiit  siK-li  n  houI  in  not  li 
truly  liumfiii  »oul : 
tku  Kunoals  theory 


umfiii  »oul :  h(!ncc  tbi*  cliurgu  uf  AputlliiurlitniMn  u({ii)tii»t 


more  cautiously  teaches  only  a  relative,  though 
real,  Kenosis.  He  distinguishes  betvieen  the 
Logos-revelation  and  the  Cln-ist-revelation,  and 
confines  the  Kenosis  to  the  latter.  In  the  Logos- 
revelation  the  Son  proceeds  from  the  Father  as 
God :  in  the  Christ-revelation  he  returns  to  God 
as  God-man,  with  a  host  of  redeemed  children  of 
God.  Tlie  eternal  Logos  continues  in  God  aud 
his  genei'al  revelation  to  the  world  as  the  Author 
of  all  reason ;  while  at  the  same  time  he  enters 
into  the  bosom  of  humanity  as  a  holy  seed,  tliat 
he  may  arise  within  the  human  race  as  a  jNIedia- 
tor  and  Redeemer.  He  would,  however,  have 
become  man  even  without  sin.  tliough  not  as 
Redeemer."  The  Son  of  God  leads  a  double  life. 
As  the  pure  divine  Logos  {der  rehie  Gottheits- 
loi/us),  he  works  in  all-p6rvading  activity  through- 
out the  kingdom  of  nature ;  as  Christ,  he  works 
through  the  kingdom  of  grace,  redemption,  and 
completion,  and  he  mdicates  his  consciousness  of 
personal  identity  in  the  two  spheres  by  referring 
to  his  pre-existence,  which,  to  his  human  con- 
sciousness, takes  the  form  of  a  recollection.  But 
Martensen  does  not  explain  how  this  Dnppellehen 
of  the  Logos  can  be  reconciled  with  the  unity  of 
his  personality  any  more  than  the  two  natures 
of  the  orthodox  creeds. 

Kahnis  aud  Lange  limit  the  Kenosis  sub- 
stantially to  an  abandonment  of  the  use,  rather 
than  the  possession,  of  the  attributes.  Lange's 
christology  abounds  in  fruitful  and  original  hints 
for  further  and  clearer  development. 

Julius  jMuller  (d.  187!().  one  of  the  pro- 
foundest  divines,  whose  luuiiility  and  modesty 
induced  him  to  forbid  the  pulilication  of  any 
of  his  valualile  manuscripts,  taught,  likewise,  a 
moderate  Kenosis  theory,  which  I  am  able  to 
give  from  mv  notes  of  his  Lectures  on  Dogmatics 
(1839  to  1840):  "Paul  contrasts  the  earthly 
and  pre-earthly  existence  of  the  Son  of  God  as 
povertv  and  riches  (2  Cor.  vii.  9),  and  repre- 
sents tlie  incarnation  as  an  enqitying  himself  of 
tlie  full  possession  of  the  divine  mode  of  exist- 
ence (Phil.  ii.  G).  Tills  implies  more  than  a 
mere  assumption  of  human  nature  into  union 
with  the  Son  of  Ciod :  the  incarnation  is  a  real 
.sclf-exiuanition  (Sclhsli  nlausscriiii(/),  and  a  renun- 
ciation, not  only  of  tlie  use,  but  also  of  tlie  po.sses- 
sion,  of  the  divine  attributes  aud  powers.  .  .  . 
The  Church  is  undoubtedly  I'ight  in  teaching  a 
real  union  of  the  divine  and  human  nature  in 
Christ.  I!ut  in  tlie  state  of  humiliation  this 
union  was  first  only  potential  and  concealed  ;  and 
tlie  unfolded  reality  nelougs  to  the  state  of  exal- 
tation. Only  with  the  assumption  of  a  self-ex- 
inanition  can  we  fully  appreciate  the  act  of  the 
self-denying  condescension  of  divine  love ;  while 
in  the  orthodox  dogma  Ciod  gives  nothing  in  the 
incarnation,  Imt  simply  receives  and  unites  some- 
thing with  Ills  per.son!"  Want  of  space  forbids 
further  extracts. 

Goodwin  differs  from  the  German  Kenoticists 
by  assuming  that  the  Logos  is  the  human  element 


Mliiit 


Arc  we  lo  bollovo,"  nskri  M'nrlcnm'n  [Dogmatik,  n.  296), 
tlio  niowt  tflorioUK  fjict  in  tlu-  world  w.'ib  i)osnible  only 


lliit.uijli  KJTi.  iKul  tlmt  without  it  tluTi-  would  be  no  i-noui  in 
liiiilory  for  tliu  Kloiy  of  llie  only-b<'Kotlun  of  tlio  Fntlur?"  lUi 
truclu'f*,  with  Hcvoriil  of  the  Futlu-rH  ami  inodiTU  (iiTniun 
iluitiL'M.  Ihiit  tin-  inriirniition  U  lu-ccHniiry  lor  tin'  lii«lu'(»l  rt-vi-- 
hillon  uf  Llud,  und  woh  only  niodlllcd,  nut  conditioned,  liy  tho 
full. 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


4G5 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


in  God  which  pre-existed  in  him  from  eternity, 
and  became  incarnate  by  taking  flesh,  and  occn])y- 
ing  tlie  place  of  the  soul.'  No  incarnation,  he 
thinks,  is  possible  without  a  hmnanization  of  the 
divine ;  and  this  implies  a  self-limitation,  and 
true  development  from  ignorance  to  knowledge 
and  wisdom.  The  incarnation  is  not  a  .synth<;sis 
or  miion  of  opposite  natures,  but  a  development 
of  the  divine  in  the  form  of  the  human.  ']'he 
AVord  did  not  assume  flesh  or  human  natui'e,  but 
it  became  flesh.  As  the  true  idea  of  God  includes 
humanity,  so  the  true  idea  of  man  includes  God. 
The  divine  and  human  differ  only  as  the  ideal 
differs  from  the  actual,  or  the  prototyjie  from  the 
copy.  This  essential  unity  is  the  basis  of  the 
possibility  of  the  incarnation  as  a  Kenosis. 

Dr.  Ckosby  holds,  that,  according  to  the  Scrip- 
ture, the  Son  of  God  reduced  himself  to  the 
dimensions  of  humanity,  to  a  state  of  "dor- 
inancy,"  but  declines  to  enter  into  speculations 
about  the  possibility  of  such  self-reduction,  which 
he  regards  as  transcending  human  thouglit.  The 
supreme  Godhead  of  Christ  is  clearly  taught  in 
words,  he  says,  but  Christ  nowhere  showed  it  in 
action  from  Bethlehem  to  Calvary ;  for  his  mira- 
cles, like  those  of  Closes,  Elijah,  and  the  apostles, 
were  wrought  by  the  power  of  God,  by  a  dele- 
gated authority,  and  proved  merely  that  he  was 
sent  from  God,  not  that  he  -was  God.  Ilis  God- 
head, therefore,  was  in  a  state  of  quiescency  during 
his  humiliation,  and  awoke  with  the  resurrection, 
after  which  the  divine  overshadowed  the  human. 
Criticism.  A  theory  advocated  by  so  many 
learned  and  pious  divines  cannot  be  altogether 
false.  AVe  cannot  think  too  highly  of  the  amaz- 
ing condescension  of  God,  and  the  self-denial  of 
his  love  for  the  good  of  his  creatures.  The  Keuo- 
]  tic  theory  has  the  merit  to  have  brought  out  the 
I  truth  of  the  classical  passage  in  Phil.  ii.  more 
forcibly  than  ever  before.  But  it  carries  the  idea 
of  the  humiliation  and  self-limitation  of  the  Logos 
to  the  extent  of  a  metaphysical  impossibility :  it 
contradicts  the  essential  unchangeableness  of 
God.  The  humiliation  of  the  Logos  is  an  aban- 
donment of  the  divine  doxa  and  its  enjoyment, 
but  not  of  the  divine  being.  He  laid  aside  his 
divine  majesty,  and  assumed  the  condition  and 
function  of  a  servant;  as  a  king  in  noble  self- 
denial  may  condescend  to  the  lowest  of  his  sub- 
jects, and  put  himself  on  an  equality  of  condition 
with  him,  without  losing  any  of  his  qualities. 
The  true  Kenosis  is  a  renunciation  of  the  use 
(XP'l<^v),  but  not  of  the  possession  (njf/aic),  of 
divine  attributes.  The  former  is  possible,  the 
latter  impossible.  God  can  do  nothing  that  is 
contrary  to  his  rational  and  moral  nature.  It  is 
admitted  by  the  Kenoticists  that  the  Logos  can- 
not, in  the  incarnation,  limit  or  suspend  his  moral 
attributes  of  love  and  holiness,  but  reveals  them 
most  fully  in  the  state  of  humiliation.  But  his 
metaphysical  and  intellectual  attributes  belong 
just  as  much  to  the  essence  and  nature  of  God 
as  his  moral  attributes,  and  all  are  inseparable 
from  his  nature  ;  so  that  God  cannot  give  up  any 
of  his  attributes  without  mutilating  and  so  far 
destroying  his  own  being.  He  cannot  commit 
suicide,  nor  can  he  go  to  sleep.     He  cannot  re- 


'  Isaac  Watts  believed  in  the  pre-oxistence  of  the  human 
-soul  of  Christ,  Ijat  as  created,  and  distinct  from  the  Lo^os. 
■Swedeiiborg  taught  au  eternal  humanity  of  God  hiiutielf. 

31  —  1 


duce  himself  to  the  unconscious  existence  of  au 
embryo,  without  ceasing  to  be  God,  and  without 
destroying  the  life  of  the  world,  which  without 
liim  cannot  exist  a  single  moment.  The  illustra- 
tion borrowed  from  sleep  proves  nothing;  for 
man's  identity  continues  undisturbed  in  sleep, 
and  he  awakes  with  the  full  exercise  of  all  tlie 
faculties.  Moreover,  we  cannot  conceive  of  such 
a  self-reduction  of  the  Logos  without  suspending 
the  inter-trinitarian  process,  and  also  tlie  Tiinity 
of  revelation.  It  would  stop  for  thii'ty-three 
years,  as  (less  frankly  admits,  the  et(!rnal  genera- 
tion of  the  Son,  the  procession  of  the  Sjiirit  from 
the  Father  and  the  Son,  and  the  government  of 
the  world  through  the  Logos.  To  say  that  the 
Logos  remained  unchanged  in  the  Trinity,  while 
at  the  same  time  he  went  out  of  the  Trinity,  and 
became  man,  is  virtually  to  establish  two  distinct 
Logoi,  or  a  Logos  with  two  heads,  which  is  no 
better  than  the  orthodox  theory  of  two  parallel 
nattu'es, — one  infinite,  the  other  finite.  The 
Father  and  the  Son  have  but  one  essence :  how, 
then,  coidd  the  divinity  of  the  Son  be  suspended, 
or  almost  annihilated  for  a  time,  without  suspend- 
ing the  divinity  of  the  Father?  It  maybe  said 
with  Thomas  Aquinas,  that  it  was  not  the  nature, 
but  the  person,  of  the  Logos  that  became  man. 
True,  but  a  person  w'ithout  a  nature  is  an  intpossi- 
ble  abstraction.  If  the  Logos  surrendered  his 
divine  self-consciousness,  his  omnipotence,  and 
omniscience,  how  did  he  regain  them '.'  Was  it 
by  a  recollection  of  his  pre-existent  state  ?  Or  by 
a  reflection  on  the  Old-Testament  Scriptures? 
Or  by  a  revelation  from  the  Father?  Or  by  the 
development  of  a  native  instinct?  These  and 
similar  questions  caimot  be  satisfactorily  an- 
swered by  the  consistent  Kenoticists. 

Lit.  on  the  Kenotic  theory:  Joh.  L.  Konig: 
Die  Menschwerdung  Gottes,  Mainz,  1844  ;  Tiioma- 
sius :  Beitrage  zur  kircld.  Christologie,  184.5,  and 
Christi  Person  und  Werk;  Erlangeu,  1850  ;  Lieb- 
NER :  Christologie,  fiottingen,  1849 ;  Ebrakd  : 
Christi.  Dogmatik,  Konigsberg,  18.51  and  1852, 
2  vols.;  Lange:  Positive  Dogmatik,  \\&v\e\h.,\>ib\, 
pp.  595-782  ;  Gess  l  Lehre  von  der  Per.i<nt  Christi, 
Basel,  1856  (rewritten  under  the  title  C/iristi 
Person  und  Werk,  Basel,  Part  I.,  1870,  Part  II., 
1878)  ;  Martensen  :  Clirisd.  Dorpnatik,  Berlin, 
1853  (Engl,  trans,  by  Urwick,  Edinb.,  1806); 
Delitzsch  :  Sijst.  der  bibl.  Psychologic,  2d.  ed., 
1861,  pp.  325  sqq.;  Boiiemeyer  :  Die  Lehre  von  der 
Kenosis,  Gbttingen,  1800;  Kaiinis  :  Die  lather.  Dog- 
matik, Leipz.,  1861-68, 3  vols.  (HI.  343  sqq.);  Sciid- 
BERLEIN  :  Die  Geheimnisse  des  Glaubens,  Ileidelb., 
1872 ;  Robert  Kubel  :  Christliches  Lehrsystem, 
Stuttgart,  1873 ;  Van  Oosterzee  :  Christian 
Dogmatics,  Eng.  trans.,  1874,  vol.  II.  514  and  543 
(very  moderately  and  cautiously  Kenotic);  Godet: 
Essay  on  Jesus  Christ,  in  his  Studies  on  the  Xeiu 
Testament,  trans,  by  Lyttleton,  1876,  and  his  Com. 
on  the  Gospel  of  John,  3d  ed.,  1881  ;  Press- 
ense:  Life  of  Christ  (first  French  ed.,  1806,  also 
trans,  into  English  and  German),  and  La  divinite' 
de  lesus-Christ,  in  the  Revue  Chrc'liennc,  III.  641 
sqq. ;  Henrv  M.  Goodw-i.\  :  Christ  and  Humani- 
ty, New  York,  1875 ;  Howard  Crosby  :  The 
True  Humanity  of  Christ,  New  York,  18S1. 

For  an  adverse  criticism  of  the  Kenosis  theory 
see  Dorner  :  Entwicklungsgesch.,  II.  126  sqq. 
(Eng.  trans.  Divis.  II.  vol.  III.  100);  his  able 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


466 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


Essays  on  the  Unchangeabhnefs  of  Goil  in  the 
Jahrbucher  Jurdeutsche'  Theol.  for  IS'ie  and  1858, 
and  his  Christ!.  Gl.  lehre  U.  367  sqq.;  also  Kothe: 
Dogmalik,  II.  157  sqq.  Bruce  gives  the  fullest 
account  in  English  of  the  Kenosis  theories  in  his 
able  work,  The  Humiliation  of  Christ,  Edinb.,  2d 
ed.,  1881,  Lect.  IV.  Dr.  Hodge  also  notices  the 
Kenotic  theories  of  Thoniasius,  Ebrard,  and  Gess, 
but  condemns  them  very  severely,  saying,  "  Any 
theory  which  assumes  that  God  lays  aside  his 
omnipotence,  omniscience,  and  omnipresence,  and 
becomes  feeble,  ignorant,  and  circumscribed  as 
an  infant,  contradicts  the  first  principle  of  all 
religion,  and,  if  it  be  pardonable  to  say  so,  shocks 
the  common  sense  of  men  "  (Si/st.  Theol.  II.  439). 
lie  also  objects  that  the  Kenosis  destroys  the  hu- 
manity of  Christ,  since  a  bemg  wliich  never  had 
a  human  soul  and  a  human  heart  cannot  be  a 
man.  But  Gess  maintains  that  the  Logos  became 
a  true  human  soul. 

5.  The  last  theory  which  promotes  a  solution  of 
the  problem,  but  has  not  yet  been  sufficiently  ma- 
tured, is  the  theory  of  a  gkadual  or  progres- 
sive incarnation.  It  carries  the  divine  Kenosis, 
or  the  motion  of  God's  love  to  men,  through  the 
whole  earthly  life  of  Christ,  instead  of  confin- 
ing it  to  an  instantaneous  act  when  the  Holy 
Spirit  overshadowed  the  Blessed  Virgin.  When 
John  says  that  the  '•  Logos  became  flesh,"  he 
spoke  as  one  of  those  who  "  beheld  his  glory,  the 
glory  of  the  only-begotten  of  the  Father,"  as  it 
manifested  it^self  in  his  wliole  pul)lic  life.  We 
discard  the  impossible  idea  of  an  essential  self- 
limitation  of  tlie  Logos,  but  assume  instead  the 
rational  idea  of  a  limitation  of  the  self-communica- 
tion of  the  Logos  to  humanity.  There  are  various 
degrees  in  this  self-comnmnication.  The  being 
and  actuality  of  the  Logos  remained  metaphysi- 
cally and  morally  unchanged  ;  but  .lesus  of  Naza- 
reth possessed  the  Logos  merely  so  far  as  was 
compatible  with  the  truth  of  human  growth  and 
the  capacity  of  his  expanding  conscio\isness.  In 
other  words,  the  eternal  personality  of  the  divine 
IjOgos  entered  into  the  liumanity  of  Josus,  meas- 
ure by  measure,  as  it  grew,  and  became  capable 
and  worthy  of  I'eceiving  it.  There  were  two 
corresponding  movements  in  the  life  of  Christ,  — 
a  descent  of  the  divine  consciousness,  and  an 
ascent  of  the  human  conseiousnoss.  There  was 
a  progressive  self-comnmnication  of  the  divine 
Logos  to  Jesus,  and  a  moral  growth  of  Jesus  in 
holiness  keeping  step  with  the  former.  The 
process  of  union  began  with  the  supernatural 
conception,  and  wivs  conqileti'd  with  the  ascen- 
sion. The  first  act  of  the  incarnation  of  the 
Logos  was  the  beginning  of  tlu-  man  Jesus,  and 
both  constituted  one  undivided  iiersonalilv.  There 
was  a  personal  unity  and  identity  tliroughout  the 
whole  period,  the  same  lif(!  of  the  <livine-hunian 
personality,  but  in  actual  grow'th  and  develop- 
ment from  germ  to  full  organi/alion,  from  in- 
fancy to  ripe  manhood.  Christ  became  conscious 
of  his  Godhead  as  lie  became  conscious  of  his 
Manhood ;  but  the  divine  life  always  wa,s  the 
basis  of  his  human  life.  Tlie  twell\h  year  of 
Jesus  in  the  temple,  and  thi^  liajitism  in  tlie  Jor- 
dan, mark  two  important  ejiochs  in  the  develop- 
ment of  this  divine-human  conscinusness.  'I'liere 
was  in  connection  with  tlic  griiihial  incorpo- 
ration of  the  divine  L(i;;os  iiitn  \\\r  liinrianity  of 


Jesus  an  actual  elevation  of  his  humanity  into 
personal  imion  with  the  Godhead,  as  he  grew 
in  moral  perfection :  hence  his  exaltation  is 
spoken  of  by  Paul  as  a  reward  for  bis  humili- 
ation and  obedience  (Phil.  ii.  9 ;  comp.  Heb.  v. 
7-1(1). 

This  theory  escapes  the  difficulties  of  the  Ke- 
notic theory,  and  is  even  better  reconcilable  with 
the  orthodox  christology  of  the  creeds,  as  far  as 
the  result  is  concerned ;  the  difference  being  only 
that  the  latter  puts  the  end  at  the  beginning,  and 
ignores  the  intervening  process  by  which  the 
result  is  attained.  Nearly  all  christologists  admit 
now  the  genuine  growth  and  development  of 
Christ's  humanity,  to  which  the  Kenoticists  add 
the  impossible  growth  of  the  divine  Logos  from 
unconsciousness  and  impotence  to  omniscience 
and  omnipotence.  Our  view  teaches  the  former 
without  the  latter,  and  saves  the  continued  integ- 
rity of  the  Logos.  There  still  remains  the  specu- 
lative problem  felt  by  the  Reformed  divines, — 
how"  the  infinite  consciousness  of  the  eternal  Logos 
can  ever  become  absolutely  coincident  with  th& 
limited  consciousness  of  the  man  Jesus ;  but  this- 
difficulty  attaches  to  every  theoiy  which  holds 
fast  to  the  strict  divinity  of  our  Lord. 

Lit. — Comi-1.  Dorxer  :  Christliche  Glaubens- 
lehre,  Berlin,  1880,  vol.  II.  431,  where  lie  sums  up 
his  matured  view  of  a  gradual  incarnation,  hinted 
at  towards  the  close  of  his  classical  History  of 
Christology.^ 

6  Conclusion.  —  In  reviewing  these  variou.s 
theories,  we  can  readily  accept  the  elements  of 
truth  wliich  they  variously  express.  Christ  is  the- 
ideal  man  realized,  the  head  of  the  redeemed  race,, 
the  perfect  model  for  universal  imitation.  So- 
far,  even   the    Humanitarian   theoiy   is   correct;. 


'  I  quote  the  following  paBsage  in  the  original :  "  Da  tier 

Mensvhftfit  das  Wtrdtii  gcortlnHiat.  Chritttun  aber  die  wahre 
Meyischheit  in  einejn  ivirklithfn  Menschfiilt'ben  daratettt,  so 
koinntt  ihm  ein  wahrhu/i  mfnafhtichfn  M'erden  zit.  J)a  ander- 
erseitH  (lolt  in  Christun  trst  dann  kann  votlkommt-n  offenbar 
sein,  wfinn  die  gunze  yiitte  dts  fjdf/fichf7i  LnfjoR  auch  e»/r 
eignen  FitUe  dietie^  .Vennc/ien  in  Wisst'n  und  Wollnt,  aluo  gott- 
nienHvlilivh  geworden  int:  so  ist  in  ihni  mit  d£tti  Wer-den  der 
7nensv/ttivhen  SfiU  noihwmdig  auch  ein  Werden  dfr  Gott. 
mensehhfit  gigeben  und  die  Mensrhwerdnntj  in(  uicht  (lift  fine 
mit  einein  .Mah  ffrtige,  sovdrrn  alu /ortge/ttndr.ja  traehsende 
en  (linkin,  indenl  (iott  tlth  hngottjtdt  der  lltncn  Sifiteyi,  die  VOn 
der  icd/irfti  unuxrltliihin  EnCwii  klung  luri-nrgelntditwerden^ 
Rtftig  ir{iriir't  und  sirh  anriguet,  wie  umgtkehrt  die  teachnende 
avtiti/te  KtHjifttngltvhkeit  dtr  Meutit^hlieit  mit  immer  lieuen 
Seilen  dt.t  J.ogn.s  sitk  betvusst  und  widletid  zUKtinntienachtieSst. 
Trote  diem's  iWejdens  innerhtitl  der  t'nio  iat  idterder  Logos  von 
An/ang  an  mit  lesu  im  tie/slni  We-srusgruiiite  geeinigt  und 
lesu  Leben  immerdar  ein  goltnunnelilietieft  geiresen,  indem  nie 
eine  vnj-hnndene  Enip/dngtielikeit  fiir  die  Gottheit  ohne  ihre 
Krfiillung  Idieb.  Das  metisc/itirbe  Werdejt  und  die  Unverdn- 
dertirbke'it  der  Gottheit  stimmt  aber  dadure/i  zusammen,. 
dass  Goit  alx  Logos  ohne  Selbstvertust  in  Gesehiehte  eiugehen 
kann  /iir  den  Zireek  stiigender  Selbsttifenharuug  in  der 
Menseliheit.  diese  otter  /fibig  ist,  immer  mehr  in  die  t'ltper. 
dnileitii  hkeit,  wiedi  r  ohne  Alterirung  Hires  Weseiis,  gextetlt 
za  irerdi n.'* 

In  thej>ro(?roBB  of  hit*  profound  diBcussion  (as  Bkctchod  vol. 
II.  ;1S4),  Ur.  DorniT  unn>ld»  (I)  Thi'  prc-existenco  of  Christ 
jurcordiuK  to  Idt*  divine  nidr,  or  tiie  KtoruiU  Word  of  God  and 
Ills  iictivlly  in  croallon  and  liiKlory;  (2)  Christ's  prfscnn'  on 
oarlh.orhls  |>arouBln  in  Ihr  slide  of  proKiesslvc  humiliation 
and  inner  transllKUratlon,  («)  Tile  act  of  the  incarnation  of 
(iod  in  Clnist,  or  Ids  divlncinnnun  nature,  (6)  Tlio  ctldcal 
(lod.nninliood  (dottmensrliliehkeit),  or  tlic  doctrine  of  the 
holy  divine. human  personality,  (c)  The  ofllcial  Ood-inanlioo(i 
of  Christ,  or  his  tlivine-lunnan  functions  on  earth,  in  wldch  ho 
|>re»entB  himself  as  the  Kcdeemer,  —  hlB  prophetic,  hisrh- 
prlestly,  and  kiuKly  office;  (:))  The  nosl-existence  of  ChriBl, 
or  his  person  and  work  after  his  eartldy  life,  tlie  descent  into 
Hades  (//«i/r»/Vi/ir().  resurreclion.  exallation  to  llie  rlKht  hand 
of  God,  ami  llle  continualion  of  his  tiireefoid  office  In  heaven 
till  the  completion  of  hl»  work,  and  the  judgment  of  Ui* 
world. 


CHRISTOLOGY. 


467 


CHRODEGANG. 


only  it  does  not  go  far  enough,  and  it  becomes  a 
serious  error  wlien  it  denies  tlie  higher  truth  be- 
yond. For  Clirist  is  also  the  eternal  .Son  of  (jod, 
who  in  infinite  love  renounced  his  glory  aii(l 
majesty,  and  lowered  himself  to  a  fallen  race, 
entering  into  all  its  wants,  trials,  and  temptations, 
yet  without  sin,  and  humbled  himself,  even  to  the 
death  on  the  cross,  in  order  to  emancipate  men 
from  the  guilt  and  power  of  sin,  and  to  reconcile 
them  to  God.  lie  is  the  one  undivided  God-man, 
who,  as  man,  calls  out  all  our  sympathies  and 
trust,  and,  as  God,  is  the  object  of  true  worship. 
In  this  respect  we  accept  fully  the  faith  of  the 
Church  in  all  ages,  and  consider  the  divinity  of 
our  Lord  as  the  corner-stone  of  Christianity. 
We  hold,  with  Rothe  and  Ritschl,  to  the  moral 
nature  of  the  God-manhood  of  Christ,  but  without 
sacrificing  his  eternal  divinity.  We  would  go  as 
far  with  the  Kenosis  theory  as  the  unchangeable 
nature  of  God  permits,  and  as  the  unbounded 
love  of  God  demands.  We  dissent  from  the 
dyophysitic  and  dualistio  psychology  of  Chalce- 
don,  and  hold  to  the  inseparable  personal  unity 
of  the  life,  and  at  the  same  time  to  the  genuine 
growth  of  Christ,  without  asserting,  with  the 
Kenoticists,  a  growth  of  the  divine  Logos,  who  is 
unchangeable  in  his  nature ;  but  we  substitute 
for  this  impossible  idea  a  gradual  communication 
of  the  divinity  to  the  God-man. 

This  is,  in  substance,  the  Christ  of  the  Catholic 
creeds  and  the  Protestant  confessions  of  faith. 
lie  is  a  mystery  indeed  to  oui'  intellectual  and 
])liilosophical  comprehension,  but  a  mystery  made 
manifest  as  the  most  glorious  fact  in  history,  — 
the  blessed  mystery  of  godliness,  the  inexhaustible 
theme  of  meditation  and  jiraise  for  all  generations. 
How  tiie  whole  fulness  of  uncreated  divinity  can 
be  pom'ed  out  into  a  human  being  passes  our  un- 
derstanding, but  not  more,  perhaps,  than  the 
familiar  fact  that  an  immaterial  and  innnortal 
soul  made  in  God's  image,  and  capable  of  endless 
perfectibility,  inhabits  and  interpenetrates  a  mate- 
rial and  mortal  body.  And  deeper  and  grander 
than  both  mysteries  is  the  infinite  love  of  God 
which  lies  back  of  them  in  the  very  depths  of 
eternity,  and  which  prompted  the  incarnation  and 
the  death  of  his  ouly-begotten  Son  for  the  salva- 
tion of  a  sinful  world.  Yet  this  love  of  God  in 
Christ,  whose  "breadth  and  length  and  height 
and  depth  passeth  knowledge"  (Eph.  iii.  18,  19), 
is  more  certain  and  constant  than  the  light  of  the 
sun  in  heaven  and  the  voice  of  conscience  in 
man. 

Lit.  —  Besides  the  books  already  mentioned, 
among  which  Dorner's  exhaustive  History  of 
ChristiAoyij  is  the  most  important,  the  following 
English  works  deserve  notice,  though  mostly  con- 
fined to  an  exposition  and  defence  of  the  Chalce- 
donian  dogma :  R.  J.  Wilberforce  :  T}ie  Doc- 
trine of  the  Incarnation  of  our  Lord,  etc.,  London, 
1852  ;  II.  P.  LiDDON  :  The  Dicinitij  of  our  Lord 
and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ  (Bampton  Lectiu'es  for 
1S66),  London,  1868;  M.  T.  Sadler:  Knimanuel. 
or  the  Incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God,  the  Founda- 
tion of  hninutahle  Truth,  Lon<lon,  18G7  ;  Alex.  B. 
Bruce:  The  Iluinilialion  of  Christ  in  its  Physical, 
Ethical,  and  Official  Aspects,  Edinb.,  1876,  .second 
ed.  1881.  The  various  Lives  of  Christ  will  be 
noticed,  with  the  liistorical  facts,  in  the  art. 
Jesus    Christ.      Here   we   have   discussed  the 


person  of  Christ  simply  from  the  dor/matic  point 
of  view,  as  an  object  of  the  Christian  faith,  leav- 
ing out  the  historical,  the  ethical,  an<l  the  artistic 
aspects  of  this  central  fact  in  the  history  of  n-.an- 
kind.  PHILIP  SCIIAKF. 

CHRISTOPHER,  St.,  lived,  according  to  the 
oldest  versions  of  liis  legend,  at  Saucos  in  Ljxia, 
and  suffered  martyrdom  under  King  Dagnus ; 
but  no  place  of  the  name  Saucos  is  known  in 
Lycia,  nor  any  king  of  the  name  Dagnus.  Xever- 
thelcss,  thougli  the  historical  kernel  of  this  legend 
seems  to  be  of  a  very  doubtful  character,  few 
legends  have  grown  so  luxuriantly.  In  mediaeval 
art  and  poetry  St.  Christopher  is  of  frequent 
occurrence,  generally  represented  as  a  huge  fellow 
wading  through  the  waters,  and  carrying  a  child 
on  his  shoulder.  His  day  in  the  Greek  Church 
is  May  0,  and,  in  the  Latin,  July  25.  See  Act 
Sand.,  July,  VI.  pp.  125-149 ;  Butler  :  Lives  of 
Saints,  July  25 ;  Mrs.  Jaiiie-son  :  Sacred  and 
Lei/endan/  Art,  II.  439-4.50. 

CHRISTOPHORUS,  pope  from  November,  903, 
to  June,  904,  imprisoned  his  predece.ssor,  Leo  V., 
but  was  himself  imprisoned  by  his  successor, 
Sergius. 

CHRISTO  SACRUM,  the  name  of  an  a,ssocia- 
tion  founded  (1707-1801)  by  Onder  de  Wijngaart 
Canzius,  burgomaster  of  Uelft,  and  some  mem- 
bers of  the  Walloon  congregation,  for  the  piu-pose 
of  gathering  all  Christians  into  one  body,  irre- 
spective of  the  different  denominations  to  which 
they  might  belong.  The  foundation  of  the  asso- 
ciation was  the  so-called  positive  Christianity; 
that  is,  the  faith  in  the  divinity  of  Christ  and 
the  redeeming  power  of  his  suffering  and  death. 
In  the  beginning  the  association  was  very  success- 
ful :  the  number  of  its  members  increased  to 
three  thousand.  But  in  1836  the  church  had  to 
be  closed,  and  in  1838  the  association  was  dis- 
solved. See  Ilet  Genootschap  Christo  Sacrum  bin- 
nen  Delft,  hey  den,  1801;  Gregoire:  Histoire  des 
sectes  religieuses,  V.  J.  J.  VAN  OOSTEEZEE. 

CHRODEGANG  (Hrodegandus,  Ruotganej),  b. 
in  Hasbania  (Belgian  Limburg)  in  the  beginning 
of  the  eighth  centur}' ;  d.  at  Jletz,  ^March  6,  766  ; 
descended  from  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
families  among  the  Ripuarian  Franks,  and  was 
destined  for  an  ecclesiastical  career,  and  incor- 
porated with  the  coui't  clergy.  Having  been  ap- 
pointed referenelarius  by  Charles  Martel,  he  was 
made  Bishop  of  Metz  in  742  by  Peppin,  Charles's 
son.  Twice  he  visited  Rome,  —  in  753  to  conduct 
the  Pope  safely  to  Gaul,  and  in  764  to  bring 
back  with  him  the  relics  which  the  Pope  had 
presented  to  his  monasteries  and  churches ;  and 
the  intimate  relation  which  sprang  up  between 
the  papal  see  and  the  Frankish  empire  was  much 
furthered  by  his  influence.  His  gi-eat  fame,  how- 
ever, is  chiefly  due  to  his  labors  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  discipline  of  the  Church.  By  his 
rules,  which  in  parts  are  borrowed  from  those  of 
Benedict,  he  instituted  or  regulated  the  so-called 
Vita  Canonica.  Of  these  i-ules  there  was  a  double 
version  :  an  older,  destined  only  for  the  Cathedral 
of  Metz,  and  published  by  Mansi  :  Coll.  Cone, 
XIV.  313;  HoLSTEXius:  Codex  Regularum  Mo- 
nasticarum  et  Canonicarum,  II.  69;  and  a  more 
recent,  enlarged  into  eighty-six  chapters,  destined 
for  the  Church  in  general,  and  published  by 
D'Archery  :  Spicilerjium,  I.   565 ;   Hartzheim  : 


CHROMATIUS. 


468 


CHRYSOLOGUS. 


Concilia  Germanice,  I.  96 ;  and  MiGXE :  Patrolo- 
gia  Lot.,  89,  1097. 

Lit.  —  Chrodegang's  Life  was  written  by  Pau- 
LUS  Warxefridus  :  Liber  de  Episcopis  Mellensibw!, 
■written  in  784,  published  by  Pertz,  Mon.  Germ., 
11.  267 ;  and  bj'  John  of  Goez,  between  96.5  and 
073.  published  by  Pertz,  Mon.  Germ.,  X.  552; 
-and  in  Act.  Sand.,  March,  I.  453.  MEJER. 

CHROMATIUS,  Bishop  of  Aquileia  from  388 
to  406,  was  a  friend  of  Ambrose,  Rufinus,  Je- 
rome, etc.,  and  exercised  considerable  influence 
in  the  controversies  of  that  time,  not  so  much, 
though,  on  accoiuit  of  his  writings,  as  by  his  frank 
and  sympathetic  character.  Most  of  what  lie  has 
■written  is  lost ;  but  some  considerable  fragments 
of  homilies  on  iMatthew,  etc.,  are  stiU  extant,  and 
have  been  published  by  G.-illaxdi  in  BihUoth. 
Patrum,  VIIL  p.  333,  and  separately  by  Pietro 
Br.\ida.  Udine,  ISIIJ. 

CHRONICLES,  The  First  and  Second  Books 
of.  The  name,  since  Jerome,  for  the  Hebrew 
"  Book  of  the  Events  of  the  Days,"  called  in  the 
Septuagint  Tlapakemoueva  ("  things  omitted "). 
Originally  our  present  First  and  Second  Chroni- 
cles, Ezra,  and  Xehemiah,  formed  one  book.  The 
proof  of  this  is  the  similarity  of  style,  language, 
point  of  view,  and  the  identity  of  the  last  two 
verses,  of  Second  Chronicles  (xxxvi.  22,  23)  with 
the  first  two  o£  Ezra.  These  books,  tlierefoi-e, 
were  once  one  book,  a  history  of  the  Israelites 
from  the  beginning;  although  the  first  part  is 
exclusively  genealogical  tables  to  the  post^exilian 
period.  Our  present  division  of  this  book  into 
four  parts  is  very  ancient,  originating  with  the 
Seventy.  Chronicles  contains  a  reliable  liistory, 
being  drawn  from  the  official  records  of  the 
Israelites,  which  explains  the  numerous  instances 
in  which  it  coincides  even  verbally  with  Kinys  . 
and  where  it  difl'ers  in  names,  etc.,  the  discrep- 
ancy can  1)0  explained  by  textual  corruptions, 
■either  in  Chronicles,  Kings,  or  their  common 
source.  But  the  point  of  view  is  priestly,  and 
therefore  the  author  dwells  at  greater  length 
upon  those  features  of  the  liistory  which  are 
ecclesia.stical.  Accordingly  we  find  his  narrative 
very  full  about  David's  religious  reforms  and 
arrangements,  Solomon's  erection  of  the  temple, 
its  consecration,  and  liis  care  for  religion  (he 
passes  over  his  defection).  In  regard  1o  the  other 
kings  he  emphasizes  those  like  Asa,  .lehoshaiihat, 
Joash,  Hezekiah,  and  Josiah,  wlio  were  zealous 
for  the  Jewish  religion.  While,  therefore,  accu- 
rate, his  language,  times,  mind,  and  jinrpose  col- 
ored his  story.  He  often  translates  the  old  speecli 
into  that  of  liisday;  alters  expressions  and  things; 
omits  single  facts,  and  explains  them  peculiarly, 
and  not  always  correctly  ;  scattt^rs  over  his  pages 
all  kinds  of  reflections  and  remarks.  lie  is 
influenced  by  his  dogmatic  environment.  By 
leaving  out  intermediate  cau.ses  lie  represents 
ordinarj'  events  as  miracles.  He  reproduces  the 
spirit  rather  than  the  letter  of  the  old  .sjK'eches 
he  professes  to  copy.  He  infu.ses  into  his  frequent 
descrijition.s  of  tlie  religious  festivals  of  former 
days  too  much  of  the  feeling  of  liis  own  day.  A 
hint,  at  times,  furni.sliea  him  materials  for  a  ])ic- 
ture.  In  general,  then,  it  is  true  that  liis  ideas 
are  correct  and  historical ;  but  liis  mode  of  treat- 
ment follows  the  fashion  of  a  lalcr  day,  and  his 
peculiarities  must  be  borne  in  mind  wIkmi  using 


Chronicles  for  historical  purposes.  —  The  lan- 
guage, wlien  not  that  of  quotation,  betrays  in 
idiom  and  words,  as  well  as  in  orthography,  its 
later  age  and  degeneracy.  The  lime  of  compo- 
sition is  after  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  (cf.  Neh.  xii. 
47),  more  exactly  about  330  B.  C,  or  a  little 
later,  in  the  beginning  of  the  Greek  rule  in  Asia, 
as  Ewald  acutely  argued  from  tlie  application  of 
the  phrase  "  King  of  Persia,"  to  Cyrus  and  his 
successors  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  22;  Ezra  i.  8,  etc.); 
nor  is  the  reckoning  according  to  darikonim 
("  drams  ")  (1  Chron.  xxix.  7,  and  in  Ezra  and  Xe- 
hemiah) against  this  vie^w;  because  sueli  reckon- 
ing would,  of  course,  continue  after  the  fall  of  the 
Persian  Empire.  —  The  object  of  the  writer  ■n-as 
not  so  much  to  retell  the  story  of  Israel,  as,  from 
the  rich  historical  stores  at  his  command,  to 
select  those  portions  wliich  related  more  particu- 
larly to  the  liistory  of  worship  in  order  to  demon- 
strate to  his  compatriots  how  precious  this  legacy 
was,  and  hon-  fundamental  to  the  existence  and 
prosperity  of  the  new  state  arising  from  the  aslies 
of  the  old.  —  The  author  was  either  a  priest  or  a 
Levite.  —  The  Septuagint  text  and  the  present 
JIasoretic  text  are  exactly  the  same.  —  The  book 
was  received  into  the  canon  because  of  its  impor- 
tant additions  to  histoi-y ;  but,  as  it  was  plainly 
recent,  it  was  relegated  to  the  Hagiographa.  It 
seems  to   have   been   originally   wanting  in   the 

Peshitto.  A.  DILLMANN. 

Dr.  Zdckler,  in  Lange,  says,  "  Xeither  the  exe- 
getical  nor  the  critical  literature  of  this  book  is 
very  rich  :  indeed,  there  is  scarcely  one  portion 
of  the  Old  Testament  that  has  found  fewer 
laborers,  either  in  the  one  respect  or  the  other. 
The  older  Jewish  commentators  shrank  from 
the  many  difficulties  which  tlie  genealogies  of 
the  first  chapters  presented;  and  there  are  in  all 
very  few  Jewish  commentaries.  Of  the  Church 
Fathers,  Theodoret  and  Proeopius  of  Gaza  alone 
commented  upon  the  book  at  any  length  :  Jerome 
is  very  cursory  and  meagi'e.  Xone  of  the  Re- 
formers have  treated  Chronicles  exegetically." 
Of  modern  works  the  best  are,  E.  Beutiieau  : 
Die  BUcher  der  Chronik  erkldrt,  Leipzig,  1865,  2d 
ed.,  1873;  C.  F.  Keii.  :  Bibt.  Komment.  iihcr  das 
A.T.,  Leipzig,  1870  (translated  in  Clark's  Foreign 
Theological  Library);  B.  Neteler  (R.  C): 
Die  Biichcr  der  bihtischen  Chronik,  iiher.'<etzt  u. 
erkldrt,  Miinster,  1872;  Rai'II.  Kiuciiheim  :  Ein 
Comtnentar  zur  chronik  aus  dcm  10  Jalirh.  zum 
cisternal  hrsg.,  Frankfurt-a.-M.,  1874;  ZiicKi-EK  : 
The  Books  of  Chronicles  (vol.  7tli  of  the  Amer- 
ican edition  of  Lange's  Commentanj,  translated 
by  Professor  James  G.  Mvri'hv  of  Belfast), 
>.ew  York,  1877.  —  Important  also  is  the  crit- 
ical though  destructive  monograph  of  K.  H. 
Gr.\f  :  Die  i/cscJiichtlichen  BUcher  des  A.T.,  Leil> 
zit;.  1S66. 

CHRONOLOCr.     See  Era. 

CHRYSOLOGUS,  b.  at  Imol.a,  lOG  ;  d.  there 
4.50;  was  maile  Bislioji  of  Ravenna  in  433,  and 
distinguished  himself  as  one  of  the  most  eloquent 
preachers  of  the  fifth  century.  A  liundied  and 
seventy-six  Sennones  ascribed  to  him  are  still 
extant ;  but  only  a  hundred  and  sixty  of  them 
belong  really  to  liim.  The  five  sermons  (^.57-62) 
on  the  apostolical  .synibolum  are  of  gi'cat  histori- 
cal interest,  as  containing  an  indejiendent  text. 
The   first  edition   of  the  sermons  -was  given  by 


CHRYSOSTOM. 


469 


CHRYSOSTOM. 


Vincentius,  Bonn,  1534,  and  often  reprinted.  His 
letter  to  Eutyches  was  edited  in  (iroek  and  Latin 
by  Vossius,  1()04.  Hotli  the  letter  and  the  ser- 
mons are  found  in  Bihl.  Afnx.  Polriim,  Lyons, 
Tom.  VII.     German  translation,  Kempten,  1874. 

CHRYSOSTOM  (CHRYSOSTOMOS),  Joannes, 
b.  at  Anlinrli,  -'il?;  <1.  at  t'onjana  in  Pratas, 
407;  descended  from  an  illustrious  Greek  family. 
His  father  was  Mar/ister  Militum  Oiientin.  His 
mother,  Anthusa,  was  a  Christian  woman;  and, 
though  only  twenty  years  old  wdien  lier  husband 
died,  she  rcMuained  a  widow,  and  concentrated 
her  whole  life  on  the  education  of  her  .son.  The 
young-  Chrysostom  —  the  name  is  a  surname  (the 
"  golden-mouthed  ")  occurring  for  the  first  time  in 
the  beginning  of  the  seventli  century,  with  Isi- 
dore of  .Seville  —  was  destined  for  a  public  career 
in  the  administration  or  the  court,  and  received 
instruction  from  the  celebrated  rhetorician  Liba- 
nius.  But  there  was  a  deeper  craving  in  his 
nature.  Rhetoric  became  repugnant  to  him.  At 
last  he  left  the  Pagan  sophist  for  the  Chris- 
tian priest;  and,  after  studying  for  three  years 
under  Bishop  Meletius  of  Antioeh,  he  was  bap- 
tized. 

Monasticism,  and  generally  the  ascetic  views 
of  his  time,  attracted  him  powerfully ;  aiul  inmie- 
diately  after  the  death  of  his  motlier  he  joined  a 
society  of  hermits  living  in  the  mountains  outside 
Antioeh.  It  was  probably  there  that  he  met 
with  Diodorus,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Tarsus,  and 
founder  of  the  school  of  Antioeh  ;  and  how  deep 
a  satisfaction  he  extracted  from  this  kind  of  life, 
in  which  study  of  the  Bible,  and  meditation  on 
holy  things,  alternated  with  prayers  and  manual 
labor,  may  be  seen  from  a  couple  of  enthusiastic 
treatises  written  in  its  praise,  and  more  especially 
from  two  letters  addressed  to  his  friend  Theo- 
dorus,  afterwards  Bishop  of  IMopsuestia,  who 
wished  to  abandon  monasticism,  and  marry. 
After  the  lapse  of  six  years,  however,  his  fail- 
ing health  compelled  Chrysostom  himself  to 
forsake  the  solitude ;  and,  having  returned  to 
Antioeh  in  380,  he  was  ordained  a  deacon  by 
Meletius. 

Thus  began  his  practical  labors  in  the  service 
of  the  Church,  and  he  inaugurated  this  period  of 
his  life  by  the  publication  of  his  celebrated  trea- 
tise On  the  Priesthood.  In  386  he  was  ordained  a 
presbyter  by  Flavian,  the  successor  of  Meletius. 
Aa  a  presbyter  he  began  to  preach,  and  the  very 
next  year  offered  a  grand  opportunity  for  his  ex- 
traordinary oratorical  gifts.  A  rebellion  broke 
out  in  Antioeh,  and  the  statues  of  the  imperial 
family  were  hurled  dow-n  from  the  pedestals  into 
the  dust.  But  the  rebellion  was  speedily  sup- 
pressed, and  the  city  was  in  an  agony  of  fear. 
Flavian  proceeded  to  Constantinople  to  avert  the 
emperor's  wrath  ;  and  in  the  mean  time  Chrysos- 
tom delivered  his  famous  twenty-one  sermons  On 
the  Statues.  The  activity  which  he  developed  as 
a  preacher  during  the  twelve  years  he  staid  in 
Antioeh  was  very  great ;  and  his  fame  as  the 
first  preacher  of  the  Church  was  spreading  rap- 
idly. We  have  still  from  that  time  sixty-seven 
sermons  on  Genesis,  sixty  on  the  Psalms,  ninety 
on  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  eighty-eight  on  the 
Gospel  of  John,  and  a  number  on  the  Epistles  to 
the  Romans,  Corinthians,  Galatians,  Ephesians, 
Timotheus,  and   Titus.      Of    a  more   strongly- 


marked  doctrinal  character  is  the  series  of  ser- 
inons  against  the  Anomoeans,  belonging  to  the 
sanu!  period. 

In  308  he  removed  to  Constantinople.  Eulro- 
pius,  tlie  favorite  of  the  Emperor  Arcadius,  wislied 
to  see  him  placed  on  the  patriarchal  throne  of 
the  metropolis;  but  Chrysostom  absolutely  re- 
fu.sod  to  assume  the  responsibility  of  such  a  posi- 
tion. Nevertheless,  by  a  trick  he  was  allured  to 
Constantinople,  and  by  force  he  was  compelled  to 
accejjt  the  patriarchal  ordiiuition  from  Theophilus 
of  Alexandria.  Thus  he  suddenly  found  him- 
self at  the  head  of  the  whole  Greek  Church,  very 
nmch  against  his  own  will.  Tlie  situation  was 
full  of  dangers  to  him.  He  was  a  man  of  single 
aims  and  straight  ways.  Severe  to  himself,  he 
was  sevei'e  to  others  too ;  and,  in  his  passionate 
hatred  of  any  thing  bad  or  w'-ong,  his  franknes.* 
and  courage  prevented  him  f?-  :'.  paying  any  re- 
gard to  circumstances.  But  sucli  a  man  was  very 
ill  adapted  to  manage  the  wliinis  of  a  despotic 
com't,  and  handle  a  population  immoral  beyond 
description,  fanatical  unto  fury,  and  exceedingly 
proud  of  its  own  doctrinal  orthodoxy.  Controver- 
sies with  heretics,  Arians,  Novatians,  etc.,  added 
to  the  difficulties  ;  and  the  situation  finall}-  proved 
too  strong  for  the  man  who  had  been  pressed 
into  it. 

Some  Egyptian  monks,  who,  on  account  of  the 
esteem  in  which  they  held  Origen,  had  excited 
the  displeasure  of  Theophilus,  Patriarch  of  Alex- 
andria and  a  very  violent  character,  fled  to  Con- 
stantinople, and  sought  refuge  with  Chrysostom. 
Theophilus  was  sunnnoned  to  Constantinople  to 
defend  himself.  But  on  his  arrival  there  he 
found  that  Eudoxia,  the  empress,  was  very  ill 
disposed  towards  Chrysostom ;  and  at  the  de- 
cisive moment  he  managed  to  assume  the  part 
of  the  judge  instead  of  that  of  the  accused. 
Under  his  presidency  a  synod  was  convened 
on  the  imperial  estate  at  Chalcedon,  —  the  so- 
called  Synodus  ad  Quercvm  ;  and  there  forty- 
six  accusations  were  raised  against  Clirysostom, 
most  of  them  mere  lies,  and  some  of  them 
completely  ludicrous.  Nevertheless,  as  the  synod 
was  composed  of  Chrysostom's  enenries,  it  gave 
in  a  verdict  of  guilty,  recommending  his  depo- 
sition and  banishment.  Tlie  Emperor  accept- 
ed the  verdict ;  and  Chrysostom  was  secretly 
brought  on  board  a  vessel  to  be  carried  to  Bithy- 
nia.  But  an  earthquake  wliich  shook  the  city 
during  the  night,  and  the  threatening  fermen- 
tation in  the  population,  frightened  the  court. 
Chrysostom  was  recalled,  and  received  by  the 
people  with  gxeat  applause.  Thus  he  escaped 
the  first  bolt. 

A  few  months  later,  a  silver  statue  of  Eudoxia 
was  raised  on  a  colunm  of  poiiihjTy  in  front  of 
the  Church  of  St.  Sophia,  and  consecrated  with 
all  those  idolatrous  ceremonies  and  licentious 
rites  which  characterized  such  an  occasion  during 
the  days  of  rank  Paganism.  Chrysostom  gave  a 
warning :  Eudoxia  accepted  it  as  a  challenge. 
Chrysostom  went  farther :  he  is  reported  to  have 
said  in  the  pulpit,  "  Again  Herodias  is  dancing ; 
agam  she  demands  the  head  of  John  on  a 
charger ; "  and  the  empress  now  determined  to 
get  rid  of  the  man.  A  council  of  Constantinople 
deposed  Iiim  a  second  time ;  and  June  20,  404,  he 
was  dragged  into  exUe,  Cucusus  in  Lesser  Ar* 


CHUBB. 


470 


CHURCH. 


menia  having  been  fixed  as  hLs  abode.  In  this 
dismal  village  he  spent  three  j-ears  in  bodily 
pain  and  mental  anguish,  but  without  losing  his 
influence  on  the  Church,  without  even  relaxing 
his  hold  on  his  congregation  in  Constantinople. 
Xo  less  than  two  hundred  and  thirty  letters, 
written  from  this  place,  are  still  extant,  and  bear 
witness  to  the  extraordinary  power  and  purity  of 
his  mmd.  His  friends,  even  the  Bishop  of  Rome 
and  the  Emperor  Ilonorius,  labored  for  his  re- 
call ;  but  the  result  of  their  exertions  was  simply 
that  he  was  transferred  to  a  still  more  distant 
place,  Pityos  in  Colchis.  On  the  way  thither  he 
died. 

Lit.  —  Collected  editions  of  his  works  have 
been  given  by  Savilius,  Etonre,  1013  (8  vols.), 
Fronto  Duc.eus,  Paris,  1609—30  (12  vols.),  and 
MoxTrAU90N,  Paris,  1718-38  (13  vols.),  re- 
printed at  Venice,  1755,  re-edited  in  Paris,  1835- 
40.  Separate  editions  of  his  single  works  are 
verj"  numerous.  [Englisli  translations  of  the  homi- 
lies and  De  HucerJotio  are  found  in  the  Oxford 
Library  of  the  Fathers  (1842-53).]  His  life  was 
first  written  by  his  contemporary,  Pall.-vdius  : 
Dialogus  Historicus  .  .  .  de  Vila  el  Concersaiione 
J.  Chrysostomi;  compare  Socr.\tes  :  Hist.  Eccel., 
VI.  2-21  ;  SozoMEXus,  VIII.  c.  2-23 ;  Theo- 
DORET,  V.  27,  34;  Jerome:  De  Vir.  TIL,  129. 
Among  modern  biographers  see  Neander  :  Dcr 
heilige  Chrysoslomiis,  Berlin,  1831,  3d  ed.,  1848, 
2  vols.  [1st  vol.  translated  into  English  by  J.  C. 
Stapleton,  London,  1838]  ;  Riviere  :  Ckri/sos- 
tome  comme  predicateur,  Strassburg,  1845;  LuTz: 
Chrysostomus,  Tiibingen,  1846;  [Perthes  :  Life  uf 
Chrysoslom,  Boston,  1854 ;  W.  A.  W.  Stephens  : 
Life  and  Times  of  Chrysostom,  London,  1872  (2d 
ed.,  1880)].  C.  BURK. 

CHUBB,  Thomas,  deist,  b.  in  East  Harnham, 
near  Salisbury,  Sept.  29,  1679;  d.  at  Salisbury, 
Feb.  8,  1710.  He  was  a  tallow-chandler  to  the 
end  of  his  life.  When  Whiston  published  his 
Primitice  Christianity  revived,  Chubb  wrote  a  de- 
fence of  the  idea  of  the  supremacy  of  the  one 
God  and  Father,  expressed  in  the  preface,  entitled 
The  Supremacy  of  the  Father  asserted,  iind  sent  it 
to  "Whiston,  who  printed  it  in  1715.  This  brouglit 
Chubb  into  notice,  and  induced  liim  to  write  a 
good  deal.  He  represents  the  decay  of  Deism  in 
England.  He  .stated  his  objections  to  orthodoxy 
in  a  simijle,  vigorous  style ;  but  lie  had  no  learn- 
ing, nor  very  great  logical  ability.  His  principal 
writings  are,  A  Discourse  concerning  Reason,  Lon- 
don, 1731 ;  The  True  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  vindi- 
cated, 1730  (advocating  the  pregnant  idea  that 
Christianity  is  not  doctrine,  but  life:  wrongly, 
however,  lie  makes  the  true  gospel  of  Christ 
identical  with  natural  religion :  Lechler  charac- 
terizes it  as  an  essential  moment  in  the  historical 
development  of  Deism);  The  Author's  Farewell 
to  his  Readers,  printed  in  his  Posthumous  Worlcs, 
2  vols.,  1748.  'J'his  is  the  most  complete  sum- 
mary of  liis  opinions.  He  denied  a  special  provi- 
dence, miracles,  literal  inspiration,  and  apparently 
Christ's  resurrection.  Stephen  says  his  writings 
show  a  very  cahn  and  honest  intellect ;  tluae  is 
little  bitterness  in  his  attacks  upon  the  E.stab- 
lished  faith  ;  and  his  arguments  arc  fairly,  though 
seldom  vigorously,  stated,  lie  was  a  man  of 
considerable  natinal  ability,  ami  in  many  of  hi.s 
tracts  (and    lie  wrote   more  ihau  fifty)    e.vhibits 


a  logical  faculty,  which,  guided  by  better  train- 
ing, might  have  made  him  a  formidable  antago- 
nist. But  it  was  not  to  be  expected  that  much 
new  light  was  to  be  thrown  upon  his  weU-worn 
topics  by  an  ignorant  chandler.  See  Lechler  : 
Geschichte  des  enylisclien  Deismus,  Stuttgart,  1841; 
Stephen:  History  of  English  Thouyht  in  the  Eigh- 
teenth Century,  London,  1876,  2d  ed.,  1881  ; 
Cairns:  Unbelief  in  the  Eii/hteenth  C'eji^ur^,  Edin- 
burgh and  N.  Y.,  1881.     See  Deism. 

CHURCH.  1.  The  Church  in  the  New- 
Testament.  Meaning  of  the  icord. — The  word 
CKK/Jima  in  the  New  Testament  means  either  the 
universal  Church  of  Christ,  or  a  local  congregation. 
In  modern  use,  "  church  "  means  also  the  "  house 
of  God,"  or  the  building  in  which  the  congrega- 
tion assembles  for  divine  worship,  and  a  particular 
"denomination."  [Our  English  word  "church" 
is  of  Greek  origin,  from  i/avpiahii  or  rdhvpiaKov;  in 
Anglo-Saxon,  cyrice;  in  Scotch,  kirk:  The  fact 
seems  to  be,  that  the  Romance  languages  derive 
their  word  for  "church"  from  inKh/aia;  e.g., 
French,  e'glise,  Italian,  chiesa ;  the  Teutonic  and 
Scandinavian,  from  mpiaK^.]  In  profane  Greek 
eaihiaia,  from  enKn'Auv  (to  call  together),  describes 
an  assembly  of  citizens  called  together,  usually  by 
a  herald,  the  members  of  which  were  therefore 
the  "  elect,"  ckkAiiioi  (the  called).  Instances  of 
this  usage  occur  in  Acts  xix.  32,  41,  —  "thea.s- 
sembly"  [n  eimhiaiu),  cf.  ver.  39,  where  the  town- 
clerk  contrasts  the  tumultuous  gathering  with  a 
"  lawfid  assembly "  {hvofioc  kKKkrioia).  But  the 
ecclesiastical  meaning  of  the  word  in  the  New 
Testament  is  directly  connected  with  the  Hebrew 
of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  Greek  of  the 
Septuagint.  The  two  expressions  in  the  Old 
Testament  for  the  people  of  God  are  nii'  and 

'T}\{ :  the  difference  between  them  is,  that,  while 
both  express  an  assembly,  nn^.  means  assembly 
in  general,  and  vnp  an  assembly  for  divine  wor- 
sliip ;  cf .  Lev.  iv.  13,  14,  where  the  two  words 
are  in  juxtaposition.  In  ver.  13  the  "congrega- 
tion "  is  general :  in  ver.  14  the  "  congi'egation  " 
is  that  assembled  for  religious  worship.  The 
Seventy  translate  Hli^.  by  amayuyi/,  and  never  by 
iKKhjiyia,  and  7np  also  by  omaYuyi/,  though  more 
frequently  by  iimhiaia.  At  bottom  lies  the  idea 
that  the  congregation  is  called  together  by  God 
himself. 

The  question  has  often  been  discussed,  whether 
Jesus  contemplated  a  new  Church  in  distinction 
to  the  Jewish  Church.  He  surely  announced  the 
nearne.ss,  nay,  the  e.xistence,  of  tlie  kingdom  of 
God.  But  did  he  mean  liy  this  a  particular 
organization  of  his  own '!  The  allusions  to  and 
parables  of  the  kingdom,  with  the  exception  of 
Matt.  xvi.  18,  do  not  leiiil  themselves  to  this  idea. 
The  "  kingdom  "  is  already  present  (Luke  xvii. 
21)  in  those  who  are  good  ground  for  tlie  seed 
sown  by  the  Son  of  man  (Matt.  xiii.  3-8,  37-43). 
These,  together  with  those  in  who.sc  hearts  the 
seed  does  not  come  to  fruitfulness,  and  tho.se  in 
whom  it  is  mixed  with  weeds,  are  represented  as 
standing  upon  one  and  the  same  field.  l}nt  of 
any  such  connection  between  them  as  member- 
.sliip  in  one  church  would  imply,  there  is  no  hint. 
Nor  is  there  any  in  the  parable  of  tlie  net  or  of 
the  pearl.  At  the  .same  time,  it  is  true  that  the 
disciples  constituted  a  little  body  by  theni.selves ■• 


CHURCH. 


471 


CHURCH. 


they  were  Jesus'  flock  (Luke  xii.  o2 ;  .John  x.  1 
.sqq.),  his  devoted  liaud,  whose  love  and  interest 
stood  in  boldest  contrast  to  the  indifference  and 
hate  of  the  rest  of  the  iiation.  Tn  Matt.  xvi. 
18  and  xviii.  17  sqq.,  however,  he  contemplates 
the  Church  whicli  should  result  from  their  ac- 
tivity, and  therefore  had  a  vision  of  tlie  coming 
times.  To  him  the  cKKhiaia  was  a  'Hp,  an  assem- 
bly for  divine  worship. 

Our  Lord  declared  that  lie  would  build  his 
Church  upon  Peter  (Matt.  xvi.  18)  ;  by  which 
play  on  the  word  pctros  (a  rock)  he  propliesied 
that  historically  his  Churcli  should  rest  upon 
the  sermon  and  activity  of  tlie  inspired  i\Ian  of 
Eock ;  and  the  Day  of  Pentecost  realized  his 
prophecy.  But  of  any  succession  in  office,  and 
government  of  the  Church  thus  establislied.  there 
is  not  a  word.  For  the  meaning  of  the  phrase 
"  power  of  the  keys,"  see  Keys,  Power  of  the. 

Very  naturally  in  the  Early  Church  the  apos- 
tles occupied  the  most  prominent  positions.  Yet 
there  was  no  distinction  in  authority  between 
them  and  the  newer  disciples ;  rather,  wlien 
churches  were  established,  they  left  them  to  the 
care  of  the  members,  and  discharged  in  all  literal- 
ness  their  Lord's  commission,  and  went  forth  to 
preacli  in  new  localities  the  gospel  of  Christ.  In 
Matt,  xxiii.  34  Jesus  speaks  of  sending  "  proph- 
ets, wise  men,  and  scribes ;  "  and  in  Matt.  xxiv. 
45  sqq.,  Luke  xii.  42  sqq.,  of  ".stewards  "  and 
"  upper  servants ;  "  all  which  expressions  are  not  to 
be  considei'ed  other  than  different  forms  of  loving 
service,  by  which  the  Church  was  built  up.  Next 
to  the  preaching  of  the  Word  came  baptism,  an 
institution  plainly  Christ's ;  and  every  congrega- 
'  tion  observed  the  other  sacrament,  the  Lord's 
Supper,  as  the  principal  feature  of  its  peculiar 
growth.  At  first  the  Church  was  a  Palestinian 
affair;  and  although  one  might  argue  it  was  in- 
tended to  be  much  more  comprehensive,  yet  there 
was  nothing  in  its  structure  to  directly  support 
the  opinion  that  it  would  ultimately  unite  Jew 
and  Gentile  in  one  society.  Therefore  evangeli- 
cal Protestantism  is  right  in  asserting  that  the 
existence  of  the  Church  does  not  depend  upon 
the  apostolic  forms ;  for  our  Lord's  speeches  con- 
cerning his  Church  have  nothing  to  do  with  tlie 
externals  of  religion,  the  ordering  of  worship,  and 
of  government,  nor  yet  with  the  formulating  of 
doctrine,  —  phenomena  whicli  have  gi^eatly  occu- 
pied later  attention.  [The  distinction  between 
the  Kingdom  of  God  and  the  Chm-ch  is  impor- 
tant to  observe.  The  Kuigdom  is  much  more 
■comprehensive.  It  exists  irrespective  of  the 
Church.  Its  members  are  the  ultimately  saved, 
whether  they  belong  to  the  Church  as  an  ecclesi- 
astical body,  or  not.  The  Church,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  made  up  of  aU  under  gospel  influences. 
Therefore,  when  we  pray  for  the  Church,  we  pray 
for  the  progress  of  divine  truth  with  all  its  at- 
tendant blessings ;  but  when  we  pray,  "  Thy 
kingdom  come,"  we  pray  for  the  speedy  presence 
of  the  saints,  gathered  under  the  sceptre  of  their 
King,  Jesus  Christ.] 

The  historical  Church  began  on  the  Day  of 
Pentecost;  and  it  was  at  first  composed  of  the 
disciples  whom  Jesus  had  personally  gathered. 
It  was  a  community  inside  of  Judaism,  with  pe- 
culiar worship  and  government.    It  was  the  eKK^ri- 


aia;  and  by  this  name  Paul  calls  it  in  liis  earliest 
Epistles,  w'liether  in  Palestine  oroutsi(l<'  (1  Thess. 
ii.  14).  Its  complete  iiamc^  was  the  "Church  of 
(lod,"  or  the  "Church  of  Christ"  (Hom.  xvi.  16), 
whether  of  a  single  congregation,  or  of  the  whole 
body  of  Ijelievers.  It  was  made  up  of  the  "sanc- 
tified in  Christ  Jesus"  (1  Cor.  i.  2),  the  "called 
saints"  (Rom.  i.  7),  the  "holy  nation"  (1  Pet. 
ii.  9).  In  the  deep  conception  of  Paul  every  be- 
liever was  united  with  Christ,  and  entered  this 
close  union  through  baptism  (1  Cor.  xii.  13;  Gal. 
iii.  27).  The  Church  was  Christ's  body,  of  which 
he  was  the  Head  (Col.  i.  24,  ii.  19). 

But  how  comes  it  that  this  body  of  Christ  is 
described  by  Paul  as  enclosing  unworthy  mem- 
bers, "vessels  of  dishonor"  (2  Tim.  ii.  20)? 
Not  because  the  term  is  used  in  a  general  sense, 
just  as  the  Israelites  were  called  collectively  the 
"  people  of  God,"  but  rather,  as  Luther  says,  be- 
cause Paul  speaks  synecdochically,  putting  the 
whole  for  a  part,  looking  not  at  the  unsaintly, 
but  at  the  saintly,  at  those  who  had  really  put 
on  Christ,  and  by  their  lives  gave  form  and  value 
to  the  whole  liody.  It  was  indeed  a  recognition 
of  the  distinction  between  the  visible  and  the 
invisible  Church :  only  we  must  bear  in  mind 
that  there  was  then  no  State  Church ;  so  that  the 
relations  of  the  unworthy  to  the  worthy  wei'e 
quite  different  from  wliat  they  afterwards  be- 
came, when  both  made  up  one  body  politic.  It 
is  noticeable  how  Paul  refers  to  Jesus'  idea  of 
the  kingdom  of  God.  He,  like  the  other  apostles, 
put  the  kingdom  into  another  reon,  when  the 
Lord  shall  in  person  unite  Christianity,  and  bring 
it  to  its  highest  development.  In  the  present 
£eon,  Christianity  is  a  developing,  spreading  force, 
working  upon  the  hearts  and  practices  of  men  : 
in  the  future  it  will  be  completed  (cf.  1  Cor.  vi. 
9  sqq.,  XV.  24,  50;  Gal.  v.  21;  Eph.  v.  5;  2 
Thess.  i.  5;  2  Tim.  iv.  1;  Heb.  xii.  28;  Jas. 
ii.  5;  2  Pet.  i.  11).  The  Church  in  the  present 
has  for  its  immediate  duty  the  steady  growth  in 
God,  letting  his  word  dwell  among  it  richly  (Col. 
iii.  IG),  praying,  praising,  and  working,  reaching 
out  its  hands  of  love  and  comfort  unto  all  needy 
ones,  and  providing  especially  for  the  necessities 
of  the  saints.  Each  member  is  a  priest  to  offer 
spiritual  sacrifices  (Heb.  xiii.  15  sq.). 

To  the  proper  discharge  of  these  duties  the 
Church  had  certain  officers,  who  were  endowed 
with  particular  gifts.  In  a  collective  sense  the 
duties  were  called  dianoviai  ("  ministrations,"  1 
Cor.  xii.  .5).  The  leaders  were  known  as  eniaiiOTTOi 
("overseers"),  who  were  the  elders,  or  "presby- 
ters," and  "deacons."  Originally  they  were  the 
selection  of  the  apostles  themselves,  then  by  the 
congTegations.  See  Clergy.  They  sprang  up 
in  accordance  with  the  wants  of  the  different 
churches.  Thus  "  deacons  "  were  a  necessity  in 
the  Jerusalem  church ;  and  that  church  was 
modelled  upon  the  symagogue.  But  the  clergy 
are  not  divinely  constituted  in  the  sense  that  God 
gave  .special  order  for  their  organization,  or  spe- 
cial du-ection  for  their  continuance  :  on  the  con- 
trary, the  New  Testament  contains  no  particular 
ecclesiastical  polity.  The  future  Church  was  left 
free  to  manage  its  affairs  according  to  its  needs. 
—  One  gift  of  the  na.scent  Church  was  the  pro- 
phetic (1  Cor.  xii.  28  sqq.).  It  was  necessary  to 
build  up  the  communities,  and  lead   them   unto 


CHURCH. 


472 


CHURCH. 


better  acquaintance  with  the  divine  'Word.  But 
the  "prophets"  were  not  an  order;  rather  the 
gift  was  shared  by  presbjiers  (1  Tim.  iii.  2,  v. 
17),  and  generally  by  the  Church  (Jas.  iii.  1). 
The  apostolic  office  was  by  its  very  conditions 
unique  and  untransniissible.  There  will  never 
be  apostles  again,  because  they  v.ere  the  divinely- 
ordered /ounrfers  of  the  Church.     See  Apostle. 

There  was  a  mighty  difference  between  the 
"  legal  "  church  in  Jerusalem,  and  the  "  spiritual  " 
churches  permeated  by  Paul's  heavenly  freedonr. 
But  bond  and  free  constituted  one  Chiu'ch  in 
Christ  Jesus ;  and  the  test  of  membership  was 
not  ecclesiastical  observances  or  theological  con- 
ceptions, but  love.  Love  to  Christ,  love  to  the 
brethren,  —  by  this  were  Christians  known  to  the 
world.  "  See  how  these  Christians  love  one  an- 
other ! "  was  the  admiring  speech  of  their  ene- 
mies. "  These  things  I  command  you,  that  ye 
love  one  another,"  said  Jesus  (John  xv.  17).  And 
John,  when  too  feeble  through  age  to  say  more, 
repeated  in  the  gatherings  at  Ephesus  the  words 
of  the  ^Master.  Love  was  the  higher  unity  in 
which  the  Church  forgot  minor  differences.  The 
seal  of  this  sweet  brotherhood  was  the  holy  kiss 
(Rom.  xvi.  16). 

2.  The  Ciiuiicn  .\xd  the  Doctri.ve  of  the 
Church  in  C.xtholicis.m.  (a)  The  Ancient 
Catholicism.  —  The  Catholic  Church  is  the  devel- 
opment of  the  Church  of  the  New  Testament; 
and  yet  it  contains  elements  which  certainly  are 
not  found  in  the  New  Testament.  In  place  of 
the  body  of  Clirist,  is  the  episcopacy  as  a  divine 
institution.  .Salvation  is  communicated  by  means 
of  a  priesthood.  Tlie  uniting  band  is  no  more 
brotherly  love,  but  the  external  organization. 
The  holiness  of  the  external  Church  is  increas- 
ingly emphasized,  instead  of  the  holiness  of  the 
individual  member,  leading  directly  to  a  belief 
that  the  Cliurcli  by  its  acts  can  impart  this 
quality.  The  I'aulinp  doctrine  of  faith,  and 
liberty  as  the  result,  is  anknown. 

The  Roman-Catholic  theologians  hold  this  en- 
tire movement  to  be  normal,  a  real  progi'ess 
along  the  lines  nuirked  out  for  it  in  the  New 
Testament.  The  Haur  school,  on  the  otlier  hand 
(see  ScHWKGLEit:  Das  nachapostolisclie  Zeitaller, 
1846),  hold  that  the  Catholic  Church  was  the 
resultant  of  the  Petrine  (the  particular)  and  the 
Pauline  (the  universal)  tendencies  of  the  earliest 
times,  —  a  position  contradicted  by  th(^  facts. 
Much  more  to  the  point  is  it  to  recognize  tlie  posi- 
tion of  tlie  Church  in  th(>  midst  of  the  Ronuin 
world,  wliich  was  permeated  with  the  i<lea  of  law, 
and  therefore  to  find  in  the  influence  of  the  em- 
pire the  solution  of  the  unquestionable  tighten- 
ing of  cliurch  bands.  The  Cliurch  opposed  itself 
to  tlie  world.  It  reqiiired  a  strongxu-  external 
organization  to  enalile  it  to  cope  .successfully  with 
its  foes.  And  this  it  received,  although  not  ac- 
cording to  any  direct  and  special  divine  plan, 
from  its  very  historical  environment.  When  the 
Churcli  thus  benefited  liy  tlie  situation,  and  ex- 
hibited a  marked  departure  from  New-Testament 
ideas  in  otlier  ways,  there  wa-s  not  necessarily  any 
fall  from  .so-called  "primitive  ])iuity."  It  is  im- 
portant to  bear  in  mind  tliat  the  apostles  were 
not  representative  men,  but  inspired  and  elevated 
aVjove  their  times.  Their  writings  are  not,  tliere- 
fore,  to  be  considered  as  the  expression  of  the 


Christian  consciousness  of  their  times,  but  rather 
of  their  consciousness,  —  quite  a  different  thing. 
[Indeed,  the  Epistles  are  the  very  best  evidence 
that  the  apostolic  churches  were  by  no  means 
always  such  model  commmiities  as  pious  fancy 
pictures  ;  although,  speaking  generally,  the  spon- 
taneity and  beauty  of  the  new  life  must  be  freely 
and  heartily  granted.] 

We  now  examine  the  writings  of  the  Fathers, 
with  a  view  to  bring  out  their  ideas  upon  the 
Church.  And  first,  Clement  of  Rome,  in  his  First 
Epistle  In  the  Corinthians,  parallels  the  episcopacy, 
or  the  presbyterate,  with  the  Old-Testament 
priesthood,  and  the  offerings  in  prayer  which 
these  bishops  bring  with  the  offerings  of  the 
priests,  but  knows  nought  of  bishops  as  successors 
of  the  apostles,  nor  of  offerings  by  them  of  saving 
efficacy  for  tlie  congregation.  In  the  Pastor  of 
Hennas,  the  high  idea  of  the  Church  comes  out 
in  his  identification  of  the  "Jerusalem  that  is 
above"  (Gal.  iv.  26)  with  the  earthly  Church. 
Ignatius,  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Church  of  Smyrna, 
and  the  JIuratorian  Fragment,  first  speak  of  the 
"  Catholic  Church,"  —  a  phrase  of  contested  mean- 
ing, but  probably  in  opposition  to  the  dividing 
and  differing  heretical  churches.  The  Catholic 
Church  takes  in  all  true  Christians ;  and  so  each 
congregation  was  a  "Catholic  Church." 

^Mth  noteworthy  definiteness  speaks  IgTiatius : 
"  Each  church  stands  under  one  bishop,  who  is  the 
representative  of  Christ  or  of  God,  and  under  the 
presbj'ters,  who  are  about  the  bishop  as  the  apos- 
tles were  about  Christ."  But  he  does  not  discuss 
the  questions,  how  tlie  bishops  came  to  occupy 
this  position,  how  far  they  were  divinely  gifted 
for  their  office,  and  how  the  Churcli  and  they 
were  guarded  against  erroneous  leadings.  Irena>us 
and  Tertullian  voice  the  general  opinion  of  their 
day,  when  they  speak  of  the  episcopacy  as  the 
representatives  of  the  apostles,  continuing  their 
work  of  teaching  and  leading  the  Church,  and 
thus  giving  to  it  "aiio.stolicitj'."  See  Irenanis 
(IV.  26,  2)  and  his  famous  sentence  (III.  24,  1): 
"  Ubi  ecclesia,  ibi  .Spiritus  Uei,  et  ulii  Spiritus  Dei,. 
illic  ecclesia  et  omnis  gratia  "  ("  Wliere  the  Church 
is,  there  is  the  Spirit  of  Ciod ;  and  where  the 
Spirit  of  (iod  is,  tliere  is  the  Church,  and  every 
kind  of  grace").  Similarly  Tertullian  compares,, 
as  Clement  of  Rome  had  done,  the  presbyterate, 
and  especially  the  episcopacy,  to  the  Old-Testa- 
ment priestliood,  asserting  that  to  the  Cliurch 
belonged  an  "  order  of  priests,"  and  that  the 
bishop  was  the  "high  priest"  (ponti/ex  marijnns, 
upXiepei'Z).  It  must,  however,  be  allowed  that  the 
notion  of  the  bishop  as  the  dispenser  of  the 
means  of  grace  was  the  development  of  a  later 
age.  —  The  Alexandrian  theology  of  a  Clement 
and  an  Origen  did  not  affect  tliis  development. 
Their  ]>]iiIosophical  and  aristocratic  gnosis  was 
out  of  the  stream  of  New- Testament  Cliristianity. 
Agauist  this  stream  Montanism  tried  tci  work  its 
way,  but  failed ;  and  we  find  its  progress  in 
Cyprian,  to  whom  tlie  bishops  are  the  Church's 
rulers,  witli  divine  authority.  Baptism  was  in- 
deed allowed  to  be  valid,  even  if  performed  by 
heretics  or  schisnuitics ;  yet  the  sliibliolctli,  that 
"out  of  the  Church  there  is  no  salvation,"  wa-s 
maintained  ;  for  tho.se  b.aptized  by  outsiders  first 
H'ceived  the  saving  effects  of  their  baptism  when 
they  entered    the    Cliurch.      See    Baptism    dy 


CHURCH. 


473 


CHURCH. 


Heretics.  Besides  the  expressions  of  Cyprian, 
wliicli  show  tliat  to  tlie  episcopacy  lie  granted 
unconilitional  authority,  are  others  wliich  as  em- 
phatically point  to  a  necessary  ])articipation  of 
the  presbyters,  and  even  of  the  laity,  particularly 
in  the  "power  of  the  keys."  Nor  does  he  suggest 
any  explanation  of  this  contradiction.  In  him, 
also,  the  priest,  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  represents 
Christ,  and  offers  the  body  of  Christ.  See  ]\Iass. 
It  is  true,  however,  tliat  he  does  not  use  tlie 
word  "  body  "  in  its  later  Honian  sense.  —  Cyprian 
finds  the  unittj  of  the  Chui'ch  in  its  being  built 
upon  the  one  Peter  (Matt.  xvi.  18).  In  Rome  he 
sees  the  "cathedra  Petri,"  the  root  and  the  matrix 
of  the  Catholic  Church  {De  Unit.  EccL,  c.  4  ;  Epist., 
70,  73,  5.5  [.59],  45  [48]);  yet  he  explains  that 
the  Lord  granted  to  the  other  apostles,  and  to 
the  post-apostolic  bishops,  the  same  power  origi- 
nally given  to  Peter,  and  vindicates  for  himself 
independent  episcopal  authority.  See  tlie  Old 
Catholic  bishop  Reinke.xs  :  Die  Lehre  des  hi. 
Cyprian  von  der  Einheit  der  Kirche,  AViirzburg, 
1873. 

We  come  now  to  Augustine.  It  is  from  him 
tliat  the  Church  received  her  deepest  and  fullest 
exposition  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Church.  The 
historical  occasion  for  this  was  the  contest  with 
the  Donatists,  who  denied  the  holiness  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  because  she  kept  within  her 
fold  tliose  who  had  sinned  unto  death,  as  they 
claimed;  i.e.,  those  wlio  had  delivered  up  the 
sacred  writings  to  the  heathen  persecutors.  To 
these  idealists  Augustine  opposed  the  true  con- 
ception of  the  Church  as  really  tlie  body  of  Christ, 
because  the  di^dne  energy  impelled  her,  and  the 
divine  love  inflamed  her,  and  not  liecause  she 
was  spotless.  In  this  mixed  body  the  Lord 
knoweth  his  own.  The  elect  constitute  the  true 
inner  Churcli.  It  was  substantially  from  Augu.s- 
tine  that  tlie  present  Roman-Catholic  doctrine  of 
the  Church  has  been  developed.  He  teaches 
that  out  of  the  Cliurch  there  is  no  salvation,  and 
the  sacraments,  including  ordination,  have  no 
efficacy.  He  contends  for  the  divine  right  of 
episcopacy,  and  calls  the  Church  "catholic,"  be- 
cause she  spreads  herself  all  the  world  over. 
Upon  her  depends  the  individual  faith.  He  de- 
clared that  he  believed  the  gospel  only  on  the 
autliority  of  the  Catholic  Church  ("  Evangelio 
non  crederem  nisi  me  catholics  ecclesise  commo- 
veret  auctoritas,"  c.  Epi-st.  Euml.):  consequently 
he  finds  nothing  in  the  Scriptures  which  contra- 
dicts the  teachings  of  tlie  Catholic  Church.  And, 
finally,  he  demands  for  this  Church  the  support 
of  the  .State. 

(6)  The  Oriental  and  Occidental  (Roman)  Catholi- 
cism. —  The  priesthood  and  the  episcopacy  were 
fully  developed  in  both  branches  of  Christendom, 
and  in  the  Occidental  churches  the  further  ideas 
of  priestly  sacrifice  and  absolution,  and  of  govern- 
ment in  the  Church  analogous  to  that  in  the 
State,  much  more  than  in  the  Oi-ient.  It  is 
markworthy  that  the  schisms  which  devastated 
this  Church  —  the  Novation  and  the  Donatist  — 
were  peculiar  to  the  Occident.  This  organiza- 
tion was  at  length  carried  to  the  point  of  the 
papal  monarchy,  coupled  with  pajjal  infallibility. 
The  Oriental  churches,  on  the  other  hand,  in- 
dulged in  doctrinal  speculations  of  various  kinds, 
particularly  in  soteriology. 


Pope  Leo  I.  claimed  for  the  Papacy,  in  tlie  way 
of  government  more  than  of  doctrine,  the  care 
of  the  Universal  Church.  Out  of  his  teachings 
the  later  claims  were  naturally  developed.  Tlie 
jiolitical  position  of  Rome  in  the  empire,  and 
the  support  given  to  the  Church  of  Rome  by  the 
(iuiperor  (edict  of  Valentinian  HI.,  A.I).  44.5), 
helped  very  greatly  this  Icmlency.  The  desire  of 
the  Latin  and  German  peoples  in  the  middle  age 
for  an  earthly  repi'escntation  of  the  divine  was 
gratified  in  the  apjiearance  of  the  one  Roman 
representative  of  the  one  heavenly  Lord,  as  by 
the  doctrines  of  tlie  mass,  the  saving  efficacy  of 
the  sacraments,  the  transmission  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  through  the  oi'dination  and  the  priesthood, 
with  their  ability  to  forgive  .sins  as  God's  vice- 
gerents. Over  the  State  the  Church  claimed 
authority;  and  the  great  popes  of  the  middle 
age,  Gregory  VH.  and  Innocent  HI.,  carried  out 
this  authority  to  its  widest  possible  extent. 
Finally,  the  Occidental  Cliurch  claimed  to  be 
the  onli/  Catholic  Church,  denying  to  the  Greek 
Chm-ch  any  part  in  the  genuine  Church  of  Christ 
[or,  ratlier,  calling  it  schiwiaticnQ. 

But  these  ])retensions  of  the  Chair  of  Peter  h.ad 
not  yet  been  formulated  as  a  dogma ;  for  in  oppo- 
sition to  them  stood  not  only  the  civil  authority, 
which  endeavored  to  break  the  yoke  of  tlie 
Church,  but  also  national  pride,  as  in  France, 
during  the  pontificate  of  Boniface  VIII.,  the  con- 
.sciousness  of  their  original  independence  and 
importance  on  the  part  of  the  bishops,  the  Ijad  or 
w'eak  character  of  the  popes,  and  tlie  great  papal 
schism,  which  aroused  tlie  Church  against  the 
Papacy.  Hence,  especially  in  France,  do  we  find 
a  vigorous  exposition  of  a  Catholic  Church  in 
distinction  to  the  Roman  Church  ;  and  under  the 
leader.ship  of  D'Ailly  and  Gerson  (cf.  his  De 
modi.i  uniendi  el  ref.  eccles.)  these  ideas  were  pre- 
sented in  the  great  Reform  councils :  the  coun- 
cils were  infallible,  not  the  Pojie ;  the  Roman 
Church  was  fallible,  and  under  the  authority  of 
the  Universal  Church,  which  was  represented  in 
the  councils,  composed  not  of  Ijishojis  alone,  but 
also  of  princes,  and  delegates  from  the  universi- 
ties ;  the  Head  of  the  Church  was  Christ ;  the 
Pope  was  not  the  head,  but  only  the  vicar  of 
Christ.  The  divine  right  of  e]iiscopacy,  and  the 
divine  ordinance  of  the  papal  primacy,  were  not, 
however,  denied;  and  Hus  was  condemned  to 
death,  even  by  a  Gerson  and  a  D',\illy,  for  main- 
taining that  the  true  Church  was  made  up  of  the 
elect,  that  the  Papacy  was  not  divinely  appointed, 
and  that  councils  were  not  infallible. 

Notwithstanding  this  opposition,  the  papal 
theory  gained  ground.  It  dominated  tlie  Lateran 
Council  (151"2-17)  under  Leo  X.  The  Jesuits 
gave  it  their  powerful  advocacy.  Bellarmine 
defines  the  Church  as  the  assembly  of  those  pro- 
fessors of  the  Christian  faith  who  are  bound  by 
the  sacraments  under  the  rule  of  legitimate  pastors, 
and  especially  under  the  Pope.  But  the  Council 
of  Trent  refused  to  decide  between  the  opposing 
theories ;  and  it  was  left  for  the  Vatican  Council 
of  1870  to  gjve  the  logical  conclusion  to  tlie  long 
development,  in  its  dogma  of  the  infallibility  of 
the  Pope,  when  speaking  ex  cathedra  upon  inat^ 
ters  of  faith  and  morals.  This  makes  the  Pope 
the  Head  of  the  Church,  and  as  Pope  Pius  LX. 
iictually  claimed,  in  his  famous  letter  of  Aug,  7, 


CHURCH. 


474 


CHURCH. 


1873,  to  the  Emperor  'Williani,  rightful  ruler  of 
aU  who  have  received  baptism. 

3.  The  Church  and  the  Protestant  Dog- 
ma OF  THE  Church  since  the  Reformation. 
The  Waldensians  were  the  first  to  return  to  the 
primitive  idea  of  the  Church,  Viut  witliout  any 
new  principle  of  church-action,  or  any  scienti- 
fically settled  doctrine  upon  the  subject.  The 
first  "theologian  who  opposed  to  the  Roman- 
Catholic  doctrine  of  the  Church  another  which 
was  well  gi-ounded,  was  Wiclif,  whom  Hus  fol- 
lowed. According  to  him,  the  Church  is  the 
•company  of  the  predestinated.  This  was  so  far 
forth  both  Catholic  and  Augustinian :  but  the 
conclusion  to  which  his  idea  led  liini  was  decidedly 
otherwise ;  for  lie  declared  that  to  the  proper  ad- 
ministration of  salvation  neither  priest,  nor  bishop, 
nor  pope  was  needful.  He  denied  the  papal 
primacy  and  the  de  jure  dU-ino  episcopacj",  and 
maintained  that  God  granted  the  laity  to  hold 
fast  to  truths  lost  sight  of  by  the  clergy.  The 
Church,  to  AViclif,  was  the  elect,  both  living  and 
dead.  The  next  champion  of  Protestantism  to 
Hus  is  Luther,  who,  at  the  Leipzig  Disputation 
(1517),  defined  the  Church  as  the  Comnninion  of 
Saints,  whose  existence  depended  upon  its  posses- 
sion of  the  Word  and  sacraments,  and  not  of 
bishop  or  clergy.  The  "power  of  the  keys," 
which  the  true  Chui'ch  knew,  was  no  exclusive 
class-possession,  but  the  assurance,  by  the  means 
of  gi'ace,  that  sin  was  forgiven,  independent  of 
the  personal  character  of  the  administrator.  The 
saints  who  form  the  Church  are  those  who  have 
been  sanctified  by  the  Word  and  sacraments, 
through  the  exercise  of  faith.  On  this  basis 
Luther  conducted  the  revolt  against  Rome ;  prov- 
ing out  of  the  Word  that  no  human  agency  inter- 
vened before  the  sinner  and  his  Saviour,  but  that 
by  faith  in  Christ  we  were  saved,  and  became 
members  of  his  body.  The  Church  thus  defined 
was  real,  although  not  visible,  except  to  God,  who 
knows  his  own.  The  evidence  of  saintship  was  a 
holy  life,  and  of  the  Church  was  tlie  preaching  of 
the  AVord  and  the  sacraments ;  and  it  conse- 
quently assumed  such  shape  as  best  suited  this 
activity.  Luther  held  strong  notions  of  the  right 
and  power  of  the  Churcli  to  punish  otfences.  In 
cutting  loose  from  the  Churcli  of  Home,  Luther 
(like  the  Waldensians  so  long  before)  recognized 
in  that  Church  the  membei's  of  Christ's  Church. 
Very  different,  of  course,  was  Rome's  opinion  of 
Luther's  followers.  In  the  mouth  of  the  Luther- 
ans the  Catholic  Churcli  is  the  Church  spread  all 
over  the  world  and  over  all  the  centuries.  Its 
Head  is  the  one  Christ:  its  bands  are  the  one 
faith,  one  hope,  one  baptism.  As  is  evident,  this 
definition  of  Lutlier's  is  too  vagu(;  to  decide  the 
many  questions  and  problems  wliich  it  starts ; 
what  is  purity  in  preaching,  and  administration 
of  the  sacraments,  and  how  far  is  it  necessary? 
•what  is  the  power  of  tlie  Churcli?  who  should 
exercise  it?  etc.  Tlie  i)ositioii  of  the  Church  to 
the  State  was  the  result  of  circumstances ;  its 
mode  of  government  was  almost  accidental  ;  and 
the  question  of  a  return  to  episcopacy  w:w  left 
open  for  many  years.  See  Lutheran  Church. 
Melanclithon  in  his  later  teaching  einpha-sizes  tlie 
conception  of  the  Clinrcli  as  a  visible  organiza- 
tion, in  whicli  the  ]ime  Word  or  the  pure  doctrine 
was  taught;  and  in  its  doing  of  these  tilings  con- 


sisted its  visibility.  [He  also  favored  a  modified 
episcopacy,  and  was  wilUug  even  to  allow  a  papal 
supremacy  over  the  Church,  provided  the  Pope 
tolerated  the  freedom  of  the  gospel.  See  Schaff  : 
Creeda,  I.  2.54.] 

The  Reformed  Confessions  describe  the  Church 
as  the  Communion  of  Believers  or  .Saints,  and 
condition  its  existence  on  the  pure  preaching  of 
the  Word.  They  distinguish  between  the  visible 
and  the  invisible  Church  ;  the  latter  composed  of 
the  elect,  who,  however,  know  their  election, 
and  therefore  their  membership  in  the  invisible 
Church.  The  Reformed  theologians  made  much 
less  of  tlie  sacraments.  Thev  declared  that  the 
Church  was  in  no  sense  the  "  clispenser  of  grace," 
as  the  Roman  Catholics  and  Lutherans  affirm. 
Various  solutions  were  offered  to  the  problem  of 
Church  and  .State.  Zwingli  made  the  Chm-ch 
the  servant  of  the  State.  Calvin  favored  presby- 
terial  government,  and  independence  of  the  .State, 
but  could  not  carry  out  his  scheme.  As  in  the 
case  of  the  Lutherans,  the  political  surroundings 
and  relations  dominated  the  Church,  and  only 
where  these  were  hostile  did  the  Church  assume 
independent  government.  The  theory  of  com- 
plete separation  of  Church  and  State  belongs  to 
a  later  period.  Inside  the  Reformed  churches 
difference  of  opinion  also  existed  in  regard  to 
ecclesiastical  polity ;  and  so  Presh_\i.erianisra  and 
Congi-egationalism  sprang  up  side  by  side.  The 
Reformed  theory  in  government  and  theology 
reached  its  extremest  point  in  Quakerism. 

L'nlike  either  the  Lutheran  or  the  Reformed 
churches,  is  the  Anglican.  Reformed  in  its  teach- 
ings on  the  sacraments,  it  is  yet  Melanchthonian 
in  its  assertion  of  the  visibility  of  the  Church. 
But  its  assertion  of  the  necessity  of  apostolical 
succession  to  the  existence  of  the  Church  of 
Christ  is  not  found  in  its  Thirty-nine  Articles. 

After  the  Reformation,  followed  a  period  when 
a  newly-awakened  religiousness  rebelled  against 
the  too  tightly  drawn  lines  of  ecclesiastical  polity. 
Then  came  in  rationalism,  religious  indifference, 
and  unbelief,  which  depreciated  the  Cliurch  in 
any  .sense.  .Speiier  strove  to  counteract  this  dis- 
integrating tendency  by  awakening  the  laity;  but 
Pietism  sought  rather  the  satisfaction  of  personal 
religious  \\ants  through  (;ccIcsIoI(e.  Tlie  piety 
which  here  sought  satisfaction  took  on  a  narrow, 
legal  character,  and  one  related  to  the  Reformed 
idea.  Rationalism  considered  the  Church  as  a 
purely  human  organization,  on  a  level  with  otlier 
societies,  and  denied  that  Jesus  ever  contemplated 
tlie  formation  of  a  Church. 

[Of  great  influence  was  the  view  of  Schleierma- 
clier  (i7<)8-liS;il);  namely,  that  "the  Christian 
Churcli  is  (piickened  by  the  Holy  (Jlio.st,  and  is 
in  its  purity  and  completeness  a  perfect  copy  of 
the  Saviour,  and  that  every  regenerate  soul  is 
a  coin]ionent  jiart  of  this  society "  (Dcr  clirhl- 
liche  Glanhc.  3d  ed..  Berlin.  183(i,  "ll.  3t)()).  The 
theory  of  Rotlie  (1799-1807)  w.is  quite  different. 
He  held,  that,  in  the  true  moral  dcvelopinent, 
civil  society  is  in  itself  a  religious  community. 
Every  man  should  have  a  part  in  the  Cliurch; 
for  only  thus  can  his  part  in  other  associ- 
ations Iiave  iiior.al  validity.  It  follows,  that, 
when  liuinanity  becomes  perfect,  the  Cliuicli  van- 
ishes ;  for  then  the  sjihere  of  the  moral  ami  that 
of  the  religious  communion  become  one  and  the 


CHURCH. 


475 


CHURCH-PROPERTY. 


samo:  hence  the  Church  disappears  in  proportion 
as  tlie  State  becomes  perfect.  Tliis  j^rachial  solu- 
tion of  tlie  Church  in  the  State  can  take  phice 
only  by  the  State  becoming  a  religious  body,  a 
kingdom  of  God,  —  a  tlieocracy  in  the  highest 
sense.  See  11.  Rothe:  Die  Anfdnr/e  der  christ- 
Uchen  Kirche,  Wittenberg,  1887.] 

The  f riglit  of  revolution  in  the  first  part  of  the 
century  produced  in  Germany,  in  some  quarters, 
a  longing  for  authority  ;  and  so  a  new  emphasis 
was  laid  upon  tlie  Church.  It  was  clothed  with 
divine  might  and  right:  it  was  a  divine  institu- 
tion, and  was  composed  of  the  baptized.  There 
was  talk  of  reviving  the  episcopacy.  The  dis- 
cussion elicited  by  tliis  Neo-Lutheranism  showed 
the  necessity  of  ecclesiastically  recognizing  the 
laity,  and  of  giving  them  part  in  the  government 
of  the  Church.  The  condition  of  the  Church's 
existence  and  growtli  is,  however,  not  in  its 
polity  or  policy,  but  in  its  use  of  tlie  divinely- 
ordained  means  of  grace,  and,  above  all,  in  the 
jM-esence  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  who  gives  efficacy  to 
the  Word,  and  enables  the  congregations  to  live 
and  work  together  in  love.  .J.  KbSTLix. 

lu  England,  about  the  same  time,  arose  Iligh- 
Churchism  (Anglo-Catholicism)  with  its  roman- 
izing  tendency  as  expressed  in  the  famous  Oxford 
Tracts  for  the  Times.  See  Puseyism,  Tuacta- 
]a.\NiSM.  The  Anglo-Catholics  announced  their 
lielief,  (1)  In  apostolic  succession  (i.e.,  the  min- 
istry of  the  Church  of  England  was  derived  by 
miinterrupted  descent,  through  episcopacy,  from 
the  aiiostles,  and  is  a  permanent  and  imalterable 
institution :  upon  this  connection  with  the  apos- 
tles rested  the  efficacy  of  the  sacraments) ;  (2)  In 
baptismal  regeneration;  (3)  The  eucliaristio  sac- 
rifice, and  the  real  conrmunion  in  the  body  and 
blood  of  our  Lord  ;  (4)  The  appeal  to  the  Cliurch 
from  the  beginning  as  the  depositary  and  witness 
of  the  truth.  Opposite  to  them  is  the  Broad- 
Church  party,  which,  in  the  interests  of  the  widest 
freedom,  denies  that  apostolical  succession  is 
essential  to  the  Church  and  the  sacraments.  A 
strange  product  of  the  extreme  High-Church 
view  is  the  Catholic  Apostolic  Church,  commonly 
called  the  Irvingite.  The  interpretation  of  the 
New-Testament  passages  in  the  interest  of  epis- 
copacy is  gradually  giving  way  to  a  more  liberal 
exegesis  under  the  influence  of  such  scholars  as 
Bishops  EUicott  and  Lightfoot,  G.  A.  .Jacob,  and 
E.  Hatch.    See  Bisnop;  Exgland,  Church  ov. 

Lit.  —  Petersen  :  Die  Idee  dcr  chrisilichen 
Kirche,  3  Thle.,  Leipzig,  lS3!)-iG;  W.  Palmer; 
On  the  Church,  London,  1842  ;  KOstlin  :  Lu- 
ther's Lehre  von  der  Kirche,  Gotha,  1853 ;  the 
same :  Luther's  Theologie,  18(53,  and  Das  Wesen 
der  Kirche  nach  Lehre  und  Geschichte  des  N.  T.,  2d 
ed.,  1872  ;  Munchmeyek  :  Das  Dorjma  v.d.  sichtb. 
■u.  unsichtb.  Kirche,  Gdttiugen,  1854 ;  St.\hi.  :  Die 
Kirchenverfassung  nach  Lehre  v.  Recht.  d.  Protest. 
2d  ed.,  Erlangen,  1862 ;  Huscuke  :  Die  streitiejen 
Lehren  von  der  Kirche,  Leipzig,  18(j3;  IIundes- 
hagen:  Beitrd(/e  zur  Kirchenrerfassungsyeschichle, 
Wiesbaden,  18G4;  Zezschwitz  :  Die  tvesentlichen 
i'er/asswu/sziclc  der  luth.  ii(;/b?v«.,  Leipzig,  1867; 
.1.  .1.  McElhixney  :  The  Doctrine  of  the  Church, 
i'hila.,  1871;  II.  Cotterill  :  The  Genesis  of  the 
<  ','iurch,  Edinburgh  and  London,  1872;  IL^ckkn- 
.s.'HMlDT:  Die  Anfdnge  des  kalholischen  Kirchen- 
liejriffs  /.,  Strassburg,  1874  ;  Riezleu  :  Dieliterar. 


Widrrsdchrr  der  Pupste,  Leipzig,  1874;  Th.  Fiin.s- 
ter;  Der  .Mtcalholizismus,  Gotha,  1879  ;  K.  Hack- 
ENs<'HMii>T  :  Die  Kirche  iin  Glauben  des  evan- 
i/e/ischi  n  Christen,  Erlangen,  1881. 

CHURCH-DIET.     Sec  Kirch extag. 

CHURCH-PROPERTY.  The  means  necessary 
for  its  (organization  and  maintenance  the  primi- 
t.i\e  t^hurch  dci'ived,  partly  from  voluntary  gifts, 
and  partly  from  direct  taxes  levied  ujion  its  mem- 
bership. The  revenues  thus  raised  were  collected 
in  a  conunon  diocesan  purse,  whence  they  were 
paid  out,  in  proportionate  allotments,  to  the 
clergy,  for  the  fabrica  ecclesice  (that  is,  the  church- 
liuilding,  the  cemetery,  etc.),  and  to  the  poor.  The. 
administration  devolved  originally  ujion  the  pres- 
bytei'v,  and  afterwards  upon  a  steward,  oMovojioq, 
appointed  by  the  presbytery,  and  acting  undei 
the  supervision  of  the  bishop.  The  Council  of 
Chalcedon  (451)  recommended  the  apj^ointment 
of  such  an  officer  in  every  diocese  ;  and  the  office 
was  still  in  existence  when  the  Fourth  Council  of 
Toledo  was  held  (633),  though  at  that  time  the 
financial  department  of  the  Christian  Church 
had  long  lost  its  original  simplicity. 

In  321  Constantine  tlie  Great  granted  permis- 
sion to  donate  and  bequeath  property  to  the 
Christian  Church ;  and  this  permission  was  so 
extensively  used,  that,  already  in  364,  Valentinian 
felt  constrained  to  enact  a  mortmain  law  in 
order  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  land  by  the 
Church.  Property  consisted  at  that  time  chiefly 
of  land ;  and  great  masses  of  landed  property 
accrued  to  the  Church  fi'om  bequests  for  the 
erection  or  ornamentation  of  buildings,  for  the 
foundation  or  maintenance  of  establishments, 
etc.  'N'alentinian's  law,  however,  liad  no  perma- 
nent influence.  Under  .lustinian  (527-565)  it 
became  a  recognized  maxim  of  Roman  jurispru- 
dence, and  the  general  practice  of  the  Roman 
courts,  to  put  tlie  most  favorable  construction  on 
wills  making  dispositions  of  property  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  tlun-ch.  It  occurred  very  frequently, 
tliat  by  will  a  legacy  was  given  to  the  Church 
in  general,  or  to  the  poor  in  general,  or  to  God  ; 
Imt  in  such  cases  the  courts  never  allowed  the 
legacy  to  be  lost  on  account  of  the  uncertainty  of 
tlie  instrument,  but  construed  it  to  inure  to  the 
parish  of  tlie  testator.  Thus  the  Church  soon 
liecame  very  rich,  holding  property  in  every  form 
in  which  property  could  be  held  :  and  this  wealth 
was  well  g-uarded ;  it  could  not  be  alienated  by 
its  present  incumbents,  and  robbers  of  it  were 
pmiislied  doubly. 

]5ut  the  question  now  arose,  '\A1io  is  the  true 
owner  of  all  this  property?  In  the  contest  be- 
tween the  monastic  institutions  and  the  episco- 
pal authority,  the  bishop  protested  that  he  was 
the  real  owner  of  all  the  ecclesiastical  property  in 
his  diocese ;  but  finding  no  support  from  the 
Pope,  whose  policy  it  was  to  use  monasticism  as 
a  counterpoise  to  the  episcop.acy,  the  claim  was 
never  recognized.  Again  :  in  the  contest  between 
the  episcopacy  and  the  papacy,  the  Pope  asserted 
that  he,  as  the  representative  of  the  Universal 
Church,  was  the  real  owner  of  all  the  property 
of  the  Church,  and  to  a  certain  extent  he  suc- 
cee<led  in  establishing  his  claim.  Finally,  in  the 
contest  between  the  Church  and  the  secular  gov- 
ernment, the  Church  declared  that  its  property 
belonged  to  Christ,  and  any  encroachment  upon 


CHURCH-PROPERTY. 


476 


CHURCHING  OF  WOMEN. 


its  rights,  or  privileges,  or  immunities,  was  a  rob- 
bery of  Christ.  It  may  be  doubtful  whether  such 
an  argument  ever  could  have  obtained  legal  force  ; 
but  it  is  certain  that  it  made  a  deep  impression 
on  people  in  general,  and  exercised  great  influ- 
ence on  the  formation  of  public  opinion.  There 
was  also  a  theory  afloat  according  to  which  the 
property  of  the  'Chiu-ch  belonged  to  the  poor; 
but  the"  practical  difliculties  of  this  theory  were 
.so  obvious,  that  it  remained  a  mere  phrase.  But 
the  true  theory,  that  on  which  practical  life 
moved  along,  was,  that  each  ecclesiastical  insti- 
tution was  the  real  o\\-ner  of  its  property :  not 
so,  however,  that  the  present  representatives  of 
the  institution,  the  congregation  of  the  Church, 
the  members  of  the  order,  the  inmates  of  an  asy- 
lum, etc.,  could  do  with  the  property  what  they 
liked ;  for  the  property  did  not  belong  to  the  per- 
sons who  enjoyed  it,  but  to  the  purjjose,  religious 
or  charitable,  for  whose  promotion  it  was  set  apart. 

The  Reformation  acknowledged  tliis  pruiciple, 
and  acted  upon  it,  at  least  in  the  beginning. 
When  the  object  of  a  certain  institution  was 
rejected,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  monas- 
teries, legacies  for  saying  mass,  etc.,  the  institu- 
tion was  dissolved,  and  its  property  confiscated. 
But  when  the  institution  was  preserved,  its 
projierty  remained  with  it,  and  was  applied  only 
for  religious  or  cliaritable  purposes.  See  Lutiiek  : 
Onlnung  eines  f/emeinfn  Kastens,  Itatliscldaf/,  tcie 
die  geistlichen  Giiter  zu  hamlelen  sind,  1523.  By 
degrees,  however,  as  the  Reformation  spread  and 
split,  and  every  State  organized  its  own  church 
establishment,  the  Church  became  a  function  of 
the  State,  a  State  institution,  and  the  State  be- 
came the  owner  of  the  property  of  the  Church. 
Such  is  the  case  in  all  Protestant  countries,  witli 
one  gi-eat  exception,  —  America,  in  which  the 
Church  is  perfectly  free  and  independent  of  the 
State,  —  and  a  number  of  minor  exceptions  arising 
from  the  existence  of  dissenting  churches  beside 
the  State  establishment.  Sucli  is  also  the  case  in 
France  ;  though  it  has  proved  very  difficult,  as  the 
people  are  Koman-Catliolic,  to  carry  through  there 
the  princijile  of  organizing  the  Church  as  a  State 
institution.  But  there  is  at  present  a  tendency 
abroad  in  all  evangelical  countries  to  revi.se  the 
now  ruling  system  of  Church  organization  in 
favor  of  freedom  and  independence ;  and  tlie  re- 
vision will,  of  course,  hav<'  its  influence  also  on 
the  question  of  holding  ])roperty.  See  the  articles 
on  TKniuTORi.\i.is.M  and  Cor.i.K<;i.\i.i.sM. 

In  .\merica  a  churcli  may  hold  projierty  in 
various  ways,  sometimes  not  without  impedi- 
ments of  various  kimls,  but  always  with  perfect 
safety.  The  law  of  charity  is  here  the  chief 
protector  of  cliin-di-property,  and.  in  connection 
with  the  law  of  trusts,  also  tlie  chief  regulator. 
When  a  religious  society  is  incorporated,  it  is 
regarded  by  the  law,  and  treated  by  it,  exactly 
like  any  other  civil  corporation,  —  a  railroad  com- 
pany, a  bank,  or  an  insurance  company ;  and  the 
civil  courts  will  not  interfere  with  its  organiza- 
tion, order,  discipline,  doctrine,  or  ownership  of 
jiroperty,  except  to  enforce  an  .application  of  its 
wealth  in  strict  accordance  with  tlie  purposes  for 
which  it  wiis  iiccpiired.  When,  however,  a  reli- 
gious society  is  not  incor])orat<'d  (and  in  some 
States  a  charter  cannot  be  obtained  by  them), 
they  are  not  recognized  as  having  a  legal  existr 


ence.  They  can  neither  sue  nor  be  sued  in  civil 
courts ;  and  they  cannot  hold  property  directly, 
yet  they  can  control  property  held  by  others  for 
their  use.  Donations  and  grants  may  be  legally 
made  to  trustees  for  the  use  and  benefit  of  an 
unincorporated  society  ;  and  courts  of  equity  will 
protect  them  in  the  enjoyment  of  their  rights, 
and,  if  necessary,  will  raise  uji  legal  trustees 
through  whom  they  may  act. 

Lit. — Ew.\LD :  Die  Kirclie  uiul  ihre  Institute 
auf  dem  Gehiete  des  Vermof/ensreclils.  1845;  Hij- 
BLER  :  Der  Eir/eiilliiimer  des  Kircliengutes,  Leipzig, 
1868 ;  AV.  Stroxg  :  Two  Lectures  upon  the  Rela- 
tions of  Cifil  Law  to  Church  Polity,  Discipline,  and 
Properti/,  Xew  York,  1875. 

CHURCH-RATE  is  a  tax  imposed  on  the  pa- 
rishioners, and  occupiers  of  land  in  a  parish  of 
England  for  church  repairs  :  the  payment,  how- 
ever, cannot  be  compelled.  It  is  proposed  by  the 
church-wardens,  and  must  be  voted  by  a  majority 
of  the  parishioners  at  a  regularly  constituted 
meeting. 

CHURCH-REGISTERS  were  books  in  which 
the  minister  recorded  the  births,  deaths,  and  mar- 
riages, etc.,  occurring  in  his  congregation.  The 
custom  originated  in  the  Roman  law  ;  but,  in  spite 
of  its  eminent  usefidness,  it  never  became  a  gen- 
eral law,  and  never  acquired  a  universal  method. 
The  oldest  records  of  this  kind  still  extant  are 
the  Ijaptismal  registei's  of  Florence,  beginning 
with  1 1.')0.  There  are  French  burial  registers  from 
1515;  and  in  1539  Francis  I.  ordered  that  bap- 
tismal registers  should  also  be  kept.  The  Council 
of  Trent  (^sess.  XXIV.  cap.  1  and  2,  de  reform, 
matrius.)  instituted  marriage  registers;  and  the 
institution  was  adopted  also  in  Protestant  coun- 
tries. As,  however,  the  civil  law  could  not  well 
leave  it  entirely  to  the  Church  to  decide  whether 
or  not  in  a  certain  case  there  existed  a  real  mar- 
riage, a  French  law  of  Sept.  20,  1792.  transferred 
the  whole  V)usiness  of  registering  to  a  civil  officer ; 
and  this  change  was  afterwards  introduced  in  all 
civilized  countries. 

CHURCH-WARDENS,  lay-olficers  in  the  Epis- 
copal t'hiu'ch  in  Kngiand  and  America,  appointed 
by  the  united  consent  of  minister  and  parishioners 
(in  the  United  St.ates  they  ai'e  elected  at  Easter). 
whose  dutii's  are  to  ]irot(>ctlhechinrh-bnilding,and 
provide  i>nblic  worship,  and  see  that  it  be  orderlv. 

CHURCHING  OF  WOMEN,  or  Thanksgiving 
of  AVonicn  after  ('hil(ll)irtli.  The  Hebrew  idea, 
that  child-bearing  was  in  a  sense  a  di'iilement 
which  required  purification  on  the  fortieth  d.ay 
(Lev.  xii.),  passed  over  into  the  Christian  Clun"ch. 
and  comes  out  in  Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  the 
canons  of  Xiciea,  Chry.sostom,  and  Augustine 
(Que.^t.  in  Levit.,  lib.  iii.  cj.  04).  Primitively  there 
were  no  fornndaries  for  this  purpose ;  but  there 
was  a  sei"vice  of  some  sort,  at  the  discretion  of 
the  priest.  "On  tlie  fortii^tli  day  the  mother  and 
the  child,  accompanied  by  the  godfather,  went 
solemnly  to  church.  Beft)re  (he  church-door  the 
priest  received  them,  signed  the  mother  with  the 
cross,  and  said  over  her  several  jirayers.  lie  then 
took  the  child,  made  the  sign  of  the  cross  with  it, 
and  carried  it  up  to  the  altar.  The  godfather 
then  receiveil  it  from  the  ]iriest,  and  left  th(> 
church"  (.Smith's  Diet.  Christ.  Antii/.,  in  loco). 
The  service  as  now  unvxl  in  the  (ireek,  Roman, 
and  Episcojial  churches,  is  based  upon  the  Chris- 


CHURCH  AND  STATE. 


477 


CHURCH  AND  STATE. 


iian  idea,  tliat  tliero  is  lienor,  not  df-fileiiient,  in 
inothcrliood ;  and  women  safely  delivered  are 
lionnd  to  thank  God  pulilicly  for  his  mercy  in 
granting  them  offspring,  and  in  preserving  their 
lives.  In  the  Church  of  Englancl  the  title  to  the 
office  in  the  first  book  of  P^dward  VI.  was  " 'I'he 
Order  of  the  Purification  of  Women,"  the  old 
title ;  but  in  the  second  book  it  was  altered  to 
"The  Thanksgiving  of  Women  after  Cliildliirth; 
commonly  called  the  Churching  of  Women."  No 
set  day  was  appointed  for  it,  but  custom  would 
naturally  fix  upon  one.  The  ceremony  prescribed 
is  very  simple  and  beautiful.  Some  curious  in- 
formation upon  this  subject  will  be  found  in  vol. 
iii.  pp.  1751-1763,  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prai/er, 
with  Notes  by  Aiiciiibald  John  Stephens,  Lon- 
don, 18.51,  3  vols. 

CHURCH  AND  STATE.  The  relation  between 
Church  and  State  may  be  conceived  of  on  three 
different  principles,  —  the  supremacy  of  the  Church, 
the  supremacy  of  the  State,  and  their  reciprocal 
independence  of  each  other.  Each  of  these  prin- 
ciples has,  in  succession,  been  tried  in  the  history 
of  the  Church.  The  first  is  the  ideal  of  the  Ko- 
man-Catholic  Church,  and  has  for  centuries  been 
the  cause  of  perpetual  contests,  full  of  confusion 
and  misery.  At  one  time  it  seemed  to  be  on  the 
high  road  to  victory ;  but  it  finally  failed,  and  it 
now  stands  in  history  as  a  ghastly  spectre  from 
the  past.  The  second  was  adopted  by  the  Re- 
formed churches  as  the  most,  if  not  tlie  only, 
practicable  issue,  —  as  a  convenience,  if  not  as  a 
necessity.  But  in  course  of  time  it  proved  so  ill 
suited  to  the  strongest  demands  of  the  Church, 
so  incapable  of  satisfying  her  deepest  impulses, 
that  it  became  an  object  of  many  reproaches,  and 
was  driven  into  much  compromising,  remodelling, 
and  patching  up,  probably  as  a  preliminary  to  its 
entire  abandonment.  The  third  finally  developed 
in  the  United  States  of  America,  as  the  natural 
result  of  their  free  political  constitution  ;  and  the 
success  wliich  it  has  already  achieved  indicates 
that  it  has  opened  a  new  chapter  in  the  history 
of  the  Church,  —  a  chapter  of  the  most  decisive 
interest. 

The  Christian  Church  started  in  the  Roman 
Empire  as  a  forbidden  organization,  and  was,  as 
such,  subject  to  bitter  attempts  at  extinction.  In 
the  fourth  century,  under  Constantine  the  Cireat, 
this  situation  was  completely  changed.  When 
the  Emperor  became  a  Christian,  the  Chiistian 
Church  became  an  active  part  of  the  State,  like 
the  judicature,  or  the  army,  an  organ,  and  that 
the  most  vital  one,  —  the  heart.  Still  greater 
changes  soon  took  place  in  its  external  condition, 
■with  corresponding  effect,  of  course,  on  its  in- 
ternal construction.  In  the  East,  when  the  Greek 
civilization  had  run  out  its  course,  Christianity 
became  the  heir  of  its  philosophy ;  but,  in  the 
same  degree  as  it  assimOated  this  its  new  acqui- 
sition, it  ceased  to  be  a  religion,  and  became 
itself  a  philosophy.  Its  enthusiasm  sprouted  out 
in  speculation ;  its  conscience  got  entangled  in 
dialectics ;  its  wisdom  became  petrified  in  mere 
dogmatics.  In  the  West,  by  the  general  decay 
of  the  empire,  by  its  division  int(^  two  empires, 
by  the  disintegTation  of  the  western  empire,  the 
Christian  Church  was  made  the  heir  of  the  pres- 
tige of  tlie  city  of  Rome,  for  centuries  tlie  mis- 
tress of  the  world ;  and  in  the  same  de';ree  as  the 


Church  took  possession  of  this  its  new  heirloom 
it  ceased  to  lie  a  preacher,  ami  became  itself 
a  ruler.  Most  of  the  good  which  the  Iloman- 
Catholic  Church  has  done  for  Europe  during  tlie 
dark  ages  and  the  middle  ages  —  and  Hk;  sum 
total  is  incalculable  —  she  did,  not  as  the  me.s.sen- 
ger  of  the  gospel,  but  because  she  furnished  the 
noblest  and  the  strongest  government. 

The  sources  of  the  immense  power  wliicli  the 
Church  of  Rome  attained  during  those  ages  are 
by  no  means  a  mystery.  She  was  then  teaching 
people  the  first  rudiments,  that  is,  the  essential 
elements,  of  luinian  nobleness,. —  to  obey,  not  as 
the  slave  or  the  vanquished,  Ijut  from  love  and 
reverence,  and  to  work,  not  from  greed  or  any 
other  impulse  of  egotism,  but  from  gratitude  for 
the  faculties  given,  and  for  the  glory  of  the  giver. 
She  w;is  then  gathering  into  her  bosom  the  most 
and  the  best  of  the  genius  which  was  produced. 
In  the  feudal  world  one  was  born  in  a  castle,  on 
the  back  of  a  horse,  and  with  a  sword  in  his 
hand;  another  in  a  hut,  crouching  on  his  knees  in 
the  dust:  and  no  amount  of  idiocy  or  genius  could 
possibly  change  their  lots.  But  in  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal world  the  gates  of  the  Church  stood  open  to 
all,  to  the  serf  as  well  as  to  the  king,  provided  he 
was  a  man  of  upright  heart  and  clear  brain,  of 
pure  will  and  strong  understanding;  and  in  the 
Church  he  was  sure  to  rise  according  to  his  gifts 
and  his  energy.  She  was,  then,  the  sole  possessor 
of  science  and  art.  All  knowledge,  from  the  ori- 
gin of  a  tliunderstorm  to  the  mysteries  of  the 
Trinity,  from  a  song  by  Horace  to  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  she  held  ;  all  skill,  from  the  tilling  of  a 
vineyard  to  the  rearing  of  a  cathedral,  from  the 
curing  of  a  fever  to  the  fabrication  of  gunpowder, 
was  in  her  hands.  Even  the  science  and  art  of 
war  did  not  form  an  exception.  She  held,  then, 
the  weightiest,  the  most  intelligible,  and  the  only 
beloved  and  awe-iuspiring  title  of  authority.  The 
king  had  his  sword  with  what  agony  of  blood 
and  brand  might  still  cling  to  it,  and  upon  his 
sword  depended  all  his  claim  to  authority ;  could 
anybody  dull  or  break  it,  so  much  the  better. 
But  the  Pope  had  the  prestige  of  Rome,  and  on 
the  background  of  this  radiant  effulgence  the 
words  of  the  Lord  to  Peter,  his  predecessor.  To 
deny  this  authority,  was,  indeed,  to  .shut  one's 
self  out  from  ■what  light  the  world  contained,  and 
turn  away  into  utter  darkness.  Tlius  the  idea 
that  all  jiower  on  earth  emanated  from  the  Church, 
and  centred  in  the  Pope,  w-as  the  natural  and  in- 
evitable outcome  of  history  itself,  and  by  no 
means  the  dream  of  a  diseased  ambition,  or  the 
result  of  a  well-contrived  fraud.  But  the  idea 
was  one  born  of  time,  to  be  again  swallowed  by 
time.  In  Gregory  YH.  it  became  conscious  of 
itself.  In  Innocent  III.  it  found  its  most  bril- 
liant expression.  In  Boniface  VIII.  it  already 
became  a  desperate  struggle  on  the  other  side  of 
the  line,  on  the  course  downwards. 

In  order  to  realize  this  idea,  it  ■was  necessary, 
first,  to  orgaime  the  ■whole  mass  of  the  Church 
into  one  compact  body,  independent  of  those  di- 
visions into  states  into  which  the  secular  world 
was  cut  up,  and,  next,  to  bring  the  collected  force 
of  this  one  body  to  bear  upon  each  of  the  secular 
divisions  individually-  until  the  .state  was  actually 
crushed  into  submission.  The  first  part  of  this 
problem  the  Roman  Chvu-ch  handled  with  mar- 


CHURCH  AND  STATE. 


478 


CHURCH  AND  STATE. 


veUous  success.  But  she  never  achieved  a  com- 
plete solution  ;  and  hence  it  follows,  that  she  never 
came  to  try  herself  fairly  on  the  second  part  of 
the  problem.  In  his  contest  with  Germany  the 
Pope  succeeded  in  makmg  the  papal  election  com- 
pletely mdependent  of  fhe  Emperor;  but  with 
respect  to  the  next  step  m  the  process  of  emanci- 
pation, his  attempt  to  make  the  episcopal  election 
dependent  on  the  papal  see  alone,  he  accomplished 
only  a  compromise.  In  spite  of  such  striJving 
scenes  as  Henry  IV.  at  Canossa  standing  bare- 
footed, almost  naked,  for  hours  and  days  mider 
the  window  of  the  Pope,  or  the  army  of  Barba- 
rossa  before  the  gates  of  Rome  melting  away  like 
snow,  vanisliing  into  nothingness,  mitil  the  victo- 
rious emperor  must  flee,  alone,  and  with  no  one 
but  Death  himself  for.  a  groom,  the  victory  was 
only  apparent.  The  investiture  with  ring  and 
staff  was  reserved  for  the  Pope ;  but  the  bishops' 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Emperor,  as  holders  of 
imperial  fiefs,  was  not  abolished.  Equally  am- 
biguous was  the  Pope's  victory  in  his  contest  with 
England.  Tlie  question  was,  whether  the  canon 
law,  or  the  "  customs  of  our  fathers,"  should  ride 
over  England  ;  that  is,  whether,  in  secular  affairs, 
the  English  clergy  should  be  amenable  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  civil  com'ts  of  the  countiy,  or 
whether,  in  secular  as  in  spiritual  mattters,  tlioy 
should  be  amenable  only  to  the  jurisdiction  of  their 
own  ecclesiastical  courts.  But  though  Henry  II. 
was  soundly  flogged  on  his  bare  back  by  the  Can- 
terbury monks  before  the  miracle-working  corpse 
of  the  murdered  Thomas  Becket,  the  English 
king  could  never  be  prevented  from  dragging  into 
the  civil  courts  the  priests  who  iiappeued  to  com- 
mit murder  or  theft,  and  punishing  them  accord- 
ing to  the  "customs  of  oui-  fathers."  Thus,  al- 
though the  organization  of  tlie  Church  into  one 
compact  body,  independent  of  all  secular  powers 
of  the  States,  was  carried  onwards  with  trium- 
phant energy,  it  was  never  completed ;  and  the 
result  hereot  was,  that  when  the  Pope  attempted 
to  meet  the  secular  power  in  its  own  field,  and  to 
overawe  it  by  liis  mere  presence,  his  attempts 
were  looked  upon  by  many  contemporaries  as  a 
dangerous  and  unbearable  arrogance,  and  to  om' 
times  they  even  assume  a  somewhat  humorous 
aspect.  He  pretended  to  give  away  the  crowns 
of  Naples,  of  Hungary,  indeed,  all  crowns,  even 
that  of  tlie  Emperor ;  but,  when  in;  happened  to 
give  a  crown  to  a  man  who  had  no  power  of  his 
own  to  vindicate  it,  the  gift  never  proved  of  any 
value. 

The  principal  reasons,  however,  why  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  universal  cliurch-monarchy  failed, 
were  tlie  internal  decay  of  tlie  Church  herself, 
and  the  rapid  development  of  distinct  nationali- 
ties in  Europe.  Thei'c  came  a  time,  towards  tlie 
clo.se  of  tlie  middle  ages,  when  the  Church  of 
Rome  was  not  teaching  people  any  more  the 
rudiments  of  nobleness,  but  the  rehnenients  of 
crime;  when  she  was  not  gatliering  to  hcr.self 
any  more  the  flower  of  tlie  nations,  but  filled  lier 
ranks  witli  those  who  were  weak  and  lazy  and 
indifferent ;  when  .science  and  art  had  gone  .some- 
where else,  and  even  become  her  bitterest  eno- 
niies;  when  her  very  title  of  authority  was  read 
with  incredulity,  au<l  laid  aside  witli  a  smile. 
By  her  vices  she  lost  lier  power;  aii<l,  the  power 
gone,  the  idea  suggested   by  it  became  ab.surd. 


But.  even  if  the  Churcli  of  Home  had  never  been 
found  wanting  herself  in  any  respect,  the  idea  of 
a  universal  church-monarchy  would,  nevertheless, 
have  proved  an  impossibility  on  account  of  the 
steadily  gi'owing  national  dili'erentiation  of  tl*e 
mass  of  the  subjects.  Had  Europe  been  inhab- 
ited by  one  nation,  with  homogeneous  instincts 
and  impulses,  homogeneous  traditions  and  aspira- 
tions, homogeneous  customs  and  manners,  it 
might  still  have  been  sitting  quietly  in  tlie  dark 
ages,  lit  up  with  Roman  candles  from  one  end  to 
the  otlier.  and  no  one  suspecting  the  existence 
of  a  sun  in  the  world.  But  as  it  was  a  number  of 
nations  consolidating  themselves,  each  having  its 
own  errand  to  do,  the  Church  herself  became 
split  into  many  divisions ;  for  the  Church  is  not 
and  can  never  be,  like  the  imperium  liomaniim,  a 
mere  superstructure  which  can  be  stretched  across 
all  national  ditt'erences.  AVith  the  nations  the 
Chm-ch  became  national;  and  ah-eady,  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent,  the  Pope  was  compelled  to  make 
special  arrangements  with  the  special  states  (see 
Coxcord.\t),  which  siinpl)-  amounts  to  a  practi- 
cal abandonment  of  the  idea  of  a  universal  church- 
monarchy.  In  the  individual  states  the  Pope  still 
continued  to  exert  himself  in  order  to  maintain 
the  supremacy  of  the  Church,  with  what  ups  and 
downs  may  be  learned  from  the  concordats  with 
Napoleon  I.  and  Francis  Joseph  I.,  with  what 
final  result  may  be  inferred  from  recent  events, 
—  the  Kulturkampf  in  Germanj',  the  expulsion  of 
the  Congregations  in  France,  etc.  But  if  the 
Pope  now  would  rejieat  the  famous  words  of 
Boniface  VIII.,  "  Rotuanus punlifcx  omnia  Jura  in 
scrinio  pectoris  sui  luihere  censelur,"  he  would  simply 
make  the  impression  of  a  distracted  actor  sud- 
denly wandering  astray  into  a  wrong  part.  A 
striking  exposition  of  the  enormous  claims  which 
the  Pope  made,  and  of  the  opposition  which  he 
met  already  in  the  period  of  the  Council  of  Con- 
stance, is  found  in  Gekson'-s  De  poleslale  ecclesi- 
astira  considerationes,  written  during  the  sessions 
of  the  council.  Opera,  vol.  II.  pars  II.,  Antwerp, 
1706.  Among  modern  ultramontane  writers,  see 
Joseph  de  Maistue:  Du  I'ape,  Lyons,  1819. 

With  the  Reformation  the  principle  of  tlie  re- 
lation between  Church  and  State  was  comiiletely 
rever.sed.  Tlie  Ronian-Catliolic  Cliurcli  luul  tried 
to  make  the  State  her  right  hand  by  %\liich  to 
defend  her  property,  temporal  and  spiiitual,  from 
robbers  and  heretics.  'I'he  Keformed  Church 
became  the  left  hand  of  the  State,  charged  with 
keeping  bai'k  the  citizens  from  any  kind  of  unruly 
or  immoral  behavior.  Tli<!  Church  supreme,  the 
State  her  knight ;  the  State  supreme,  the  Church 
its  servant,  —  that  was  the  change.  11  took  place 
in  a  somewhat  different  manner  in  Kiigland  ami 
on  the  Continent ;  but  it  was  es.sentially  the  same 
in  both  cases,  and  had  the  same  effect.  Tlio 
maxim  "■  ciijus  rei/io,  ejus  relii/io,"  the  pithy  defini- 
tion of  territorialisni,  wliicli  makes  the  religion 
of  the  people  dependent  of  the  religion  of  the 
ruler  of  the  country,  became  the  leading  principle 
in  all  Protestant  states  on  tlie  Continent  ;  and,  in 
s|iit(!  of  a  certain  roughness  of  expression,  it; 
agrees  fully  with  wliat  w'e  read  in  the  Thirty-nino 
.\rticles :  "  The  (Queen's  Majesty  has  the  chief 
power  in  tliis  Realm  of  Englaiid,  and  other  her 
Dominions,  unto  whom  the  chief  (Jovernment  of 
all  Instates  of  this  Realm,  whether  they  be  ICcde- 


CHURCH  AND  STATE. 


479 


CHURCH  AND  STATE. 


siastical  or  Civil,  in  all  causes  dotli  a]ipertaiii. 
.  .  .  They  [the  princes]  should  rule  all  states 
and  degrees  committed  to  their  charge  liy  (iod, 
whether  they  be  Ecclesia-stical  or  'I'eiiiporal,  and 
restrain  with  the  civil  sword  the;  stubborn  and 
evil-doers  "  (Article  XXXVII.)  ;  or  in  tlie  West- 
minster Confession  of  Faith :  "  The  civil  magis- 
trate .  .  .  has  authority,  iuid  it  is  his  duty,  to 
take  order,  that  amity  and  peace  be  preserved  in 
tlie  Church,  that  the  truth  of  God  be  kept  pure 
and  entire,  that  all  blasphemies  and  heresies  be 
suppressed,  all  corruptions  and  abuses  in  worship 
and  discipline  prevented  or  reformed,  and  all 
the  ordinances  of  God  duly  settled,  administered, 
and  observed"  (chap,  xxiii.  sect.  III.). 

It  was  Luther's  as  well  as  Calvin's  view,  that 
the  Church  .should  stand  free  and  self-governing 
under  the  protection  of  the  .State.  But  the  view 
proved  impracticable.  When  the  Protestants  cut 
loose  from  the  old  church-moorings,  the  question 
was  not  simply  of  re-organization,  but  of  self- 
defence.  But  the  Reformers  could  go  nowhere 
else  for  protection  than  to  the  secular  powers,  — 
what  the  case  would  have  become  in  the  hands  of 
the  people,  the  Peasants'  War  showed;  and  the 
princes  were  sure  to  give  no  support  unless  their 
ideas  of  reform  agreed  with  those  of  the  Reform- 
ers. Thus  the  power  of  reform  lay  practically 
in  the  hands  of  the  princes;  and  the  maxim, 
"  whoever  rules  iu  the  State  has  the  say  in  re- 
ligion," became  the  established  rule.  Further- 
more, as  the  bishops  everywhere  protested  against 
the  Reformation,  the  episcopal  authority  and 
jurisdiction  had,  in  the  Protestant  countries,  to 
be  conferred  on  the  civil  ruler.  He  became  the 
master  of  the  Church  as  the  Pope  had  never  been. 
He  authorized  its  creed  and  rituals;  he  appointed 
its  ministers  and  teachers ;  he  held  and  adminis- 
trated its  property  without  responsibilitj',  etc. 
The  Churcfi  became  a  mere  department  of  his 
government,  a  mechanical  apparatus,  by  which  he 
proposed  to  instil  quietness,  submissiveness,  in- 
dustry, and  good  morals  ni  general,  into  his  sub- 
jects, just  as  he  distilled  money  from  them  by 
means  of  the  taxing  machine.  For  the  theoreti- 
cal justification  of  this  practice  see  Grotius  : 
De  imperio  summarum  potcxiatum  circa  sacra, 
162.3  ;  PuFFEXDOKF  :  De  hablta  rcliijlonis  ad  vitam 
cuHlem,lG7'2;  Tno^iAsius:  KirchcnrcchlHchen  Vor- 
tragen,  published  after  his  death,  IToS  ;  Biiennky- 
SEN  :  JJe  jure principis  circa  adiaphvra,  KJII"). 

The  results  to  the  Church  herself,  of  tliis  her 
complete  subordination  to  the  .State,  were,  first 
the  so-called  orthodoxy,  a  barren  pedantry  which 
made  it  impossible  for  any  one  who  had  not  a 
lawyer's  smartness  to  become  a  good  Cliristian ; 
and,  next,  rationalism,  which  made  Christianity 
an  enlightenment  of  the  intellect,  a  matter  of 
the  school  merely.  The  opposition  of  pietism  to 
orthodoxy  did  not  touch  the  question  of  the  re- 
lation between  Church  and  State ;  but  that  oppo- 
sition did,  which,  in  the  third  and  fourth  decades 
cf  the  present  century,  arose  against  rationalism. 
It  claimed  that  the  Cluu'ch  should  be  a  represen- 
tation of  the  religious  life  of  the  congregation, 
and  it  consequently  demanded  that  the  congrega- 
tion should  at  least  liave  a  certain  share  in  the 
government  of  the  Church.  The  movement  was 
strongest  in  Prussia,  weakest  in  Sweden  ;  but  it 
achieved  everywhere  some  results.     Elements  of 


preshyterian  or  .synodal  government  were  every- 
where introduced,  and  the  movement  is  still  m 
vigorous  progress. 

In  England  the  Reformation  did  not  begin 
from  lielow,  but  from  above,  Henry  VIII.  simply 
taking  the  place  of  the  Pope,  and,  making  himself 
the  head  of  the  English  Church ;  and,  when  it 
was  finally  accon)plished  under  Elizabeth,  the 
supreruacy  of  the  State  was  firmly  established  as 
the  principle  of  the  relation  between  Church  and 
State.  Opposition,  liowever,  soon  arose,  first 
fi'orn  the  Puritans,  and  afterwards  from  other 
dissenters.  The  Puritans  protested  that  the 
Church  and  the  State  are  two  entirely  distinct 
societies ;  that  they  ought,  therefore,  to  stand 
wholly  independent  of  each  other;  that  the  Church 
can  in  no  way  rightfully  be  made  subject  to  the 
control  of  the  civil  magistrate,  etc.  The  oppo- 
site view,  the  theory  adopted  by  the  Estaljlished 
Church  itself,  is  represented  by  Hooker,  Laics 
of  Ecclesiastical  Polili/,  London,  1.504,  who  main- 
tains that  Church  and  State  are  one  and  the 
same  society,  only  contemplated  from  two  differ- 
ent aspects,  and  that  the  State,  therefore,  has  a 
perfect  right  to  legislate  for  the  Church.  After 
a  short  victory  for  the  Puritans  under  Cromwell, 
who,  with  certain  limitations,  adopted  the  prin- 
ciple of  toleration,  guaranteed  free  exercise  of 
religion  to  all  who  professed  faith  in  God  and  iu 
Christ  Jesus,  and  forbade  all  compulsion,  by  pen- 
alties or  otherwise,  to  conform  to  tlie  Established 
religion,  there  followed  a  violent  re-action  under 
Charles  II.  It  is  said,  that,  on  account  of  the 
Act  of  Uniformity  of  1662,  two  thousand  minis- 
ters were  ejected,  eight  thousand  laymen  impris- 
oned, and  sixty  thousand  persons  made  to  suffer, 
in  some  w'ay  or  other,  for  conscience'  sake. 
Finallj',  however,  the  Toleration  Act  of  1688, 
granting  full  liberty  of  worship  to  all  noncon- 
formists excepting  Roman  Catholics  and  Unita- 
rians, broke  down  the  main  bar  obstructing  the 
freedom  of  the  Church  ;  and  the  progress  towards 
liberty  and  independence  has  ever  since  been 
iminterrupted,  though  slow.  The  act  was  ex- 
tended in  1778  to  Roman  Catholics,  and  in  1813, 
to  L'nitarians.  The  repeal  of  the  Test  Act,  etc. 
(1828-29),  gave  the  dissenters  access  to  Parlia- 
ment and  public  offices.  The  Registration  and 
Marriage  Acts  of  1S.36,  1837,  and  1844,  made  the 
baptisms  and  marriages  performed  by  dissenting 
ministers  valid  before  the  law.  The  Reform  Bill 
of  18.54  opened  the  universities  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  to  dissenting  students,  etc.  Jlean- 
wliile,  also,  the  theory  changed.  In  his  T/ie 
Alliance  heficeen  Church  and  iStute,  London,  1736, 
Warburton  accepts  the  Puritan  premise,  that 
the  Church  and  the  State  are  distinct  societies, 
but  rejects  the  inference,  that,  for  that  reason, 
they  should  remain  independent  of  each  other, 
and  construes  the  relation  as  an  alliance,  some- 
thing like  a  contract  social  for  the  sake  of  mutual 
advantage.  The  book  is  not  remarkable  for  any 
logical  strength  in  its  reasoning ;  but  it  is  interest- 
ing as  indicating  a  decisive  step  onward  in  the 
direction  of  liberty.  Among  more  recent  contri- 
butions to  the  theoretical  solution  of  the  (juestion 
are,  S.  T.  Coleridge  :  On  the  Constitution  of  the 
Church  and  Stale  accordintj  to  the  Idea  of  each, 
London,  1830;  Thomas  Arnold:  Fragment  on 
the  Church,  unfinished,  and  published   after  his 


CHURCH  AND  STATE. 


480 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


death,  London,  1844 ;  Gladstone  :  The  Slate  in 
its  Relations  with  the  Church,  London,  1838,  fourth 
revised  edition,  1841 ;  Church  Principles  consid- 
tred  in  their  Kesults,  London,  1840;  Lonn  Mon- 
tague :  The  Four  Experiments  in  Church  anil 
State.  London,  1863. 

The  principle  of  independence  as  the  true  re- 
lation between  Church  and  State  was  not  brought 
to  America  by  the  Puritans.  Though  they  left 
their  native  country  on  account  of  the  tyranny  of 
its  church-establishment,  they  established  a  state- 
church  themselves  no  less  tyrannical.  Xo  man, 
tliev  enacted,  who  did  not  belong  to  the  Church 
of  the  Colony,  should  have  the  freedom  of  the 
Colony.  Romanists,  Baptists,  and  others  were 
excluded.  Quakers  were  punished  with  impris- 
onment, and.  in  four  cases,  even  with  death. 
But  other  denomination's  were  settled  in  other 
Colonies,  —  the  Baptists  in  Rhode  Island,  the 
Episcopal  Chiu'ch  in  Virginia,  the  Roman  Church 
in  Maryland,  the  Quakers  in  Pennsylvania,  etc.; 
and  when  these  Colonies  were  united,  and  a  Con- 
stitution was  framed  for  the  Union,  it  was  found 
necessary  to  secure  entire  freedom  of  religion  by  the 
provision  that  "Congi'ess  shall  make  no  law  re- 
specting an  establishment  of  religion,  or  prohibit- 
ing the  free  exercise  thereof."  From  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  Union  this  principle  was  gradually 
introduced  into  the  constitutions  of  the  indi- 
vidual States,  so  far  as  it  was  not  found  there 
beforehand.  In  Virginia  it  had  been  established 
already  in  178.5 ;  but  in  Massachusetts  it  was 
not  completed  until  1833,  up  to  which  time  the 
Church  was  still  supported  in  Massachusetts  by 
State  taxation ;  and  with  the  State  support  fol- 
lowed, of  course,  a  kind  of  State  control.  Now, 
in  all  the  .States  and  Territories  (except  in  Utah), 
the  Church  is  entii-ely  separated  from  the  secular 
government,  forms  her  creeds,  arranges  her  ritu- 
als, builds  and  owns  her  churches,  educates  and 
appoints  lier  ministers.  In  the  Mormon  Terri- 
tory of  Utah,  politics  and  religion  are  blended ; 
but  other  denominations  have  built  churches  in 
Salt  Lake  City. 

Lit.  —  RiFFKL  :  Geschichtliche  Darstellunq  der 
Verhciltnisse  zwkchcn  Kirchc  und  Slaat,  Mainz, 
1836;  ViNET  :  La  separation  de  I'Eylise  el  de  I'Elnl 
Paris,  1842:  Baikd:  Jlelii/ion  ui  America,  Glas- 
gow, 184"J;  I.  I.  McKlminxk.y:  The  Doctrine  of 
the  Church,  Pliiladelpliia.  1871:  C.  1\I.  CuRCi  : 
Der  heulir/e  Ziriex/mlt  zicisrhin  Strint  und  Kirche. 
Aus  dem  Itat..  Wien,  1878;  M.  Mingiietti: 
Stain  e  Chiesa.  Milano.  1878:  Ger.  trans..  Gotha, 
1881  ;  .Samcf.i.  T.  Si-eai:  :  f!elir/inn  and  the  Slate, 
or  the  Hdile  anil  l!,r  I'lihlir  S.hnnls.  V.^v  Vnrk.  1>;70; 
Schakk:  Chrislianiti/ in  the  I'niteil  .S7«to,  Basel 
and  London,  is7i)  (in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Seventh  General  Conference  of  the  Kvangelical 
Alliance);  Xiim-oi.d:  Die  Thenrie  der  Tnnnunf/ 
r.  Kirche  u.  Slaat  yeschichllich  heleuchlel  (87  pp.), 
B<TN.  ISSl.  CT.KMKX.'^    PKTKRSEN. 

CHURCH    DISCIPLINE.      .See  Disciit.ink. 

CHURCH  GOVERNMENT.     See  I'oi.rrv. 

CHURCH  HISTORY.  I.  Natuhe  a.ni.  Aim. 
—  Cliurili  liislory  is  lli(!  largest,  and,  with  the 
exception  of  exegesis,  the  mo.st  important,  depart- 
ment of  theologicil  science  or  sacred  learning. 
It  embraces,  in  tlie  widest  sense,  tlie  whole 
religious  development  of  mankind,  from  the 
creation   ilown  to  the  present  time,  and  is  con- 


tinually growing  in  bulk.  In  a  narrower  sense, 
it  is  confined  to  a  history  of  Christianity  and  the 
Christian  Church  from  the  birth  of  Christ  and 
the  Day  of  Pentecost,  when  Christianity  made  its 
first  appearance  in  an  organized  form  as  distinct 
from  the  Jewish  religion.  The  historian  has  to 
trace  the  origin,  growth,  and  fortunes  of  the 
Church,  and  to  reproduce  its  life  in  the  dift'erent 
ages.  The  value  of  liis  work  depends  upon  the 
degree  of  its  truthfulness,  or  exact  correspond- 
ence with  the  facts.  Church  history  is  not  a 
heap  of  dry  l>ones,  but  life  and  jower:  it  is  the 
Church  itself  in  con.stant  motic-n  and  progres* 
from  land  to  land,  and  from  age  to  age,  until  the 
whole  world  sliall  be  filled  with  the  knowledge  of 
Clirist.  It  is  the  most  interesting  part  of  the 
world's  history,  as  religion  is  the  deepest  and 
most  important  concern  of  man,  the  bond  that 
unites  him  to  God.  It  embraces  the  externa, 
expansion  and  contr.action  of  Christianity,  or  the 
history  of  missions  and  persecutions,  the  visible 
organization  or  Church  polity  and  discipline,  the 
development  of  doctrine  and  theologj',  the  wor- 
ship, with  its  various  rites  and  ceremonies,  litur- 
gies, sacred  poetry  and  music,  the  nuiuifestations 
of  practical  piety.  Christian  morality,  and  benevo- 
lent institutions :  in  one  word,  all  that  belongs  to 
the  inner  and  outer  life  of  Christianity  in  the 
world.  It  is  a  panorama  of  God's  dealings  with 
the  human  race,  and  man's  relations  to  God  under 
all  aspects.  It  shows  the  gi'adual  unfolding  of  the 
plan  of  redemption,  —  a  plan  of  infinite  wisdom 
and  goodness,  in  constant  conflict  with  the  Satanic 
powers  and  influences  which  are  struggling  for 
the  ascendency,  but  are  doomed  to  ultimate  de- 
feat, and  overruled  for  good.  It  is  the  greatest 
triumph  of  (iod's  wisdom  to  bring  good  out  of 
evil,  and  to  overrule  the  wrath  of  man  for  his 
own  glor}'  and  for  the  progress  of  truth  and 
righteousness.  Church  history  is  a  book  of  life, 
fidl  of  warning  and  precept,  of  hope  and  encour- 
agement. 

II.  Cin'RCH  History  and  Secular  History. 
■ — They  dift'er  a.s  Church  and  State,  as  Christianity 
and  humanity,  as  the  order  of  grace  and  the  order 
of  nature;  yet  they  are  inseparably  connected, 
and  the  one  cannot  be  understood  without  the 
other.  Among  the  .lews  the  sjiiritual  ,and  secul.ar 
history  together  form  one  history  of  theocracy. 
Both  currents  intermingle  in  the  Byzantine  Km- 
pire,  in  the  Einopean  States  and  the  Latin 
Church  during  the  midiUe  ages,  in  the  perioil  of 
the  Reformation,  during  the  eoloni.al  period  of 
.\merica,  anil  in  all  countries  where  Church  and 
State  are  united.  Gibbon's  History  of  the  De- 
cline anil  Full  of  the  Roman  Empire  is  in  great 
)iart  also  a  history  of  the  rise  and  progress  of 
Christianity,  which  survived  the  fall  of  Old  and 
New  Rome,  and  went  forth  to  conquer  the  bar- 
barian coniiuerors  by  Christianizing  and  civil- 
izing them.  Every  history  of  the  jiapacy  is  also 
a  history  of  the  German  Roman  Emjiire,  and 
vice  versa.  No  history  of  the  sixteenth  century 
can  be  writti'U  without  constant  n^ference  to  the 
Protestant  Reformation  and  Roman-Catholic  re- 
action. The  Purita)!  settlements  of  New  Eng- 
land are  the  beginning,  alike  of  the  ecclesiastical 
ami  secular  history  of  North  America.  In  mod- 
ern times  the  tendency  is  more  and  more  towards 
separation  of  the  spirilual  and  trniporal  powers: 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


481 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


nevertheless,  tlie  Church  will  always  be  influenced 
by  the  siirrouiidiiig  state  of  civil  society,  ami 
must  adapt  itself  to  tlii!  wants  of  the  age,  and 
progress  of  events;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
world  will  always  feel  the  moral  intinence,  the 
restraining,  ennobling,  stimulating,  purifying,  aiul 
sanctifying  power  of  Christianity,  which  works 
like  a  leaven  from  within  upon  the  ramitications 
of  society. 

III.  Sources. — They  an;  mostly  written,  in 
part  unwritten. 

A.  The  written  sources  include,  (1)  The  official 
■documents  of  ecclesiastical  and  civil  authorities, 
such  as  acts  of  councils,  creeds,  liturgies,  hymn- 
books  church-laws,  papal  bulls  and  encyclicals. 
(2)  The  writings  of  the  personal  actors  in  the  Iiis- 
tory,  and  contemporary  observers  and  rejiorters, 
sucli  as  the  Fathers  for  ancient  Christianity,  the 
Schoolmen  for  mediivval,  the  Reformers  and  their 
opponents  for  the  Reformation  period.  (3)  Inscrip- 
tions on  walls,  pictures,  churches,  tombstones,  and 
other  monuments.  The  history  of  the  Jewish  reli- 
gion lias  derived  much  light  from  modern  discov- 
eries of  monumental  remains  in  Egypt,  Babylon, 
and  Assyria,  the  deciphering  of  the  hieroglyphic 
And  cuneiform  inscriptions,  the  Moabite  stone 
(1868),  and  the  Siloam  inscription  in  the  tunnel 
of  the  Kedron  Valley  at  Jerusalem  (1880). 

B.  The  unwritten  sources  are  works  of  Chris- 
tian art ;  as  churches,  chapels,  pictures,  scidptures, 
crosses,  crucifixes,  relics,  and  other  monuments 
which  symbolize  and  embody  Christian  ideas. 
The  Roman  catacombs,  with  their  vast  extent, 
their  solemn  darkness,  their  labyrinthine  mystery, 
their  rude  epitaphs  and  sculptures,  their  symbols 
of  faith,  and  their  relics  of  martyrdom,  give  us  a 
lifelike  idea  of  the  Church  in  the  period  of  perse- 
cution, its  trials  and  sufferings,  its  faith  and 
hope,  its  simple  worship,  and  devoted  piety. 
"  lie  who  is  thoroughly  steejied  in  the  imagery 
of  the  catacombs  will  be  nearer  to  the  thoughts 
of  the  early  Church  than  he  who  has  learned  by 
heart  the  most  elaborate  treatises  of  TertuUian  or 
Origen."  The  basilicas  are  characteristic  of  the 
Nicene  ;  the  Byzantine  churches,  of  the  Byzantine 
age  and  the  Eastern  and  Russian  Church ;  the 
Gothic  cathedrals,  of  the  palmy  days  of  medieval 
Catholicism  ;  the  Renaissance  style,  of  the  revival 
of  letters.  Even  now,  most  churches  and  sects 
can  be  best  appreciated  iu  the  localities,  and  in 
view  of  the  monuments  and  the  people,  where 
they  origiiuited,  or  have  their  centre  of  life  and 
action. 

IV.  Duty  of  the  Historian-.  —  (1)  He  must 
master  the  sources  in  the  original  languages  in 
which  they  were  written  (Greek,  Latin,  Syriac, 
and  the  modei'n  languages  of  Europe) ;  separating 
the  genuine  from  the  spurious,  the  original  from 
corruptions  and  interpolations,  sifting  the  truth 
from  falsehood,  the  facts  from  fiction  and  partisan 
judgment,  comparing  the  accounts  of  all  actors, 
friend  and  foe,  nari-ator,  eulogist,  advocate,  and 
antagonist,  whether  orthodox  or  heretic,  whether 
Christian,  Jew,  or  Gentile,  aiming  in  all  this 
laborious  investigation  at  "the  truth,  the  whole 
truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth."  (2)  lie  must, 
then,  reproduce  the  clearly  ascertained  facts  and 
results  of  his  investigation  in  a  faithful  and  life- 
like narrative,  so  as  to  present  the  oljjective 
course  of  history  itself,  as  it  were,  iu  a  photo- 

32  —  1 


graph,  or  rather  in  an  artistic  painting ;  for  a 
photograph  gives  a  ghastly  view  of  the  momentary 
look  of  a  jierson,  while  the  portrait  of  the  artist 
combines  \\w  changing  moods  and  various  aspects 
of  his  subject  into  a  living  whole.  The  genuine 
writer  of  history  differs  as  much  from  the  dry 
chronicler  of  isolated  facts  and  dates  as  from  the 
novelist.  lie  must  n^pre.sent  both  thoughts  and 
facts.  lie  must  particularize  aiul  generalize,  de- 
.sceiul  into  minute  details  and  take  a  comprehen- 
sive bird's-eye  view  of  ^\■hole  ages  and  ])erioils. 
lie  must  have  ajudicial  mind,  which  deals  impar- 
tially with  all  persons  and  events  coming  before 
his  tribunal,  lie  nmst  be  free  from  partisan  and 
sectarian  bias,  and  aim  at  justice  and  truth.  It 
is  the  exclusive  privilege  of  the  divine  Mind  to 
view  all  things  sub  specie  ceternitatis,  and  to  see  the 
end  from  the  beginning.  We  can  only  know 
thing's  consecutively  and  in  fragments,  llut  his- 
tory is  its  own  best  interpreter ;  and,  the  farther 
it  advances,  the  more  we  are  able  to  understand 
and  ap]ireciate  the  past.  Historians  differ  in 
gifts  and  vocation.  Some  are  miners,  who  bring 
out  the  raw  material  from  the  sources  (Flacius, 
Baronius,  Tillemont,  Gie.seler)  ;  others  are  manu- 
facturers, who  work  up  the  material  for  the  use 
of  scholars  (Bossuet,  Mosheim,  Gibbon,  Milman, 
Xeander).  Some  are  wholesale  merchants,  some 
retailers.  Some  are  bold  critics,  who  open  new 
avenues  of  thought  (Ewald,  Baur,  Renan)  ;  others 
popularize  the  results  of  laborious  researches  for 
the  general  benefit  (Ilagenbach,  Iklerle,  Pressense, 
Stanley). 

V.  Periods  and  Epochs.  —  These  repiresent 
the  different  stages  in  the  religious  development 
of  the  race.  They  must  not  be  arbitrarily  made, 
according  to  a  mechanical  scheme  (such  as  the 
centurial  division,  introduced  by  Flacius  in  the 
Maydeburi/  Centuries,  and  followed  by  ^Mosheim), 
but  taken  from  the  actual  stops  or  starting-points 
(which  is  the  meaning  of  i^rroxr/,  from  inixu,  "  to 
stop,"  "to  pause")  and  circuits  (jrfpiodm)  of  the 
history  itself.  The  following  are  the  natural 
divisions :  — 

A .  Sacred  or  Biblical  History,  the  history  of  the 
divine  revelation,  from  the  creation  to  the  close 
of  the  apostolic  age,  running  parallel  with  the 
Scriptures,  from  Cienesis  to  Revelation.  Here 
we  must  distinguish  the  dispensation  of  the  law 
and  the  dispensation  of  the  gospel,  or  the  his- 
tory of  the  Old-Covenant  religion  and  that  of  the 
New-Covenant  religion. 

(1)  Under  the  Old  Dispensation,  from  the  crea- 
tion down  to  .Tohn  the  Baptist.  Subdivisions : 
(a)  The  pirimitive  period ;  (b)  The  patriarchal 
period;  (c)  The  Jlosaic  period  (the  establishment 
of  the  theocracy)  ;  (</)  The  Judges,  the  Jewish 
monarchy  and  projihets ;  (e)  The  Babylonian 
exile;  (/)  The  period  of  the  restoration  (Ezra, 
Nehemiah,  and  the  post-exilian  propihets;  ((/)  The 
Maccabees;  (/()  The  Roman  rule  till  Herod  the 
Great,  and  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

(2)  Under  the  New  Dispensation  —  Christ  and 
the  apostles,  or  primitive  and  noi'inative  Chris- 
tianity in  its  divine-human  founder  and  inspired 
organs.  Subdivisions  :  {a)  The  preparatory  mis- 
sion of  John  the  Baptist;  {b)  The  life  and  work 
of  Christ ;  (c)  The  founding  of  the  Church  among 
the  Jews  and  Gentiles  by  the  labors  of  Peter 
Paul,  and  John. 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


48-2 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


B.  Christian  Ilislori/,  or  Ecclesiastical  History 
proper,  from  the  close  of  the  apostolic  age  to 
modern  times.     Subdivisions:  — 

(1)  History  of  yl»ei«H<  Christianity,  embracing 
the  tirst  six  centuries  to  Gregory  I.  (590)  :  Grse- 
co-Latin,  Patristic,  Catholic,  the  common  stock 
from  which  the  Greek,  the  Roman,  and  the  Prot- 
estant churches  have  sprung.  .Subdivisions: 
(a)  The  life  of  Christ  and  the  apostolic  age  (see 
A  2)  ;  (i)  The  age  of  persecution,  to  Constantine 
the  Great  and  the  Council  of  Xicasa  (3'25)  ;  (c) 
The  age  of  patriarchs.  Christian  emperors,  and 
oecumenical  councils  (to  590).  Some  historians 
carry  ancient  Christianity  down  to  Charlemagne 
(A.I).  800)  and  the  beginning  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire  and  the  temporal  power  of  tlie 
Papacy.  In  this  case  we  have  a  fourth  subdivis- 
ion, from  Gregory  I.  to  Charlemagne  (AD.  590 
to  800).  But  Charlemagne  belongs  to  the  middle 
ages  and  the  Germanic  phase  of  Christianity. 

(2)  History  of  Medicccul  Christianity,  from  the 
close  of  the  sixth  to  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  or  from  Gregory  the  Great  (.\.D. 
.590),  the  first  mediaeval  pope,  to  Luther  (A.D. 
1517).  Character:  The  Gireek  and  Roman 
churches,  divided  since  the  controversy  of  Pho- 
tius  and  Pope  Kicolas  I.,  pursue  their  independ- 
ent course ;  the  Latin  Church  extending  west 
among  the  Celtic  and  Germanic  races ;  the  Greek, 
north-east  among  the  Slavonians  (in  Russia) ; 
conversion  of  the  Xorthern  and  Western  barbari- 
ans ;  conflicts  with  Jlohammedanism ;  the  cru- 
sades ;  rise  and  progress  of  the  papacy,  scholasti- 
cism, mj'sticisni;  the  reformatory  councils  of 
Pisa,  Constance,  and  Basel ;  revival  of  letters ; 
invention  of  printing;  discovery  of  America; 
biblical  theology  ;  forerunners  of  Protestantism 
(Wiclif  in  England,  IIus  in  Bohemia,  Savonarola 
in  Italy,  Wessel  in  Holland,  etc.)  .Subdivisions  : 
(«)  The  missionary  period  of  the  middle  age, 
from  (iregorv  L  to  Gregory  ^TI.  (IIil<li'l)rand, 
A.D.  590-1049);  (b)  The  height  of  the  papal 
hierarchy,  from  Gregory  VII.  to  Boniface  VHL 
(.\.D.  1019-1291);  (c)  The  decline  of  the  pa- 
pacy from  Uoniface  VIH.  to  Leo  X.,  or  Martin 
Luther  (.V.D.  12.01-1517). 

(■i)  History  of  Mwlenx  Christianity,  from  the 
Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century  to  the 
pre.sent  time.  Protestantism  and  Romanism; 
founding  of  tlie  various  evangelical  churches  (the 
Lutheran,  Calvinistic,  .Vnglican,  etc.) ;  restora- 
tion and  revival  of  Romanism ;  the  Council  of 
Trent;  .Jesuitism;  .Jansenism;  the  Puritan  con- 
flict in  ICnglaiid;  the  Westminster  Assendily ; 
tlie  restoration  of  the  Kjiiscopal  Chinch  under 
Charles  II.;  tlie  (■x])ulsion  of  the  Stuarts;  the 
Edict  of  Toleration ;  the  organization  of  the  dis- 
senting denominations  (Presbyterians,  Indiqiend- 
ents,  Haptists,  (Quakers);  the  settlement  of  North 
.\merica ;  Pietism  and  tlie  Moravians  in  Cior- 
many ;  the  Methodist  ri'vival  in  England  and  the 
Colonies;  the  Erench  Revohilion,  and  spread  of 
infidelity  ;  revival  of  Cliristiau  life  and  missionary 
zeal;  progress  and  triiiinph.of  rilniinontane 
Romanism  (culminating  in  the  V.atican  Council, 
1870);  conflict  of  faith  witli  rationalism  aii<l 
infidelity;  growth  of  the  churches  in  the  I'nited 
States,  on  the  basis  of  the  volimt.ary  jniiiciple  ; 
immense!  activity  in  theology,  liti'ialui-e,  missions, 
and  all   forms  of  Christian   philanllirojiy.     Sub- 


divisions :  (a)  The  age  of  the  Protestant  Refor- 
mation, and  the  Roman-Catholic  counter-reforma- 
tion or  re-action  (from  1517  to  1618)  ;  (6)  The 
age  of  scholastic  and  polemic  confessionalisni.  in 
conflict  with  nonconformity  and  subjective  piety 
(from  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  eighteenth  century)  ;  (c)  The  age  of 
revolution  and  revival,  and  conflict  between 
Christianity  and  various  forms  of  scepticism 
and  secularism  (from  Deism  in  England,  and  the 
French  Revolution,  to  our  time). 

VL  V.ALUE.  —  The  .study  of  history  enables  us 
to  understand  the  present,  which  is  the  fruit  of 
the  past  and  the  germ  of  the  future.  It  is  the 
richest  storehouse  of  wisdom  and  experience.  It 
is  the  best  commentary  of  Christianity.  It  is  full 
of  comfort  and  encouragement.  It  verifies  on 
every  page  the  promise  of  the  Saviour  to  be  with 
his  people  always,  and  to  build  his  Church  on  an 
indestructible  rock.  It  exhibits  his  life  in  all  its 
forms  and  phases,  and  the  triumphant  inarch  of 
his  kingdom  from  land  to  land  and  generation  to 
generation.  Earthly  empires,  systems  of  philoso- 
phy, have  their  day;  human  institutions  decay; 
all  tilings  of  this  world  bloom  and  fade  away,  like 
the  grass  of  the  field :  but  the  Christian  religion 
has  the  dew  of  perennial  youth,  survives  all 
changes,  makes  steady  progress  from  age  to  age, 
overcomes  all  persecution  from  without,  and  cor- 
ruption from  within,  is  now  stronger  and  more 
widely  sjireail  than  ever  before,  directs  the  course 
of  civilization,  and  bears  the  hopes  of  the  human 
race.  The  history  of  the  world  is  governed  in 
the  interest,  and  for  the  ultimate  triumph,  of 
Christianity.  The  experience  of  the  past  is  a 
sure  guaranty  of  tlie  future. 

VII.  Lit.  ^ —  ^\'e  confine  ourselves  here  to  works 
on  General  Church  History.  (1)  Ancient  Ilixlori- 
(ins  — EusEiiirs  (d.  340):  C/iurcli  Hislorij.  from 
the  birth  of  Christ  to  Constantine  the  Gre.at  (324); 
his  successors  in  the  Greek  Church :  Soci;ates, 
SozoMEX,  TiiEODOKET.  The  Latin  Church  con- 
tented itself  with  extracts  from  Eiisebius  and  his 
contiiiuators.  'Ihe  middle  ages  produced  most 
valuable  material  for  history,  but  no  great  general 
churcli  history.  The  Reformation  called  forth 
the  spirit  of  critical  inquiry. 

(2)  Historians  from  the  Sixteenth  to  the  Eigh- 
teenth Century.  —  Matthias  Flacius  (d.  1575) 
and  other  Lutheran  divines  of  Ciermany  wrote 
the  Ma/jdelmrij  Centuries  (Basel,  1559-74),  covering 
thirteen  Christian  centuries  in  as  many  volumes, 
—  the  first  history,  from  a  Protestant  point  of 
view,  in  ojijiosition  to  the  claims  of  Romanism. 
In  defence  of  Romanism,  and  in  refutation  of 
Flacius,  C.ESAU  Bauonh's  (d.  1007)  wrote  Eccle- 
siastical Annals,  in  12  folio  vols,  (luiblished  at 
Rome,  1588  .sqq. ;  new  ed.  by  Aug.  Tlu-iner,  Bar- 
le-Duc,  1808  sqq.),  continued  by  Kaynaldns, 
S])oiidanus,  Theiner,  and  other.s,  —  a  work  of 
extraordinary  learning  and  indu.stry,  but  to  be 
used  with  great  caution.  Tii.i.emont  (d.  109S), 
in  his  invaluable  Mimoires  (Paris,  1093-1712,  10 
vols.),  wrote  the  history  of  the  first  si.x  centuries 
from  the  sources,  in  bibliographical  .style  and  in 
the  spirit  of  the  more  liberal  Gallicaii  Catholi- 
cism. GoiTiitiEi)  AitNOLi)  (d.  1711),  of  the 
I'ietistic  .school  of  Spener,  in  his  Impartial  History 
of  the  Church  ami  of  Heretics  (Frankfort.  1099 
S(i<p,  4  vols,  fob,  to  A.D.,  10S8),  advocated  the 


CHURCH  HISTORY. 


483       CHURCH,  STATES  OF  THE. 


interests  of  practical  piety,  and  the  claims  of 
heretics  and  schismatics,  and  all  those  who  suf- 
fered persecution  from  an  inlulei'ant  hierarchy 
and  orthodoxy.  J.  J^.  Mosiiki.m  (d.  1755)  wrote 
his  In.itilnles  of  Ecclcsiashral  Ilix/ori/  (in  Latin, 
llehnstailt,  1755,  and  often  since  in  sevcn'al  trans- 
lations) in  the  spirit  of  a  moderate  lyutheran  or- 
thodoxy, with  solid  learning  and  im]iartiality,  in 
clear  style,  after  the  centurial  arrangement  of  Fla- 
cius,  and  furnislied  a  conv<'nient  text-book,  which 
(in  the  translation  of  .Murdock,  with  valuable 
supplements)  has  continued  in  use  in  England 
and  America  much  longer  than  in  Germany. 
Sciiuokck's  C/ir(sti(tn  Church  Ilistnnj  (I.,eipzig, 
1708-lSll),  in  45  vols.)  is  far  more  exten.sive  and 
far  less  readable,  but  invaluable  for  reference, 
full  of  information  from  the  sources.  It  forsakes 
the  mechanical  centurial  division,  and  sub.stltutes 
for  it  periodic  arrangement.  IIknke  (d.  18U9) 
followed  with  a  tlioroughly  rationalistic  work  in 
!)  vols.  (1788-1810). 

(3)  Historians  of  the  Nineteenth  Centurij.  — 
Xkandkr,  a  converted  Israelite,  professor  of 
church  history  in  Berlin  (d.  1850),  marks  an 
epoch  in  this  branch  of  theological  literature;  and 
by  his  truly  Christian,  conscientious,  impartial, 
truth-loving,  just,  and  liberal,  and,  withal,  thor- 
oughly learned  and  profound  spirit  and  method, 
he  earned  the  title  of  "  Father  of  Church  His- 
tory." His  General  Histori/  of  the  Christian  Re- 
ligion anil  Church  (Hamburg,  182.5—52,  11  vols.), 
though  incomplete  (it  stops  with  the  Council  of 
Basel,  1430),  and  somewhat  ditfuse  and  monoto- 
nous in  style,  is  an  immortal  monument  of 
genius  and  learning.  It  pays  special  attention 
to  the  development  of  Christian  life  and  doc- 
trine, and  is  edifying  as  well  as  instructive.  It 
has  been  naturalized  in  England  and  America 
by  the  translation  of  Professor  Torrey  (Boston, 
1847-52,  5  vols.,  12th  ed.,  1872,  new  edition  w'ith 
a  complete  index,  (5  vols.,  1881),  and  will  long 
be  studied  with  profit,  although  in  some  respects 
superseded  by  more  recent  researches  in  the  first 
three  centuries.  Equally  valuable,  though  of  an 
altogether  different  plan  and  spirit,  is  the  Church 
History  of  GiESELEU  (Bonn,  1824-56),  translated 
from  the  German,  first  by  Cunningham  in  I'hiki- 
delphia.  (1840),  then  by  Davidson  and  Hull  in 
England,  and  revi.sed  and  completed  by  H.  B. 
.Smith  of  New  York  (18.57-80,  in  5  vols.).  The 
text  is  a  meagre  skeleton  of  facts  and  dates ;  but 
the  body  of  the  work  consists  of  carefully-selected 
extracts  and  proof-texts  from  the  sources  which 
furnish  the  data  for  an  independent  judgment. 
Bauk's  Church  Histori/,  partly  published  after  his 
death  (Tiibingen,  18(13  sqcj.,  in  5  vols.),  is  distin- 
guished for  jiiiilosoiihic  grasp,  critical  combina- 
tions, and  bold  conjectures,  e.specially  in  the  treats 
nient  of  the  apostolic  and  post-apostolic  ages,  and 
the  ancient  heresies  and  systems  of  doctrine. 
Hagenbacii's  Church  Histor;/  (Leipzig,  1873,  7 
vols.,  revised  ed.  by  Nippold,  1885  sqq.)  is  a  popu- 
lar digest  for  the  edncateil  Lay  reader.  Schakf's 
Histori/  (f  the  Christian  Church  (Xew  York,  1859 
sqq.,  vol.  iv.,  1885,  (ierman  ed.  of  the  1st  three 
vols.,  Leipzig,  18(58,  revised  ed.  of  same  in  English, 
New  York,  1882-84)  goes  down  to  1073,  and  is 
written  from  the  Anglo-German  and  Anglo-Ameri- 
can stand-point.  The  next  volume  will  be  upon 
the  Reformation.     England  has  produced  greater 


works  on  special  departments  (as  Gibbon,  on  The 
iJectine  and  Full,  etc.  ;  Milnian,  on  Latin  Chris- 
tianity;  .Stanley,  on  The  Jewish  Church  and  The 
Eastern  Church  ;  Farrar,  on  The  Life  of  Christ  and 
The  Apostle  Paul)  than  on  general  church  history. 
VVadi)IN(!T()N-  represents  the  general  history,  in 
six  volumes,  to  the  Keformation  inclusive  (1835 
s(i(i.);  superseded  by  James  C.  Rohkhtson's 
Histori/  of  the  Christian  Church  to  the  Reformation, 
in  3  vols.,  18.54  S(iq.,  new  ed.  1875,  in  8  small  vols. 
The  older  work  of  Milxeu  (d.  1797)  is  written 
in  popular  style  for  edification.  The  most  valuar 
ble  contributions  of  modern  English  .scholarship 
to  ancient  church  history  are  found  in  Smith  & 
Cuketham,  Dictioiiitri/  of  Christian  Antiquities, 
London,  1875,  1880,  2  vols.,  and  in  >S.MiTir  & 
Wace,  Dictionarij  of  Christian  Bioyraphy,  Lon- 
don, 1877  sqq.,  to  be  comiileted  in  4  vols.  The 
largest  Koman-Catholic  church  history  of  recent 
times  is  Abbe  Uohkhacheh's  Histoire  universelle 
lie  rEylise  cathol  ,  I'aris,  1842  sqq.,  25  vols. 

(4)  Manuals  of  Church  History  in  one  or  more 
Volumes.  —  (a)  Honian  Catholics :  Dollingeu 
(1830,  unfinished;  English  trans,  in  4  vols.), 
iluiiLEK  (postliunious,  ed.  by  P.  B.  Gams,  1807 
sq.,  3  vols.),  KiTTEU  (1820-35,  3  vols.;  4th  ed., 
1854),  Alzog  (10th  ed.,  1882,  2  vols.;  English 
trans,  in  3  vols.),  Kraus  (Trier,  1872-75,  3  parts, 
2d  ed.,  1882),  Hergenrotiier  (Freiburg,  2  vols., 
3d  ed.,  1884).  (i)  Protestants:  Hase  (10th  ed., 
1877,  a  masterly  miniature  picture),  Niedner 
(1846  and  1860,  very  learned  and  very  heavy), 
GuERiCKE  (9tli  ed.,  1806,  high-Lutheran,  super- 
seded by  Kurtz),  Kurtz  (9th  ed.,  1885,  2  vols.), 
Hasse  (1864,  posthumous),  Ebrard  (1865,  4 
vols.,  polemically  Reformed),  Herzog  (1880-82, 
3  vols.,  moderately  Reformed),  Chastel  (French, 
Paris,  1859-74,  4  vols.,  new  ed.,  1881  sqq.),  H. 
SciiMiD  (1881.  2  vol.s.),  Hase  (lectures,  1885 
sqq.).  Hase  (text-book),  Guericke,  and  Kurtz 
are  translated,  but  from  old  editions. 

(5)  Doctrine  Histories  by  Munscher  (Mar- 
burg, 1797-1809,  4  parts),  Baur  (Lehrbuch  der 
Doymeni/eschichle,  Tubingen,  1847,  3d  ed.,  1867; 
Vorlesuni/en,  ed.  by  his  son,  Leipzig,  1865-67,  3 
vols.),  N  BANDER  "(ed.  by  Jacobi,  Berlin,  1857), 
Hagenbach  (Leipzig,  1841 ;  5th  ed.,  1867,  trans, 
by  Buch,  Edinb.,  supplemented  by  H.  B.  Smith, 
N.  Y.,  1861,  2  vols.  ;  new  ed.  with  introduction  by 
Plumptre,  Edinb.,  1880,  2  vols.),  Shedd  (N.Y., 
1803,  2  vols.),  Thomasius  (Erlangen,  1874-76, 
2  vols.),  Friedr.  Xitzsch  (Berlin,  1870,  unfin- 
ished), Adolf  Harnack  (Freiburg  i.  Br.,  1st 
vol.,  1886). 

(6)  Chronological  Tallies.  — Weing.\rten:  Zeit- 
tafeln,  Berlin,  2d  ed.,  1874;  H.  B.  Smith  :  History 
of  the  Church  of  Christ  in  Sixteen  Chronol.  Tables, 
New  York,  1860  (the  best,  but  too  large  in  size 
for  convenient  use);  L.  H.  Kraus  (Roman- 
Catholic  professor  in  Strassburg)  :  Synchronistische 
Tabellen  znr  K.  Gesch.,  Trier,  1870;  and  Synchro- 
nist.  Tabellen  zur  christl.  Knnstgeschichte,  Freibm-g, 
1880.  For  a  fuller  introduction  into  church  his- 
torv  see  the  author's  History  of  the  Apost.  Church, 
jip."  1-134.  "    PHILIP  SCHAFF. 

CHURCH  JURISDICTION.  See  Jurisdic- 
tion. Ecclesiastical. 

CHURCH  POLITY.     See  Polity. 

CHURCH,  States  of  the  (Patrimonium  Petri; 
Stalo    delta    Chiesa),   the    region   occupying   the 


CHURCH,  STATES  OF  THE.   484    CHURCH,  STATES  OP  THE. 


central  part  of  Italy,  between  Tuscany  and  Na- 
ples, and  once  fornihig  an  independent  state,  of 
which  the  Pope  was  the  sovereign.  This  sov- 
ereignty of  the  Pope  was  not,  as  Koman-Catliolic 
writers"like  to  represent  it,  a  striking  providential 
arrangement :  on  the  contrary,  it  was  a  long  and 
laborious  growth  of  a  rather  vicious  character. 
Tlie  prominence  which  the  Roman  episcopacy 
very  early  obtained  was  a  natural  and  necessary 
conseqiience  of  the  position  whicli  the  city  of 
Rome  lield  in  the  empire.  Xothing  in  Rome 
•could  be  second-rate ;  and,  from  the  moment 
Christianity  became  the  religion  of  the  State,  the 
Roman  bishop  naturally  and  necessarily  became 
the  centre  of  Christendom.  It  was  only  tiirough 
reflection  that  Jerusalem  could  be  any  thing  grand 
and  awe-inspiring  to  people  of  Greek  and  Roman 
descent.  The  congregation  of  Rome  was  tlie 
largest  already  in  the  third  century  :  in  the  fourth 
it  also  became  tlie  richest.  It  commanded  re- 
spect by  itself,  independently  of  its  being  the 
representative  of  the  metropolis  of  the  world. 
The  donation  of  Constantine  is  a  mere  fable. 
Constantine  did  not  move  his  residence  to  Con- 
stantinople in  order  to  give  room  in  Rome  for  tlie 
"spiritual  emperor;  "  nor  did  he  cede  the  city  of 
Rome,  or  the  provinces  of  Italy,  or  the  whole 
western  part  of  the  empire,  to  the  Pope.  Tlie  in- 
strument of  this  bequest  is  a  forgery  of  the  ninth 
century ;  and,  thougli  the  Pope  had  people  burnt 
at  Strassburg  in  1178  for  saying  so,  that  century 
did  not  run  out  before  Laurentius  Valla  and  .Vriost 
had  made  the  lioUmv  pretension  tlie  laughing- 
stock of  Europe.  l>ut  by  a  decree  of  3'Jl  Con- 
stantine allowed  the  Christian  Church  to  receive 
bequests  by  will ;  and  the  Bisliop  of  Rome  soon 
became  one  of  tlie  largest  landed  proprietors  of 
the  realm.  Estates  in  Italy,  Gaul,  and  Spain, 
were  bequeathed  to  him ;  and  to  this  solid  wealth 
privileges  and  immunities  were  added  by  Gratian, 
Valeutinian  III.,  and  others.  His  money  helped 
him  to  enforce  liis  authority,  and  his  aulliority 
helped  him  to  multiply  his  money.  Still  tliere 
were  as  yet  no  traces  of  any  sovereignty  in  tlie 
Pope's  position.  For  centuries  after  the  alleged 
"donation  of  Constantine,"  he  remained  a  Imrii- 
ble  subject,  and  much  too  often  even  a  liumble 
servant,  of  the  emperor. 

But  circumstances  were  alre.ady  preparing  for 
the  coming  .sovereignty.  Tlie  removal  of  the 
imperial  residence  to  Constantinople  left  an  enqily 
.space  in  Rome;  and  on  thousands  of  occasions, 
each,  perhaps,  very  iiisigiiificanl  by  it.self,  the  Pope 
stepped  in  to  fill  the  void.  Tlie  idea  of  a  spirit- 
ual empire,  tlie  condition  of  a  temporal  sov- 
ereignty, was  fully  develoi>ed,  and  ready  to  be 
acted  upon,  with  Gregory  tlie  Great  (oiiO-fiOl). 
Actual  oi)portuiiities  were  neitlier  lacking  nor 
neglected.  The  storms  before  whicli  the  West- 
ern Empire  finally  fell,  tlie  continuous  invasions 
of  Italy  by  barl)arou.s  tribes,  the  feeble  rule 
which  the  Hyzantiiie  eni))erors  (',\eici.se<l  in  Italy, 
and  the  still  feebler  dirfence  wliioh  they  could  give 
the  country, — everything  t(Miiled  to  gatlier  the 
people  of  Rome  around  their  bisliop  as  their 
natural  leadiM',  and  to  allure  the  bisho])  into  the 
political  field,  first  as  a  mediator  who  dcsc^rved 
his  reward,  then  as  an  ally  who  demanded  his 
recomp<'nse.  Gregory  11.  receiveil  in  728  the  city 
of   Sulri  from  Liutprand,  the  king  of  the  ]<oni- 


bards  ;  and  this  is  the  first  possession  which  the 
popes  held  independently  of  the  emperor.  Zacha- 
rias  received  in  742,  from  the  same  hand,  the  cities 
of  Amelia,  Orta,  Bomarzo,  and  Bieda,  which  had 
been  taken  from  the  exarchate.  The  Pope's  rela- 
tions to  the  Lombard  king  were  by  no  means 
safe,  however.  Gregory  III.  (731-741)  had  been 
compelled  to  ask  for  tlie  interference  of  Charles 
Martel ;  and  .Stephaii  II.  (752-707)  was  com- 
pelled to  ask  Pejiin  the  Short  for  direct  protec- 
tion. As  .Stephan  had  given  Pepin  most  valuable 
aid  in  the  acquisition  of  the  Prankish  crown, 
Pepin  went  to  Italy  with  a  great  army,  defeat- 
ed the  Lombard  king,  Aistnlph,  conquered  the 
whole  exarchate  and  the  Pentapolis  (Rimini,  I'e- 
.saro,  Fano,  Sinigaglia,  and  Ancona),  and  con- 
ferred the  conquests  on  Stephan.  This  .sjilendid 
donation,  the  real  foundation  of  the  temporal 
sovereignty  of  the  Pope,  was  repeated,  and  con- 
firmed in  774  by  Charlemagne,  who  completely 
destroyed  the  Lombard  rule  in  Italy.  The  instru- 
ments of  Pepin's  and  Charlemagne's  donations 
are  not  extant,  and  the  real  extent  of  the  bequest 
is  somewhat  doubtful.  The  general  character, 
however,  of  the  gift,  cannot  be  questioned  :  it  wa,s 
a  fief.  In  800  Leo  III.  severed  the  last  bond  be- 
tween tlie  papal  see  and  the  Byzantine  Empire 
by  crowning  Charlemagne  Roman  emperor :  and 
from  that  moment  the  Pope  stands  in  the  politi- 
cal field  as  a  vassal  of  the  Prankish  Empire. 

Immediately  after  the  death  of  Charlemagne 
(S14),  the  dis.solution  of  the  empire  began.  But, 
as  the  strength  of  the  central  government  liecame 
weakened,  the  power  of  the  feudal  lords  or  fief- 
holders  increased,  and  the  popes  were  not  slow  in 
taking  advantage  of  the  situation.  Nicholas  1. 
(858-867)  is  said  to  have  changed  his  mitre  into 
a  crown ;  and  when  Charles  the  Fat,  the  last 
emperor  of  the  Carlovingian  house,  was  deposed 
(in  887),  the  papal  independence  became  an  ac- 
complished fact.  Thus  the  step  from  simple  sul> 
jection  to  complete  sovereigntv  was  successfully 
made  through  a  short,  intermediate  stage  of  vas- 
salage. But  to  hold  this  new  position  proved 
exceedingly  dilTicnlt  in  the  beginning.  First  fol- 
lowed a  century  of  shameless  intrigue  and  scan- 
dalous fighting,  —  the  period  of  the  Pornocracy. 
Th(!  Pwpe  was  elected,  not  by  the  clergy  alone,  but 
by  the  clergy  and  people  of  Rome  ;  and  each  elec- 
tion was  disputed  by  factions  led  by  foreign  and 
native  adventurers. "  Sergius  III.  (!I05-011)  was 
simply  the  paramour  of  i\Iarozin  of  Tuscany,  and 
for  her  sake  he  prostituted  the  dignity  of  the 
apostolic  see,  and  s(]uandered  its  treasures.  The 
disorder  continued  till  the  emperor,  Henry  III.  (in 
1010),  marched  into  Italy  with  a  great  army,  de- 
jiosed  the  three  pretenders  at  the  Council  of  Sutri, 
and  seated  Clement  II.  on  the  papal  throne:  in 
1052  he  ceded  the  Duchy  of  Henevent  to  Leo  IX., 
a  relative  of  his.  Then  followed  two  centuries 
of  bitter  contest  with  the  emperors  of  Germany, 
the  mo.st  brilliant  and  most  ilramatic  part  of  the 
history  of  the  Papacy  In  this  contest  tlii'  [lajial 
sovereignty  did  not  form  the  principal  issue;  Imt 
through  the  whole  period  it  exercised  a  considera- 
ble influence  on  the  windings  of  the  i)a]ial  )iolicy, 
and  at  times  it  actually  occupied  the  foreground; 
thus,  when  the  Countess  Mathilile  of  Tu.scaiiy, 
in  who.se  Castle  of  Canossa  Gregory  VII.  received 
the  homage  of  Henry  IV.  (1077),  bequeathed  all 


CHURCH,  STATES  OF  THE. 


485 


CHYTR^US. 


her  possessions  to  tlip  Pope.  She  died  111");  but 
her  will  was  iiniuediatcly  dispute<l  by  the  Ger- 
man emperors,  and  thi!  (piestion  was  not  decided 
unlil  (he  days  of  Innocent  III.  (llilS-l-JlC),  when 
Otho  IV.  recognized  tlie.  Pope's  claim.  A  change, 
whieli  in  tliis  period  toolv  i)lace  in  the  mode  of 
electing  the  Pope,  contributed  nmch  to  con.soli- 
date  the  jiajial  sovereignty.  Hy  a  decree  of  10.^0 
Nicholas  II.  re.serv(Hl  the  right  of  electing  the 
Pope  ex-clusively  to  the  college  of  cardinals  ;  and 
in  1171)  Alexander  III.  further  decreed,  tliat  a 
majority  of  two-thirds  of  the  votes  was  necessary 
to  make  tlie  election  valid.  Through  the  contest 
with  the  emperoi's  of  Germany  the  papal  power 
reached  its  culmination.  It  was  accei^ted  as  an 
nndisputeil  fact,  as  a  moral  certainty,  that  in  no 
case  could  there  be  an  authority  above  the  Pope ; 
and  only  the  next  question  was  left  open, — 
whether  there  could  be  a  case  in  which  the  Pope 
had  no  aiithority.  During  the  last  three  centuries, 
however,  preceding  the  Reformation,  the  papal 
sovereignty  was  often  in  danger,  but  only  from 
int(M-ior  or  domestic  causes.  Every  now  and  then 
the  memory  of  the  past  would  flash  up(jn  the 
people  of  Rome,  and  cause  turbulent  commotions. 
Arnold  of  Brescia  was  the  first  of  those  heroes 
from  Hades  ;  and  Lucius  II.  was  massacred  in  the 
streets  of  Rome  (IH.j).  Cola  di  llienzo  (1354) 
was  the  last;  and  his  failure  was  his  own  fault. 
Clement  VI.  and  Innocent  VI.  sat  doubtful  and 
powerless  at  Avignon.  Equally  dangerous  were 
the  feuds  and  rebellions  of  the  great  families, 
—  the  C'olonnas,  Orsinis,  Frangipanis,  etc.  They 
drove  the  sovereign  from  his  capital ;  they  caused 
schisms ;  and  at  times  the  Pope  had  only  a  very 
feeble  hold  on  his  own  territory.  Nevei'theless, 
in  the  papal  monarchy,  as  in  most  other  European 
monarchies,  the  contest  between  the  sovereign  and 
the  large  fief-holders  ended  with  the  victory  of 
the  former;  and,  at  the  beginning  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, the  Pope  was  not  only  in  sure  and  quiet  pos- 
session of  the  states  of  the  Church,  Imt  he  had 
even  found  opportunity  to  enlarge  them.  Philippe 
III.  gave  Venais.sin  in  1273  to  Gregory  X.  ; 
Clement  VI.  bought  Avignon  in  1348  from  Queen 
Johanna  of  Sicily;  Julius  II.  (1503-12)  acquired 
Parma,  Piacenza,  and  Reggio,  etc. 

From  the  Reformation  the  Papacy  received  a 
shock  from  which  it  never  recovered,  and  which 
affected  it  in  all  its  manifestations,  also  in  the 
temporal  sovereignty  of  the  Pope.  This  sover- 
eignty has  another  basis  than  royalty.  It  rests 
upon  the  spiritual  supremacy,  the  infallibility,  of 
the  Pope;  and  tlie  moment  this  infallibility,  this 
spiritual  supremacy,  is  undei-stood  to  be  a  mere 
nightmare  upon  the  moral  and  intellectual  devel- 
opment of  Christendom,  the  temporal  sovereignty 
of  the  Pope  becomes  something  merely  incidental, 
which  may  last  a  thousand  years,  or  one  hour, 
according  to  circumstances.  The  .strange  light 
which  the  Reformation  threw  upon  the  Papacy 
liad  its  effect,  and  the  effect  became  ajiparent  at 
the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  AVestphalia  (1648). 
The  Pope  protested  against  this  official  recogni- 
tion of  a  Christendom  outside  of  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Church;  but  no  regard  was  paid  to  his 
protest.  His  position  in  the  political  system  of 
Europe  was  shaken,  if  not  already  ruined ;  and 
liow  little  was  thought  of  his  sovereignty  within 
his  own  dominion,  the  squabble  between  Louis 


XIV.  and  Innocent  XL  (1076-80)  .shows.  When, 
towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
the  great  ideas  began  to  move,  the  Pope,  a.s 
the  sovereign  of  the  states  of  the  Church,  was 
simply  treated  as  people  treat  an  inconvenience, 
—  with  a  mixture  of  patience,  indifference,  and 
contempt.  France  occu]iied  Avignon  and  Venais- 
sin  ill  1792,  and,  in  17!I6,  Ferrara,  Bologna,  and 
the  Romagna,  which,  by  the  Peace  of  Tolentino 
(Feb.  lil,  1797),  were  incorporated  with  the  Ci.s- 
alpine  Republic.  Next  year  (Feb.  1.^,  1798)  the 
Republic  was  declared  in  the,  forum  of  Rome  ;  and 
Pius  VI.  was  depo,sed,  and  bereft  of  all  temporal 
power.  Once  more,  however,  the  Pope  came  into 
possession  of  liis  sovereignty.  The  Congress  of 
Vienna,  whose  principal  ta.sk  was  to  undo  what 
Napoleon  I.  had  done,  re-establi.shed  the  states 
of  the  Church,  nearly  with  their  old  boundaries; 
and  for  about  a  decade  every  thing  went  on 
smoothly.  But,  since  the  French  Revolution, 
people  in  Europe  had  generally  got  some  sense 
for  good  government,  and  the  papal  government 
was  as  bad  as  it  possibly  could  be.  The  admin- 
istration of  justice  was  as  corrupt  as  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  finances  was  stupid.  Commerce 
and  industry  died  out ;  science  and  art  sickened ; 
the  country  filled  up  with  thieves  and  brigands ; 
and  riots  became  of  daily  occurrence.  From 
1832  to  1838  an  Austrian  army-corps  occupied 
Bologna,  and  a  French  one  Ancona,  to  preserve 
order.  In  1848  the  riots  grew  into  a  blazing  revo- 
lution. Pius  IX.  fled  to  Gaeta,  in  the  Neapolitan 
territory,  and  did  not  return  until  1850.  under  the 
protection  of  a  French  army.  jNIeanwhile  a  new 
great  idea  —  the  national  unity  —  had  begun  to 
enter  men's  minds,  and  within  a  few  years  it 
swept  away  the  papal  sovereignty  as  a  spider's 
web.  In  1860  the  States  of  the  Church,  with  the 
exception  of  the  city  of  Rome,  were  incorporated 
with  the  Kingdom  of  Italy;  and  in  1870  Victor 
Emmanuel  took  up  his  residence  in  Rome  itself. 
The  sovereignty  of  the  Pope,  if  there  still  is  any 
thing  in  existence  which  can  be  thus  called,  is 
now  confined  to  the  Palace  of  the  Vatican. 

Lit.  —  SuGENHEiM  :  Geschichte  des  Kirchen- 
staal.i,  Leipzig,  18.54;  Scharpff  :  Entstehung  des 
Kirchi-nstciiilf:,  1854 ;  Th.  D.  Mock  :  De  Doiialione 
a  Carolo  Mrirpio  sedi  ApostoliccB  anno  774  ohlata, 
JIunich,  1861;  DiiLLiNOER:  Kirche  vnd  Kirchen, 
Papsll/iuiii  unil  Kirchenstaal,  Miinchen,  1861;  Eng- 
lisli  translation,  London,  1862;  M.  Bkoscii  : 
Gesclilclite  den  Kin-litiislaale.-:,  (iotlia,  1880-82, 
2  vols.  ('LEMKX.S    I'ETEKSEN". 

CHURTON,  Ralph,  Archdeacon  of  St.  David's; 
b.  near  Bickley,  Che.shire,  Dec.  8,  1754;  d.  Jlarch 
23,  1831.  He  delivered  the  Bampton  Lecture  of 
1785.  on  the  Prophecies  respecting  the  Destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  published  at  Oxford  the  same  year. 
He  i.ssued,  besides.  Memoir  of  Archdeacon  7'ou-nson, 
prefixed  to  Practical  Discourses  (3d  ed.,  London, 
1834"),  Lires  of  Bishop  Smith  and  Sir  Richard  Sut- 
ton (1800).  Life  of  Dean  Nowell  (Oxford.  1.-09). 

CHYTR/EUS  '(Kochhafe).  David,  b.  at  Ingel- 
fingen,  Feb.  26,  1530:  d.  at  Rostock,  June  25, 
1600  ;  studied,  under  Camerarius  ami  .'^chnepf,  at 
Tiibingen.  and.  under  Melanchthon,  in  Witten- 
berg ;  travelled  in  Italy,  and  was  made  professor 
at  Ro.stock,  in  1551 ;  lectured  on  philosophy  and 
theology,  and  distinguished  himself  as  one  of  the 
most  i'lifluential  of  the  Lutheran  theologians  of 


CIBORIUM. 


48G 


CIRCUMCISION. 


the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century-  In  1569 
lie  visited  Austria,  on  the  invitation  of  Maximilian 
II.,  for  the  purpose  of  organizing  the  evangelical 
church  of  the  country.  "lie  was  one  of  the  chief 
directors  at  the  foundation  of  the  University  of 
IlehnstUdt,  and  ^vrote  the  statutes.  His  theologi- 
cal works,  among  which  are  Onomaslicon  Theologi- 
cum,  an  Historia  Cotifessionh  Aiirjustana;,  etc.,  were 
collected  in  2  vols,  fol.,  Leipzig.  15.99.  lie  also 
■wrote  a  Chronicon  Saxonlce,  1500-95.  His  bio- 
graphy has  been  written  by  Stuuz  (Rostock, 
i601),"ScHUTZ  (Hamburg,  1720),  Prf.ssel  (Elber- 
feld,  1S02),  and  Kkabue  (Rostock,  1S70). 

CIBORIUM  (from  the  Greek  uiiupiov)  denoted 
originally  the  canopy,  which,  borne  by  four  col- 
umns, surmounted  the  altar,  but  was  afterwards 
specially  applied  to  the  shrine  or  vessel  in  which 
the  host  was  kept,  which  occasioned  the  erroneous 
derivation  from  cihos  ("food"). 

CILI'CIA,  the  south-easterly  province  of  Asia 
Jlinor,  having  C'appadocia  on  the  north,  from 
wliich  it  is  separated  by  the  Taurus  and  Anti- 
Taurus  Range,  Syria  on  the  east,  the  ^Mediterra- 
nean  Sea  on  the  south,  and  Paniphylia  on  the 
west.  Eastern  Cilicia  was  a  rich  plain.  'Western 
Cilicia  was  rough  and  mountainous.  Tarsus,  the 
home  of  Paul,  was  its  capital,  and  there  was  a 
famous  school  of  philosophy.  The  province  con- 
tained many  Jews.  There  are  many  references 
to  it  in  Acts  (see  vi.  9.  xv.  23,  41,  xxi.  39,  xxii. 
3,  xxiii.  34,  xxvii.  5;  also  Gal.  i.  21).  The  goat's- 
liair  cloth,  called  cilicium,  was  one  of  its  jwod- 
ucts:  to  make  tents  of  this  was  Paul's  trade. 
The  word,  in  a  slightly  modified  form,  exists 
to-day  in  modern  European  languages,  to  describe 
this  article,  which  is  still  )iroduced. 

CIRCUMCELLIANS.     See  Doxatists. 

CIRCUMCISION,  the  cutting-awiiy  of  the 
whole  or  of  parts  of  the  ]irepuce,  was,  in  the  old- 
est times,  performed  with  a  stone  knife,  both 
among  the  Lsraclites  and  the  Egyptians  (Exod. 
iv.  25;  Josh.  v.  2);  and  other  nations  adhered  to 
this  custom,  even  after  becoming  accpiaiuted  with 
sharper  instruments;  while  in  later  times  the 
tlews  emjiloyed  a  steel  knife.  The  operation  was 
not  without  danger,  especially  when  iierformed 
on  adults.  The  tliird  day  was  feared  as  the  day 
of  tlie  crisis  (Gen.  xxxiv.  25).  Every  Israelite 
was  allowed  to  perform  the  rite,  but  no  (ientile. 
Generally  it  wa.s  the  odice  of  tlie  father  (Gen. 
xvii.  23);  only  under  certain  circuiiLstances  it 
became  that  of  the  mother  (Kxod.  iv.  25;  1  Mace. 
i.  GO).  Afterwards  it  became  the  business  of 
the  physician,  and  at  present  it  is  performed  by  a 
.sjiecial  officer.  According  to  (ien.  xvii.  10-14, 
circumci.sion  was  laid  ujion  Aliraliani,  his  seed, 
and  his  servants,  as  a  direct  connnandment  from 
(iod  ;  and  the  ]>i'nalty  of  neglect  was,  to  be  cut 
off  from  the  peojilc-.  Tlie  Mosaic  law  speaks 
only  incidentally  of  it  as  .something  already  es- 
tablished. According  to  Lev.  xii.  3,  the  eighth 
day  after  the  liirtii  of  a  boy  was  tlie  term  fixed 
for  tlie  performance  of  tlie  rit<!.  H  tlie  cliild  was 
ill,  tlie  rite  could  be  ))Ost]ioned,  however.  Tiie 
old  Egy]«tians  performed  it  between  the  sixth 
and  ti'iith  year;  llie  .Moliamiiiedans  of  our  days 
often  wait"  till  tin-  Iweinii  or  lliiiicciitli  year. 
With  the  Israelites,  the  naming  of  the  child  takes 
place  together  with  the  ciicuMicision  (Luke  i.  59, 
ii.  11;  coinp.  (ien.  xvii.  5). 


Besides  by  the  Israelites,  circumcision  was  prac- 
tised, not  only  by  the  Terachitian  peoples,  such 
as  the  Edoinites,  Ammonites,  Moabites  (Jer.  ix. 
25,  the  interpretation  of  the  passage  is  some- 
what doubtful,  however),  but  also  by  the  Egyp- 
tians. Herodotus  (2.  3li,  and  2,  104),  and,  after 
him,  Diodorus  and  Stralio,  even  assert  that  the 
custom  was  original  among  the  latter ;  while  the 
Phoenicians  and  the  "  Syrians  of  Palestine " 
(the  Jews)  simply  adopted  it ;  a  statement  which 
even  Josephus  does  not  see  fit  to  contradict 
(Cimt.  Ap.,  2.  13).  That  the  Egyptians  should 
have  learnt  the  practice  from  the  Israelites  can- 
not be  maintained,  on  account  of  the  great  age  of 
the  Egyptian  monuments  representing  the  cus- 
tom, in  Egypt,  however,  it  seems  that  only  the 
sacerdotal  caste  was  comjielled  by  law  to  observe 
the  rite.  Josephus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Ori- 
gen,  and  others,  indicate  that  such  was  the  case ; 
and  Apion,  the  adversary  of  Josephus,  was  him- 
self an  uiicircumcised  Egyptian,  and  submitted 
to  the  operation  only  late  in  life,  and  for  physical 
reasons.  The  probability  is,  that  the  Israelites 
adopted  the  custom  from  the  Egyjitians ;  but,  as 
intimate  connections  existed  between  the  two 
nations  long  before  the  time  of  Moses,  it  is  un- 
justifiable, and  in  contradiction  with  the  whole 
Ilebrew  tradition,  to  place  the  establishment  of 
the  institution  of  circumcision  among  the  Israel- 
ites after  the  exodus,  in  the  times  of  Moses 
or  Joshua.  After  the  captivity,  the  Edomites 
remained  iincircumcised  until  John  Ilyrcanus 
compelled  thein  to  re-introduce  the  rite,  as  did 
.\ristobulus  among  the  ItuivTans  (JosKrii.  :  AnI., 
13,  9,  1,  and  13,  11,  3).  .Vniong  the  nations  with 
which  the  Israelites  had  to  deal,  the  Philistines 
are  most  frequently  spoken  of  as  uiicircumcised; 
and,  among  the  prophets,  Ezekiel  most  .strongly 
emphasizes  the  state  of  non-circumcision  as  a 
feature  of  heathenism.  Among  the  nations  prac- 
tising circumcision,  Herodotus  also  mentions  the 
Colchians.  a  colony  from  Egypt,  and  the  Ethiopi- 
ans and  Phoenicians.  The  Coptian  and  Habes- 
.syiiian  f'liristians  still  retain  the  rite;  and  by 
Islam,  which  found  it  in  general  u.se  among  the 
Arabs,  it  was  introduce'd  to  the  Persians,  Turks, 
and  Hindoos.  The  custom  is  also  found  among 
nations  which  have  no  traceal>le  connection  with 
any  form  of  ancient  civilization:  as,  for  instance, 
among  the  Congo  Negroes  and  Caffrarians  in 
Africa,  the  Salivas  Indians  in  South  America, 
the  inhabitants  of  Otaheiti  and  the  Fiji  Islands, 
etc. 

With  respect  to  the  symbolical  signification  of 
the  rite,  a  distinction  must  be  made  between 
Israel  and  the  lieathen  religions.  Even  if  it 
could  be  proved,  that,  among  the  Egyptians,  cir- 
cumcision originated  from  the  ]ihalliis-worshiii, 
this  wouM  have  no  bearing  on  the  Israelite  view 
of  the  lite.  Xor  can  the  rite  be  brought  in  con- 
nection with  the  idea  of  sacrifice  (as  a  remnant 
of  an  ancient  .self-sacrifice,  sacrifice  of  the  body, 
castration  in  honor  of  the  Deity,  etc.);  for  sacrifice 
means  the  selection  of  something  pure  for  the 
.service  of  (iod,  and  not  the  destruction  of  somi'- 
Hiiiig  impure  for  the  sake  of  (Jod.  Hut  to  tlur 
iMiielite  the  foreskin  was  a  token  of  human  im- 
imrity  and  iincleanliness,  and  circiiiucision  was 
an  act  of  purification  ami  cleanliness.  Other 
Oriental   peoples   considered   the   act    from    the 


CIRCUMCISION. 


487 


CISTERCIANS. 


same  point  of  view,  as,  for  instance,  tlio  Egyj>- 
tians   (IIekodotus,    2,    :i7;    conip.    I'liii.o:    De 

Circumcisiniie,  2,  211).  Tlie  Arabs  of  to-day  call 
the  operation  luliir,  UiOdr,  "purification."  Tliii.s 
the  idea  of  liodily  cleanliness  forms  the  very  basis, 
among  the  Israelites,  for  the  religious  rite  of 
circumcision.  But  the  idea  of  bodily  cleanli- 
ness gradually  grew  into  that  of  spiritual  jiurity, 
such  as  was  demanded  of  the  chosen  people  of 
God :  hence  such  expressions  as  those  in  .Jer. 
vi.  10;  Lev.  xxvi.  41,  etc.:  the  non-circumcision 
of  the  ear,  the  lieart,  etc.  Finally,  the  act  became 
the  external  token  of  the  covenant  between  God 
and  his  cliosen  people,  and  lias  been  designated 
as  the  patents  of  nobility  of  the  .lews.  As  such 
it  was  the  rite  of  admittance  into  Israel, —  the  rite 
by  which  a  convert  entered  the  .synagogue,  and 
without  which  he  was  not  allowed  to  participate 
in  the  Paschal  feast.  In  spite,  however,  of  the 
exertions  of  the  Juda'a-Christians,  it  was  dropped 
by  the  Christian  Church,  whose  corresponding 
rite  of  admission  is  baptism. 

Lit. — .1.  1).  MiciiAKi.is:  MnxahclifK  Rnrht, 
FranVfurt-a.-M.,  1775,  §§  184-18(1;  .1.  U.  Fiukd- 
iSEicii:  ZurBiliil.  /'/■ar//HeH^<>,  Niirnberg,  1848,  II. 
39-163,  giving  full  information  of  the  pertinent 
literature,  ancient  and  modern.      VOX  ORELLI, 

CIRCUMCISION,  Feast  of.     See  Octave. 

CISTERCIANS,  a  monastic  order  founded  by 
Ixobert,  at  Citeaux  near  Dijon,  in  Burgundy,  on 
the  Day  of  St.  Benedict,  1098.  Bobert,  who  at 
an  early  age  had  become  Pi'ior  of  the  Monastery 
of  St.  Michel  de  Tonnerre,  but  felt  unable  to 
reform  the  loose  and  frivolous  life  of  his  monks, 
obtained  dispensation  from  Pope  Urban  IL,  then 
travelling  in  France,  and  preaching  the  first  cru- 
sade, to  retire,  at  the  liead  of  a  small  colony  of 
hermits,  into  the  forest  of  Molesme,  in  the  diocese 
of  Langres,  for  the  purpose  of  leading  a  life  of 
austere  asceticism.  The  colony  jirospered;  but 
the  reverence  of  the  surrounding  population,  and 
the  more  substantial  favors  wliicli  followed  in  its 
wake,  brought  vanity  and  irregularities  into  the 
hermits'  camp;  and  Molesme  was  soon  as  bad  as 
St.  Michel  de  Tonnerre.  A  second  time  Robert 
tried  a  change,  and  retired  to  Ilaur,  a  desert  in 
the  neighborhood.  But  the  monks  of  Molesme 
would  not  lose  their  abbot ;  and  the  Bishop  of 
Langres  compelled  liim  to  return.  Later  on, 
however,  he  obtained  permission  of  the  papal 
legate.  Archbishop  Hughes  of  Lyons,  to  retire 
■  to  Citeaux,  in  the  diocese  of  Chrdons,  where  he 
formed  a  settlement  of  twenty  hermits,  who  bound 
themselves  to  a  strict  observance  of  the  rules  of 
St.  Benedict.  The  undertaking  proved  eminently 
successful.  Count  Odo  built  a  monastery,  and 
the  Bishop  of  Chalons  made  Kobert  abbot.  Do- 
nations came  in  plentifully,  and  it  was  apparent 
that  Kobert  was  destined  to  become  an  ornament 
to  the  diocese  in  wliich  he  lived.  But  this  roused 
the  envy  of  the  Bishop  of  Langres,  so  nmcli  tlie 
more  as  the  rise  of  Citeaux  would  surely  become 
the  fall  of  Molesme;  and,  through  tiie  Pope,  he 
compelled  Robert  to  leave  Citeaux  in  109!t,  and 
return  to  Molesme,  where  he  died  in  1108. 

At  Citeaux  Robert  was  succeeded  by  Alberic, 
and  Alberic's  first  great  task  was  to  make  his 
monastery  independent  of  IMolesme.  Delegates, 
with  letters  of  recommendation  from  the  Bishop 
of  Langres,  the  Archbishop  of  Lyons,  etc.,  were 


sent  to  Rome;  and  in  1100,  by  a  special  bull, 
Pasohalis  II.  jilaced  the  Monastery  of  Citeaux 
directly  uniler  tlie  papal  authority.  Shortly  after, 
Alberic  issued  the  Slalula  Mnnnchorum  C'isler- 
liennium,  in  which  a  strict  observance  of  the  rules 
of  St.  Benedict  is  adopted  as  the  leading  princi- 
))le  ;  and  gradually  the  monksof  Citeaux  assumed 
tlie  position  as  the  reformed,  or  as  the  only  true 
Benedictines.  They  got  a  costume  of  their  own. 
At  first  they  were  gray  or  tan-colored,  like  tlie 
monks  of  Molesme  :  but  one  night  th<'  Virgin  de- 
scended from  heaven,  and  presente<l  Alberic  witli 
a  white  garment,  and  from  that  moment  the  Cis- 
tercians always  appeared  in  white  in  the  choir, 
and  in  blaclv  in  the  streets;  hence  the  names  of 
White-,  Black-,  and  Gray-  Friars.  Nevertheless, 
a  strict  ob.servance  of  the  rules  of  St.  Benedict 
may  mean  very  nnich  as  a  maxim  of  conduct,  and 
very  little  as  a  principle  of  life.  The  example 
set  by  the  Cistercians  was  much  admired,  but  it 
was  not  followed.  When  Alberic  died  (in  1109), 
the  ranks  of  his  monks  had  been  fearfully  thinned 
out ;  and  his  successor,  Stephan  Harding,  an  Kng- 
lisliman,  was  in  great  fear  that  Citeaux  should 
die  out  without  having  had  one  single  novice. 
Then  came  the  living  principle  with  St.  Bernard. 

Instinctively  the  Monastery  of  Citeaux  had 
formed  itself  as  an  opiJOsition  to  Clugny.  Clugny 
was  wealthy  and  magnificent :  at  Citeaux  every 
kind  of  display  was  banished.  The  crucifix  was 
of  wood,  the  candlesticks  of  iron,  the  censers  of 
copper ;  no  gold,  no  silver.  Tliis  austerity  at- 
tracted St.  Bernard.  When  he  and  his  thirteen 
friends  determined  to  renounce  tlie  world,  and 
devote  their  lives  to  the  service  of  God,  they 
entered  Citeaux,  and  not  Clugny.  But  in  St. 
Bernard,  asceticism  was  represented,  not  as  a  pen- 
ance, but  as  an  enthusiasm ;  not  as  a  cross,  but  as 
a  glory ;  and  the  influence  produced  by  this  most 
extraordinary  phenomenon  was  at  once  instanta- 
neous and  overwhelming.  Such  a  number  of 
monks  crowded  to  Citeaux,  tliat,  within  two  years 
after  the  admission  of  St.  Bernard  (in  1113),  Ab- 
bot Stephan  had  to  found  four  new  monasteries, 
—  La  Ferte,  Pontigny,  Clairvanx,  and  Jlorimond. 
In  1119  the  number  of  Cistercian  abbeys  had 
increased  to  thirteen  ;  in  ll.'il,  to  five  hundred;  in 
the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  to  eighteen 
hundred.  In  1119  the  constitution  of  the  order, 
the  Chartn  Caritati.<!,  was  issued  by  Abbot  Stephan, 
and  confirmed  by  Pope  Calixtus  H.  One  of  the 
principal  points  of  this  constitution  was  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  order  entirely  independent  of 
the  cjiiscopal  power,  and  directly  under  the  papal 
authority  ;  and  the  co-operation  between  the  order 
and  the  Pope  was  at  times  complete.  Eugenius 
III.  belonged  to  the  order,  and  was  a  pupil  of 
St.  Bernard.  Led  by  St.  Bernard,  and  following 
the  Pojie,  tlie  order  occupied  one  of  the  very 
first  places  in  the  Christian  world.  It  crushed 
the  heretics,  Ahelard,  Arnold  of  Brescia,  the 
Cathari,  etc.;  it  preached  the  second  crusade ;  it 
called  into  life  the  military  orders  of  the  Tem- 
plars, of  Calatrava,  Alcantara,  Montesa,  Avis,  and 
Chri.st.  In  1143  the  kingdom  of  Portugal  de- 
clared itself  a  fief  of  tlie  Abbey  of  Clairvaux;  and 
in  1578  the  abbey  actually  tried  to  make  good  its 
claims. 

By  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  the 
order  had  passed  its  point  of   culmination.     It 


CITIES. 


488 


CLAP. 


lost  its  liistoiical  mission,  wliich  was  inherited  by 
tlie  mendicant  orders  ;  and  the  internal  decay  of 
the  rich  and  proud  institution  soon  became  ajv 
pareiit.  One  of  the  lirst  attempts  of  reform  was 
made  by  JIartin  de  \'arsas  in  Spain,  supported 
by  Pope'  Martin  V.  (ll-'(i)  ;  and  in  1469  an  inde- 
pendent Spanish  congregation  was  formed  on  the 
basis  of  extreme  asceticism.  Similar  attempts 
were  made  a  little  later  in  Tuscany,  Calabria,  and 
the  Papal  States.  In  France,  its  home,  the  order 
suffered  very  much  during  the  wars  with  Eng- 
land; and  all  tlie  attempts  of  reform  wliicli  were 
made  during  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centu- 
ries failed.  In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
century,  independent  congregations  were  formed, 
—  the  Feuillants,  the  Trappists,  etc.,  which  see. 
The  first  Cistercian  nunnery  was  founded  at  Tart, 
probably  by  Abbot  Stephan  ;  but  the  most  famous 
was  that  of  Port  Royal. 

Lit.  —  MiK.Ei's:  Chronicon  Cisterciensis  Ordi- 
nis,  Cologne,  1014 ;  Angelus  M.^nriqu?:  de 
BiRGEN :  Aiinales  Cistercienses,  Lyons,  1642-59, 
4  vols,  fob;  AuGUSTixus  S.iUTOnii's:  Ci.-<(erlium, 
Prague,  1700;  Newman:  T/ie  Ci.stercian  Saints  of 
EiH/tantl,  London,  1844;  History  of  the  Cistercian 
Or6?er,  London,  1S5J;  Winter:  Die  Cisterzienser 
des  nordOstl.  Deulschlands,  Gotha,  1868,  3  vols.; 
Jaxausciiek  :  Origines  Cistercienses,  Vienna, 
1877.  ALBRECHT  VOGEL. 

CITIES.  Cities  date  from  the  days  of  Cain 
(Gen.  iv.  17).  In  this  article  we  consider  only 
those  of  Palestine.  The  Hebrew  word  shows  that 
originally  they  were  walled,  and  thus  were  in  con- 
trast to  the  unwalled  villages  and  the  open  coun- 
try. In  the  walls  were  gates,  over  which  were 
towers  (2  .Sam.  xviii.  24  sq.).  Immediately  inside 
of  tlie  gate  was  a  wide  open  space,  known  as  the 
"gate."  Here  councils  and  public  gatherings 
were  held  (Gen.  xxxiii.  10,  18;  Dent.  xxi.  19 
sq. ;  Ruth  iv.  1,  11;  Isa.  xxix.  21  sq.):  here, 
too,  one  went  to  learn  the  news  (1  Sam.  iv.  18; 
Job  xxix.  7).  The  gates  were  provided  witli 
posts  and  bars  (.ludg.  xvi.  3;  1  Sam.  xxiii.  7;  1 
Kings  iv.  13).  From  the  gate  the  streets  led  into 
the  citv,  whicli,  like  those  of  modern  Palestine, 
were  proliably  narrow  and  unpaveil,  and  distinc- 
tively business  streets  or  bazaars;  ;is  the  "  .Street 
of  tlie  IJakers"  referred  to  in  .ler.  xxxvii.  21. 
The  names  of  the  Palestinian  cities  have  almost 
always  a  reference  to  their  situation,  founding,  or 
history.  Many  ol<l  names  were  altered,  as  Luz 
liecanie  Hetliel  ((ien.  xxviii.  19).  This  frequently 
liappened  in  Itoman  tim(?s,  when  the  original 
names  were  ronuinized  or  grecized ;  but  in  most 
instances  tlie  old  name  exists  to  the  present  day, 
and  only  in  few  cases  has  the  Roinano-tlreek 
name  crowded  out  the  old.  ar.nold. 

CITIES  OF  REFUGE  were  six  Levitical  cities 
app(jinlrd  liy  (hr  Miisaic  law  as  asylums,  to  any 
one  of  which  uninl<'nti(mal  manslayers  might  flee 
for  protection,  and  therein  remain,  or  in  the  circuit 
of  one  thousand  yards  annuid  it,  until  the  death 
of  the  higli  Iciest  (Num.  xxxv.  4-34;  Dent.  iv. 
41,  42,  xix.  1-13;  ,Josli.  xx.  2,  7,  8).  These 
cities,  however,  afforded  no  safety  to  wilful  mur- 
derers; and,  if  the  authorities  decided  the  fugitive 
to  be  such,  he  was  given  up  to  the  avenger  of 
blood,  on  the  deman<l  of  t)ie  elders  of  his  own 
city.  'l'li<,'  roads  to  the.se  cities  of  refugi'  were 
kept  clear,  and  linger-posts  indicated  plainly  the 


way.  See  the  interesting  tale,  The  Wood-cutter 
of  Lebanon,  by  A.  L.  O.  E.  See  Avengeii  ok 
Blood. 

CITIZENSHIP.  1.  Among  the  Hebrews. 
The  more  distinctly  the  idea  of  being  the  chosen 
people,  the  people  of  the  Lord  (Judg.  v.  11),  the 
people  of  God  ('Indg.  xx.  2),  the  congregation  of 
the  Lord  (Num.  xvi.  3),  the  holy  peopte  of  the 
Lord  (Dent.  vii.  6),  etc.,  developed  in  Israel,  the 
more  strictly  the  nation  separated  itself  from 
other  nations;  tiiough  that  particularism  and 
narrow  pride  which  afterwards  characterized  the 
Jews  were  fruits  of  a  later  growth,  and  resulted 
chiefly  from  the  liar.sh  treatment  they  experienced 
from  the  Pagans.  Generally,  citizenship  was  ob- 
tained by  being'  born  of  Israelite  parents  ;  and  the 
more  speci.al  means  by  which  tlie  indi\idual  came 
into  full  posse.ssion  of  the  whole  dignity  and 
holiness  of  the  congregation  were  the  circumcis- 
ion, the  Passover,  and  the  Sabbath.  .\iiy  neglect 
or  breach  of  the  duties  of  citizenship  was  severely 
punished  with  penance,  and  even  with  death. 

Foreigners  were  allowed  to  live  in  Israel,  both 
singly  and  in  whole  congregations  (Josh.  ix.  27 ; 
comp.  Dent.  xx.  10).  Especially  since  the  time 
of  Solomon,  many  foreigners  settled  in  the  cities 
of  .Tudah  as  merchants  and  tradesmen :  2  Chron. 
ii.  17  gives  their  number  as  153,000.  They  be- 
came a  kind  of  half-citizens,  and  had  many  rights 
in  common  with  the  Israelites.  They  could  not 
hold  real  estate ;  but  their  lives  and  personal 
property  were  protected  (Num.  xxxv.  15;  Deut. 
i.  10,  xxiv.  17).  They  were  compelled,  however, 
to  comply  with  certain  of  the  mo.st  general  laws 
of  the  land,  —  the  salibath,  abstinence  from  blood, 
etc.  (Exod.  xii.  49;  Lev.  xvi.  2l),  xvii.  8,  etc.). 
Entire  .strangers  had  no  rights  in  Israel:  tliey 
were  only  tolerated.  Originally,  foreigners  could, 
under  certain  restrictions,  obtain  citizenship  in 
Israel :  only  Ammonites,  Moabites,  the  offspring 
of  prostitution,  etc.,  were  excluded.  Egyptians 
and  Edomites  could  be  nationalized  in  the  third 
generation  (Deut.  xxiii.  1;  Nell.  xiii.  1).  After- 
wards, however,  with  the  growing  fanaticism,  it 
was  attempted  to  exclude  all  foreigners  from 
citizeiLship  in  I.sr.ael.  rCetsCUI. 

2.  Among  the  Romans.  The  Roman  idea  of 
citizeiishi|i  —  that  of  a  privileged  cla.ss  amidst  a 
world  of  slaves  —  had  no  existence  among  the 
Hebrews  ;  for  their  connnonwealth  was  a  congre- 
g.ation,  and  their  ruler  was  (Jod  :  men  governed 
merely  as  God's  vicegerents.  But  Roman  citizen- 
ship is  several  times  spoken  of  in  the  .Vets  as  a 
valuable  franchise.  It  was  obtained  by  inherit- 
ance or  pm-chase  (.Vets  xxii.  28),  by  military  .ser- 
vice, favor,  or  manumission.  It  conferred  the 
riglit  of  trial  before  inqirisonment,  and  of  appeal 
unto  Caisar  (xxv.  11).  Its  pos.sessors  could  not 
lawfully  be  scourged  (xvi.  37),  much  less  cruci- 
fied. Tradition,  whicli  puts  the  inarlyrdoms  of 
Peter  and  Paul  on  the  same  day,  respects  Paul's 
Roman  citizenshii),  anil  makes  hun  die  by  the 
sword. 

CLAP,  Thomas,  a  ]iresi<Ient  of  Yale  College, 
b.  at  Sciluate,  Mass.,  .June  2li,  1703;  d.  in  New 
Il.iven,  .Ian.  7,  1767.  He  was  gr.aduated  at 
Harvard  College,  1722,  ami  wivs  minister  of 
Windham,  Conn.,  1726-39,  and  ]iresidenl  of  Vale 
College,  1739-6(i.  l\r.  was  one  of  the  most 
learned  men  of  his  day  in  tlio  country :  eminent 


CLARENDON. 


489 


CLARKE. 


as  a  niathematician.  he  constructed  tlie  fiist 
orrery  in  America.  Mis  devotion  to  Yale  College 
was  very  great.  The  Code  of  Laws  (in  I>atin) 
which  lie  drew  up  for  its  goverinnent  was  the 
fir.st  book  printed  in  New  Haven.  Although,  as 
was  universally  acknowledged,  a  truly  pious  man, 
he  opposed  Whitefield,  and  against  him  wrote, 
A  Brief  Ilistori/  anil  ViniJicaliun  of  the  Doctrines 
receiced  anil  e^ttaldisheil  in  the  Churches  of  New 
JSni/lanil,  with  a  Specimen  of  the  New  Scheme  of 
Jieiigion  liei/innini/  to  preoail  (175.5).  His  oppo- 
sition caused  so  much  feeling,  that  in  deference 
he  resigned  his  olHce.  His  Annals  or  Ilistori/  of 
Yale  Colli-i/i-  apiKMi-rd  in  1700. 

CLARENDON,  Constitutions  of,  is  the  name 
given  to  the  laws  nuide  hy  the  general  council  of 
Knglish  barons  and  prelates  held  at  Clarendon,  a 
royal  summer  residence  near  .Salisbury,  AV'iltshire, 
and  subscribed  to  by  the  bishops,  with  the  exceji- 
tion  of  Becket,  Jan.  25,  110-L  They  are  a  monu- 
ment iu  the  line  of  upward  progress ;  because 
they  checked  the  encroachment  of  the  Cliurcli 
upon  the  State,  put  clerics  guilty  of  crime  under 
the  civil  tribunals,  prevented  all  appeal  to  Rome, 
and  made  Henry  IL  the  virtual  "head  of  tlie 
Church."  See  Becket,  Thomas.  The  Consti- 
tutions are  in  sixteen  chapters,  of  which  ten  were 
condemned  bv  tlie  Pope :  the  rest  were  tolerated. 

CLARE,  St.,  and  the  CLARISSES.  Clara 
ScilH,  b.  at  Assissi,  119-i,  d.  there  Aug.  11,  1253, 
belonged  to  a  distinguished  family,  but  left  her 
home  in  1212  to  follow  St.  Francis;  practised, 
under  his  giudance,  the  severest  asceticism  ;  found- 
ed the  order  of  the  Nuns  of  St.  Clare,  or  the 
Clarisses;  and  was  canonized  by  Alexander  IV. 
shortly  after  her  death.  The  order  received  its 
rule  from  St.  Francis  in  1224,  enjoining  absolute 
jioverty,  temporary  silence,  fasting,  etc.  This 
rule  was  mitigated  in  1246  by  Innocent  IV.,  and 
again  in  1264  by  Urban  IV.,  after  whom  those 
who  adopted  only  the  mildest  form  of  the  rule 
were  called  Urbanists.  In  the  fifteenth  century, 
liowever,  the  development  took  the  very  opposite 
direction.  Colette  of  Corbie  (d.  1447)  founded 
the  Congregation  of  St.  Colette,  whose  members 
bound  themselves  to  a  strict  observance  of  the 
original  rule.  In  1G31  Francisca  of  Jesus  Jlaria, 
belonging  to  the  house  of  Farnese,  founded  the 
Congregation  of  the  Strictest  Observance ;  and 
in  1676  Peter  of  Alcantara  founded  the  Congre- 
gation of  the  Ilenuitesses  of  Alcantara,  both  of 
which  went  still  farther  in  austere  asceticism. 
See  Act.  Sanct.,  and  Butler  :  Lives  of  Saints, 
Aug.  12;  and  the  biographies  of  St.  Clare,  by 
ViTALis,  Milan,  1646  ;  Stwckler,  A'ienna,  1675  ; 
Vauciiot,  Paris,  1782 ;  Orsbach,  Aix-la-Clia- 
pelle,  1844;  De  :Moi!E.  Mar.seilles,  1.S4S;  and 
LocATELLi,  Naples,  1854. 

CLARKE,  Adam,  the  conunentator,  b.  at  Moy- 
beg,  north  of  Ireland,  1760  or  1762  ;  d.,  of  cholera, 
iu  London,  Aug.  20,  1S32.  From  1782  to  18(15 
he  travelled  as  a  Methodist  itinerant;  preached 
over  all  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  From  1805 
to  1815  he  held  an  appointment  in  London,  his 
f^tay  being  prolonged  by  the  special  rerpiest  of 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in  order 
that  he  might  continue  to  superintend  the  print- 
ing of  their  Arabic  Bible.  From  1815  till  his 
death  he  devoted  himself  to  literary  work.  In 
1808    Aberdeen    University    made    him    LL.D. 


He  was  a  most  industrious  student,  and  acquired 
much  varied  and  profound  learning,  particularly 
in  Oriental  languages,  and  wrote  many  elaborate 
works,  of  which  the  pi'incipal  are,  A  liihlioyraplii- 
cal  Dictionary,  Liver]iool,  1H02,  0  vols. ;  Tlie  IHhtio- 
ijraphical  Miscellani/,  or  Supplement  to  the  Bihlio- 
ijraphical  Dictionarij,  London,  1806  (both  works 
were  publi.shed  anonymously);  Succession  of  Sa- 
cred Literature,  vol.  i.,  London,  1808  (vol.  ii.  by 
his  son,  1830) ;  and  his  widely  circulated  and 
still  used  Commentary  on  the  Uolij  liilile,  London, 
8  vols.,  of  which  vol.  i.  appeared  in  1810,  vol.  viii., 
1820,  and  which  cost  him  forty  years  of  work.  See 
Memoirs,  edited  by  liis  son  .1.  B.  B.  Ci.arkk, 
London,  1833,  3  vols.;  Everett:  Adam  Clarice 
Portrai/ed,  London,  1843;  2d  ed.,  1866,  2  vols. 

CLARKE,  John,  a  founder  of  Khode  Island,  b. 
in  Bedford.shire,  Eng.,  Oct.  8,  1000;  d.  in  New- 
port, April  20,  1676.  He  joined  Itoger  Williams's 
colony,  and  at  Newport,  1644,  founded  the  second 
Baptist  church  in  America.  He  was,  with  Wil- 
liams, in  1651  sent  to  England  as  an  agent  of  the 
Colony,  and  published  in  1652  the  famous  tractate, 
///  News  from  New  Enijland,  or  a  Narratice  of  New 
Enr/land's  Persecution  (4to,  76  pp.). 

CLARKE,  Samuel,  the  English  philosopher  and 
divine,  b.  at  Norwich,  Oct.  11,  1675;  d.  in  Lou- 
don, Saturday,  May  17,  1729.  He  studied  at 
Cains  College,  Cambridge,  and  greatly  distin- 
guished lumself  by  publishing  in  1697  a  Latin 
version  of  Rohault's  Physics,  whose  system  was 
founded  upon  Cartesian  principles,  with  notes 
derived  from  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  Having  chosen 
the  clerical  profession,  he  rose  rapidly,  until  iu 
1709  lie  became  rector  of  St.  James's,  AVest- 
minster,  London.  He  was  the  anther  of  numer- 
ous works,  several  of  a  scientific  nature ;  but  his  • 
fame  chiefly  rests  upon  his  Boyle  Lectures  (1704— 
1705),  printed  together  under  the  title,  A  Dis- 
course concerning  the  Beinf/  and  Attributes  of  God, 
etc.,  and  liis  Scripture  Doctrine  of  tlie  Trinity 
(1712),  a  work  which  exposed  him  to  the  charge 
of  Arianisin.  Dr.  Clarke's  famous  proof  for 
the  being  of  God  was  not  meant  to  Ije  a  purely 
a  priori  argument :  it  starts  from  a  fact,  —  "  some- 
thing lias  existed  from  eternity,"  —  and  often 
directly  appeals  to  facts.  Among  other  propo- 
sitions maintained,  is  that  time  and  space, 
eternity  and  immensity,  are  not  substances,  but 
the  attributes  of  a  self-existent  Ijeing.  And  it 
is  incorrect,  although  commonly  said,  that  Clarke 
argued  from  the  existence  of  time  and  space  to 
the  existence  of  Deity  :  rather,  ho  presupposed 
the  existence  of  an  immut.able,  independent,  and 
necessary  being,  before  time  and  space.  Nor 
could  the  opinion  have  been  borrowed  from  the 
Scholium  Generale  of  Newton's  Principia,  which 
w.as  not  printed  till  1714. 

Clarke's  theory  of  virtue  was  briefly  this.  The 
inherent  and  necessary  difference  between  things 
causes  them  to  stand  in  different  relations.  These 
relations  ''make  it  fit  that  both  creature  and 
creator  .should  act  in  accordance  with  them, 
separately  from  any  command  of  the  Creator,  or 
any  foreseen  advantage  or  disadvantage  which 
may  follow  such  actions.  It  is  fit,  however,  that; 
the  Creator  should  enforce  this  fitness  by  his', 
positive  commands,  and  by  rewards  and  punish- 
ments. Inasmuch  as  the  original  tendency  of 
things  to  reward  virtue,  and  to  punish  vice,  has 


CLARKE. 


490 


CLAUDE. 


failed  to  be  effectual  in  the  present  condition  of 
human  existence,  tliere  must  be  a  future  state  of 
-existence  for  men  in  order  that  this  adjustment 
may  be  complete." 

Clarke  has  been  accused  of  confounding  mathe- 
matical and  moral  relations,  and  of  meaning  by 
"  fitness  "  merely  the  adaptation  of  means  to  an 
end.  But  the  "charges  ai-e  not  well  founded. 
■What  is  true  is,  that  he  states  an  amilogij  between 
mathematical  and  moral  trutlis.  and  means  by 
"fitness"  accordance  to  a  standard  of  judgment. 

His  TT-^sr^-,*,  prefaced  with  a  biography  by 
Bishop  Hoadley,  were  published  in  4  vols,  fob, 
London,  1738.  See  also  Hunt's  Relirjious  Thought 
in  England,  particularly  vol.  ii.  pp.  447-4.57,  and 
vol.  iii.  pp.  20-29,  109-115.  The  most  elaborate 
essay  on  his  philosophy  as  a  whole  is,  perhaps, 
that  by  Professor  Zimmermann,  in  the  Denk- 
acTiriften  d.  I:  Akademie  der  Wissenscha/len,  Phil. 
HUt.  Clanae,  Bd.  XIX.,  AVien,  1870. 

CLARKE,  Samuel.  Three  lesser  men  of  this 
name  deserve  mention.  1.  Biographer  and  dirine, 
b.  at  Woolston,  Warwickshire,  Oct.  10,  1.509 ;  d. 
at  London,  Dec.  25,  1082.  He  was  educated  at 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge;  was  minister  of 
St.  Bennet  Fink,  London,  and  ejected  1662.  He 
■was  for  eight  years  a  governor,  and  for  two  years 
a  president,  of  Sion  College.  He  was  also  a 
member  of  the  Savoy  Conference.  His  biographi- 
cal writings  are  valuable,  because  he  drew  upon 
sources  now  difficult  to  obtain.  Among  them 
are,  A  Mirror  or  Looking-Glass  both  for  Saints  and 
Sinners,  London,  1646,  12mo;  2d  ed.,  1654,  Svo ; 
4th  ed.,  1671,  1672,  2  vols.  fol. ;  The  Marrow  of 
Ecclesiastical  History,  1650,  2  vols.  4to;  3d  ed., 
1075,  2  vols.  fol. ;  A  General  Martyrologie,  1651, 
fol. ;  same  with  Lives  of  Thirty-two  English  Dirines, 
1652,  fol. ;  3d.  ed.,  corrected  and  enlarged,  1677, 
fol. — 2.  GommentatOT,  b.  at  Shotwick,  Nov.  12, 
1626;  d.  at  High  Wycombe,  Fob.  24.  1701.  Edu- 
cated at  Cambridge,  and  gained  a  fellowship,  which 
he  lost  by  the  Hcliellifui.  lie  afterwards  became 
TPCtor  of  Orrndon,  Biickinghamshirc,  and  was 
ejected  1662.  His  reputation  rests  upon  his 
learned  work,  The  Old  and  New  Testament,  irilli 
Annotations  and  I'arcdlel  Scriptures,  London,  1690, 
fol.  The  notes  are  very  brief  liut  judicious,  and 
were  higidy  commended  by  Owen.  Baxter,  Howe, 
and  others.  The  book  has,  however,  been  siiper- 
aeded.  —  3.  Orientalist,  h.  at  Bracklev,  Xorth- 
haniptonshire,  1623;  d.  at  Oxford,  Dec."  27,  1669. 
He  was  made  M.A.  at  Oxford,  1618,  and  in 
1()58  returned  to  his  .\lma  M.ater,  to  be  .superior 
beadle  of  law  and  arcliilypographus,  —  the  last 
person  who  united  the  two  oflices.  His  great 
service  wa.s  rendered  in  connection  with  ^\'alton, 
whom  he  assisted  in  his  famous  polyglot.  He 
contributed  to  the  Otli.  vol.  Varia:  f.ectiones  et 
Ofiservationes  in  fVialdairam  Parapfirasin.  His 
acquirements  comprehended  Heltrew,  Chaldee, 
Syriac,  .Ftliinpic,  ('o]itic,  .\rabic,  and  I'ersic. 

CLARKSON,  Thomas,  an  antislavery  l(>ader, 
b.  at  Wisbiaeh,  Candiridgeshire,  March  i'8.  1700; 
<l.  at  Playford  Hall,  Suffolk,  Sept.  26,  1840.  In 
1785  he  gained  the  Cambridge  University  prize 
for  a  Latin  essay  upon  the  (piestinn,  "  Is  Involun- 
tary .Servitude  Justifiable?"  which  was  after- 
wards |)uUlished  in  Knglish,  and  had  an  immense 
circulation  and  influence;  an<l  the  rest  of  Ids  life 
was  devoted  to  vigorous  efforts  to  put   into  |ira<-- 


tice  the  principles  he  held.  He  was  particularly 
u.seful  in  collecting  and  diffusing  information 
about  the  slave-trade.  With  William  Dilhvyu, 
Granville  Sharp,  George  Harrison,  and  other 
(Quakers,  under  the  leadership  of  William  Wilber- 
force,  he  labored  untiringly,  until  on  INIarch  25, 
1807,  the  Britisli  slave-trade  was  abolished.  His 
principal  writings  are,  Portraiture  of  Quakerisin 
(1806),  History  of  the  Abolition  of  the  Slave-Trade 
(1808,  2  vols.),  and  Memoirs  of  William  Penn 
(1810).  See  j\l£moir  of  Thojnas  Clarkson,  by 
Thomas  Elmes  and  Thomas  Taylor,  2d  ed.,  Lon- 
don, 1847. 

CLASS-MEETINGS,  a  distinctivelv  Methodist 
arrangement,  whereby  the  members  of  a  congrega- 
tion are  divided  into  sections,  over  each  of  which 
is  a  leader,  appointed  by  the  pastor,  whose  duty 
it  is  "  to  see  each  person  in  his  class  once  a  week 
at  least,  in  order  to  inquire  how  their  souls  pros- 
per; to  advise,  reprove,  comfort,  or  exhort,  as 
occasion  may  require ;  to  receive  what  they  are 
w'illing  to  give  towards  the  relief  of  the  preach- 
ers, church,  and  poor;  to  meet  the  ministers  and 
the  stewards  of  the  society  once  a  week  in  order 
to  inform  the  minister  of  any  tliat  are  sick,  or 
of  any  who  walk  disorderly  and  will  not  be 
reproved ;  to  pay  the  stewards  what  they  have  re- 
ceived of  their  several  classes  in  the  week  preced- 
ing "  {Book  of  Discipline,  pt.  i.  ch.  ii.  §  1).  Mr. 
Tyerman,  in  his  Life  of  John  Wesley  (vol.  i.  pp. 
377-379),  thus  relates  the  origin  of  class-meetings: 
On  Feb,  15,  1742,  some  of  the  principal  members 
of  the  Bristol  (iNIethodist)  Society  met  to  consult 
how  the  debt  upon  their  meeting-house  was  to  be 
paid.  One  of  them  said,  "  Let  every  member  of 
the  society  give  a  penny  a  week,  till  the  debt  is 
paid,"  Another  answered,  "^lanj-  of  them  are 
poor,  and  cannot  affortl  to  do  it,"  - —  "  Then,"  said 
the  former,  "put  eleven  of  the  poorest  w'ith  me, 
and,  if  they  can  give  any  thing,  well :  I  will  call 
on  them  weekly;  and,  if  they  can  give  nothing,  I 
\i-ill  give  for  them  as  well  as  for  myself.  .\nd 
each  of  you  call  on  eleven  of  yoin'  neighbors 
weekly,  receive  what  tliey  give,  and  make  up 
what  is  wanting."  "  It  was  done,"  writes  'Wes- 
ley ;  "  and  in  a  little  while  some  of  these  informed 
me  they  foinid  such  and  such  a  one  did  not  walk 
as  he  ought.  It  struck  me  innnediately,  'This 
is  the  thing,  the  very  thing,  we  have  wanted 
so  long.'  "  On  March  25  AVesley  introduced  the 
plan  in  London.  At  first  the  leaders  visited  eadi 
member  at  his  own  liouse;  but  this  was  soon  found 
to  be  inconvenient,  and  a  connuon  place  of  meet- 
ing apjiointed.  The  leader  began  and  ended 
each  meeting  with  singing  and  prayer,  and  .spent 
about  an  hour  in  conversing  with  those  present, 
one  by  one. 

The  class-meeting  has  been  traced,  in  idea  at 
least,  in  pi-e-existing  religious  societies;  but  it 
remains  lo-day  a  .Methodist  peculiarity. 

CLAUDE,  Jean,  b.  1619  at  La  Sauvetat-iln- 
Dropt,  in  the  department  of  Lot-et-Garonne, 
Fr.ance;  <I.  in  the  Hague,  .7an,  13,  1687;  studieil 
theologj-  at  Montanbau  ;  was  ordained  in  1015, 
and  had  charge  of  several  minor  congregations, 
till  in  1054  he  was  nia<Ie  ])astor  in  Nismes.  Hav- 
ing defeated  in  the  piovincial  synod  a  scheme  of 
the  Prince  of  Couti,  governor  of  Languedoc,  for 
the  union  of  the  Protestant  and  Homan  churches, 
he  was  forbidd'^n  to  pi-eii<-li  any  more  in  tin-  prov- 


CL  AUDI  ANUS. 


491 


CLAUDIUS. 


ince,  and  removed  to  Montaubaii.  There,  too,  he 
was  forbidden  to  preacli  (1665)  ;  and  in  the  next 
year  he  was  appointed  minister  at  ('harenton, 
near  Paris,  wliere  lie  remained  till  the  revoca- 
tion of  tlie  Edict  of  Nantes  drove  him  in  exile. 
His  controversies  with  Nicole,  Re'ponse  aux  deux 
traile's  intitules  la  pcrpetuitii  de  la  foi  (166.5), 
witli  Arnanld,  Rcpunse  au  livre  de  M.  Aniauld 
(1670),  _and  with  Bossuet,  lie'ponse  an  livre  de 
M.  rEi'ii/ue  de  Meatij:  (16S:J),  attracted  great 
attention ;  but  his  principal  work  is  La  defense 
de  III  re'/hnnalion  (1()73).  In  his  exile  he  wrote 
his  Pldinles  de  Protestants ;  and  after  his  death  his 
son  published  five  volumes,  CEuvres  posthmnes 
and  lett<Ms.  His  life  was  written  by  De  La 
Deveze,  Amsterdam,  1687. 

CLAUDIANUS  (Claudianus  Mamertes,  Claudia- 
nus  Ecdicius  Mamertus),  d.  474 ;  was  a  presby- 
ter at  Vienne,  brother  of  the  bishop  of  the 
diocese,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Apollinaris  Si- 
donius.  His  woi'k  De  Statu  Aninia;,  which  during 
the  middle  ages  exercised  considerable  influence 
on  the  w'hole  treatment  of  the  subject,  was  writ- 
ten as  a  refutation  of  Faustus,  Bishop  of  Riez, 
who  held  that  the  soul,  like  every  thing  else  cre- 
ated, was  material.  The  work  has  been  published 
in  Max.  Bihl.  Patr.,  VI.,  and  with  notes  by  Barth, 
Zwickau,  1655.  Two  letters  by  him  —  one  to 
Apollinaris,  and  one  to  the  rhetorician  Sapandus 
at  Vienne  —  are  still  extant ;  the  former  having 
been  published  among  ApoUinaris's  Lectures, 
IV.  2,  the  latter  in  Baluze :  Miscellanea,  VI.  p. 
535.  The  hymn,  Pange,  lingua  gloriosi,  is  gen- 
erally ascribed  to  him.  EBERT. 

CLAUDIUS,  Roman  emperor  (41-54),  is  still 
by  some  historians  considered  the  instigator  of 
the  first  persecution  of  the  Christians  on  account 
j  of  the  passage  in  Suetonius,  Claudius,  25 : 
I "  .ludseos,  irapulsore  Chresto,  assidue  tumultu- 
antes,  Roma  expulit."  Now,  it  is  very  true 
that  "  Chresto  "  may  be  a  corruption  of  "  Chris- 
to"  (.see  Tertullian  :  Apolog.  c.  3,  and  Ad 
Naliones,  1:3);  but  this  does  not  decide  the  que.s- 
tion.  Chrestus  must  have  been  a  Jewish  insur- 
rectionist ;  and  already  Paul  warns  against  such 
an  insurrectionary  spirit  (Rom.  xiii.).  Moreover, 
Dio  Cassius  says  in  his  Roman  Ilistorg  (60,  6) 
that  Claudius  did  not  expel  the  Jews  from  Rome, 
but  only  forbade  the  public  exercise  of  -their 
religion.  llEuzou. 

CLAUDIUS  OF  TURIN,  d.  839;  a  Spaniard  by 
birth,  and  a  pupil  of  Felix  of  I'rgel,  whose  pecu- 
liar opinions,  however,  he  did  not  share ;  was 
appointed  teacher  in  the  palatial  school  of  Lewis, 
king  of  Aquitania,  shortly  before  the  death  of 
Charlemagne.  When  Lewis  became  emperor, 
Claudius  was  called  to  the  episcopal  see  of  Turin 
(820),  and  charged  with  the  restoration  of  pure 
Christianity  in  that  diocese,  more  especially  with 
the  suppression  of  image-worship.  Claudius  was 
a  pious  and  learned  man,  of  great  energy,  and  of 
still  greater  zeal.  With  undaunted  courage  he 
fought,  both  against  the  Saracens  who  invaded 
his  diocese,  and  against  the  misuses  which  had 
crept  into  his  flock.  In  spite  of  the  resistance 
of  the  people,  he  took  away  from  the  church  of 
Turin  the  images  and  the  relics,  and  preached 
with  great  fervor  against  the  worship  of  any 
visible  object.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Augustine, 
and    saw   clearly   how  far   the    Churcih   already 


deviated  from  that  great  Father.  The  justifica- 
tion by  good  works  and  the  intercession  of  the 
saints  he  rejected  altogether.  The  special  merit 
of  the  monastical  vow  he  denied,  also  the  opinion 
that  Rome,  or  any  other  actual  place,  was  the 
special  seat  of  penitence  and  absolution.  He 
went  even  farther  :  not  any  one  sitting  in  the 
apostolic  chair  he  would  call  Dominus  Apostolicus, 
but  only  him  who  did  the  work  of  an  apostle ; 
and  he  denied  that  any  special  power  of  loosing 
and  binding  had  been  given  to  Peter  and  his 
successors. 

Such  views  met,  of  course,  witli  great  opposi- 
tion. Already  Paschalis  I.  reproved  the  audacious 
bishop  ;  and  later  on,  it  came  to  actual  contro- 
versy. In  or  after  823  Claudius  sent  his  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians,  in 
which  he  expressed  himself  very  plainly  and  very 
sharply  to  Abbot  Theodemir.  Theodemir,  very 
anxious  about  the  orthodoxy  of  his  friend,  laid 
the  book  before  an  assembly  of  ecclesiastics. 
Rumors  began  to  spread  in  the  country.  In  828 
Theodemir  wrote  directly  to  Claudius,  to  warn 
him  against  heresy;  and  then  Claudius  wrote  the 
elaborate  Apologeticum  alque  Rescriptuni  adcersus 
Theutmirum  Ahhatem,  his  principal  work.  The 
book  was  condemned  by  an  assembly  of  the 
coUrt-clergy  of  Lewis  the  Pious,  and  vehemently 
attacked  by  Dungal,  a  Scotchman  whom  Charle- 
magne had  appointed  teacher  at  Pavia,  and  by 
Jonas,  Bishop  of  Orleans.  Nevertheless,  Claudius 
continued  his  activity  in  Tm'in  unimpeded,  till 
his  death ;  but  his  book,  the  chief  source  to  an 
miderstanding  of  his  views,  has  disappeared.  In 
1461  there  existed  a  copy  of  it  in  the  Monastery 
of  Bobbia ;  but,  since  the  incorporation  of  the 
library  of  Bobbia  with  the  Biblintheca  Anihrosiana, 
the  Apologeticum  has  never  been  seen.  Of  Claudi- 
us's other  works  (commentaries  on  the  Bible),  the 
most  still  remain  unprinted.  See  Rudelb.^ch  : 
Claud.  Turin.,  etc.,  Copenhagen,  1824;  H.  Reu- 
TER :  Geschiclite  d.  relig.  Aufklarung  im  Mittelal- 
ter,  I.  pp.  16-24.  '  C.  SCHMIDT. 

CLAUDIUS,  Matthias,  b.  at  Rheiufeld,  near 
Liibeck,  Aug.  15,  1740;  d.  in  Hamburg,  Jan.  21, 
1815;  studied  law  at  Jena,  and  spent  most  of  his 
life  at  Wandsbeck,  partly  as  reviser  of  the  Bank 
of  Schleswig-Holstein  in  Altona,  partly  as  a  pri- 
vate citizen.  His  writings  consist  of  poems  and 
articles  published  over  the  signature  of  Asmus  iii 
the  Waridsbecker  Bote  and  other  periodicals.  Of 
these  writings  he  made  the  first  collection  in 
1765,  the  last  (in  8  vols.)  in  1812:  of  the  latter, 
the  ninth  edition  appeared  in  1871.  He  \\as  not 
a  theologian.  His  articles  are  not  sermons  or 
devotional  tracts.  None  of  his  poems  are  used  in 
the  churches.  He  exercised,  nevertheless,  a  great 
influence  on  the  religious  life  of  his  country  by 
his  strong,  primitive,  and  sympathetic  Christian 
feeling,  expressed  in  an  easy  and  individual  man- 
ner, in  which  humor  and  irony  are  singularly 
blended  with  warm  and  even  passionate  earnest- 
ness. The  tendency  of  his  writings  points  directly 
against  the  rationalism  of  his  time,  though  he 
did  not  forget  to  condemn  the  barren  and  pedan- 
tic orthodoxy. 

Lit. — His  life  has  been  written  by  Herbst, 
Gotha,  1857,  3d  ed.,  1863;  Monckeberg,  Hamb., 
1870;  Redlich  :  Die  poclisc/ien  Bcitrcige  zum 
Wandsbecker  Boten,  Hamb.,  1871.    HAGESBACH. 


CLEAN  AND  UNCLEAN. 


49: 


CLEMENS  ROMANUS. 


CLEAN  AND  UNCLEAN,  as  a  distinction  be- 
tween animals,  existed  apparently  from  tlie  earli- 
est times  (Gen.  vii.  2).  Only  those  animals 
which  di^-ide  the  lioof,  and  chew  the  end,  were 
regarded  as  clean  (Lev.  xi.  3,  4).  The  distinction 
primarily  related  to  sacriiice,  but  in  the  ilosaic 
law  was'extended  to  food  (Lev.  xi. ;  Dent,  xiv.)  ; 
and  indeed  some  of  the  articles  pronounced  un- 
clean are  really  unwholesome.  The  underlying- 
idea,  however,  was  the  education  of  a  people  dis- 
tinguished from  all  the  world  by  peculiar  modes 
of  lite.  The  Jews  keep  up  the  distinction  to 
this  day,  and  have  their  own  butchers.  So  in- 
grained was  the  idea,  that  it  required  a  miracle 
to  convince  Peter  that  he  might  eat  with  Gen- 
tiles who  did  not  observe  this  law  of  food  (Acts 
X.  9-lU).     .See  also  Apostolic  Cou.nxil. 

CLEMANGES,  Nicolas  de,  b.  in  the  village  of 
Clemanges.  in  Cliauipagne,  13G0;  was  educated  in 
the  CdUege  de  Nararre,  in  Paris ;  studied  tlieolo- 
gy  under  Pierre  d'Ailly  and  Gerson ;  began  him- 
self to  lecture  in  1301 ;  and  was  in  1303  chosen 
rector  of  the  university.  In  the  ecclesiastical 
history  of  that  period  the  University  of  Paris 
played  a  very  prominent  part,  standing  at  the 
head  of  the  party  of  reform,  and  exerting  itself  to 
restore  order  and  unity  to  the  Church  ;  and  many 
of  the  remarkable  memoirs,  addresses,  and  letters 
which  it  issued  to  kings  and  popes,  were  penned 
by  Clemanges ;  thus,  for  instance,  the  memoir 
addressed  in  1303  to  Charles  VI.,  to  induce  him 
to  put  an  end  to  the  papal  schism,  and  the 
memoir  of  the  following  year,  proposing,  as  the 
only  means  of  ending  the  schism,  the  abdication 
of  the  pojies,  or  a  court  of  arbitration,  or  an 
cecumenical  council,  etc.  When  Clement  VII. 
died  at  Avignon,  both  the  French  court  and  the 
University  of  Paris  tried  to  prevent  the  election 
of  a  new  pope,  until  the  cardinals  came  to  an 
understan<ling  with  their  colleagues  in  Rome, 
and  with  Boniface  IX.  Nevertheless,  Benedict 
Xlir.  was  elected  Sept.  28,  1304;  and  the  fol- 
lowing year  Cldmanges  went  to  A\'ignon  as  his 
secretary.  But  in  130.S  France  witlidrew  from 
the  obedience  of  Benedict;  and  in  1407  Benedict 
laid  the  kin^  and  the  country  mider  the  ban. 
Cldmanges,  w-lio  was  at  Genoa  when  the  bull  of 
excomnmnication  was  issued,  immediately  re- 
turned to  France,  and  repaired  to  l>angres,  where 
he  a  short  time  before  had  obtained  a  canonry. 
I  lis  enemies,  however,  accused  him  of  being  the 
author  of  the  bull,  and  he  wa,s  compelled  to  live 
in  concealment,  —  first  in  a  Carthusian  monas- 
tery at  Valpiofonds,  afterwards  at  Fonlaine-du- 
bosc.  His  nenefice  of  Langres  he  exchanged  for 
one  at  Bayeux,  and  after  the  lapse  of  .some  years 
lie  once  more  emerged  into  public  life.  In  M"21 
lie  defended  the  liberties  of  the  (iallican  Church 
in  a  public  disjiutation  at  Chartres :  in  1 125  he 
again  look  up  his  lectures  in  the  dillif/e  de  Na- 
fiirre.     The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

iJuring  his  slay  in  Valprofonds  and  Fontaine- 
dii-bosc,  Clemanges  wrote,  besides  a  number  of 
e.xceedingly  interesting  letters,  De  Fruclu  Erciiii, 
])e  Fruciu  Ilernm  Adversariim,  Df  A'ovis  Feslivi- 
Idlibus  mm  IiiKlilucnill.i,  De  Slwtio  Tlienlof/ico  (of 
Rjiecial  interest  for  the  encydop.edia  of  theology), 
JJispuliilio  lie  CorAtio  Oetiendi,  Oialio  ad  (iidtianim 
J'rincincs,  De  Laj/.iu  el  l{ci>anUwne  ju.slili(c,  etc. ; 
and  these  works  show  that  he  went  through  a 


remarkable  development.  Always  on  the  side  of 
reform  and  liberty,  he  came  farther  and  farther 
away  from  the  idea  of  the  papal  authority;  and 
his  studies  of  the  Bible  brought  him  nearer  to 
the  great  jirinciples  of  the  Reformation  than  his 
teachers  d'Ailly  and  Gerson  ever  reached.  Above 
the  Pope  he  placed  the  oecumenical  council ;  but 
above  the  cecumenical  council  he  placed  the 
Bible ;  and  the  idea  of  the  invisible  Church,  to 
which  all  the  paraphernalia  of  an  established 
Church  may  be  a  mere  scandal,  began  to  dawn 
upon  him.  A  collected  edition  of  his  works  was 
published  by  Joh.  Lydius,  Leyden,  1013,  in  2 
vols.  4to ;  but  much  of  what  he  has  written  still 
remains  in  manuscript,  and  some  of  his  treatises 
seem  to  have  been  suppressed.  His  life  was 
written  by  Adolph  MI'ntz.  Xicolas  Cle'manyes,  sa 
vie  et  scs  t'critu,  Strassbiu'g,  1846. 

The  two  works  De  Ruina  Ecclesice,  ov  De  Cor- 
rupto  EcclesUn  .Slnlu,  and  Apostoti  (i.e.,  liUerce  di 
missorice)  et  Hesponsio  per  Nationem  Galtlcannm 
Domints  Canlinaliltiis  Apipellantibus,  etc.,  generally 
ascribed  to  him  are,  as  Adolph  Miintz  has  shown, 
not  by  liim.  c.  schmidt. 

CLEMENS  ROMANUS,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated names  of  Christian  antiquity,  but  so  over- 
grown with  myths,  that  it  has  become  next  to- 
impossible  to  lay  bare  the  historical  facts  which' 
it  represents,  occurs  in  all  lists  of  the  first  Roman 
bishops,  but  not  always  in  the  same  place.  Thu.s 
Ireuieus  (Hcer.,  III.  3,  3)  puts  it  in  the  third  place 
from  Peter  (Petrus,  Linu.t,  Anendetux,  Clemens)  ; 
and  so  do  Eusebius  (lioth  in  his  Church  Histori/, 
III.  13,  1.5,  and  in  his  Chronicle),  Epiphanius 
(Hcer.,  XXVII.  6),  and  Jerome  {De  Vir.  lit..  V>)  ; 
only  that,  with  the  two  last  mentioned,  the  name 
of  the  second  bishop  after  Peter  is  Clelus,  and  not 
Anenclelus.  But  another  succession  meets  us  in 
the  Chronicle  of  Hippolyte,  in  wliich  Clement  is 
placed  before  Cletus,  —  Pelrus,  Linus,  Clemens, 
Cletus;  and  this  succession  was  adopted  by  the 
Liherian  Catalogue,  by  Augustine,  (jptatus,  and 
others,  as  also  by  the  Apostolical  Constitutions ; 
while  at  the  same  time  the  double  tradition  made 
two  ditferent  per.sons  out  of  tlie  two  names  of 
Anencletus  and  Cletu.s,  thus  producing  the  fol- 
lowing list,  —  Petrus,  Linus,  Clemens,  Cletus,  Anen- 
cletus. The  Leonian  Catalogue,  however,  returns 
once  more  to  the  old  succession,  according  to 
which  Clement  occupies  the  third  place  after 
Peter;  and  tluis  the  Felieiaii  Catalogue,  which  is 
merely  a  combination  of  the  Liherian  and  Leo- 
nian Catalogues,  arrives  at  the  following  succes- 
sion,—  J'etrus,  Linus,  Cletus,  Clemens,  Anenclelus. 
The  pseudo-Tertullian  Carmen  adv.  Mnrcionem 
finally  places  both  Cletus  and  Anencletus  before 
Clement;  while  the  epistle  said  to  have  been  writ- 
ten by  Clement  to  the  apostle  .lames  narrates 
that  Peter  himself  ajipointed  Clement  his  succes- 
sor; but  the  former  found  no  advocates  at  all,  and 
the  latter  only  one,  —  the  author  of  the  p.seudo- 
ClementiiK^  romance.  See  Lir.snis:  Chronoloijie 
der  riimischcn  liishiife,  Kiel,  1800.  There  is.  indeed, 
no  reason  to  abandon  the  oldest  tradition  of  the 
Church,  according  to  which,  Clement  was  the 
third  bishop  of  Konii'  after  I'eter;  only  it  must 
be  lemembeii'd  that  he  was  not  a  bislio]i  in  that 
sen.se  of  the  word  which  the  nionarchical  temlency 
of  a  later  period  develo]ied.  He  was  simply  one 
of  the  iiicst  prominent  presbyters  of  the  llomaiii 


CLEMENS  ROMANUS. 


493 


CLEMENS  ROMANUS. 


■congregation  immediately  after  the  post-apostoli- 
'Cal  age. 

So  much  for  tlie  time  in  which  he  lived.  With 
respect  to  the  identity  of  his  person,  Irenifns  (l.r.) 
makes  him  a  pupil  of  an  apostle;  and  Origen 
(In  Joann.  1,  29),  Eusebius  (ULsl.  EccL,  III.  i.")), 
Kpiphanius  (Iliv.r.,  XXVII.  0),  and  Jerome  (/> 
Vir.  lit.)  identify  him  with  the  Clement  mentioned 
by  Paul  (Phil.  iv.  3),  makini^  him  a  special  pupil 
of  Paid.  This  .supposillon  Chry.sostom  carries 
still  further  (Cnmm.  in  1  Tim.),  speaking  of  Clem- 
ent as  the  st(;ady  companion  of  Paul  on  all  his 
travel.s;  while  the  Clementine  literature,  in  har- 
mony with  its  .Judeo-Christian  character,  brings 
him  in  tlie  clo.sest  connection  with  Peter,  and 
makes  him  his  most  intimate  pupil.  These  two 
traditions  have  been  combined  in  many  various 
ways,  all  more  or  less  artificial.  But  though 
the  identity  of  Clement  of  Rome  and  Clement 
mentioned  by  Paul  still  finds  its  defenders  (see 
WociiKK :  Die  Briefe  des  Clemens  unci  Polycurp, 
Tubingen,  1830),  it  has  been  given  up  by  most 
theologians,  and  with  good  reason  ;  as  Irenreus,  if 
he  had  known  any  thing  about  this  identity,  would 
hardly  have  neglected  to  speak  of  it.  The  Clem- 
ent mentioned  by  Paul  was,  no  doubt,  a  Philip- 
pian.  Still  more  intricate  is  the  qnestion,  whether 
the  report  of  the  Clementine  literature,  that  Clem- 
ent was  a  relative  of  the  imperial  family,  has  any 
historical  kernel  or  not.  Recent  investigations, 
and  more  especially  the  excavations  of  tlie  Ro- 
man catacombs,  prove  that  Christianity  actually 
succeeded  in  penetrating  into  the  Flavian  family. 
[.See  XoRTHCOTE  and  Buowni.ow^:  Roma  Sotter- 
ranea,  2d  ed.,  London,  1879,  2  vols.  (vol.  i.  pp. 
■S3  sqq.)].  If  we  now  suppose  that  the  consul 
Flavius  Clemens  (who  was  sentenced  to  death  by 
Domitian  on  account  of  Atheism,  the  common 
Pagan  designation  of  Christianity)  belonged  to 
the  Christian  congregation,  we  have,  then,  at  the 
same  time,  two  prominent  Christians  in  Rome  of 
the  same  name, — the  one  consul  and  martyr, 
the  other  bishop  or  presbj-ter ;  and  the  question 
arises.  Was  there  originally  only  one  person, 
afterwards  split  into  two  by  a  confusion  of  the 
tradition,  or  were  there  originally  two,  afterwards 
merged  into  one  by  the  Clementine  literature? 
On  this  point  modern  opinions  deviate  very 
much ;  and  the  question  can,  perhaps,  never  be 
fully  answered.  But  it  must  be  remembered, 
first,  that  the  Christianity  of  Flavius  Clemens  is 
a  mere  assumption ;  next,  that  the  martyrdom  of 
Clemens  Romanus  is  equally  doubtful.  The  cata- 
combs prove  that  Christianity  penetrated  into  the 
Flavian  family,  but  not  that  the  consul  Flavius 
Clemens  was  a  Christian ;  and  the  report  of  Dio, 
or  rather  of  his  epitomizer  Xiphilinus,  is  in  many 
of  its  details  so  palpably  erroneous,  that  it  be- 
comes unreliable  as  a  whole.  And  how  could  the 
Roman  congregation  forget,  in  the  course  of  only 
one  century  and  a  half,  that  one  of  its  first  bish- 
ops had  been  a  consul,  that  the  first  martyr  among 
its  bishojis  had  been  a  member  of  the  imperial 
family  V  But  Irena?us  (/.<.•.)  mentions  Telespho- 
rus  as  the  first  martyr  among  the  Roman  bishops ; 
and  Eusebius  {Hist.  Eccl.,  III.  34),  as  well  as 
Jerome  (De  Vir.  Itl.,  15),  says  that  Clement  died 
a  natural  death  in  the  third  year  of  the  reign 
of  Trajan.  This  leads  us  to  the  conclusion  that 
■the  consul  and  the  bishop,  Flavius  Clemens  and 


Clemens  Romanus,  were  two  different  persons ; 
which  necessitates  the  admission  that  we  know 
nothing  of  the  persoiuil  life  of  Clemens  Ronui- 
nus  but  its  approximate  date  and  the  position  he 
occupied  in  the  congregation. 

Of  the  numerous  writings  which  bear  the 
name  of  Clement,  most  are  evidently  spurious,  as, 
for  instance,  the  Apo.ilulical  Conslituliunx,  and 
the  whole  group  com[)rised  under  the  name  of 
the  Clementines;  which  articles  see.  Nor  are  th(3 
two  Epistles  on  Virr/lnit;/  worth  a  long  debate. 
They  were  first  published  by  Wetstein  as  an  ap- 
pendix to  his  New  Testamcmt  (17.52),  and  after- 
wards by  Yillecourt,  in  MiGtiK,  Patrol.  Grcec.,  I., 
and  by  I.  Ph.  Beelen,  Louvain,  IS.'jG.  But  the 
views  of  asceticism  which  they  propound,  and  the 
state  of  ecclesiastical  development  to  which  they 
refer,  show  that  they  belong  to  a  much  later 
period.  Jerome  knew  them  (Ad  Jovin.,  I.  12), 
perhaps  also  Epiphanius  (Ihcr.,  XXX.  1.5).  The 
two  E/iistles  to  tlie  Corinthians,  on  the  contrary, 
especially  the  first,  belong  among  the  most  im- 
portant documents  of  Christian  antiquity  still 
extant.  In  the  Ancient  Church  they  were  held  in 
the  greatest  esteem,  and  in  many  places  they  were 
read  at  divine  service.  Nevertheless,  after  the 
fifth  century  they  disappeared  from  the  AV'estern 
Church,  and  remained  completely  unknow  n  until 
.Junius  rediscovered  them  in  the  celelirated  Cod. 
Alex.,  a  present  from  Cyrillus  Lucaris  to  King 
Charles  I.,  and  published  them  at  Oxford  (1033). 
Up  to  1875  this  manuscript  remained  the  only 
one  known ;  and  all  editions  before  that  year  —  by 
WoTTON,  Cambridge,  1718 ;  Jacobsox,  Oxford, 
1838;  Madden  (photographic  facsimile),  Lon- 
don, 1856 ;  TiscHENDORF,  Leipzig,  1807  and 
1873;  LiGHTFOOT,  London,  1869,  to  which  an 
Appendix  was  added  in  1877;  IIilgenfeld,  Leip- 
zig, 1866;  Laukent,  Leipzig,  1870;  and  finally 
by  Gebhardt  and  IIarnack,  in  Dressel  :  Pat. 
Apost.,  Leipzig,  1875  —  were  taken  from  it  alone. 
But  in  1875  Bryennios,  metropolitan  of  Serrae, 
gave  an  edition  from  a  newly-discovered  manu- 
script in  the  Library  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at 
Farnar,  in  Constantinople;  and  in  this  new  edi- 
tion, not  only  were  the  many  gaps  of  the 
Cod.  Alex,  filled,  but  also  the  second  epistle,  of 
which  hitiierto  only  a  fragment  had  been  known, 
appeared  in  full.  Editions  based  upon  a  com- 
i:)arison  between  the  two  manuscripts  have  been 
given  by  Gebhardt  and  Haruack,  and  by  IIilgen- 
feld, Leipzig,  1876.  [The  Appendix  of  Light- 
foot  gives  a  good  English  translation  of  both. 
epistles.]  R.  L.  Bensly  found  in  June,  1876,  a 
Syriac  translation  of  the  two  epistles  in  a  manu- 
script purchased  for  the  University  of  Cambridge 
at  the  sale,  in  Paris,  of  Julius  Mohl's  library. 

The  First  Epistle  is  an  official  missive  from  the 
Roman  congregation  to  the  Corinthian,  occasioned 
by  some  dissensions  which  had  arisen  in  the  lat- 
ter. As  it  is  written  in  the  name  of  the  whole 
congregation,  it  bears  no  author's  name ;  but 
ancient  witnesses  mention  Clement  as  the  author. 
Dionysiu.s,  Bishop  of  Corinth,  in  a  letter  addressed 
to  Bishop  Soter  of  Rome,  about  170,  speaks  of 
the  epistle  as  written  by  Clement,  and  adds  that 
it  was  alwaj's  read  aloud  in  his  congregation 
(EusEB. :  Hist.  Eccl.,  IV.  2-3).  Clemens  Alexan- 
drinus  also  holds  it  in  great  esteem,  quotes  often 
from  it,  and  designates  its  author  as  an  apostle 


CLEMENS. 


494 


CLEMENT. 


(Strom.,  TV.  17 ;  I.  7 ;  V.  12 ;  VI.  8).  As  so  very 
little  is  known  of  Clement,  the  question  of  the 
genuineness  of  the  epistle  becomes  a  question  of 
the  date  of  its  authorship.  Formerly  tlie  opinion 
■was  generally  prevailing,  and  is  still  held  by 
Hefele  {Patr.  Ap.  Prolegomena,  p.  XXXII.)  and 
Wieseler  (Eine  Unlersuchung  iiber  den  Hebrder- 
hrief,  Kiel,  1861),  that  it  was  written  between  01 
and  G8.  A  closer  examination,  however,  seems  to 
lead  to  the  last  decade  of  the  first  centur^y,  between 
i)3  and  97.  On  the  one  side,  not  only  Peter  and 
Taul,  but  all  the  apostles,  have  died,  and  the  state 
of  the  congregational  life  seems  to  indicate  that 
some  time  has  elapsed  since  that  event.  Ou  the 
other  hand,  there  are  presbj-ters  iu  office  who 
have  been  appointed  by  the  apostles  themselves  ; 
and  there  are  members  living  who  have  been  con- 
temporaries of  the  apostles. 

The  Second  Epistle  is  not  an  epistle  at  all,  but 
a  homily ;  and,  as  it  is  the  oldest  existing  ser- 
mon, it  is,  of  course,  of  gi-eat  interest.  Where, 
at  what  time,  and  by  whom,  it  was  ■WTitten,  are 
([uestions  of  great  difficulty;  and,  of  the  many 
lij'potheses  which  have  been  offered  as  answers, 
none  has  proved  fully  satisfactory.  •  It  seems 
most  probable  that  it  originated  in  Kome,  and 
between  130  and  140 ;  but  how  it  then  came  to 
be  connected  with  the  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians 
liy  Clement  as  a  second  epistle  must  for  the  pres- 
ent be  left  unexplained.  For  Lit.  see  editions 
mentioned  above.  G.  UHLHORN. 

CLEMENS,  Titus  Flavius,  was  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  teachers  of  tlie  Church  of  .\lexandria. 
The  date  of  his  birth  falls  near  the  middle  of  the 
second  centiu'y ;  as  between  192  and  202,  when 
he  began  on  his  principal  work,  he  was  a  man  in 
his  best  years.  The  place  of  his  birth  was  not 
Alexandria,  since  he  speaks  of  Egypt  as  a  country 
in  which  he  finally  settled  He  was  probably  a 
native  of  (Ireece,  —  Epiphanius  says,  of  Athens. 
His  parents  seem  to  have  belonged  to  the  upper 
classes,  and  to  have  been  Pagans.  He  speaks  of 
himself  as  one  who  has  come  to  grace  through 
penitence;  and  he  shows  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  Pagan  life,  even  with  its  darkest  sides. 
He  frequented  the  schools  of  tlie  rhetoricians; 
and,  though  strict  nietliod  is  not  the  most  .strik- 
ing i'eatun^  in  his  authorship,  he  studied  logic  and 
dialectics  with  great  zeal.  He  was  well  versed 
in  music;  and  the  brilliant  development  which 
cliurch-nnisic  achieved  in  .Mexandria  was  no 
doubt  (lu(>  to  him.  Hut  the  principal  subjects 
of  Ids  .studies  were  the  poets  and  tlie  pliiloso- 
phers.  His  works  bristle  with  quotations  from 
the  older  (ireek  literature,  and  have,  for  this  very 
rea,son,  an  additional  interest  to  tlie  student.  Hut 
neither  the  poets  nor  the  jiliilosojihers  were  able 
to  fully  .satisfy  his  craving  for  truth.  He  began 
to  study  Christianity;  and  in  Egypt,  in  Alexan- 
dria, lie  finally  found  a  man  who  could  give  him 
what  he  wantt'd.  Eusebiiis  is  imibably  right, 
when  in  this  man  he  recognizes  Panta-nus,  who 
actiuired  great  fame  as  teacher  in  the  Church  of 
Alexandria.  In  this  position  Clemens  afterwards 
succeeded  him,  and  ni  fame  he  .soon  surpassed 
him.  Huriiig  the  per.si^cution  of  .S(!ptimius  Se- 
verus  lie  was  driven  away  from  Alexandria,  and 
sought  refuge  with  .Mcxandcr,  bishop  in  some 
Caj)padocian  city,  ami  afterwards  of  .Icrusalcm. 
It  is  a  letter  from  Alexuiid<;r  which  contains  these 


notices  of  Clemens :  another  letter  of  a  later  date- 
speaks  of  him  as  having  recently  died. 

The  three  works  of  Clemens  Alexandrinus 
stUl  extant,  JlpoTpc-anKo^  ("  Exhortation  to  the 
Heathen  "),  Tlaidayuyo^  ("  The  Instructor  "),  and 
ZTpufiaTd^  ("  Jliscellanies  "),  are  his  three  princi- 
pal works,  and  represent  three  successive  stages 
in  a  systematical  teaching  of  Christianity,  begin- 
ning with  the  conversion  from  Paganism,  and 
ending  with  full  initiation  in  the  Christian  mys- 
teries. [These  three  works  have  been  translated 
into  English  in  the  Ante-Xicene  Libraiy,  vol.  IV., 
Edinburgh,  18C7.]  Other  works  are  mentioned 
by  Jerome  and  Photius,  but  they  have  perished. 
The  writings  of  Clemens  are  rich  iu  brilliant 
thoughts,  often  most  strikingly  expressed ;  and 
to  a  certain  extent  he  has  succeeded  in  permeate 
ing  the  whole  mass  of  thoughts  with  certain  grand 
fundamental  ideas.  But  his  talent  is  not  system- 
atical. Even  W'hen  he  most  sincerely  tries  to 
be  systematical,  much  remains  loose,  and  only 
mechanically  tied  together.  The  elements  which 
he  proposes  to  harmonize  are  the  Greek  philoso- 
phy and  Christianity,  an  independent  reason, 
and  an  authority  based  on  tradition.  But  though 
he  never  succeeds  in  fully  defining  the  office  of 
reason  on  the  field  of  authority,  or  in  fully  separ 
rating  that  of  Pagan  thought  which  Christianity 
can  assimilate  from  that  ■nliich  it  must  reject,  he 
is,  nevertheless,  exceedingly  suggestive,  and  often 
eminently  striking. 

Lit.  —  Collected  editions  of  his  works  have 
been  given  by  Petrus  Victorius,  Florence, 
1550;  F.  Sylburg,  Heidelberg,  1592 ;  IIeixsius, 
Leyden,  1616;  J.  Potter,  Oxford,  1715;  Din- 
dork,  Oxford,  1868-69.  For  his  life,  and  a 
characterization  of  his  works,  .see  Eusebius: 
Hist.  EccL,  V.  11;  VI.  6,  11,  13;  Jerome:  De 
Vir.  III.,  c.  38;  PiiOTUis :  Blblioth.,  109-111  ;i 
Hofstede  de  Ghoot  :  De  Clem.  Al.,  Griinin-  ■ 
gen,  1826;  Dahne  :  De  Gnos.  Clem..  Leipzig, 
1831 ;  Reuter  :  Clem.  .Uornlis,  Berlin,  1853  ;  Win- 
ter :  Die  Ethik  d.  C,  Leipzig,  1882.      JACOBI. 

CLEMENT  is  the  name  of  fourteen  popes. — 
Clement  I.  (see  Clemens  Rom.\nus).  —  Clement 
II.  (Dec.  24,  104G-Oct.  9,  1047).  After  the  abdi- 
cation of  Gregory  VI.,  Henry  III.,  at  the  heiid  of 
a  formidable  army,  stood  as  the  master  of  Home 
and  the  Church;  and  the  people  and  the  clergy 
conceded  to  him  the  right  of  the  first  —  and,  ac- 
cording to  the  inter]iretation  of  Petrus  Damiani, 
also  tile  decisive  —  vote  at  the  papal  election. 
On  Dec.  24  he  pre.scnted  Hishop  Suidger  of  Bam- 
berg to  the  .s^^lod  assembled  in  the  Church  of  St. 
Peter,  and  seated  him  on  the  jiapal  throne,  the 
first  German  pope;  and  the  next  day  Suidger, 
who  assumed  the  name  Clement  II.,  crowned' 
King  Henry  and  his  wife.  See  Jaefe:  liegesta; 
and  W.\TTEl!Kli:  Ponlif.  liimmn.  Vilir.  I. — 
Clement  III.  (Dec.  19.  nH7-Mareh  2.'>.  1191),  a 
Roman  by  birth;  ascended  the  papal  throne  just 
as  the  report  of  the  fall  of  .Terusaleni  and  the 
entrance  of  Saladin  (Oct.  3,  1187)  spread  horror 
and  dismay  through  all  Europe.  He  espoused 
the  cause  with  great  fervor,  and  .succeeded  in 
rousing  a  general  enthusiasm.  Letters  were  sent 
to  all  the  kings  and  princes;  daily  prayers  were 
onlered  for  the  rescue  of  the  Holy  Land;  the 
Truce  of  (Jod  was  jneached  in  all  countries;  in- 
dulgences, dispensations,  absolutions,  were  freely 


CLEMENT. 


495 


CLEMENT. 


distributed;  and  the  summons  to  the  third  cru- 
sade was  accepted  by  the  nations  with  nearly 
as  mucli  enthusiasm  as  that  to  the  first.  Venice 
and  Hungary  made  peace  with  each  otlier;  the 
Emperor  took  the  cross;  even  France  and  Eng- 
land were  reconciled,  and  joined  in  the  under- 
taking. Tiie  pitiful  end,  however,  of  this  grand 
beginning,  Clement  was  sjiared  from  seeing. 
With  King  William  of  Scotland  lie  came  into 
a  sharp  conflict.  The  see  of  St.  Andrew  became 
vacant.  The  chapter  chose  one  bishop;  the 
king  appointed  another.  But  the  Pope  threat- 
ened with  interdict,  and  the  king  yielded.  As  a 
rewaril  for  this  concession,  the  Pope  placed  Scot- 
land immediately  under  the  papal  authority  by 
a  bidl  of  ]March  bi,  1188,  thus  exempting  it  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Archbishop  of  York,  who 
liad  hitlierto  acted  as  papal  legate  for  Scot- 
laud.  On  Nov.  18,  US!),  William  H.  of  Sicily 
died.  The  Pope,  who  claimed  the  kingdom  as  a 
fief,  invested  Tancred  with  the  country;  but 
Henry  VI.,  son  of  Frederic  Barbarossa,  protested 
as  the  next  •  heir,  and  was  marching  against 
Home,  when  Clement  died.  See  Jafk^;:  Re- 
r/esta;  and  W.\TTEKlcn  :  Pontif.  Roman.  ViUc, 
Tom.  11.  There  was  an  Antipope  of  the  same 
name  (see  Gregoky  VII.). — -Clement  IV.  (Feb. 
5,  l'2(i.j-Xov.  29,  120S),  a  native  of  France; 
studied  law,  and  held  a  high  position  at  the 
court  of  Louis  IX. ;  married,  and  had  two  daugli- 
tr>rs,  but  was,  by  sorrow  over  the  loss  of  his  wife, 
led  to  enter  the  Church,  and  was  made  Bishop  of 
Le  Puy  in  12.57,  Archbishop  of  Narbonne  in  1259, 
and  cardinal  in  1262.  lie  was  on  a  journey  to 
England  as  papal  legate,  when  he  heard  of  his 
election  to  the  papal  throne ;  but  such  was  the 
state  of  Italy  tliat  he  had  to  put  on  the  cowl  of  a 
mendicant  friar  in  order  to  reach  the  papal  domin- 
ion. His  whole  reign  was  occupied  almost  exclu- 
sively with  the  affairs  of  the  Apulian  Empire. 
The  long  tradition  of  the  papal  policy,  the  in- 
veterate hatred  of  the  curia  to  the  Hohenstaufen 
House,  and  the  necessity  of  withstanding  the 
attacks  of  the  Ghibellines,  determined  his  course. 
Feb.  20,  1265,  Charles  of  Anjou  was  invested  in 
Rome  with  the  fief  of  Apulia,  and  tlie  war  with 
-Manfred  began.  Clement  felt  very  indignant  at 
the  arrogance,  faithlessness,  and  licentiousness 
of  Charles,  and  was  about  to  open  negotiations 
with  Manfred,  when  the  latter  died.  Conradin 
now  appeared  in  Italy;  and  in  spite  of  the  papal 
ban,  launched  against  him  Nov.  18,  1267,  lie 
entered  Rome  in  triumpli.  But  his  defeat  at 
Tagliocozzo  was  the  end  of  his  r6lc  and  of  that 
of  the  House  of  Hohenstaufen.  It  is  sure,  how- 
ever, that  Clement  had  no  part  in  the  pitiful  end 
of  his  adversary.  He  was  a  right-minded  and 
warm-hearted  man;  and  the  energy  with  which 
he  attacked  and  suppressed  nepotism,  the  cancer 
of  the  papal  rule,  is  so  much  the  more  praise- 
worthy, as  he  had  many  poor  relatives.  See 
Mlth.\toki:  .SV-ny)/..III.  P.  I.  p.  .594,  and  P.  II. 
]i.  421 ;  and  the  list  of  his  letters  given  by  Pott- 
ii.\st:  Refjes'.a  I'ontif.  Rom.,  II.  —  Clement  V. 
(June  5,  1305-April  20,  1314),  a  native  of  France  ; 
was  made  Bishop  of  Comminges  in  1295,  and 
Archbishop  of  Bordeaux  in  1299,  and  showed 
himself  a  firm  adherent  of  Boniface  VIII.,  and  a 
decided  adversary  of  Philip  tlie  Fair.  Cun- 
ningly manceuvring  with  this  prestige,  he  secured 


the  election  after  Benedict  XI. ;  and  only  a  few- 
persons  knew  that  he  had  actually  bought  the 
papal  crown  by  a  number  of  the  most  degrading 
concessions  to  the  French  king.  He  was  crowned 
at  Lj'ons,  and  took  up  his  residence,  first  at 
Bordeaux,  then  at  Poitiers.  Finally  he  settled 
(l;i()9)  at  Avignon  with  the  whole  curia.  No 
argument  or  flattery  or  threat  could  induce  him 
to  go  to  Rome;  and  thus  began  the  so-called 
Babylonian  E.xile  of  the  Po];es,  which  lasted  for 
seventy  years.  At  Avignon  he  led  a  brilliant 
but  scandalous  life  ;  and,  in  spite  of  his  ostenta- 
tious arrogance,  lie  was  not  much  more  than  a 
tool  in  the  hands  of  Philip  the  Fair.  In  .June, 
1300,  he  inviti'd  the  grand  master  of  the  Tem- 
plars, Jac(jues  de  Molay,  to  Avignon,  apparently 
to  discuss  the  plan  of  a  new  crusade,  but  in 
reality  as  the  first  step  towards  the  abolition  of 
the  order ;  which  he  had  promised  the  king. 
An  investigation  was  instituted,  but  only  in 
order  to  give  in  an  indirect  manner  the  sanction 
of  the  Church  to  the  violent  proceedings  of  the 
king.  Without  waiting  for  the  result  of  the 
investigation,  the  king  at  once  imprisoned  all 
the  members  of  the  order  living  in  France,  and 
confiscated  their  property.  A  general  council 
was  convened  at  Vienne,  Oct.  16,  1311  ;  and  a 
pai)al  bull  of  ISlay  6,  1312,  dissolved  the  order. 
But,  though  the  bull  reserved  both  the  members 
and  the  property  of  the  order  for  the  decision  of 
the  Pope,  the  king  burnt  the  members,  and 
]iocketed  the  property ;  and  the  Pope  kept  silent. 
While  the  process  of  the  Templars  was  going  on, 
a  process  was  begun  against  Boniface  VHI., 
whose  memory  Clement  al.so  had  promised  the 
king  to  condemn  as  a  heretic.  He  confined  him- 
self to  annul  his  acts  of  excommunication  and 
interdict,  and  especially  his  bulls  Clericis  Laico.i 
and  Umim  ^anclam,  but  only  because  the  king- 
did  not  find  it  necessary  to  press  his  claims. 
The  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Vienne.  augmented 
with  his  own  decretals,  he  ordered  to  be  col- 
lected ;  and,  under  the  name  of  the  Clementines, 
they  now  form  the  seventh  book  of  decretals. 
See  Baluzius:  Vil(r  Paptir.  Avcnion.,  Paris,  1693; 
MuKATOiu  :  Script.,  HI.  P.  I.  p.  673,  and  P.  II. 
p.  441  ;  Vn,L.\Ni  :  I/isl.  Finrent.  :  Rcgrsliim,  Rome, 
1885.  —  Clement  VI.  (May  7,  1342-Uec.  6,  1352),  a. 
native  of  France  ;  monk  of  the  order  of  St.  Bene- 
dict; Archbishop  of  Rouen  ;  remained  at  Avignon, 
though  the  Romans,  through  an  embassy  of  which 
Petrarca  was  a  member,  most  humbly  and  most 
urgently  solicited  his  return  to  Rome.  He  sat 
quietly  at  Avignon,  and  looked  on  while  Cola  di 
Rienzi  pUiyed  his  farce  in  Rome.  In  the  affairs 
of  Germany  he  interfered  in  a  very  high-handed 
manner;  and  his  claim  to  choose  or  confirm  the 
Roman  king  was  practically  recognized.  Avignon, 
wliich  belonged  to  the  crown  of  Sicily,  he  bought 
of  Queen  Johanna,  and  he  spent  great  sums  to 
adorn  it.  For  the  Church  he  had  no  interest : 
the  most  remunerative  ortices  he  gave  to  his  rela- 
tives. A  sumptuous  table,  fine  horses,  brilliant 
pageantries,  and  the  company  of  beautiful  women, 
were  the  things  he  liked;  and  in  order  to  procure 
the  necessary  means  he  introduced  the  custom 
of  celebrating  the  jubilee  of  the  Church  every- 
fiftieth  year,  instead  of  every  hundredth.  See 
Baluzius:  Vila  Papar.  Aven.  —  Clement  VII. 
(Nov.  19,  1523-Sept.  25,  1534),  an  illegitimate: 


CLEMENT. 


496 


CLEMENT. 


son  of  Giuliano  de  Medici ;  entered  the  military 
order  of  St.  John  ;  was  Prior  of  Capua,  and  car- 
ried the  colors  of  the  order  at  the  coronation  of 
his  cousin  Leo  X.,  but  was  legitimatized  the  very 
next  day,  made  Archbishop  of  Florence,  and 
soon  after  cardinal.  After  the  death  of  Adrian 
'\'I.  he  ascended  the  papal  throne  by  a  shrewd 
compromise  with  his  antagonist.  Cardinal  Colon- 
na.  But  the  great  business  capacity  which  he 
liad  shown  under  his  two  predecessors  proved 
altogether  insufficient  for  his  new  position ;  and 
his  policy  brought  not  only  him,  but  the  Papacy 
itself,  into  the  greatest  dangers.  Afraid  of  the 
growing  influence  of  Charles  V.  in  the  Italian 
Peninsula,  Clement  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
Francis  I. ;  but  ]VIay  6,  l.r2C,  Rome  was  stormed 
and  sacked;  the  Pope  had  to  ransom  his  own 
person  for  four  hundred  thousand  scudi;  and  the 
^ledicis  were  expelled  from  Florence.  This  war 
between  the  Pope  and  the  emperor  proved  a 
great  opportunity  for  tlie  German  Reformation, 
and  the  Protestants  utilized  it.  The  diet  of 
Spires  established  religious  liberty  in  Germany, 
and  placed  the  Protestant  churches  on  equal 
terms  with  the  Roman.  The  Pope  now  hoped  to 
crush  the  Reformation  by  the  aid  of  the  Emperor: 
but  Charles  V.  demanded  a  general  council ;  and 
Clement  VII.  was  afraid  of  such  a  measure,  on 
account  of  his  illegitimate  birth,  the  manner  in 
which  he  had  obtained  the  tiara,  etc.  Once  more 
he  sought  the  support  of  France;  and  liis  niece, 
Catherine  de  Medici,  was  married  to  Henry  of 
Orleans,  the  second  son  of  Francis  I.  Mean- 
while, Protestantism  spread  rapidly  both  in 
Germany  and  France;  and  when  the  Pope  (in 
1531)  decided  against  Henry  VIH.  in  the  divorce 
case,  the  king  immediately  threw  oif  all  alle- 
giance to  the  papal  see.  See  ZiF.tii.KU :  Hist. 
Clemenlis  VII.,  in  Schelhorx  :  Amcetiil.  Hi.it.; 
Rossi:  Ckmenle  17/.,  Rome,  1837;  Bai.an:  Po- 
litica  di  Clem.  VII.,  1884.  Tliere  was  an  Antipope 
of  the  same  name  (see  Uuii.\n  VI.).  —  Clement 
VIII.  (Jan.  30,  1.592-March  .'J,  1005),  Cardinal 
Ippolito  Aldobrandini,  descending  from  a  noble 
Florentine  family,  imdertook  the  (lilTunilt  task  to 
rescue  the  curia  from  the  overwhelming  influ- 
ence of  Spain,  and  finally  succeeded  in  fulfilling 
it.  The  manner  in  which  he  dealt  with  Henry 
IV.  of  France  is  very  characteristic  of  his  policy 
in  general.  The  conversion  of  the  king  (July 
25,  159.3)  was  not  a  sufiicient  guaranty.  The 
absolution  did  not  follow  until  Paris  and  the 
greater  part  of  France  had  accepted  tlie  king 
(Dec.  17,  1.'j95).  The  king  tlien  recalled  the 
Jesuits;  and  the  Pope  kept  silent  on  occasion  of 
the  Edict  of  Xantes.  ISy  the  aid  of  Henry  IV. 
Clement  VHI.  was  aide  to  retain  Ferrara  as  a 
papal  fief  wlieii  the  House  of  Este  became  ex- 
tinct; and  thus  gradually  the  French  influence 
grew  until  it  was  a  match  for  the  Spanish.  The 
same  method  the  Pojie  employed  in  the  great 
dogmatical  controversy  between  the  Jesuits  and 
the  Dominicans,  which  he  snuiothed  down  with- 
out risking  the  estrangement  of  eithiT  of  the 
two  great  orders  by  a  definite  decision.  See 
Waddinij:  Vita  Clemenlin  VIII.,  Rome,  1723. 
There  was  aLso  an  Antipope  of  the  same  name 
(see  Maktin  V.).  —  Clement  IX.  (June  20,  l(i(!7- 
l)ec.  9,  1009),  a  native  of  Pistnja,  and  a  peace-- 
loving man;  mediated  the  peace  of  Aix-lu-Chii- 


pelle  (1608),  and  the  Pax  Clemenlitia,  which 
brought  the  .Tansenistic  controversy  to  a  tem- 
porary conclusion. —  Clement  X.  (.-^pril  29,  1670- 
July  22,  1676),  a  Roman  by  birth ;  was  eighty 
years  old  when  he  ascended  the  papal  throne, 
and  left  all  business  to  Cardinal  Proluzzi.  Under 
him  began  the  controversy  with  Louis  XIV., 
concerning  the  enjoyment,  during  vacancy,  of 
episcopal  revenues  and  benefices.  See  Amelot 
DK  L.\  IIouss.WE :  Relation  du  Conclave  'de  C/e- 
?«CTi;  A'.,  Paris,  1670;  (;u.\rxacci:  Hist.  Pontif.  a 
CI.  X.  ad  CI.  A7.  —Clement  XI.  (Xov.  23,  1700- 
March  19,  1721),  b.  at  LMiino;  was  a  man  of 
great  ability,  and  achieved  considerable  results 
as  a  reformer  of  the  internal  administration  of 
his  dominion,  but  was  very  little  successful  in 
his  external  policy.  His  protest  against  the 
assumption  of  the  royal  crown  by  the  ruler  of 
Prussia  (1700)  made  him  almost  ridiculous.  In 
the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  he  favored 
Philip  v.,  but  was  compelled  to  acknowledge 
Charles  III.,  which  disturbed  his  relations  with 
Louis  XIV.  In  the  controversy  between  the 
Dominicans  and  the  Jesuits,  concerning  the  ad- 
visability of  allowing  Chinese  converts  to  retain 
certain  Pagan  customs,  Innocent  X.  had  decided 
in  favor  of  the  Dominicans,  Alexander  VII.  in 
favor  of  the  Jesuits  ;  and  Clement  now  decided 
in  favor  of  the  Dominicans.  The  Jesuits  sub- 
mitted, but  only  apparently.  In  the  Jansenistic 
controversy,  in  whicli  the  Pope  took  a  very  de- 
cided stand,  the  bull  of  July  10,  1705  (^Vincam. 
Domini),  demanding  absolute  submission  to  the 
decrees  of  Innocent  X.  and  Alexander  VII., 
against  the  book  of  .lansenius,  was  registered  by 
the  Parliament  of  Paris,  and  enforced  by  the 
king;  but  the  bull  of  Sept.  8,  1713  {Unigenitus), 
against  Quesnel's  work,  caused  a  great  commo- 
tion, rallied  all  adherents  of  tlie  Galilean  views 
around  the  .Jansenists,  and  contributed  more 
than  any  thing  else  to  stir  up  the  hatred  to  the 
Jesuits,  whose  work  the  bull  was.  See  Clementii 
Ejiist.  et  Brevia  Sclecta,  Rome,  1724,  2  vols. ; 
BuUarimn  dementis  XL,  Rome,  1723:  Oralt.  Con- 
sistor.,    Rome,    1722.       His  life  was  written   by 

BUDER    (1721),    PlETRO    PoLIDORO     (1727),    Re 

iu)ui.Er(1738),  Lafiteau  (1752). — Clement  Xil. 
(July  12,  1730-Feb.  0,  1740).  a  Florentine  by 
birth,  and  seventy-eight  years  old  wlien  he  as- 
cended the  throne.  His  attempt  to  reclaim 
Pavia  and  Placentia,  and  to  incorporate  tlie 
repulilic  of  San  IMarino,  failed ;  and,  while  the 
political  power  of  tiie  Papacy  visilily  crumbled 
into  (lust,  tlie,  literary  and  scienlific  opposition 
became  sliarper  and  more  open  dav  bv  dav. — 
Clement  XIII.  (July  0,  1758-Feb.  3,"l769),  6.  .at 
Venice ;  a.-iceiided  the  throne  by  the  aid  of  the 
.Jesuits,  and  became  tlieir  zealous  defender, 
though  he  thereby  brought  the  Papacy  itself  to 
the  very  verge  of  ruin.  The  storm  against  them 
began  in  Portugal.  In  1759  they  were  expelled 
from  that  country,  and  sent  by  sliip  to  the  Papal 
.States.  In  France  the  king  proposed  certain 
modifications  in  the  constitution  of  the  order; 
and,  when  the  Pope  refused,  the  Parliament 
voted  that  the  .Jesuits  should  leave  the  country 
witliin  a  month,  the  king  fixing  the  day  at  Dec. 
1,  17111.  On  Jan.  7,  1705,  the  Pope  issued  the 
bull  A/iosloliciim  I'ascendi  Miiniis.  in  which  he 
spoke  of  the  order  as  a  useful   and  holy  institu- 


CLEMENTINES. 


497 


CLEMENTINES. 


tion  ;  but  the  publication  of  the  bull  was  forbid- 
den in  Portugal,  France,  and  Najiles.  On  March 
31,  1707,  the  king  of  Spain  had  all  the  Jesuits 
living  in  Madrid  arrested,  and  the  following 
day  all  the  Jesuits  living  in  Spain.  They  were 
packed  like  slaves  in  some  merchant-vessels,  and 
carried  across  the  Mediterranean  to  the  shores 
'of  the  Papal  States.  The  contest  became  still 
more  violent.  The  Duke  of  Parma  introduced 
some  reforms  in  his  dominions;  and  by  a  breve 
or  monitorium  of  Jan.  30,  17fJ8  (Aiiuil  ml  Aposlo- 
/alus),  the  Pope  undertook  to  annul  those  mea.s- 
ures.  The  duke  answered  by  expelling  the 
Jesuits ;  and  the  Pope  actually  began  to  prepare 
for  war.  But  at  this  moment  French  troops 
occupied  Avignon  and  Venaissin  ;  Sicilian  troops, 
Benevent  and  Ponte  Corvo ;  and  no  other  issue 
seemed  possible  but  the  destruction  of  the  politi- 
cal power  of  the  Papacy,  when  Clement  suddenly 
died.  See  Theiner  ;  Genchlchle  d.  Ponllf.  CI. 
XIV.,  Leipzig  and  Paris,  1853,  vol.  I.  —  Clement 
XIV.  (May  19,  1769-Sept.  2:2,  1771).  The  con- 
clave which  assembled  after  the  death  of  Clement 
XIII.  lasted  for  three  months ;  and  only  after 
a  hundred  and  eighty-five  scrutinies,  the  two 
parties,  the  friends  and  the  adversaries  of  the 
Jesuits,  agreed  upon  Cardinal  Ganganelli  (b.  at 
Arcangelo  in  the  Papal  States),  the  son  of  a  poor 
physician.  He  was  agreed  upon  because  he  was 
considered  the  most  insignificant;  but  he  suc- 
ceeded, nevertheless,  in  steering  safely  through 
the  dangers  of  the  moment.  He  became  recon- 
ciled to  all  the  estranged  powers,  even  Portugal 
and  Parma,  without  loshig  any  thing  of  his  dig- 
nity ;  and,  when  he  understood  the  necessity  of 
dissolving  the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  he  did  it  by  a 
breve  of  Aug.  10,  1772,  quietly,  but  firmly.  lie 
had  been  warned  against  the  revenge  of  -the 
Jesuits;  and  he  died,  indeed,  suddenly  and 
under  susjiicious  circumstances.  He  founded 
the  Museum  of  the  Vatican,  afterwards  called 
the  Pio-Clemenlinum.  His  letters  were  collected, 
some  say  partly  invented,  by  Caraocioli,  Paris, 
1770,  who  also  wrote  his  Life,  Paris,  177o.  See 
Lehcn  d.  P.  a.  XIV.,  Berlin  and  Leipzig,  1774:-75, 
3  vols.  ;  Enprit  du  P.  CI.  XIV.,  Amsterdam,  1775 ; 
Reumont:  Ganrjanelli  P.  CI.  XIV.,  Berlin, 
1847;  Chetineau-Joly:  Clement  XIV.  el  les 
Jesuiles,  Paris,  1847;  A.  Theiner:  Geschichte  d. 
Pont.  Clemenn  XIV.,  Leipzig  and  Paris,  1853, 
3  vols.  O.  VOIGT. 

CLEMENTINES  is  the  name  generally  applied 
to  a  very  remarkable  group  of  writings  closely 
related  to  each  other  with  respect  to  their  con- 
tents, and  evidently  drawn  from  the  same  source, 
but  often  transcribed,  augmented,  and  variously 
remodelled.  Of  the  group,  three  works  are  still 
extant,  —  the  Clementine  Homilies,  the  liecogni- 
iions,  and  the  Epitome. 

Attention  was  first  drawn  to  the  Homilies  of 
Clemens  Romanus  by  Turrianus  in  his  book.  Pro 
Canonibus  App.  (1573)  ;  but  tlie  codex  which  he 
used  seems  to  have  disappeared.  In  1672  tlie 
work  was  published  by  Cotelerius,  after  a  codex 
in  the  Library  of  Paris  :  but  the  codex  was  incom- 
plete ;  it  breaks  off  in  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth homily.  A  complete  manuscript  was 
discovered  by  Dressel  in  the  Ottobonian  Library 
In  Rome,  and  jniblished  by  him  at  Gottingen, 
1853.  Finally  Ue  Lagarde  gave  a  complete  and 
33—1 


critical  edition,  Leipzig,  1865.  The  book  con 
sists  of  two  letters  to  .lames,  and  twenty  homi- 
lies, also  addressed  to  him.  The  first  letter  is 
fi'oMi  Peter  to  .lames :  the  former  asks  the  latter 
to  keep  the  Keri/gma  sent  to  him  an  absolute 
secret.  The  second  letter  is  from  Clement  to 
.lames,  written  after  the  death  of  Peter,  and  stat- 
ing that  the  latter,  shortly  before  he  died,  ai)poiiit- 
ed  the  writer  of  the  letter  his  successor.  The 
work  itself  tells  how  Clement,  having  sought  in 
vain  after  truth  in  the  schools  of  tlie  philoso- 
phers, and  having  heard  something  in  Rome 
about  .lesus,  decides  to  go  to  .Juda'a.  Arrived  at 
Alexandria,  he  meets  Barnabas;  and  at  C.'Esarea 
Stratonis  Barnabas  introduces  him  to  Peter,  who 
initiates  him  in  Christianity,  and  invites  him  to 
remain  with  him  during  the  disputation  with 
Simon  Magus.  The  disputation  lasts  for  three 
days ;  but  at  the  end  of  the  third  da^  Simon  Ma- 
gus flies  from  the  city  defeated.  Peter  pursues 
him;  and,  while  journeying,  Clement  narrates  the 
romantic  incidents  of  his  life,  —  how  his  father 
and  mother  and  two  brethren  have  mysteriously 
disappeared.  It  now  turns  out  that  his  two 
companions,  Xiceta  and  Aquila,  are  his  two  lost 
brethren.  His  father  and  mother  are  also  found ; 
and  Simon  Magus  is  finally  overtaken,  and  com- 
pletely crushed  in  a  disputation  lasting  four  days. 
This  romantic  narrative,  however,  is  used  only  as 
the  framework  around  a  doctrinal  development. 
The  doctrine  is  the  chief  interest  of  the  book, 
and  may  generally  be  characterized  as  speculative 
Ebionitism,  though  it  is  not  perfectly  homogene- 
ous. Sometimes  God  is  represented  decidedly 
pantheistically,  as  the  One,  the  All,  the  world's 
Heart,  which  makes  the  whole  stream  of  life  pul- 
sate, etc.  At  other  times  he  is  represented  as  a 
person,  the  Creator,  the  Judge,  etc.,  but  with  the 
strongest  anthropomorphisms  known  to  Judaism. 
These  two  tendencies  the  author  never  succeeds  in 
fully  blending. 

Of  the  Recoynitions,  the  Greek  original  is  lost. 
We  have  the  work  only  in  a  Latin  translation  by 
Rufinus ;  but  of  this  translation  the  manuscripts 
are  quite  numerous,  bearing  various  titles,  gen- 
erally dramatic  terms  referring  to  the  meeting 
between  Clement  and  his  brethren.  The  work 
was  published  before  the  Homilies,  first  by  Sichar- 
dus  (Basel,  1526  and  1536),  then  by  Lambertus 
Gruterus  Venradius  (Cologne,  1563  and  1.570). 
The  best  edition  is  that  by  Gersdorf,  in  Bibl. 
Pair.  Lat.,  Leipzig,  1838,  vol.  I.  [There  is  an 
English  translation  by  T.  Smith  in  tlie  Ante- 
Nicene  Library,  vol.  HI.,  Edinburgh,  1867.]  The 
difference  between  the  Pecof/nitions  and  the  Homi- 
lies is  comparatively  small  in  the  narrative  part 
of  the  works,  but  very  striking  in  the  doctrinal. 
In  the  liifuijnitions  the  ideas  and  views  are  all 
through  the  work  weakened  and  modified  so  as 
to  suit  a  catholic  reader. 

The  Epitome,  first  edited  by  Turnebus  (Paris, 
1555),  then  by  Cotelier,  is  an  uninteresting  extract 
from  the  Homilies,  to  which  are  added  extracts 
from  the  letter  of  Clement  to  James,  from  the 
Martyrium  of  Clement  by  Simeon  ^Nletaphrastes, 
etc.  Dressel's  edition,  after  a  newly-discovered 
codex,  and  containing  a  second  Epitome,  has  no 
great  interest;  nor  has  the  Syriac  translation, 
edited  by  De  Lagarde,  Leipzig,  ISOl. 

The  doctrinal  labor  with  the  Clementine  litera- 


CLERICUS. 


498 


CLERGY. 


ture  was  begun  by  Neander.  who,  in  the  appen- 
dix to  his  Genelische  Enlwickeluncj  rler  gnostischen 
St/steme.  Berlin,  1818.  gave  a  representation  of 
the  doctrinal  view  of  the  Homilies;  and  it  was 
continued  by  F.  C.  Baur,  who,  for  his  conception 
of  the  ancient  Church,  drew  a  considerable 
amount  of  evidential  matter  from  this  group  of 
writings.  Baur  laid  at  first  the  emphasis  on  the 
Kbionitic  elements  (/)e  Ehionilarum  Orit/ine,  Tii- 
bingen,  1831;  Die  Christnsparteiin  der  Icorinthischen 
Gemeinde.  Tiibingen,  1831),  but  seemed  after- 
wards inclined  to  ascribe  more  importance  to  the 
finostic  elements  {Die  chrislliche  Gnosis,  Tubin- 
gen, 1835:  ijlter  den  Episcopal  in  der  chrisHichen 
Kirche,  1838).  In  opposition  to  Baur,  Schliemann 
wrote  his  Die  Clementinen  nehsl  den  verwandlen 
Schriflen  und  der  Ebionitismus  (Hamburg,  1844), 
a  book  as  careful  in  the  collection  of  materials 
as  acute  in  the  investigation  of  details;  and 
this  work  in  connection  with  Schwegler's  Kach- 
(iposlolisches  Zeitalter  (see  I.  364  sq.),  formed  the 
transition  from  a  purely  doctrinal  to  a  purely 
literary  treatment.  The  turning-point  w-as  Hil- 
genfeld's  Die  clemeniinischen  Rekofinitionen  und 
Homilien,  Jena,  1848.  Not  the  doctrinal  views 
and  tlieir  systematical  elaboration,  but  the  histori- 
cal origin  and  literary  character  of  this  group  of 
writings,  were  to  him  the  points  in  question;  and 
he  attempted  to  show  that  the  Recognitions  formed 
the  basis  for  the  Homilies,  and  were  themselves 
based  on  a  still  older  tract,  of  Roman  origin  and 
Judseo-Christian  character,  —  the  true  Kert/gma 
Patri,  of  which  he  found  an  actual  renuiant  in  I. 
27-72,  and  a  general  outline  in  III.  75.  Against 
Ililgenfeld,  Uhlhorn  attempted  to  show,  in  his 
Die  HomUifn  und  Rel'ognilionen  lies  (-lemens  Ro- 
manus  ((idttingen,  1854),  that  the  author  of  the 
Recognitions  had  the  Homilies  lying  before  him 
when  he  wrote,  and  tli.at  the  true  nucleus  from 
which  the  whole  literature  developed  was  to  be 
found,  not  in  Recogn.,  I.  27-72,  hut  in  Horn., 
XVI. -XIX.  The  one-sidedne.ss  of  tlicse  two 
works  was  eliminated  by  Lehmaun,  who,  in  his 
Die  clement inisrhen  Schriften  (Gotlia  18(jfl),  begins 
by  dissolving  the  Recognitions  into  two  diifer- 
eut  jiarts,  byVwo  different  authors,  — I. -III.  and 
IV'.-X., — and  then  penetrates  deeper  into  the 
construction  of  the  two  works  until  he  arrives  at 
tiie  root,  the  Kerygmn.  Still  farther  has  this 
method  been  carried  by  Lijisius,  in  his  Die  Quellen 
der  romisclien  Petrussage  (Kiel,  1872),  who  finds 
the  basis  of  the  whole  Clementine  literature  in 
the  Acta  Petri  with  tlieir  strongly-marked  anti- 
Pauline  tendencv.  The  evidence  which  can  be 
offered  for  this  last  supposition  may  be  deemed 
insufficient;  but  the  general  results  of  the  whole 
course  of  investigation  are  irrefragable.  'I'he 
Homilies,  tlie  Recognitions,  and  the  ICpilome  are 
three  independent  elaborations,  perhaps  at  first 
hand,  perhaps  at  second  or  tliircl,  of  some  older 
tract  not  now  extant.  O.  UIIIJIOIIN. 

CLERICUS  {.loin  Ic  Clerc),  b.  atfJeneva,  March 
10,  l(J."i7 ;  d.  at  Anislerdam,  Jan.  8,  173IJ;  studied 
theology  and  philoso])liv  in  (ieneva,  (irenoblo, 
Saumur,  I'aris,  und  I^ondon  ;  was,  by  the  reading 
of  the  works  of  Curcellamsand  Episcopius.  drawn 
over  to  tlie  Remonstrants,  and  became  professor 
of  philosojihy  and  lielhs-lettres  at  Amsterdam,  and, 
after  the  death  of  ].,iinl)orch,  profes.sor  of  church 
history.      Of  bis  uumerous  works,  liis  connniui- 


taries  on  the  Old  Testament,  and  his  Harmonia 
Erangelica.  are  still  valuable.  See  Niceron  : 
Mc'moires,  Tom.  XL.  p.  294. 

CLERGY,  Benefit  of,  a  mediaeval  custom  by 
which  accused  persons  who  could  read  Latin 
could  claim  the  privilege  of  being  tried  in  the 
bishop's  court.  Originally  such  "clerks"  were 
really  ecclesiastics ;  but  laymen  who  had  th& 
knowledge  claimed  the  privilege,  to  the  gre.it  im- 
pediment, and,  in  many  cases,  the  actual  mockery, 
of  justice.  The  struggle  between  the  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  authorities  over  this  point  resulted 
in  the  common  law  courts  abandoning  the  extreme 
punishment  of  death  assigned  to  some  offences, 
when  the  person  convicted  was  a  "  clerk  "  in  holy 
orders;  but  a  secondary  punishment  was  inflicted. 
For  more  atrocious  offences  this  exemption  was 
not  allowed  :  consequently  offences  were  divided 
into  clergyable  and  unclergyable.  This  exemp- 
tion ultimately  wrought  out  the  reformation  of 
the  entire  criminal  law.  It  became  the  practice 
for  every  criminal  to  claim,  and  to  be  allowed,  the 
benefit  of  clergy;  so  that,  when  a  crime  was  made 
capital,  the  statute  declai'ed  that  its  action  was 
without  "benefit  of  clergy."  The  "benefit  of 
clergy  "  in  cases  of  felony  was  abolished  in  Eng- 
land in  1827.  See  Blackstone's  Commentaries,  iv. 
28. 

CLERGY,  Biblical.  It  may  be  considered  set- 
tled that  there  is  no  order  of  clergy,  in  the  mod- 
ern sense  of  the  term,  in  the  New  Testament; 
i.e.,  there  is  no  class  of  men  mentioned  to  whom 
spiritual  functions  exclusively  belonged.  Every 
believer  is  a  priest  unto  God.  Every  believer  has 
as  much  right  as  anybody  else  to  pray,  to  pi'each, 
to  baptize,  to  administer  communion  (Rom.  v.  2  ; 
Eph.  ii.  19-22,  iii.  12;  1  I'et.  ii.  9;  1  John  ii. 
27;  Rev.  i.  6,  v.  10,  etc.).  Believers  constitute 
the  body  of  Christ  (Eph.  i.  22,  23;  cf.  Col.  i.  IS, 
ii.  19),  and  therefore  have  all  tilings  (1  Cor.  iii. 
21-23).  The  so-called  "power  of  the  keys"  is. 
theirs,  for  it  is  surely  true,  that  whatever  the 
Christian  Chuich  hinds  (declares  to  be  wrong  or 
false)  is  bound  in  heaven,  i.e.,  has  also  the  divine 
condenmation,  and  what  it  looses  (declares  to  be 
right  or  true)  is  loosed  in  heaven.  But  it  does 
not  follow  that  therefore  the  cliu-gy  are  superflu- 
ous. Experience  has  shown  that  certain  persons 
are  by  natural  endowment  better  fitted  for  s[iirit- 
ual  functions  than  others,  and  ahso,  that,  in  the 
Christian  communities,  there  will  lie  leaders  to 
whom  will  gravitate  the  major  part  of  the  vsork. 
The  clerical  order  took  its  rise,  therefore,  in  the 
very  necessity  of  the  case.  Decency,  order,  and 
efficiency  demai\ded  that  certain  persons  should 
make  it  their  business  to  conduct  the  services, 
and  have  the  oversight,  of  the  congregations. 
Without  such  a  class,  the  very  freedom  of  the 
gospel  would  be  defeated.  If  everybody  dis- 
ch.arged  the  spiritual  functions  of  which  they 
were  cajiable,  then  confusion  an<l  anarcliy  would 
result.  In  the  sense  that  "  order  is  Ili'aveu's  first 
law,"  and  that  progress  is  the  object  of  public 
service,  the  spiritual  may  be  said  to  be  of  divine- 
origin. 

But  who  selects  and  installs  the  stewards  of  the- 
divineineans  of  grace?     The  first  servants  and 
instruments  for  the  announciMuent  and  jipbuilding 
of  tlie  gospel  Church  were  the  disciiiles;  and  they  I 
were  clioscn  by  the  Lord,  and  sent  out  with  a  di-  1 


CLERGY. 


499 


CLERGY. 


rect  personal  commission  ;  yet  the  baptism  of  the 
Spirit  on  Pentecost  fell  not  vi]ion  them  exclusively, 
but  u)ion  the  whole  body  of  the  disciples  (Acts  i. 
15,  ii.  1).  The  apostles  founded  the  Church  on 
earth  (1  Cor.  iii.  10  ;  Eph.  ii.  20;  Rev.  xxi.  14)  : 
consequently  they  cannot  have  successors.  The 
foundation  does  ncit  need  relaying.  When  perse- 
cution arose,  the  scattered  t'hurch  did  not  require 
special  commissions  to  sjiread  the  gospel.  It  was 
more  difficult  to  conceal  than  to  tell  the  glad 
tidings.  Thus  the  Church  grew,  and  extended  to 
localities  where  neither  commissioned  apostle  nor 
evangelist  had  ever  gone.  1'he  model  upon  which 
these  congregations  organized  themselves  was  the 
Jewish  synagogue.  It  is  nowhere  said  that  the 
apostles  founded  the  office  of  elders  or  bisliops, 
much  less  that  they  endowed  it  with  their  own 
plenary  power.  In  the  Jewish-Christian  congre- 
gations the  arrangement  grew  up  naturally.  In 
the  heathen-Christian  the  example  of  their  breth- 
ren would  be  decisive.  We  read  of  elders  in  the 
Jerusalem  Cluirch  in  very  early  days  (Acts  xi.  30, 
XV.  12  sqq.),  and  of  the  ordination  of  elders  by  the 
apostles  or  their  juipils  (Acts  xiv.  23;  Tit.  i.  5). 
But  in  every  case  the  congregation  existed  before 
such  ordinations ;  and  the  only  effect  they  had 
was  to  organize  the  congregations  upon  a  firmer 
basis,  and  fit  them  better  for  effective  work. 
The  offices  thus  filled  were  indeed  for  the  benefit 
of  the  Church  (1  Cor.  xiv.  33,  40).  They  were, 
in  a  sense,  necessary  for  the  Church's  existence ; 
but  they  are  not  to  be  put  on  a  par  with  the 
sacraments  as  the  ordinances  of  Chi-ist.  In  the 
beginnings  of  the  Church  the  numerous  necessary 
services  were  performed  by  the  members  in  com- 
mon, according  to  each  one's  natural  ability  and 
supernatural  endowment  (1  Cor.  xii.  4-13,  27-30). 
The  elders  or  bishops  were  merely  the  leaders 
and  guides.  That  they  were  ordained  by  the 
laying-on  of  hands  and  prayer  was  in  imitation 
of  Old-Testament  models.  The  conclusion  of 
the  whole  matter  is,  the  office  in  the  Church  is 
dependent  on  the  means  of  grace,  and  not  the 
means  of  grace  on  the  office.  The  office  is  only 
necessary  to  the  orderly  progress  of  the  Church. 
But  the  means  of  grace  gain  not  a  whit  of  effica- 
cy from  their  administrator.  Baptism,  the  Lord's 
Supper,  preaching,  and  prayer,  like  singing,  and 
taking  up  a  collection  ;  reading  of  the  Scriptures, 
like  reading  of  notices,  —  may  be  jierformed  by 
laymen  with  precisely  the  same  spiritual  effect 
as  if  the  highest  or  the  most  godly  minister  in 
the  land  had  been  the  administrator.  The  source 
of  all  power  is  God.  If  he  see  fit,  he  can  make 
the  lowliest  woman  mightier  to  the  pulling-down 
of  strongholds  than  the  whole  clergy  combined. 
If  God  withhold  his  blessing,  the  whole  clergy  are 
powerless  to  lift  a  finger  for  Christ.      BUEGER. 

Archsological  and  Historical.  1.  Meanhtr/  of 
the  Word.  — The  word  "clergy"  is  derived  from 
K/l?/pof  ('-lot"),  because  the  whole  body  of  believers 
were  the  '•  lot,"  or  inheritance,  of  the  Lord  (1  Pet. 
V.  3).  The  derivation  from  the  choice  of  Mat- 
thias (Acts  i.  2G)  is  inaccurate ;  because,  as  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  the  clergy  were  not  chosen  by  lot. 

2.  The  Clerical  Orders.  — Although,  in  the  New 
Testament,  there  is  no  clergy  in  the  modern  sense 
of  the  term,  very  early  in  church  history  do  we 
find  the  distinction  between  clergy  and  laity. 
The  three  proper  orders  of  bishops,  presbyters, 


and  deacons,  were  called  primi  clericl;  and  the 
low<>r  orders, — the  readers,  singers,  porters  of 
monasteries,  etc. ,  —  inferiorU  loci.  The  monks 
formed  a  third  class  of  religious  persons.  "Cler- 
gyman," or  "clerk,"  in  the  sense  of  a  "scholar," 
or  one  who  could  write,  dates  from  the  eleventh 
century.  "  The  term  reijuhirin  coming  into  use 
when  monachism  was  becoming  regarded  as  're- 
ligion '  (i.e.,  about  the  eighth  century),  the  term 
scciildris  al.so  gradually  lost  its  general  sense  of 
worldly,  and  became  simply  the  antithesis  of 
a  '  regular,'  or  monk.  Clems  rer/ularit  thenceforth 
meant  a  clergyman  who  was  also  a  monk ;  and 
clcnis  sec'ilaris,  a  parish  clergyman,  or  one  who 
kept  a  school,  or  lived  in  any  way  not  under  a 
rule." 

3.  Support  of  the  Clcrejij. — In  the  days  of  per- 
secution the  clergy  derived  their  support  both 
from  the  weekly  offerings  at  the  altar,  and  the 
monthly  to  the  common  treasury  of  each  church. 
When,  however,  the  cessation  of  persecution 
made  it  safe  for  the  Church  to  hold  landed  prop- 
erty, it  came  into  possession  of  it  liy  inheritance 
and  gift,  and  thus  could  depend,  in  i>art,  upon  its 
own  revenues.  Occasionally  the  Christian  em- 
perors gave  large  sums  of  money  for  the  support 
of  the  clergy ;  and  by  Constantine  and  his  suc- 
cessors (except  Jidiau)  they  received  an  allow- 
ance from  the  State.  The  emperors  paid  the 
travelling  expenses  of  the  clergy  coming  to  the 
osoumenical  councils.  Tithes  were  also  collected 
bylaw;  although,  up  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  ■ 
they  were  purely  voluntary. 

4.  Immunities  and  Priviler/cs. — The  clergy  en- 
joyed, under  the  christianized  Roman  Empire  (see 
Justinian,  Code  of),  immunity  from  certain 
taxes,  —  such  as  the  jioll-tax,  the  soldiers'  horses 
tax,  etc.,  —  and  from  the  obligation  to  fill  certain 
public  offices.  They  were  likewise  exempted 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  secidar  courts  in 
respect  of  minor  offences,  —  a  privilege  outra- 
geously abused,  and  converted  into  a  crying 
shame.  In  this  way  "  clerks "  were  punished 
more  lightly  than  laymen  for  the  same  offences. 
Neither  bishops  nor  presbyters  might  be  tortured, 
nor  the  bishops  be  summoned  as  witne.sses,  nor 
sworn  ;  their  simple  word  being  regarded  as  suffi- 
cient. Civil  cases  came  before  the  bishops  as 
magistrates  ;  and  in  criminal  cases  they  appeared 
as  intercessors :  and,  as  they  thus  time  and  time 
again  defended  the  accused,  so  they  came  to  have 
the  legal  defence  of  the  weak  ;  the  churches,  the 
right  of  sanctuary ;  and  the  clergy,  the  censorship 
of  public  morals. 

The  clergy  had  other  immunities  and  privileges 
of  a  more  ecclesiastical  and  private  kind.  Thus 
the  clergy  and  the  laity  enjoyed  the  right  to  elect 
the  bishops.  The  bishops  had  alisolute  authority 
over  their  clergy.  The  Bishop  of  Constantinople 
presided  as  lord  over  sixty  presbyters,  one  hun- 
dred deacons,  forty  deaconesses,  ninety  sub-dea- 
cons, one  hundred  and  ten  readers,  twenty-five 
chanters,  one  hundred  door-keepers,  and  a  guild 
of  eleven  hundred  grave-diggers.  The  Bishop 
of  Alexandria  was  faithfully  and  fanatically' 
served  by  their  ;)ora?/c(/o»)'  (see  title)  to  the  num- 
ber of  six  hundred.  The  Bishop  of  Carthage 
had  five  hundred  clergy  imder  his  authority. 
The  various  provincial  synods  met  twice  a  year 
for  the   free   discussion   of   their  affairs.      The 


CLERGY. 


500 


CLOTHING. 


position  of  bishop  depended,  of  course,  upon  the 
size  of  their  city  or  diocese ;  but  in  any  case  they 
enjoyed  great  influence,  and  received  much  re- 
spect. The  laity,  and  even  the  emperor,  bowed 
the  head  to  the  bishop,  and  liissed  his  hand. 
The  terms  used  in  speaking  of  him  were  very 
honoring,  not  to  say  adulatory:  indeed,  some 
epithets  were  profane.  Thus  he  was  styled 
''  God-beloved,"  "  Most  Holy,"  "  Holy  Lord," "and 
"Most  Blessed  Pope."  His  seat  in  his  cathedral 
was  called  his  throne;  his  vestments  were  very 
rich ;  his  pi-aises  were  sung,  although  the  latter 
practice  was  infrequent. 

Of  the  regulations  respecting  the  clergy,  con- 
tained in  the  Justinian  Code,  and  which  have 
been  enumerated  above,  few  now  remain  in 
force.  The  difference  in  their  present  condi- 
tion in  England  has  been  thus  concisely  put: 
"  Their  judicial  privileges  and  immunities  exist 
no  longer,  except  so  far  as  the  coercive  power 
of  a  bishop's  court  be  regarded  as  a  shadow  of 
them.  Their  pecuniary  privileges  and  immuni- 
ties exist  no  longer;  for  the  grant  made  in  some 
countries  to  the  clergy  from  the  national  ex- 
chequer is  rather  a  substitute  for  estates  confis- 
cated than  a  free  grant  of  love.  Their  official 
privileges  and  immunities  exist  no  longer,  unless 
the  permi-ssion  conceded  to  bishops  to  take  part 
in  national  legislation,  and  tlie  exemption  of  the 
clergy  from  having  to  serve  in  tlie  army  or  on 
juries,  be  regarded  as  the  equivalents  of  the 
nonors  and  immunities  bestowed  by  the  Cnesars 
with  so  ungrudging  a  hand."  It  is  the  American 
idea  very  widely  to  separate  Church  and  State; 
and  no  one  who  reads  history  with  open  eyes  has 
aught  but  regret  that  the  State  ever  undertook 
to  coddle  the  Church,  or  the  Church  to  rule  the 
State.  The  State  transcends  her  sphere  when 
she  attempts  to  regulate  the  Church. 

y.  Tltoite  Eligible  to  Orders.  —  So  long  as  the 
Church  was  oppressed,  comparatively  few  un- 
wortliy  persons  desired  hi^r  offices ;  but,  when  she 
became  the  object  of  the  liberality  and  care  of 
the  State,  worklly  men  pressed  into  her  service. 
Hence  regulation  was  necessary.  It  was  decreed 
that  no  more  ]iersons  should  be  ordained  than 
were  needed  for  the  service  of  each  church. 
Among  those  ineligible  to  orders  were  soldic^rs, 
slaves,  comedians,  tax-gatherers,  those  who  had 
been  married  twice,  pcnsons  of  a  mean  and  ser- 
vile occupation,  those  who  had  performed  public 
penance,  houiicides,  adulterers,  lapsed,  usurers, 
mutilated  or  self-crippled,  clinics  (see  Baptism), 
and  tliose  once  insane.  See  Bincjiia.m  :  Ori(/. 
Ecd.  lib.  4. 

C.  Clerical  Houses.  —  It  was  very  common  in 
*arly  times  for  the  clergy  to  live  together,  and 
have  all  things  common.  Leo  IX.  (1048-51) 
ordered  that  cloisters  .should  be  establislied  in 
connection  with  the  churches  for  this  purpose. 

7.  Tlie  pniver  of  the  clergy  was  profiably  at  its 
lieight  in  the  eleventh  century,  wlien  tliey  ab- 
sorbed all  tlie  lejiruing  of  the  time,  and  their 
houses  were  places  of  refuge.  But  their  influence 
was  never  greater  than  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, when,  according  to  Von  llanke,  "  they  sat 
in  tho  councils  of  kings,  and  di8cu.sHed  political 
affairs  from  the  puljiit  in  the  presence  of  the 
■whole  people.  They  directed  schools,  controlled 
1  the  efforts  of  learning,  and  governed  the  whole 


range  of  literature."  Hist,  of  the  Popes  (bk.  vi. 
Introd.) 

See  art.  "  Immunities  and  Privileges  of  the 
Clergy,"  in  Smith  and  Cheethaji  :  Diet,  of 
Christ.  Antifj. ;  also  Bishop,  Celibacy,  Orders, 
Presbyter,  Priest.  On  the  gradual  develop- 
ment of  the  idea  of  clergy  as  distinct  from  laity, 
see  Lightfoot  :  Cnmin.  on  Pliilip/iians,  pp.  :>44 
sqq. ;  and  Hatch:  The  Organization  of  the  Early 
Christian  Cliurclies,  Lect.  V.  111-1:39. 

CLERK  is  derived  from  the  Latin  clericus,  and 
was  originally  the  name  given  to  tliose  in  holy 
orders,  and  is  still  the  legal  name  of  clergymen 
of  the  Church  of  England.  But  afterwards  it 
acquired  a  secondary  meaning,  — a  learned  man, 
or  rather,  one  who  could  read :  but  now  it  is  re- 
stricted (ecclesiastically)  to  the  persons  who  lead 
the  responses  in  the  parish  churches  in  England. 

CLETUS,  one  of  the  first  bishojis  of  Rome. 
It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  he  followed  im- 
mediately after  Linus,  and  whether  he  is  iden- 
tical with  .\nacletus.  See  An.\cletus  and 
Clemens  Romanus. 

CLINIC  BAPTISM  {rlinicijrom  nXivri,  a  "bed") 
meant  in  the  ancient  Church  those  who  received 
baptism  on  the  sick-bed.  Jlost  of  the  Fathers 
considered  such  baptism  valid ;  though  it  was  a 
question  often  raised  whether  it  should  be  re- 
peated or  not,  if  the  sick  recovered.  The  ordina- 
tion of  a  ctinicus  for  the  presbytery  was  objected 
to ;  and  the  synod  of  Neo-Cfesarea  (311)  forbade 
to  ordain  a  clinicus  priest. 

CLOISTER  (from  the  Latin  claustrum,  an  "  en- 
closure ")  meant  originally  simply  the  wall  sur- 
rounding a  monastery,  but  became  gradually 
applied  to  the  whole  establishment,  synonynious 
with  monastery;  as,  for  instance,  in  the  capitula- 
ries of  Charlemagne.  A  little  later  it  acquired 
a  more  special  sense  (now  the  most  generally 
used),  denoting  the  arcades  which  surround  the 
inner  court  of  a  monastery,  and  which  were  used 
by  the  monks  as  places  of  study,  meditation,  and 
recreation. 

CLOTHING  AND  ORNANENTS  OF  THE  HE- 
BREWS. The  collective  name  for  clothes  is  hc- 
yadim,  wliich  were  made  out  of  linen,  wool,  and 
cotton,  although  silk  is  also  mentioned  (Ezek. 
xvi.  10;  Rev.  xviii.  22).  Clothing  prepared 
from  wool  and  linen  was  prohibited  (Lev.  xix. 
19;  Deut.  xxii.  11).  Costly  clothing  was  of  di- 
vers colors  and  of  needlework.  Luxury  in,  and 
imitation  of,  foreign  fashions,  are  often  censured 
(Isa.  iii.  16;  Zeph.  ii.  8).  The  costume  of  both 
sexes  was  very  similar :  there  was  sufficient 
difference,  however,  to  mark  the  sex.  The  arti- 
cles of  clothing  connnon  to  men  and  women 
were:  1.  Tho  under-i/armeni,  which  was  held  to- 
gether by  a  gii'dle,  and  besides  which  a  linen 
shirt  (sadin)  is  sometimes  mentioned.  \  person 
who  luid  only  tliis  under-garinent  on  was  called 
"naked  "  (1  Sam.  xix.  21;  Job.  xxiv.  10;  Isa. 
x.x.  2).  Persons  in  liigh  stations  wore  two  under- 
garments; the  outer  one  being  called  nieV,  a  robo 
(1  Sam.  XV.  27,  xviii.  4,  xxiv.  .0;  Job  i.  20).  A 
Chaldee  costume  was  tho  patlish,  or  mantle  (Pan. 
iii.  21).  2.  The  wi'tr-yaraif'H;,  for  which  diflerent 
expressions  are  given,  and  whicii  was  thrown 
art)und  the  person.  Poor  people  and  travellers 
also  used  the  outer  garment  as  night-clothes. 
Both  se.xes  made  out  of  the  superabundant  folds 


CLOTHING. 


301 


CLUGNY. 


in  front  a  pocket  or  lap.  Priests  alone  wore  a 
kind  of  drawers.  Besides  these  dresses,  women 
wore  veils.  Both  sexes  covered  the  head  with  a 
turban,  made  of  divers  articles,  and  in  diil'erent 
forms  :  hence,  from  its  costliness,  it  is  also  called 
"an  ornament,"  "beauty."  Oloces  were  not  un- 
known ;  yet  they  appear  not  to  have  been  used  as 
a  part  of  tlie  attire,  but  by  workmen  as  a  protec- 
tion of  the  hands  from  injury  and  soiling  (cf. 
Mishna,  Clidbn,  xvi.  6,  xxiv.  10.  xxvii.  ;3).  The 
coverinq:  of  the  feet  were  samld/.t  of  heather  or 
wood,  bound  to  the  foot  with  thongs :  they  were 
dispensed  with  indoors,  and  put  on  wdjcn  leaving 
the  liouse.  On  entering  of  sacred  places  the 
sandals  were  cast  off. 

Rending  the  clothes  was  a  sign  of  nervous  irri- 
tation and  of  mourning.  Only  the  high  priest 
was  forbidden  to  rend  his  garment.  Lepers  al.so 
had  to  rend  their  clothes.  In  times  of  distress 
and  sorrow,  sackcloth  (of  coarse  stuff)  was  worn. 
Prophets  also  used  tins  kind  of  habiliments  to 
express  their  sorrow  over  the  sins  of  the  people. 
On  solemn  occasions,  however,  the  Israelites  used 
so-called  state  dresses.  Kings  and  nobles  had  a 
goodly  wardrobe,  which  was  superintended  by 
the  keeper  of  the  clothes  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  22). 
Such  costly  garments  were  also  used  as  presents 
(Gen.  xlv.  22;  Esth.  iv.  4,  vi.  8,  11).  Persons 
changed  their  clothes  for  religious  reasons  wdien 
they  had  become  ceremonially  unclean;  and  those 
in  eminent  stations,  and  females,  anointed  and 
perfumed  their  garments  (Ps.  xlv.  9;  Cant.  iv. 
11).  Public  reverence  and  homage  toward  the 
monarch  consisted  in  spreading  the  garments 
along  the  way;  and  the  ribbon  of  blue  attached 
to  the  outer  garments  was  a  sign  of  piety,  espe- 
cially of  Pharisaic  piety,  the  longer  these  ribbons 
were.  To  shake  the  garment  was  a  sign  of  ab- 
horrence (Acts  xviii.  G),  and  to  exchange  it  with 
another,  a  sign  of  friendship  (1  Sam.  xviii.  4). 
A  person  elevated  to  a  post  of  honor  was  solemnly 
invested  with  the  clothes  of  his  office  (Gen.  xli. 
42),  and  it  was  regarded  as  a  disgrace  when  the 
clothes  were  half  cut  oH. 

As  for  the  oriiamenis,  they  were  especially  com- 
mon to  the  female  sex,  although  both  sexes  wore 
bracelets  (2  Sam.  i.  10;  Num.  xxxi.  00).  Be- 
sides, we  find  ear-rings,  which  (according  to  Job 
xii.  11)  were  also  worn  by  men.  So-called  ear- 
peiiclaiils  (Judg.  viii.  26;  Isa.  iii.  19)  were  also 
attached  to  the  ear-rings.  Other  ornaments  were 
the  ncise-rinr/a,  made  of  precious  metal  or  ivory; 
the  slqnet,  which  was  suspended  by  a  string;  neck- 
laces formed  of  perforated  gold  drops  strung  to- 
gether ;  to  which  must  be  added  the  anl^lets,  an 
especial  ornament  of  the  women,  which  were 
connected  with  step-chains  to  announce  their  com- 
ing, and  to  either  attract  or  chase  away  the  oppo- 
site sex.  LEYREIt. 

CLOTHING  AND  INSIGNIA  OF  THE  CHRIS- 
TIAN CLERGY.     See  Vkstmknts. 

CLOVIS  (Cludoecus,  Chlodovechus,  Ludovi- 
cus,  Ludwig,  Louis),  King  of  the  Franks  481- 
511;  defeated  Syagrius  in  48G ;  extended  his 
dominion  from  tlie  Somme  to  the  Seine,  and 
fixed  his  residence  at  Soissons.  In  402  he  mar- 
ried Clotilda,  a  Burgundian  princess,  a  Christian 
and  a  Catholic;  and  a  happy  incident,  turning 
■ihe  battle  of  Zulpich  to  his  advantage,  induced 
him  to  embrace  Christianity,  together  with  the 


greater  part  of  his  warriors  and  subjects.  It  is 
related,  that,  when  he  heard  the  story  of  the 
crucifixion  of  Christ,  he  exclaimed,  "  Would  I 
ha<l  been  th(!re  with  my  valiant  FraidiS  to  avenge 
him!"  He  was  baptized  upon  Christnuis  Day, 
406.  This  event  contributed  very  much  to  liriiig 
the  Teutonic  races  in  closer  connection  witli  the  f 
Christian  Church  and  Roman  civilization;  and  | 
the  circumstance  that  he  b(.'came  a  Catholic,  while 
the  princes  of  Burgundy  ami  of  the  Visigothic 
realm  in  Southern  France  were  Arians,  exercised 
also  a  considerable  injluence  on  the  development 
of  the  Roman  Church.  Partly  from  political, 
and  partly  from  religious,  reasons,  Clovis  at- 
tacked the  Visigothic  king,  Alaric  II.,  defeated 
him,  and  extended  the  boundary  of  the  Frankish 
Empire  to  Bordeaux.  The  principal  source  to 
his  life  is  (riiKGORY  OF  TouHs:  Ilisloria  Fran- 
corum,  Jl.  27-4:'i.  See  Juxgii.vns:  Oesrlddite  der 
frfinkisclien  Klinige  Childerich  und  Cldodovech, 
Gottingen,  18.57. 

CLUGNY.  Towards  the  end  of  the  nintli  cen- 
tury, monastic  life  had  sunk  very  low  in  France, 
partly  because  the  monasteries  had  grown  weal- 
tiiy  and  were  badly  governed,  aud  partly  on  ac- 
count of  the  uncertainty  which  prevailed  in  all 
public  life.  Duke  AVilliam  of  Aquitania,  called 
the  Pious,  thought  to  save  nionasticism  by  reform- 
ing it.  In  910  he  founded  a  new  mor,aster3-  at 
Clugny,  Chiniacum  in  Burgundy,  endowed  it  well, 
and  placed  at  its  head  Berno,  a  descendant  of  the 
ruling  fannly  of  Burgundy,  and  Abbot  of  Beaume 
in  the  diocese  of  Dijon.  Berno  enforced  the 
strictest  observance  of  the  rules  of  St.  Benedict; 
and  this  severity  struck  a  rich  vein  of  .sympathy 
in  the  time.  The  monastery  immediately  filled 
up  with  monks.  Under  his  successor  Odo  (927-  , 
941)  seventeen  other  monasteries  joined  the  con-  ' 
gregation  of  Clugny;  and  the  success  of  the 
establishment  continued  increasing  under  Ay- 
mardus  (941-948),  Mayolus  (948-994),  and  Odilo 
(994-1048).  Clugny  became  the  reformer,  not 
only  of  the  order  of  St.  Benedict,  but  of  monas- 
tic life  in  general.  Its  rules,  Consuetudines  Clu- 
niaccnses,  first  collected  in  the  beginning  of  the 
eleventh  century  by  the  monk  Bernard  (IIerr- 
GOTT  :  Veins  Disciplina  JSIonastica,  Paris,  172G), 
then  in  1070  by  the  monk  Ulric  (D'Achery  : 
Spicilegium,  T.  I.),  and  finally  by  Petrus  Venera- 
bilis  (Bibiioth.  Cluniacen.,  p.  1353),  were  generally 
adopted  ;  while  the  popes  vied  with  each  other  in 
conferring  new  privileges  on  the  establishment. 
Its  abbots  bore  the  title  of  archiahhales.  Alexander 
II.  decreed  that  no  bishop  or  other  prelate  could 
lay  the  ban  upon  the  place.  Urban  II.  gave  the 
abbot  episcop.al  emblems,  and  exempted  the  mon- 
astery aud  its  estates  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Bishop  of  Macon.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
eleventh  century  three  popes  —  Gregory  VII., 
Urban  II.,  and  Paschalis  II. — issued  from  the 
congregation.  The  monastery  itself  was  the 
largest  in  Christendom.  In  1245  it  received  at 
one  time  Pope  Innocent  IV.  and  the  French  king, 
with  their  whole  retinue.  Its  church  was  one  of 
the  most  magnificent  built  during  the  middle 
ages,  ornamented  with  wall  and  glass  pictures, 
and  embroidered  tapestries,  and  stocked  with 
furniture  of  gold  and  bronze. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  the 
discipline  slackened;  and  the  establishment  wa» 


COADJUTOR. 


502 


COBHAM. 


impoverished  during  the  incompetent  rule  of 
Pontius.  He  finally  abdicated,  and  went  on  a 
pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Laud;  but  on  his  return 
he  fell  upon  the  monastery,  and  sacked  it.  Under 
Petrus  "S'enerabilis  it  rose  again.  The  number 
of  monks  increased  from  two  hundred  to  four 
hundred  and  sixty;  and  three  hundred  and  four- 
teen abbeys  belonged  to  the  congregation ;  but 
the  improvement  was  only  temporary.  The  fur- 
ther history  of  Clugny  is  a  steady  decline.  The 
abbot  lost  his  power.  In  order  to  defend  itself 
against  the  counts  of  Cliulons,  Clugny  invoked 
the  protection  of  the  French  king,  and  the  mon- 
astery was  surrounded  with  walls,  and  trans- 
formed into  a  fortress.  Both  the  popes  and  the 
French  kings  interfered  in  the  election  of  abbots. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  of- 
fice became  a  commeudam  in  the  House  of  Guise. 
In  1714  a  royal  ordinance  placed  the  establishment 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Macon. 
The  internal  decay,  ll0we^■er,  was  still  worse.  In 
vain  Abbot  Yvo  of  Vergy  (1209)  founded  the 
College  de  Clugny  at  Paris  in  order  to  encourage 
studies  and  literary  pursuits  among  the  monks. 
In  vain  several  abbots  tried  to  introduce  reforms, 
or  at  least  to  better  the  discipline.  The  whole 
result  was  a  split  in  the  order  between  the  old 
Cluniacenses  and  the  Keformates,  which  gave  rise 
to  much  haggling,  and  even  scandal.  Tlie  whole 
organization  was  in  a  state  of  dissolution  when 
the  Constituent  Assembly  (1790)  confiscated  the 
jiroperty,  and  sold  the  church  and  the  buildings 
to  tlie  city.  The  church  was  broken  down.  The 
last  abbot.  Cardinal  Dominique  de  la  Rochefou- 
cauld, whose  rare  visits  to  Clugny  had  been 
marked  by  drinking-bouts  and  lascivious  festivi- 
tit:s,  died  in  1800.  See  BiUiolh.  Cluniacen.,  Paris, 
161-1;  LoR.WN :  Essai  Ilistoriijue  su?-  I'Ahbaye  de 
Clur/ni/,  Dijon.  1839,  which  book,  however,  is  full 
of  circumlocution  and  bombast.      C.  SCnMIDT. 

COADJUTOR  is  the  assistant  of  au  ecclesias- 
tic who  by  sickness  or  age  is  prevented  from 
fulfilling  the  duties  of  liis  office,  and  may  be  ap- 
pointed temporarily  or  perp(^tually ;  in  the  latter 
case  with  or  without  right  of  succession.  Gen- 
erally, however,  the  name  is  applied  only  to  the 
assistant  of  a  bishop.  According  to  an  old  canon 
no  successor  shall  oe  appointed  as  long  as  the 
bishop  himself  is  alive  (c.  5,  6,  Can.  VII.  qu.  I. 
[Cyprian,  a.  252],  c.  3,  4,  Can.  VIII.  tpi.  1.  [Cohc. 
Antiuchcn.  a.  3.32,  c.  23])  ;  and  in  case  of  his  being 
disabled  the  neighboring  bishops  shall  come  to 
Ills  aid,  or  a  ilitpcnsalor,  inlercc.ssoi;  intervenUir, 
shall  be  appoirted  (c.  1,  Can.  VII.  qit.  I.  [Grajor. 
I.  o.  GOl]).  .Such  appointments  were  originally 
made  by  the  provincial  synods,  though  with  the 
consent  of  the  Pope;  but,  later  on,  the  Pope  re- 
served this  cau.ia  epiicopalis,  like  all  cuu-nc  majores, 
for  his  own  decision  (c.  13,  14,  ell.  c.  17  eod. 
[Zacharias  ml  Bonifacium  a.  7 18] ;  c.  5,  C,  X.  de 
rlerico  (eijrotantc  [III.  0],  [Innocent.  HI.  a.  1204; 
llonorius  III];  <•<(/>.  tin.  tie  clurico  tegrot.  in  VI. 
[III.  5],  [Bonif.  VIII.  a.  1298]).  The  old  princi- 
ple, ne  in  una  urhc  duo  .tint  cpb!Cuj>i  {Cane.  Nicicn. 
a.  325  c.  8),  was  i)re.served,  at  least  formally,  by 
consecrating  the  coadjutor  on  the  title  of  some 
other  cliurch.  The  Council  of  Trent  further 
decnreil  (.w;s.<.  XXV.  cap.  7,  de  njhrni.)  that 
coadjutores  should  be  appointed  at  cathedral 
churches  and  inouasteries  only  in  casus  of  abso- 


lute necessity,  and  that  they  should  never  acquire 
the  right  of  succession,  except  after  a  careful  in- 
vestigation of  all  circumstances  by  the  Pope. 

Lit.  —  OvERBEUG  :  Dii:s.  de  Ela-iionibus  Co- 
adjutorum  Episcopalium,  Miiuster,  1780 ;  Kohlek  : 
Qiioisl.  inaug.  de  Coadjatorihus  in  Germatiia,  May- 
euce,  1787.  For  the  famous  election  of  Dalberg 
as  coadjutor  in  Mayence  see  Mejer  :  Zur  riiin- 
deutschen  Frage,  1,  110.  For  the  election  of  Car- 
dinal (xeissel  as  coadjutor  in  Cologne  see  Held  : 
Das  Rechl  zur  Aufstellung  eines  Koadjutors,  Mu- 
nich, 1848.  "         (H.  F.  JACOBSOX)  MEJER. 

COBB,  Sylvanus,  D.D.,  a  Universalist  minis- 
ter; b.  at  Norway,  Me.,  July,  1799  ;  wrote  a  Com- 
mentary on  the  New  Testament,  and  other  works, 
and  was  editor  of  a  denominational  paper  for 
almost  twenty  years;  d.  in  East  Boston,  Mass., 
Oct.  31,  1800. 

COBHAM,  Lord  (Sir  John  Oldcastle),  a  promi- 
nent supporter  of  the  Lollards ;  b.  in  Hereford- 
shire about  1300 ;  martyred  at  London,  Dec.  25, 
1417.  He  married  about  1408  Joanne  (whose 
fourth  husband  he  was,  and  who  married  again 
after  his  decease),  grand-daughter  of  Baron  Cob- 
ham,  and  by  right  of  his  w'ife's  title  sat  in  the 
House  of  Lords.  He  was  a  brave  soldier,  an 
able  statesman,  a  faithful  friend.  He  was  called 
the  ''good  Lord  Cobham."  He  seems  to  have 
been  early  draN\n  toward  the  Lollards  (see  title), 
and  to  have  freely  used  his  wealth  in  defence  and 
propagation  of  their  doctrines ;  while  his  castle 
sheltered  many  a  wandering  Lollard  preacher, 
to  whose  ministrations  he  listened  with  delight. 
His  interest  may  have  been  at  the  start  partly 
political;  but  at  all  events  it  was  profound.  He 
employed  John  Purvey,  Wiclif's  companion  anil 
fellow  Bible-translator,  to  write  books,  and  had 
Wiclif's  treati.ses  copied  and  distributed.  In 
1391  he  delivered  a  speech  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons against  the  papal  political  despotism,  wiiich 
had  the  practical  effect  of  leading  to  a  law  which 
forbade  the  publication  of  excommunications 
issued  by  the  Pope.  In  1395  he  w'rote  a  book  in 
prose  and  poetry  which  exposed  the  abominations 
of  the  Church.  After  his  marriage  he  was  em- 
ployed in  France  (1412)  to  support  by  English 
arms  the  interest  of  Philip  the  Bold,  Duke  of 
Burgundy.  On  his  return,  his  troubles  began. 
His  bold  stand  on  behalf  of  LoUardism  led  to 
persecution,  from  which  his  rank,  wealth,  and 
popularity  could  not  save  him  ;  and  after  trial 
lie  was  sentenced  to  be  burnt  as  a  "iiernicious 
and  detestable  heretic."  A  respite  of  forty  days 
was,  however,  granted,  perhaps  in  the  hope  that 
he  would  recant.  On  the  night  of  Oct.  27-28, 
1413,  William  Fisher,  a  leather  mereluint,  came 
with  a  number  of  determined  burghers,  and  de- 
livered him.  For  three  montlis  he  lay  concealed 
in  the  city.  Very  probably  the  king  connived 
at  his  escape :  at  all  events,  no  steps  were  taken 
against  him  until  .some  disturbances  on  the  part 
of  the  Lollards  raised  the  rumor  that  Lord  Cob- 
ham  headed  a  conspiracy  against  the  State.  The 
king  issued  a  proclamation  against  him  (Jan.  11, 
1414),  and  set  a  price  of  a  thousand  marks 
(ij(3,220)  ujion  his  head  (an  enormous  amount  in 
those  days),  and  five  hundred  marks  lor  infor- 
mation wliieh  should  lead  to  his  capture.  Lord 
Cobliam  left  liis  hiding-place,  and  lied  to  Wales, 
whero  he  was  discovured  early  iu  1417,  and  iu 


COCCEIUS. 


503 


COCCEIUS. 


the  fall  of  that  year  taken  prisoner.  On  Dec. 
14  he  was  bmught  before  the  Loi'ds  in  Parlia- 
ment assembled,  and  the  proclamation  of  Janu- 
ary, 1414,  read  to  him.  As  he  had  no  defence 
which  was  acceptable,  he  was  sentenced  a  second 
time;  and  on  Christmas  Day  he  was  carried  from 
the  Tower  through  the  city  to  St.  (iiles-in-tiie- 
Fields,  and  there  hung  in  a  horizontal  position  by 
means  of  three  chains,  and  burnt  over  a  fire  kin- 
dled on  the  ground.  He  died  praising  God,  and 
exhorting  the  people  to  follow  Christ. 

See  Tlic  processe  of  Thomas  Arundcll  agaynsl 
lorde  Cobham  [London],  1544;  T.  Gaspey:  Life 
and  Times  of  the  Good  Lord  Cohhaiii,  London, 
1844,  2  vols.;  especially  G.  Lkchlkr:  Jnhauii  von 
Wiclif  Leipzig,  1873,  Huch  III.  c.  2,  iii.  ]ip.  8lM)l. 

COCCEIUS  (Latin  form  of  KOCH),  Johannes, 
b.  in  Bremen,  Aug.  9,  IGU.3 ;  d.  in  Leyden,  Nov. 
4,  1669.  He  pursued  his  theological  .studies  at 
the  University  of  Franeker  in  West  Friesland. 
In  1629  he  became  professor  of  biblical  philology 
in  Bremen,  in  1636  professor  in  Franeker,  in  1650 
professor  of  theology  in  Leyden.  He  laid  down 
the  guiding  exegetical  principle,  that  every  pas- 
sage must  be  interpreted  according  to  its  context, 
and  have  only  that  sense  to  which  the  context 
leads.  He  drew  his  theology  directly  from  the 
Bible,  and  from  it  alone;  and  thus  he  put  him- 
self in  opposition  to  tlie  scholastics  and  the  Car- 
tesians. And  since  the  Bible  is  the  history  of 
redemption,  in  the  form  of  a  covenant  between 
God  and  man  after  the  fall,  he  logically  conceived 
of  the  relation  between  the  parties  before  the  fall 
as  also  a  covenant.  But  this  covenant  is  not,  like 
a  human  one,  an  agreement  for  mutual  sei-vice  : 
I  rather  it  is  one-sided.  The  fundamental  law  of 
every  covenant  of  God  with  men  is,  he  says,  that 
man  is  receiver,  God  giver.  Jlan  was  qualified 
by  his  creation  to  receive  it.  He  was  free,  ra- 
tional, and  holy.  The  first  Covenant  was  "of 
Works."  God  gave  man  the  promise  of  eternal 
felicity,  on  condition  that  man  remained  holy,  as 
he  was  able  to  do.  This  was  his  icork.  But  he 
fell,  and  accordingly  was  cursed.  After  the  fall 
he  was  still  bound  to  perfect  obedience  and  faith. 
God,  however,  who  is  rich  in  mercy,  put  in  place 
of  theCovenantof  Works  the  "Covenantof  Grace," 
upon  precisely  similar  principles.  God  yet  stands 
as  free  giver;  man,  as  willing  receiver.  Cocceius 
shows  tluxt  the  fulfilment  of  the  latter  required 
the  sending  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  in  the  biblical 
way  handles  the  doctrines  of  redemption  under 
nine  divisions,  — -its  purpose  (the  promised  grace,) 
its  mode  (gratuitous),  its  founder  (a  mediator), 
its  means  (faith),  its  recipients  (believers),  its 
cause  (God's  good  pleasure),  its  revelation  (the 
Bible),  the  method  of  its  application  (the  opera- 
tion of  the  Holy  Spirit),  its  ultimate  object  (the 
glory  of  God).  — -The  history  of  the  second  Cove- 
nant falls  into  three  divisions  (economies),  —  the 
unle-lcgal  (the  law  under  the  form  of  conscience, 
the  grace  under  which  the  patriarchal  protevaugel 
manifested  itself,  and  the  kingdom  of  God  existed 
in  the  form  of  the  family),  the  leyal  (the  written 
law,  grace  in  the  form  of  ceremonial  types  and 
prophecy,  the  kingdom  of  God  existed  in  the  na- 
tion), and  the  post-legal  economy  (in  which  Christ 
himself  appeared  as  the  completely  fulfilled  per- 
sonal law,  and  as  the  personal  grace,  as  the  person- 
al word,  and  in  which  the  kingdom  of  God  exists 


in  universal  form).  — The  effects  of  the  Covenant 
of  Grace  are  the  happiness  of  tlio  individual  soul, 
the  conversion  of  pliysical  deatli  from  a  punish- 
ment into  a  deliverance  from  the  body  of  sin, 
and,  lastly,  the  resurrection  of  the  body.  See 
his  Summit  Doclrince  de  Fmlere  el  Testumeiitis  Dei, 
1648,  2d  ed.,  1653. 

The  Federal  theology  of  Cocceius  does  not  rest 
upon  the  doctrine  of  predestination,  as  did  tlie 
teaching  of  the  Protestant  scholastics  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  Man,  he  taught,  was  not  a  ma- 
chine by  which  the  divine  decree  was  carried  out, 
but  a  person  who  received  the  divin('  grace  into 
his  heart,  and  by  it  was  led  unto  perfection.  See 
EuK.vuD  ;  Chrlstliche  Do(jmutik,Sj2b7.  As  was  to 
be  expected,  the  scholastic  school  attacked  him, 
and  called  him  a  heretic.  He  replied  that  "or- 
thodoxy h  la  mode  "  was  the  ruin  of  the  Reformed 
Church,  because  it  prided  itself  upon  its  ortho- 
doxy, and  yet  was  full  of  worldline.ss.  Cocceius 
had  the  spiritually-minded  upon  his  side.  He 
took  the  substantially  pietistic  ground,  that  one 
should  not  listen  to  tho.se  preachers  who  regarded 
the  work  of  teaching  religion  merely  as  a  profes- 
sion. Unhappily  the  controversy  took  a  political 
turn.  The  aristocratic  party  which  had  supported 
Arminius  supported  the  Cocceians ;  the  Oranian 
party,  his  opponents.  At  one  time  a  deeper  split 
than  Arminianism  had  made  threatened  the  Neth- 
erlaud  Church ;  but  by  pacificatory  measures  peace 
was  restored,  and  it  was  established  by  law  that 
one  out  of  every  three  ordinarii  at  each  university 
should  be  a  Cocceian. 

As  an  exegete  Cocceius  is  open  to  the  charge 
of  fancifulness,  but  not  more  so  than  other  stu- 
dents of  prophecy  of  his  day.  His  influence  is 
best  seen  in  his  pupil,  Campeius  Vitringa.  But 
iu  the  history  of  theology  he  plays  a  very  impor- 
tant part,  in  that  he  delivered  the  Reformed 
Church  from  the  tyranny  of  the  scholastic  ortho- 
doxy, and  taught  her  to  give  heed  to  her  true 
character  and  work  as  emphatically  a  Bible 
Church,  and,  as  such,  capable  of  great  theologi- 
cal freedom.  But  he  also  lays  theology  iu  all 
churches  under  great  obligation,  in  that  his  sys- 
tem of  the  covenants  was  the  first  attempt  at  a 
biblical  theology.  He  built  his  system  upon  tlie 
Bible,  and  purposely  arranged  his  theology  under 
the  biblical  categories.  In  this  method  we  per- 
ceive the  influence  of  his  teacher,  Sixtinus  Ama- 
ma,  who  emphasized  the  study  of  the  original 
text,  and  carried  through  the  synod  a  measure 
requiring  all  candidates  in  theology  to  pass  an 
examination  in  Greek  and  Hebrew. 

The  Works  of  Cocceius  and  his  School.  —  He 
wrote,  besides  his  Sitmina  Doctrince,  Summa  Theo- 
logize (2d  ed.,  1665),  which  was  more  conventional 
in  its  use  of  terms,  but  not  less  independent  in 
its  explanations  and  contents.  Among  his  follow- 
ers are  Wilhelm  Momma  and  Hermann  Witsius, 
who  carried  out  the  analogies  between  the  two 
covenants  with  trifling  ingenuity  {De  CEconomia 
Foederum  Dei  cum  Hominibus,  Leeuwarden,  1685); 
but  far  more  important  is  Franz  Burmaun  (Si/nop- 
sis  Theologies  ct  Speciotim  (Economiec  Foederum 
Del,  Utrecht,  1671),  who,  in  general,  follows  his 
teacher  in  his  arrangement  of  his  material,  but 
enters  into  the  discussion  of  all  the  scholastic 
questions  which  had  genuine  value,  and  embodies 
the  results  of  the  Federal  theology  in  a  perma- 


COCHL^US. 


504 


CCELESYRIA. 


nent  and  lasting  form:  lastly,  Yau  Til  {Compen- 
dium Thcolo(jice,  Bern,  1703  ;  Theo!of/i(e  utriusque 
Compendium,  Leyden,  1704)  set  forth  a  theology 
which  liad  its  roots  in  both  the  Federal  and  Car- 
tesian schools. 

The  complete  works  of  Cocceius  appeared  in 
twelve  volumes  folio,  includins:  two  volumes  An- 
ektola  (Opera  Omnia,  Theolnfjica,  Exegetica,  Di- 
daclica,  Polcmica.  Philolofiica,  3d  ed.,  auclior  et 
emcndalior,  Amsterdam,  1701).  They  include 
commentaries  on  nearly  the  whole  Bible,  essays, 
controversial  and  expository  (among  them  one 
on  the  sabbath  as  a  Jewish  institution  not  bind- 
ing upon  the  Christian  Church,  although  he  fa- 
vored its  observance  on  the  ground  of  expediency), 
sermons,  a  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  lexicon  compiled 
at  the  request  of  a  Brandenburg  princess,  and 
letters.  A.  EBR.\RD. 

COCHL/EUS  (JoJuinn  Doheneck),  b.  at  AYendel- 
stein,  near  Xuremberg.  1170  ;  d.  at  Breslau,  155i  ; 
was  successively  rector  of  tlie  Latin  School  in 
Nuremberg,  dean  at  the  Church  of  Our  Lady  at 
Frankfort,  secretary  to  Duke  (Jeorgof  Saxony  at 
Dresden,  cauon  at  Breslau,  etc.,  and  led  a  very 
erratic  life  as  one  of  the  busiest  and  most  pas- 
sionate adversaries  of  the  Reformation.  lie  was 
present  at  the  diets  of  "Worms,  Katisbon,  and 
Augsburg,  and  at  the  disputation  of  Ratisbon. 
But  as  a  debater  he  was  too  excited  and  violent. 
He  had  his  force  as  a  pamphleteer  always  ready, 
and  well-nigh  inexhaustible.  He  is,  if  not  the 
inventor,  at  all  events  one  of  the  first  representa- 
tives, of  the  view  according  to  which  the  Refor- 
mation was  nothing  but  the  stupid  result  of  an 
incidental  jealou.sy  between  the  Dominican  and 
Augustinian  orders;  and  in  his  Commentaria  de 
Aclis  el  Scriplis  Ml.  Lutheri  and  Ilislorin  Hiissi- 
larum  he  derives  with  unexampled  cynicism  tlie 
causes  of  the  grandest  spiritual  movements  from 
tlie  meanest  personal  circumstances.  See  UitB. 
DE  Weluige-Cuf.mer  :  De  Joannis  Cochkei  Vi(a 
et  Scrijitis,  iliinster,  1S(j5;  Carl  Otto:  Johannes 
CocldcEiui,  Breslau,  1874. 

C^LESTIUS,  a  native  of  Lelaud;  studied 
law !  became  a  monk,  and  from  405  to  431  is  often 
mentioned  in  tlie  liistory  of  the  Church  as  the 
friend  and  collaborator  of  Pelagius.  lie  was 
condemned  by  a  council  of  Carthage  (412),  but 
was  soon  after  ordained  a  priest  at  Epnesus, 
and  acquited  of  heresy  by  Zosimus  in  417.  In 
the  following  year,  however,  he  was  condemned 
by  a  .synod  in  Koine ;  and,  after  the  condemna- 
tion of  I'elagianism  by  the  Council  of  Ephesus 
(431),  he  is  not  heard  of  any  more.  (^f  his 
writings  (a  Confessio  Fidei,  addressed  to  Zosimus, 
and  some  epistle.s)  only  fragments  are  still  extant 
in  t\n:  writings  of  Augustine  and  Jerome. 

CSLESYRIA.  According  to  tlie  early  classic 
geographers,  Ccelesyria  included  only  the  long 
valley  which  separati-s  the  par.allel  ranges  of 
Lebanon  and  Anti-Lelianon.  Suhsequently,  how-- 
ever,  the  name  came  to  have  a  wider  application, 
including  not  only  the  region  surrounding  Damas- 
cus, but  also  a  large  |>art  of  the  country  east  of 
the  Jordan.  Ca-le.Hyria  thus  expanded  con- 
tained nearly  all  the  cities  of  Decapolis  within 
its  limits;  and.  though  tlie  name  does  not  occur 
in  the  Bible,  it  is  frequently  mentioned  in  tlie 
Ai)Ocryphal  books  (1  Ksd.  ii.  24,  27,  iv.  48,  vi.  2t) ; 
1  Mace.  X.  69;  2  Mace.  xiv.  3,  5,  8),  and  by 


Josephus  {Ant.  XIII.  4,  2;  XIV.  0,5;  11,4)  and 
other  writers.  It  has  a  legendary  history  of  its 
own,  attested  by  curious  monuments.  At  Iverak 
Xuh  is  shown  the  grave  of  Xoah,  one  hundred  and 
thirty-two  feet  long;  and  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  plain  is  the  tomb  of  Xeby  Shit,  the  prophet 
Seth  ;  wliile  the  temples  at  Ba'albek  have  aston-> 
ished  the  world  for  many  centuries.  The  mas- 
sive foundations  upon  which  they  were  built  by 
Greek  and  Roman  architects  must  have  been 
placed  there  at  a  time  too  remote  for  even  tradi- 
tion to  reach;  and  long  before  "Toi,  King  of 
Ilamath,"  sent  presents  to  David  (2  Sam.  viii.  0- 
11),  the  Ilittites  of  that  region  were  sufficiently 
powerful  to  contend  with  the  Pharaohs  of  Egypt 
for  supremacy  in  the  Valley  of  Ccelesyria,  or 
Hollow-Syria,  as  its  original  Greek  name  signi- 
fies. 

That  remarkable  valley,  now  called  el  Boka'a, 
—  "the  cleft,"  —  extends  to  the  north-east,  from 
Jubb  Jenin,  under  Ilermon,  for  about  one  hundred 
miles,  having  an  average  width  of  seven  miles. 
Its  surface  as  seen  from  above  seems  to  be  quite 
level ;  but  this  appearance  is  decepitive.  It  is, 
in  fact,  an  elevated  plateau  rising  gradually 
northward,  until,  at  the  north-east  end,  it  is  nearly 
four  tliousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, — 
a  cold,  rugged,  and  barren  region. 

The  northern  end  of  the  BCika'a  is  drained  by 
the  Orontes,  called  el*  Asy,  —  "  the  rebellious,"  — 
because  its  course  is  northward,  contrary  to  the 
other  rivers  of  Syria.  Its  most  southern  source 
is  at  Lebweh,  the  Libo  of  the  ancients.  By 
means  of  canals  the  water  is  conducted  far  away 
to  the  north,  to  irrigate  fields  of  Indian  corn, 
the  chief  product  cultivated  along  the  numerous 
streams  that  form  the  Orontes.  The  main  per- 
mauent  source  of  that  river  is  the  copious  foun- 
tain that  flows  out  from  under  the  clift's  of 
Lebanon,  near  Mughar.at  er  Ruhib.  I'a.ssing 
below  Kamu"a  Iltirmul,  a  unique  monument 
with  hunting-scenes  carved  upon  its  four  side.s, 
the  Orontes  irrigates  the  extensive  corn-growing 
plains  of  the  Biblical  Riblah  (2  Kings  xxv.  6), 
and  the  equally  fertile  region  around  the  small 
Lake  of  Kedes.  The  shapeless  ruins  near  Tell 
Xeby  Jliiidau  may  mark  the  site  of  the  chief 
city  of  the  Hittite  Kingdom.  Issuing  from  the 
artificial  L.'ike  of  Kedes,  six  miles  soulli  of  Hums, 
the  river  pursues  its  winiiing  course  through  the 
land  of  Ilamath,  past  the  extensive  ruins  of 
Apamea,  and  along  the  eastern  foot-hills  of  the 
Nusairlyeh  Mountains,  where  it  turns  westward, 
and,  passing  by  Antioch,  it  enters  the  sea  near 
the  base  of  Mount  Casius. 

The  central  and  southern  portions  of  the  BCika'a 
are  comparatively  level,  and  their  fertility  and 
beauty  are  entirely  due  to  the  abundance  of 
water.  Perennial  streams  descend  from  the 
mountains  on  either  side,  and  coi>ious  fountains 
rise  in  the  i)lain  itself,  in  such  positions  that  tho 
water  can  be  conducted  to  all  jiarts  of  its  sur- 
face. Looking  down  u]ion  the  Bfikfi'a  from  any 
one  of  the  hundrcil  stan<l-puints  on  Lebanon  and 
Hermon,  the  beholder  is  charnu^d  with  the  check- 
ered and  endlessly-varied  exjianso  of  blending 
wheat-fields,  green  or  golden,  recently-))louglied 
laiiil,  black  or  reddish-brown,  and  broad  belts  of 
<liin-coloriMl  fallow-ground,  re.acliing  to  and  climb- 
ing up  the  gray  foot-hills  of  the  mountains. 


CCELICOL^. 


505 


COLERIDGE. 


Through  the  centre  of  the  UnUa'a  inlanders 
the  Litany,  the  ancient  Lcontcs,  one.  of  tlie  lonfj- 
est  and  lar^fst  rivers  of  Syria.  It  rises  at  'Ain 
es  Sultan,  above  Ka'albek,  and  is  joine(l,  as  it  flows 
southward,  by  many  tributaries,  anioiii;st  them 
el  Berdilny,  ^vhich  descends  from  snow-crowned 
Lelianon,  and  the  larsje  remittin.tj  fountain  near 
'Anjar,  that  flows  out  from  the  very  roots  of  Anti- 
Lebanon,  near  the  site  of  the  ancient  Chalcis. 
Below  Jubb  Jenln  the  Litany  enters  a  profound 
gorge,  along  which  it  has  worn  its  way  througli 
Southern  Lebanon  to  the  sea,  near  Tyre. 

Ccelesyria,  celebrated  in  ancient  times  for  its 
fertility,  and  its  numerous  and  warlike  inhabit- 
ants, largo  cities,  and  magnificent  temples,  is  now 
merely  an  insignificant  district  of  tlie  Turkish 
Empire.  W.  M.  THOMSON. 

CCELIC0L;E,  the  name  of  a  Jewisli  sect  first 
mentioned  in  4(18,  in  a  decree  of  the  Emperor 
Honorius.  ,()f  their  doctrines  the  decree  says 
nothing :  it  only  forbids  their  meetings.  After- 
wards Honorius  had  occasion  to  issue  another 
decree,  especially  against  the  Coelicolre,  enjoining 
either  to  embrace  Christianity  within  a  year,  or 
to  suffer  the  penalty  of  heresy.  Tlieir  chief 
crime  was,  that  they  had  seduced  some  Christians 
to  embrace  Judaism;  and  this  crime  was  con- 
sidered as  treason,  and  punished  in  the  severest 
possible  manner.  Augustine  says  (Ep.  IGo)  that 
they  were  numerous  in  Africa,  and  used  a  pecu- 
liar form  of  baptism  ;  but  it  is  not  correct  to  infer 
from  this  fact  that  they  had  borrowed  their  cus- 
tom of  baptizing  from  the  Christians,  as  they  might 
have  taken  it  from  the  Jewish  baptism  of  jirose- 
lytes.  Like  the  Jews,  they  often  used  the  word 
"  Heaven"  instead  of  "Ciod  :  "  hence  their  name 
of  "Heaven-worshippiers."  See  Sciimid:  Historia 
Ccelicolarum,  Helmstiidt,  1794.  HERZOG. 

CCZNOBITES.     See  Monasticism. 

COFFIN.     See  Buri.\l. 

COFFIN,  Charles,  a  hymnist,  b.  at  Buzancy, 
1676 ;  d.  in  Paris,  1749.  He  succeeded  M.  Rol- 
lin,  the  famous  historian,  in  1712,  as  principal 
of  the  College  of  Dormans-Beauvais,  University 
of  Paris,  and  held  th.at  position  with  distin- 
guished success  until  his  death.  He  was  chosen 
rector  of  the  university  in  1718.  Several  of  the 
Latin  hymns  which  he  contributed  to  the  Paris 
Breviary  are  found  in  our  collections  in  John 
Mason  Neale's  and  John  Chandler's  renderings. 
In  the  original  they  are  much  commended  for 
purity  of  style  and  felicity  of  expression.  His 
works  appeared  in  2  vols.,  Paris,  1755,  with 
prefatory  ''filoge  "  by  Lenglet. 

COLARBASIANS.     See  Gnosticism. 

COKE,  Thomas,  D.C.L.,  first  superintendent 
of  the  Methodist-Episcopal  Church;  b.  at  Brecon. 
South  Wales,  Sept.  9,  1747  ;  d.  at  sea,  on  a 
voyage  to  Ceylon,  May  2,  lb]  4.  He  was  a  gen- 
tleman commoner  of  Jesus  College,  Oxford,  and 
curate  of  South  Petherton,  .Somersetshire ;  but 
in  the  latter  place  he  came  under  Metliodist  in- 
fluences, and  in  1777  joined  Wesley,  to  whom 
he  was  "a  right  hand,"  and  who  in  17S1,  ,%t 
Bristol,  set  him  .apart  as  a  superintendent  of  the 
work  among  the  .Methodists  in  America.  "Wes- 
ley meant  the  ceremony,"  says  Mr.  Tyerraan, 
"to  be  a  mere  formality  likely  to  recommend  his 
delegate  to  the  favor  of  the  Methodists  in  Ameri- 
ca: Coke,  in  his  ambition,  wished  and  intended 


it  to  lie  considered  as  an  ordination  to  a  bishop- 
ric "  {Life  of  TFcs-Zcy,  vol.  HL  p.  4.34).  Coke 
and  two  elders  arrived  in  America,  Nov.  3,  17.S4, 
1  held  a  conference  at  Baltimore,  Dec.  24,  at  which 
I  he  onliiined  Francis  .\sbury  to  the  office  of 
I  superintendent,  and  with  characteristic  energy 
discharged  his  duties  in  this  country.  But  he 
by  no  means  confined  his  attention  to  .\merica. 
On  the  contrary,  he  traver.sed  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  crossed  the  ocean  eighteen  times  at  his 
own  expense,  founded  a  mission  among  the 
negroes  in  the  West  Indies,  and  one  also  in  the 
East  Indies,  and  it  w.^s  upon  his  voyage  thither 
that  he  died.  "  During  his  life  it  was  not  deemed 
necessary  to  organize  a  missionary  society  among 
the  Wesley.ans,  for  he  embodied  that  great  in- 
terest in  his  own  person."  Coke  was  not  only  a 
missionary  and  org.anizer,  he  was  also  an  author. 
His  principal  writings  are  (in  connection  with 
Henry  Moore)  Life  of  John  Wesley  (London, 
1792),  Coiiimentari/  on  the  Old  and  New  Tealamentit 
(finished  1807,  6  vols.),  Ilislon/  of  the  ITcs/  Imlies 
(1808,  3  vols.).  See  S.  Dukw  :  Life  of  Thomas 
CW-e,  N.Y.,  1837;  R.  Stkki.:  Burnimj  and  Shin- 
ing Liijlits,  London.  1864. 

COLeRIDGE,  Samuel  Taylor,  poet,  critic,  phi- 
losopher, and  theologian ;  b.  at  Ottery  St.  Mary, 
Oct.  21,  1772;  d.  at  Ilighgate,  July  2.5,  1834. 
He  Wivs  the  youngest  child  of  the  Rev.  John 
Coleridge,  vicar  of  Ottery  St.  Mary,  Devonshire, 
and  master  of  the  free  grammar-school  founded 
by  Henry  VIII.  in  that  town.  His  mother, 
whose  maiden  name  was  Ann  Bowdon,  managed 
skilfully  the  large  household  ;  while  his  father, 
a  learned,  guileless,  good  man,  alisent-minded 
and  eccentric,  devoted  himself  to  his  parish  and 
school,  and  to  writing  curious  unsalable  books. 
The  childhood  of  .Samuel  Taylor,  according  to 
his  own  account,  had  in  it  far  more  of  shade 
than  of  sunshine.  Although  his  father  was  very 
fond  of  him,  and  he  was  his  "mother's  darling," 
yet,  for  that  very  reason,  Molly  the  nurse,  who 
idolized  his  brother  Frank,  hated  and  tormented 
him.  He  became  morbid  and  fretful,  never 
played  except  by  himself,  re.ad  incessantly,  never 
had  the  child's  habits,  never  thought  or  spoke 
as  a  child.  The  year  after  his  father's  death, 
which  occurred  in  1781,  Judge  BuUer,  a  friend 
of  the  family,  obtained  for  him  a  presentation 
to  Christ's  Hospital,  London,  of  which  the  noted 
Bowyer  was  then  head  ma.ster.  Here  he  spent 
eight  years,  during  the  first  half  of  which  he 
describes  himself  as  "a  playless  day-dreamer, 
a  helluo  librorutn."  Among  his  school-fellows 
was  Charles  Lamb,  who,  in  one  of  the  Essoi/s  of 
Elia,  has  drawn  a  vivid  picture  of  him  as  "the 
inspired  charity-boy."  In  February,  1791,  he 
entered  at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge.  The  fame 
of  his  genius  and  classical  attainments  had  pre- 
ceded him,  and  raised  high  anticipations  of  his 
university  career,  which  were  by  no  means  real- 
ized, lie  was  studious,  and  a  great  reader,  as 
well  as  brilliant  talker;  but  his  onlj'  college 
honor  w.as  a  gold  medal  for  the  Greek  ode.  In 
November,  1793,  in  a  fit  of  despondencj-,  he  sud- 
denly left  Cambridge  for  London,  where,  under 
the  pressure  of  want,  he  enlisted  as  a  private  in 
the  Fifteenth  Light  Dragoons.  After  serving 
four  months,  lie  was  discharged,  and  went  back 
to  his  college.    About  this  time  he  openly  avow  ed 


COLERIDGE. 


306 


COLERIDGE. 


himseK  a  Unitarian.  He  was  also  full  of  the 
generous  but  wild  enthusiasm  for  liherty  and  the 
rights  of  man,  aroused  by  the  French  Kevolution. 
In  the  summer  of  179i  he  first  met  Robert 
Southey,  with  whom  he  formed  a  close  friendship. 
He  quitted  college  without  taking  a  degree,  and 
devoted  himself  to  literature,  lecturing  also,  and 
preaching  occasionally  in  Unitarian  pulpits.  A 
scheme  to  emigrate  to  America  with  Southey  and 
others,  and  to  establish  on  the  banks  of  the  Sus- 
quehanna a  new  social  order,  called  '■  Pantisoc- 
T.acy,"  perished  in  its  birth.  In  October,  179.5, 
he  married,  at  Bristol,  Sarah  Fricker,  whose  sis- 
ter Edith  soon  after  became  the  wife  of  Southey. 
He  resided  for  a  while  at  Bristol,  or  in  its  vicinitj', 
and  later  at  Nether  Stowey,  near  his  faithful 
friend,  Thomas  Poole.  At  Bristol  he  became 
intimate  with  Mr.  Cottle,  who  in  17.06  published 
his  Junnile  Poems.  Early  in  this  year  he  started 
a  short-lived  miscellany  called  'I'/ie  Watchman. 
In  1798  appeared  at  Bristol  the  famous  Lyrical 
Ballads,  written  jointly  by  himself  and  "Words- 
worth. During  this  period  he  composed  his 
finest  poems.  In  September,  1798,  in  company 
with  '\Vordsworth  and  his  sister,  he  went  to  Ger- 
many, where  lie  passed  fourteen  months,  mostly 
at  Gbttingen,  sup]>orted  by  the  liberality  of 
Thomas  and  Josiah  Wedgewood.  Soon  after 
returning  home,  he  made  his  admirable  transla- 
tion of  Schiller's  Waliensfein,  and  began  to  write 
for  tlie  ]iIorn!n(j  Post.  Later  he  contributed  to 
the  Courier.  In  1801  he  settled  at  Keswick, 
remaining  there  until  1804,  when  he  went  to 
Malta.  Ilere  he  acted  for  a  time  as  secretary  of 
the  governor.  Sir  Alexander  Ball.  At  Itome, 
where  lie  spent  some  months,  he  met  William 
von  Humboldt,  Tieck  the  poet,  and  Allston  the 
painter.  Witli  the  latter  he  formed  a  friendship 
that  lasted  for  life.  In  1806  he  returned  to 
England,  and  settled  again  in  the  lake  country. 
In  ISIO  he  betook  himsi'lf  to  London,  and  for 
several  years  seems  to  have  had  no  certain  dwell- 
ing-place. Tliis  period  was  one  of  severe  suffer- 
ing, triaks,  and  di.sap])ointinent,  relieved,  howevei-, 
by  the  hospitable  kindness  of  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Basil  Montague  and  other  devoted  friends.  In 
April,  1810,  he  became  an  inmate  of  the  family 
of  James  Gillman,  a  surgeon  of  IIighgat>',  near 
London.  The  friendship  and  watchful,  affection- 
ate care  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Gillman  afforded  him 
a  refuge  and  home  during  the  rest  of  his  days; 
and  for  this  .service  their  names  should  be  ever 
held  in  grateful  remembrance.  From  the  time 
he  settled  at  Keswick  in  1801  until  181G,  his  lit- 
erary activity  consisted  largely  in  giving  courses 
of  lectures  in  London  and  Bristol,  and  in  writing 
7'/«'  Fricml,  a  new  (edition  of  whicli,  recast  and 
enlargeil,  ajipeared  in  1818,  witli  a  l>i'autiful 
dedication  to  Mr.  and  .Mrs.  (iillman.  Tlie  happy 
effect  of  liis  life  at  Ilighgate  soon  showed  itself 
also  in  the  Ilii)//rajilii<i  l.itcraria  and  the  Lnif  Ser- 
mons, and,  a  few  years  later,  in  the  Aitls  lo  Refle.c- 
iions  (182.">),  and  Church  ami  Stale  (1830).  After 
Ids  death,  four  volumes  of  his  Literari/  liemains, 
three  volumes  of  Jismi/s  on  his  own  Times,  Confes- 
sions of  a  Imiuirinij  S/iiril,  and  a  fragment  on  The 
Idea  of  Life,  were  publislied.  In  the  retirement 
of  Ills  la.st  years  he  was  resorted  to  a,s  an  oracle 
of  wisdom  by  disciples  and  admirers  from  far 
and  near;  and  aome  of  the  ablest  minds  of  tiic 


next  generation  were   formed  under  his  influ- 
ence. 

It  was  while  at  Highgate  that  Coleridge  at 
last  coiKjuered  the  terrible  habit  of  opium-eating. 
He  had  first  resorted  to  the  fatal  drug  as  a  relief 
from  disease  and  pain ;  but  the  taste  grew  into 
an  insatiable  appetite,  involved  him  in  untold 
miseries,  and  brought  him  to  the  verge  of  ruin. 
While  passing  through  this  desolate  valley  of 
humiliation,  he  took  his  deepest  lessons  in  the 
school  of  Christian  repentance.  "I  feel,"  he 
wrote.  '•  with  an  intensity  unfathomable  by  words, 
my  litter  nothingness,  impiotence,  and  worthless- 
ness  in  and  for  myself."  And  here,  too,  he  learned 
the  infinite  fulness  and  power  of  God's  grace  in 
Christ,  the  Redeemer  of  the  world.  He  died  in 
perfect  peace  on  the  "J.jth  of  July,  1834,  in  the 
sixty-second  year  of  his  age.  The  writer  once 
receiveil  from  the  lips  of  Mrs.  fJillman  a  very 
touching  account  of  his  last  days  on  earth,  and 
also  many  interesting  details  respecting  his  man- 
ner of  life  during  the  eighteen  years  which  he 
passed  at  Highgate.  Her  picture  of  him,  l.iotli 
living  and  dying,  was  that  of  a  man  as  remarka- 
ble for  the  sweetness  of  his  disposition  and  his 
unaffected  piety  and  goodness,  as  for  the  splen- 
dor of  his  intellect.  Shortly  before  his  death  he 
composed  his  own  epitaph,  which  closes  thus :  — 

"  Jlercy,  for  praise;  to  he  forgiven,  lor  fame  — 
He  asked  and  hoped  tlirougli  Christ.    Do  thou  the 
same." 

Coleridge  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men 
of  his  age.  The  annals  of  literature,  indeed, 
hardly  furnish  anotlier  instance  of  such  a  union 
of  poet,  pihilosopher,  and  theologian  in  one  and 
the  same  person.  And,  what  is  specially  note- 
worthy, his  genius  as  a  thinker  blossomed  even 
earlier  than  his  genius  as  a  jioet.  "  Come  back 
into  memory,  like  as  thou  wert  in  the  dayspring 
of  thy  fancies,  with  hope  like  a  fiery  column  be- 
fore thee,  —  the  dark  pillar  not  yet  turned, — 
S.  T.  C,  logician,  metaphysician,  bard!"  (L.\mb). 
The  impression  he  made  upon  his  contemporaries 
is  shown  by  the  testimonies  which  some  of  the 
most  eminent  of  them  have  left  on  record.  Here 
is  that  of  John  Foster:  ••His  mind  contains  an 
astonishing  map  of  all  sorts  of  knowledge;  while 
in  Ills  power  and  manner  of  putting  it  to  use  he 
dis|ilays  more  of  what  we  mean  by  the  term 
'genius  '  than  any  mortal  I  ever  saw,  or  ever  ex- 
pect to  see."  Shortly  after  his  death,  De  Quincey 
si>eaks  of  him  as  "  This  illustrious  man,  the 
largest  and  most  spacious  iuti^Uect,  the  subtlest 
and  most  comprehensive,  in  my  judgment,  that 
lias  yet  existed  amongst  men."  Less  e.xtravaganl 
than  this,  but  not  less  eniiihatic,  is  the  witness 
borne  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  llazlitl,  Wordsworth, 
Dr.  .Vrnold,  Mill,  Julius  Hare,  Maurice,  and 
others,  to  his  extraordinary  gifts.  And  in  full 
accord  with  this  exalted  opinion  of  his  own 
countrvnien  was  that  of  the  German  philosopher 
Schelling.i 


'  SclicllInK  onci'  cxpri'nm'd  to  llii-  wiiUT  lii»  warm  iidmira- 
tion  for  (^olerldKe,  whom  lie  proiKJiiiicod  llu'  HrKt  Kiiitllxhinuii 
who  fully  understood  (fi-nnnii  philosophy.  Iti  one  of  hii* 
lecturcH  hi-  horroWH  from  <  'oU'ridin'  Ihr  rfimirk  thiit  mythoIoKV 
"  Is  not  rt//oKortciil,  but  /(i7//fj(orlc!il,*'  unit  then  i*uhjoinn  u  nolt- 
in  priilno  of  the  "  lil((hly-(!lfled  Hilton,"  and  acqultlInK  him  of 
the  ehnr(fo  of  plairlai'tHm,  ho  nharply  made  by  «ome  of  hii*  own 
countrynu-n.  •'  KUr  den  erwiihnten  trellenden  Aurtdruek  iiber- 
luBso  Icb  ibm  gerne  die  von  neiucu  eigencil  LandMleulen  Bcharf, 


1 


COLERIDGE. 


507 


COLERIDGE. 


.\s  a  poet  Colerifige  occupies  a  place  not  only 
high,  l)nt  almost  uniqvie.  Thr:  Ancinil  Mariner 
and  C/iri.tl(ihi'l,  not  to  mention  other  poems,  are 
woMtlerfnl  creations,  full  of  imaginative  power 
and  l)eanty.  lie-  was  also  pre-eminent  as  a  critic 
of  literature  and  art.  The  notes  of  his  lectures 
on  Shakspeare  are  rich  in  subtle,  discriminating 
thought,  and  original  views;  while  his  disserta- 
tion on  A\'ordswii]-th,  in  the  Biui/rap/iia  Littraria, 
is  unsurpassed  by  any  thing  of  the  kind  in  the 
language.  Ilis  writings  on  political  subjects, 
whether  questions  of  the  day  or  the  vital  princi- 
plesof  government,  are  marked  by  deep  rt'dretion, 
ardent  zeal  for  both  liberty  and  law,  and  a  skil- 
ful use  of  the  lessons  of  history.  If  not  always 
convincing,  he  is  always  fresh  and  instructive. 

But  the  great  work  of  his  life  belongs  to  the 
sphere  of  Christian  philosophy.  Here  he  was 
■without  a  rival  in  his  generation  ;  and  his  influ- 
ence was  alike  profound  and  far-reaching.  Hav- 
ing fought  his  own  way,  through  much  error  and 
doubt,  to  the  full  light  of  truth,  he  strove  to  guide 
other  minds  to  the  same  light  by  showing,  to  use 
his  own  words,  that  Christianitj',  "though  not  dis- 
coverable by  human  reason,  is  yet  in  accordance 
with  it;  that  link  follows  link  by  necessary  con- 
sequence ;  that  religion  passes  out  of  the  ken  of 
reason,  only  when  the  eye  of  reason  has  reached 
its  own  horizon ;  and  that  faith  is  then  but  its 
continuation,  even  as  the  day  softens  away  into 
the  sweet  twilight,  and  twilight,  hushed  and 
breathless,  steals  into  the  darkness."  As  a  phi- 
losopher he  was  a  power  rather  than  a  system- 
maker  ;  and  his  power  was  exerted  almost  as 
much  in  conversation  as  by  his  writings.  When 
lie  came  upon  the  stage,  the  mind  of  England  was 
fast  bound  in  the  .systems  of  mechanical  thought 
and  empiricism  which  ruled  the  last  century. 
Locke  and  Paley  were  the  oracles  of  popular  wis- 
dom. A  subtle  rationalism  was  everywhere  at 
work  sapping  the  ancient  foundations  in  morals 
and  religion.  Coleridge  undertook,  at  first  al- 
most single-handed,  to  re-assert  the  claims  of  a 
spiritual  philosophy.  In  order  to  tliis,  he  laid 
the  utmost  stress  upon  the  difference  in  kind  be- 
tween reason  and  understanding,  —  a  distinction 
familiar  already  to  (jermau  thought,  and  as  old, 
indeed,  as  Aristotle.  A  careful  statement  of  his 
views  on  this  point  may  be  found  in  Aidx  in  JU- 
Jlciiioii,  the  most  mature  and  complete  of  his 
works.  He  also  revived  the  Platonic  doctrine  of 
ideas;  that  is.  of  the  archetypal  forms,  or  eternal 
verities,  in  the  divine  mind.  Upon  these  two 
points  his  battle  with  the  dominant  systems 
largely  hinged.  His  philosophical  method  and 
opinions  were  greatly  influenced  by  Kant,  of 
whom  he  was  an  ardent  admirer.  He  owed  much 
also  to  .Schelling  and  Jacobi.  Of  Hegel  he  seems 
to  have  known  nothing.  His  writings,  while  full 
of  seeds  of  the  highest  thought  and  the  noblest 
wisdom,  are  yet  disciplinary  rather  than  doc- 
trinal: they  contain  no  fully-developed  .system. 
For  this  very  reason  they  are,  perhaps,  even  the 
better  fitted  to  aid  inquiring  minds,  especially 


ja  zu  Bcharf  geriigten  Entlehnungen  aus  racinen  Schriftcn. 
.  .  .  Einem  icirfcUch  congeniaUn  Mann  soiltc  man  der- 
gleichen  nicht  anrec/ineri.**  Some  Inter  writcTs,  notably  Mr. 
Carlyle,  have  spoken  of  him  in  a  very  different  tone  ;  but  their 
estimate  is  not  likely  to  be  permanent.  Sooner  or  later,  wis- 
dom is  sure  to  be  justilicd  of  her  children. 


youthful  minds,  in  the  search  for  truth,  and  in 
.solving  th(!  (h'cp  problems  of  existence  both 
earthward  and  heavi-nward. 

His  religious  temper  and  .sympathies  are  indi- 
cated by  his  fondness  for  such  divines  .as  Luther, 
Hooker,  Leighton,  Donne,  Baxter,  Jeremy  Taylor, 
and  liunyan.  The  writings  of  Archbishop  Leigh- 
ton  and  Pilf/rini's  J'roi/resa  were  his  csjiecial  de- 
light. As  athcologian  he  revered  the  Fathers  of 
the  Ileformation,  and  acce]ited  heartily  the  catho- 
lic doctrines  of  faith,  substantially  as  contained 
ill  the  ancient  creeds  and  in  the  great  Protestant 
■symbols.  His  orthodoxy  has  been  warmly  im- 
pugned, jiarticularly  in  reference  to  inspiration 
and  the  atonement.  It  can  hardly  be  denied 
that,  in  the  re-action  from  what  he  calh'd  bibliola- 
try,  he  sometimes  ex]>ressed  himself  incautiously, 
to  say  the  least,  on  the  question  of  inspiration. 
With  regard  to  the  atonement,  whatever  may  be 
said  about  certain  passages,  the  general  tone  of 
his  later  writings  favors  the  conclusion  that  he 
was  in  substantial  accord  with  the  teaching  of 
the  Reformed  churches  on  this  subject.  In  gen- 
er.al,  it  may  be  said  that  he  anticipated,  and  fur- 
nished pregnant  hints  on  the  best  way  of  meeting, 
most  of  the  objections  to  revealed  truth  which 
have  been  raised  by  the  sceptical  science  and 
speculation  of  the  last  fifty  years.  Whatever  his 
faults  and  imperfections,  whether  as  a  man  or  an 
author,  Coleridge  must  still  be  regarded  as  the 
most  original,  profound,  and  many-sided  Chris- 
tian thinker  who  has  lived  in  England  in  the 
nineteenth  century. 

Lit.  —  The  Poetical  Works  of  S.  T.  Coleridge, 
3  vols.,  1835  (London,  William  Pickering;  Bos- 
ton, Ililliard,  Gray,  &  Co.)  ;  several  later  editions 
have  appeared ;  The  Friend,  edited  by  H.  N. 
Colei'idge,  3  vols.,  1837,  and  later ;  Biugrajihia 
Literaria,  2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  edited  by  H.  N.  C.  and 
his  widow,  .Sara  C,  1847;  Aidslo  Rcjlection,  5th 
ed.,  enlarged.  2  vols.,  with  President  Marsh's 
Preliminary  Essay  (1843)  ;  The  Complete  Works 
of  S.  T.  C,  edited,  with  a  very  able  Introduc- 
tory Essay,  by  Professor  Shedd.  7  vols.  (Harper 
&  Brothers,  1854);  Specimens  of  the  Tahle-Talk  of 
the  late  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge,  2  vols.,  1835.  In- 
teresting notices  of  Coleridge,  though  mixed  with 
more  or  less  mere  gossip,  and  not  a  little  of  a 
worse  sort,  may  be  found  in  De  Quincey's  Litera- 
ry Reminiscences,  vol.  I.,  and  in  Letters,  Conrersa- 
tioHS,  and  Recollections  of  .S.  T.  C.  (Harper  & 
Brothers,  1836).  J.  Cottle's  Reminiscerices  con- 
tain an  account  of  Coleridge's  opium-eating  and 
{  its  effects.  Archdeacon  Hare's  estimate  of  Cole- 
ridge may  be  seen  in  the  dedication  and  preface 
of  'The  Mission  of  the  Comforter.  See,  also,  a  very 
appreciative  paper  on  Coleridge  in  Professor 
Shairp's  Studies  in  Poetry  and  Philosophy.  In  lSt)6 
appeared  Spiritual  Philosophy,  founded  on  the 
Teaching  of  S.  T.  Coleridge  (London,  2  vols. 
8vo),  written  bv  his  friend  and  pupil  Dr.  J.  H. 
Green.  '  G.  L.  PRENTISS. 

COLERIDGE,  Hartley,  b.  at  Clevedon,  near 
Bristol,  17n<5;  d.  at  Rydal,  Westmoreland,  Jan.  6, 
184!l;  eldest  son  of  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge;  was 
educated  iit  Oriel  College,  Oxford.  He  inherited 
not  a  little  of  his  father's  poetical  and  conversa- 
tional power.  Some  of  his  sonnets  are  very  fine. 
7'Ae  Worthies  of  Yorkshire  and  Lancashire,  1835, 
his  most  noted   prose-work,  has  unusual  merit. 


COLERIDGE. 


508 


COLIGNY. 


lie  lies  buried  near  the  grave  of  AVordsworth  in 
(irasmere  churchyard.  He  was  a  frail  mortal,  but 
gifted  with  qualities  which  endeared  hira  to  sucli 
friends  as  ^Vordsworth  and  Southey,  and  led  to 
the  common  saying,  that  he  was  no  one's  enemy 
but  his  own.  See  Poems  by  Hartliij  Coleridije, 
with  an  interesting  memoir  of  his  life  by  his 
brother  Uerwent,  2  vols.,  1S51.     G.  L.  PRENTISS. 

COLERIDGE,  Sara,  only  daughter  of  Samuel 
Taylor  Coleridge;  b.  at  Keswick,  1803;  d.  in 
London,  May  3,  1852.  She  passed  most  of  her 
early  years  in  the  home  of  her  uncle,  Robert 
Southey.  In  1S29  she  was  married  to  her  cousin, 
Henry  Kelson  Coleridge,  editor  of  several  of  her 
father's  works,  and  himself  an  author  of  note. 
While  still  a  girl,  she  transl.ated  from  the  Latin 
Martin  Dobrizhoifer's  Account  of  tlic  Ahipones,  an 
Equestrian  People  of  Parai/uai/.  3  vols.,  1822. 
After  the  death  of  her  husband  (ISIo),  she  took 
his  place  as  editor  of  her  father's  writings.  She 
wrote  a  fairj--tale  called  Phiintasniion,  which  was 
much  admired.  She  possessed  real  learning, 
superior  culture,  no  little  power  and  acuteness 
of  thought,  and  was  a  very  lovely  Christian  wo- 
man, it  was  said  of  her,  that  her  father  "  looked 
down  into  her  eyes,  and  left  in  them  the  light 
of  his  own."  See  Memoir  and  Letters  of  Sara 
Coleridije,  edited  by  her  daughter,  New  York, 
1874.     "  G.   I,.   PREXTISS. 

COLERIDCE,  Sir  John  Taylor,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish jurist,  nephew  of  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge; 
b.  at  Tiverton,  in  Devonshire,  171)0;  d.  at  Ottery 
St.  Mary,  Feb.  11,  1S7G.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford  and  the  Middle  Temple  ;  became  judge 
of  the  King's  Bench  in  1835,  and  privy  councillor 
in  1858.  He  was  an  intimate  friend,  and  the 
biographer,  of  the  poet  Keble. 

COLET,  John,  Dean  of  St.  Paul's,  and  founder 
of  .St.  Paul's  School  (l-'l-);  b.  at  London,  1400; 
d.  there  Sept.  10,  1519,  and  was  buried  in  St. 
Paul's  Catliedral.  He  was  one  of  the  "  Reform- 
ers before  the  Reformation."  He  took  his  M..\. 
at  O.xford  (1490),  and  wentabroad  ( 1493)  to  study 
Greek  and  Latin.  On  his  return,  in  1497.  he  pub- 
licly expouiuled  Paul's  Kpistles  at  Oxford,  and 
there  became  accjuainted  with  Krasmus,  with 
whom  he  maintained  an  intimate  frieudship.  Hi; 
was  promoted  to  various  positions,  — made  D.D. 
1504,  and  Dean  of  St.  Paul's  15(15.  His  great 
reform  w.as  to  introduce  expository  ]n-eacliing, 
and  a  perpetual  divinity-lectnn!  on  three  days  in 
each  week,  in  St.  Paul's  Church.  By  his  well- 
known  disapproval  of  auricular  confession,  celi- 
bacy of  the  clergy,  and  otlu^r  Ronuui  jiractices, 
he  was  considered  by  the  faithful  littli-  short 
of  a  heretic  :  hence  he  was  subject  to  a  variety  of 
persecutions.  He  wrote  Absolutissimus  de  octo  ora- 
tionis  partimn  constnii'lione  Lihetlus.  London,  L531); 
llndinienla  (Jraininaticis,  London,  1510  (a  book  de- 
signed for  use  in  St.  Paul's  Scliool,  and  dedicated 
to  its  first  master,  the  famous  (jeorgc  Lilly); 
iJaihj  JJerolions,  or  (In;  ( '/,ristian\i  Morninij  and 
Kveninij  Sacrifice  (Darling  mentions  only  the  edi- 
tion of  1093).  For  his  life,  see  the  skelcli,  with 
portrait,  in  Fuli.ku's  Atnl  Ilidecicns  (sic),  Nich- 
ols's ed.,I.,onilon,  18(i7,  vol.  I.  jip.  1 12-125;  .Sami'KI, 
Knight:  A//"«  of  Colel,  Lomlon,  1724,  Oxford, 
1823;  and  recently  in  Skkiioii.m  :  'J'lie  Ojford 
Reformers  if  1J^8  [C'olet,  Krasniua,  and  More], 
London,  1807,  3d  ed.,  1887. 


COLIGNY,  Gaspard  de,  b.  Feb.  10,  1517,  at 
Chatillon-sur-Loing.  in  the  department  of  Loiret; 
d.  in  Paris.  Aug.  24,  1572 ;  was  the  second  son 
of  Gaspard  de  Chatillon,  Marshal  of  France  (d. 
1522),  and  Louise  de  Montmorency,  a  sister  of 
the  famous  constable  of  France,  but  became  the 
head  of  the  family,  when,  in  1.533,  the  elder 
brother,  Odet,  was  made  a  cardinal.  Gaspard  was 
a  grave,  pure,  and  proud  character.  Francis  de 
Guise  was  his  only  friend.  He  fought  with 
great  distinction  in  Germany,  Italy,  and  Spain, 
advanced  rapidly  on  the  military  career,  and  was 
in  1547  made  coninuxuder  of  the  French  infantry, 
among  whose  wiU  hordes  he  knew  how  to  estab- 
lish discipline.  In  1552  he  was  made  Admiral 
of  France,  and  in  1555  Governor  of  Picardy.  As 
such  he  signed  the  armistice  of  Vaucelles.  Feb. 
5,  1550;  and,  when  Henry  H.  broke  it,  he  felt 
both  hurt  and  confounded.  lie  was  an  honest 
man.  and  the  jiapal  dispensation  weighed  very 
little  w  ith  him.  Xevertheless,  the  war  once  re- 
newed, he  fought  with  all  his  might;  and  after 
the  defeat  of  the  constable  at  St.  Quentiu,  Aug. 

10,  1557,  he  actually  saved  Paris  by  holding  the 
city  of  St.  Qnentin  for  seventeen  days.  On  its 
surrender  he  was  carried  a  jirisoner  into  the  Neth- 
erlands, where  he  was  retained,  first  at  Ecluse, 
then  at  Ghent,  until  the  peace  of  Chateau-Cam- 
bresis   (1559).      But  from  the  prisons  of  Philip 

11.  he  returned  a  Protestant.  He  was  not  entire- 
ly a  stranger  to  the  Reform.ation.  His  mother 
was  familiar  with  the  "new  ideas,"  and  no  priest 
was  summoned  to  her  de.ath-bed  (1547).  His 
tutor,  Berauld,  was  a  friend  of  Erasmus.  His 
wife,  Charlotte  de  Laval,  was  strongly  attracted 
by  the  movement;  and  his  brother  Andelot  had 
opienly  embraced  Protestantism.  In  the  solitude 
of  the  pri.son  the  truth  began  to  dawn  upon  the 
mind  of  (iasjiard;  and  <a  letter  from  Calvin,  Sept. 
4,  1558,  brought  fuller  clearness. 

"\\'hen  they  entered  the  military  arena,  the 
youthful  friendship  of  Gaspard  de  Coligny  and 
Francis  de  Guise  soon  became  a  jealous  rivalry  ; 
and  some  years  later,  when,  in  the  fiebl  of  politics, 
they  found  themselves  placed  respectively  at  the 
head  of  two  opposite  parties,  their  rivalry  grew 
into  a  deadly  enmity.  During  the  reign  of  Fran- 
cis II.  (iuise  lived  at  the  coiu't  in  power  and 
splendor;  Coligny,  on  his  family  est.ate,  Chiitillou, 
in  quiet  retirement.  But  when  Francis  IL  sudden- 
ly (lied  (Dec.  5, 1500),  and  Henry  HI.  ascended  the 
thrones  the  position  of  tlie  two  party-leaders  was 
for  a  moment  completely  nu'ersed.  Coligny  came 
into  ]iower,  and  he  and  his  brother  .\ndelot  worked 
in  perfect  unison  with  the  Chancellor  I'Hopital. 
Persecutions  ceased,  toleration  was  shown  upon 
both  sides,  and  there  were  fair  )irospects  of  end- 
ing the  conflict  with  a  peaceable  settlement.  But 
on  March  1,  10.52,  the  nuissaere  of  Vas.sy  took 
place,  and  on  .\pril  2  the  first  religious  war  began 
with  the  occupation  of  Orleans  by  Andelot.  On 
the  one  si<le,  the  Roman  Catholics,  the  (!ni.ses, 
and  Antoine  of  Navarre  ;  on  the  other,  the  Prote.s- 
tants,  Coligny.  the  Prince?  of  Condd,  .and  Henry 
of  Navarre;  ami  between  the  two  parties,  the 
court,  the  weak  and  vacillating  king,  and  the 
craftilv-calculating  queen-dowager,  Catherine  of 
Medici.  The  war  actually  ended  with  the  assiis- 
sination  of  Fr.ancis  de  (Jui.se  by  Poltrot  lie  Mt'rey, 
in  the  camp  before  Orleans,  Feb.  24,  1,503;  and 


COLIGNY. 


309 


COLLEGE. 


Marcli  19  peace  was  concludfi<I  at,  Aiiiboise,  by 
which  freefiniii  of  conscience,  ami,  witliiii  certain 
limits,  liberty  of  \vorshi]i,  were  granted  to  the 
Protestants.  I?iit  the  liatred  between  the  House 
of  Guise  and  (Joligiiy  was  only  deepened  by  the 
events.  I'oltrot  declared  that  he  had  been  en- 
couraged to  murder  Francis  de  Guise  by  t'oligny, 
Beza,  etc. ;  and  although  the  acts  of  tlie  pro- 
cess (corap.  Mi'moires  il<'_  Vnnde,  IV.  285,  339 ; 
Hkza  :  Hist.  E<-clt.<<.  d<:i  Ei/U.srs  llrfonnces,  II.  291, 
1310,  318)  show,  tliat,  in  tliis  form,  the  accusation 
was  an  infamous  calumny,  it  is,  nevertheless, 
jiossible  that  Coligny  was  not  altogether  ignorant 
of  what  happened. 

Four  years  of  peace  followed.  But  in  the 
mean  time  tlie  development  of  affairs  in  the 
Netherlands,  the  imprisonment  of  Egmont  and 
Horn  (.Sept.  9,  1507),  and  rumors  of  a  plan  to 
capture  the  Prince  of  C'onde  and  Coligny,  made 
the  Protestants  suspicious ;  and  the  second  reli- 
gious war  began.  Coligny's  scheme  of  taking 
possession  of  the  person  of  the  King  at  Monceaux, 
near  Meaux,  failed  (Sejit.  27,  1507)  ;  but  the  vic- 
tory at  St.  Denis  (Nov.  10,  1507)  led  to  the  peace 
of  Longjumeau  (March  23,  1508),  by  which  tlie 
.agreement  of  Amboise  was  renewed.  The  en- 
mity, however,  between  the  Roman-Spanish  and 
Protestant-English  parties,  was  too  fierce  not  to 
break  the  peace ;  and  within  the  same  year  the 
third  religious  war  began.  It  ended  with  the 
peace  of  St.  Germain  (Aug.  2, 1570),  after  the  bat- 
tles of  Janiac,  Monoontour,  and  Arnay  le  Due. 
I5y  this  peace  the  cause  of  Protestantism  in  France 
seemed  to  be  much  improved.  Charles  IX.  was 
averse  to  the  Spanish  direction  which  French 
jiolitics  lately  had  shown.  Coligny  was  called 
to  Blois  Sept.  12,  1571  ;  and  the  king  seemed  to 
listen  to  him  with  confidence.  The  negotiations 
for  a  marriage  between  Marguerite  of  Valois  and 
Henry  of  Navarre  finally  succeeded.  April  11, 
1572,  the  marriage  contract  was  signed,  and  Aug. 
18  the  wedding  ceremony  was  celebrated.  But 
Aug.  22,  when  Coligny,  at  eleven  o'clock  in  the 
night,  returned  from  the  Louvre  to  his  house  (the 
present  No.  144  Rue  Ilit'oli),  he  was  fired  upon 
twice  by  one  Mavirevel,  wdio  escaped,  and  was 
brought  home  hard  wounded.  The  next  day  the 
king  visited  him  ;  but  their  intercourse  was  inter- 
rupted by  the  arrival  of  the  queen-dowager.  On 
the  way  back  to  the  Louvre,  the  king  confessed 
to  his  mother,  that  Coligny  had  given  him  cer- 
tain warnings  with  respect  to  liis  councillors  ;  and 
in  the  following  night  tlie  men  of  the  Duke  of 
Guise  penetrated  into  the  house  of  Coligny,  mur- 
dered him,  and  threw  his  body  into  the  street, 
where  the  young  Francis  de  Guise  severed  the 
head  from  the  body.  The  head  was  sent,  it  is 
said,  to  Konie  ;  while  the  body  was  dragged 
through  the  streets,  and  finally  suspended  in  the 
gallows  of  AIountfau(;oii.  Meanwhile  the  INIas- 
sacre  of  the  Day  of  St.  Bartliolomew  took  place, 
and  several  days  elapsed  before  Jlarshal  jlont- 
morency  had  the  body  taken  down  and  buried. 
An  act  of  Parliament,  Oct.  27,  1572,  declared 
Coligny  guilty  of  treason,  and  decreed  that  his 
escutcheon  should  be  broken  by  the  hangman, 
his  castle  be  razed  to  the  ground,  and  his  chil- 
dren and  children's  children  be  treated  as  infa- 
mous ;  but  it  was  cancelled  by  another  act  of 
Parliament,  June  10,  159!i. 


Lit.  —  Of  the  writing.s  of  Coligny,  the  manu- 
script of  a  history  of  the  religious  wars  was 
burnt  by  Catherine  of  Medici.  A  number  of 
his  letters  have  been  publisiied  in  Bullclin  ilc  In 
Siicii'li'  (If  r Ilislolri'.  (lu  I'rijiexlanthmc  I'rnrn-aia, 
Paris,  1852,  especially  in  series  I.,  II.,  XIV.,  and 
XXII.,  and  in  Arcliircs  dea  Missiorts  Srieiilifinues 
lit  Lillc'mlrcs,  series  III.  Tom.  2,  3.  His  life 
was  written  by  Fhanz  Hotmann:  Gnsjiarh  Co- 
hinii  ^f^ll/ni.  .  .  .  Villi,  1575,  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  Golding,  London,  1576;  Mkyi.ax  :  Vie  de 
Gnspard  de  Culir;ni/,  Paris,  1802  ;  Tkssier  :  VAmi- 
ral  Ciilif/iii/  Paris,  1872;  [Be.sant:  Culif/ni/  and 
the  Failure  nf  the  French  Refnrmatiim,  N.Y.,  1879; 
cf.  B.\iui) :  llislori/  of  llie  Rise  of  the  IIu(/uenots  of 
France,  N.Y.,  bS79,  2  vols.]       '      Til.  scilOTT. 

COLLATION,  in  canon  law,  the  conferring  or 
bestowing  of  a  benefice  by  a  bishop  who  has  it 
in  his  gift  or  patronage.  Collation  differs  from 
institution,  in  tliat  it  proceeds  at  the  bishop's 
own  motion ;  and  from  jiresentation,  in  that  it  is 
the  act  of  the  bishop  himself,  while  presentation 
is  properly  the  act  of  a  patron  offering  his  clerical 
nominee  to  tlie  bishop  for  institution  into  a  bene- 
fice. See  Dictionary  nf  the  Enr/lish  Church,  s.  v., 
London  and  N.Y.,  n.d'.  (1881).' 

COLLECT,  a  short  [irayerused  in  the  Western 
churches,  witli  these  peculiarities,  according  to 
Blunt :  "  ( 1)  All  invocation  ;  (2)  A  reason  on  which 
the  petition  is  to  be  founded ;  (3)  The  petition 
itself,  centrally  placed,  and  always  in  few  words; 
(4)  The  benefit  hoped  for ;  (5)  A  memorial  of 
Christ's  mediation,  or  an  ascription  of  praise,  or 
both."  The  two  principal  derivations  are  from 
collectas:  ((()  Because  it  was  the  prayer  said  in 
the  early  times  for  the  people  "  when  assembled 
(collectus)  in  one  church,  with  the  whole  body  of 
the  clergy,  for  tlie  purpose  of  proceeding  to  an- 
other; "  or  (i)  Because  "  it  indicates  a  prayer  of- 
fered by  the  priest  alone  on  behalf  of  the  people, 
whose  suffrages  are  thus  collected  into  one  voice, 
instead  of  being  said  alternately  by  priest  and 
people,  as  in  versicles  and  litanies."  Many  of 
the  collects  now  in  use  in  the  Roman-Catholic 
and  Episcopal  churches  are  undoubtedly  very 
old,  being  composed  by  Popes  Leo  the  Great  (440- 
401),  Gelasius  (492-490),  and  Gregory  the  Great 
(590-604).  See  art.  Collect  in  Smith  and  Cheet- 
ii.\ii's  Did.  of  Christ.  Antit/.  ;  also  Blunt's  An- 
notated Hook-  of  Common  Prayer,  p.  69;  Bright'.s 
Ancient  Collects,  pp.  198  sqq. 

COLLEGE.  The  word  "college"  is  used  in 
many  senses,  always,  or  nearly  always,  implying 
a  limited  company,  meeting  in  one  place,  bound 
by  common  laws,  and  associated  for  mutual  sup- 
port in  the  promotion  of  a  definite  object.  A 
college  is  a  society  of  colleagues;  as  of  cardi- 
nals, electors,  physicians,  preceptors,  or  scholars. 
Its  purpose  in  a  more  restricted  use  is  to  pro- 
mote learning.  Its  grade  may  vary  from  a  school 
for  boys  to  an  association  of  learned  men  ;  but  it 
usually  suggests  the  promotion  of  a  liberal  educa- 
tion in  distinction  from  a  practical  or  elementa- 
ry training. 

In  this  country  the  words  "college"  and 
"  university "  have  been  unfortunately  used  as 
synonymous,  so  that  the  distinction  between  the 
two  is  commonly  forgotten  ;  but  in  England  and 
on  the  Continent,  and  among  careful  writers  in 
America,  the  separate  functions  are  clearly  recog- 


COLLEGE. 


310 


COLLEGE. 


nized.  It  is  the  business  of  a  college  to  train 
youth  at  an  early  age,  commonly  before  they  have 
reached  their  majority,  in  studies  which  discipline 
the  mind,  and  store  it  with  useful  knowledge.  It 
is  the  business  of  a  university  to  advance  and 
quicken  those  who  have  been  trained.  In  many 
cases  the  students  of  ■  a  college  dwell  within 
college  walls,  dine  at  a  common  table,  attend 
religious  worship  in  their  own  chapel,  and  are 
governed  in  their  daily  conduct  by  prescribed 
regulations  under  the  constant  care  of  their 
tutors.  Their  ages,  their  needs,  and  their  tastes 
are  supposed  to  be  so  nearly  alike,  that  substan- 
tially the  same  treatment  may  be  given  to  them 
all.  It  is  the  distinctive  office  of  a  university  to 
hold  examinations,  and  confer  degrees,  and  also  to 
provide  for  the  advanced  education  of  those  who 
have  been  trained  in  the  fundamental  sciences. 
The  university  may  comprise  one  or  more  col- 
leges and  schools.  Its  teachings  (as  distinguished 
from  those  of  the  colleges  it  includes)  are  broad- 
er, and  adapted  to  maturer  minds.  The  true 
university  teacher  advances  the  science  which  he 
professes,  and  brings  forward,  in  lectures  or  pub- 
lications, the  results  he  has  reached;  while  the 
college  instructor  may  fitly  be  devoted  to  the 
routine  of  instruction,  and  excel  by  patiently 
going  over  and  over  w'ith  his  scholars  funda- 
mental principles. 

The  earliest  colleges  in  this  country  were  Har- 
vard, AVilliani  and  Mary,  and  Yale ;  and  their 
influence  has  powerfully  controlled  tlie  higher 
education  in  America  from  colonial  times  until 
now.  They  were  based  on  the  model  of  the 
colleges  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,'  and  there 
are  some  points  of  resemblance  between  their  or- 
ganization and  that  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 
There  are  traces,  also,  of  Scotch  influence,  at  least 
in  the  two  New-England  colleges,  and  of  the 
English  public  schools.  All  three  were  chartered 
by  the  State,  were  avowedly  devoted  to  the  main- 
tenance of  Christian  doctrine  (as  held  by  the 
Puritans  at  Harvard  and  Yale,  and  as  held  by 
♦he  Cliurch  of  England  at  William  and  Mary). 
They  sustained  daily  religious  services,  provided 
lodgings  and  a  common  table,  were  taught  by 
a  rector,  with  subordinate  teachers  in  the  lan- 
guages and  mathematics,  and  at  tlie  close  of  an 
appointed  course  of  studies  conferred  the  IJache- 
lor's  degree  on  succe.ssful  .scholars. 

The  pupils  in  these  colleges  were  usually  over 
fourteen  years  of  age  at  entrance,  and  often  took 
their  first  degree  as  early  as  eighteen.  The  no- 
tion that  the  acquisition  of  tliis  honor  was  only 
"the  commencement "  of  an  education,  and  that 
the  progressive  scholar  would  conic;  forward  a 
few  years  later  for  his  second  degree  of  Master, 
was  recognizi^d  from  tlie  beginning;  although, 
for  the  want  of  professors  who  had  the  learning 
and  the  leisure  to  carry  on  tin;  instruction  of 
graduate  students,  there  was  but  little  efficiency 
in  this  part  of  the  .scheme.  The  form,  however, 
has  been  constantly  obsi.-rved  of  encouraging 
Bachelors  of  Art  to  proceed  to  the  degree  of  Mas- 
ter;  thus  implying  that  the  freer  study  of  the 
university  rightly  follows  the  limited  training  of 
the  colleges.     lu  reci'iit  years  th(!  second  dcrgree 

■  ProfcHHor  F.  B.  Dr-xlcr  MuyM,  tliut,  atnonnc  tho  (Mirly  r-nil- 
granu  to  Now  KiiKlnnd,  libuiit  aixxy  wertr  fruiu  Cambridge, mid 
twenty  were  from  Oxfurd. 


lias  in  many  places  been  restored  to  its  proper 
dignity,  and"  is  now  conferred  only  by  examina- 
tions in  advanced  and  non-professional  studies. 

Upon  the  type  thus  described,  —  an  American 
variety  from  an  English  germ,  —  most  of  the 
colleges  which  were  established  during  the  eigh- 
teenth century  were  formed.  They  were  not 
exactly  alike,  but  so  nearly  of  the  same  pattern 
that  '•  the  American  college  "  still  bears  its  own 
marked  features,  readily  traced  in  charters,  cus- 
toms, buildings,  schemes  of  study,  and  popular 
phraseology.  To  distinguish  it  from  the  schools 
of  professional  training  which  have  grown  up  in 
later  days,  it  is  often  called  -the  college  proper," 
an  infelicitous  but  significant  phrase.  Around 
the  central  college  other  institutions  have  in 
manyjilaces  been  planted,  —  the  schools  of  the- 
ology, law,  medicine,  and  science  ;  and  the  group 
of  seminaries  thus  formed  is  not  infrequently 
termed  the  university  in  distinction  from  the 
college. 

As  the  three  colleges  just  named  have  been  the 
models  to  wliicli  later  colleges  h.ave  referred,  a 
few  words  in  regard  to  the  origin  of  each  may  bo 
given. 

Harvard  College,  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  dates 
from  1636.  Two  years  later  it  received  a  gener- 
ous bequest  from  Rev.  John  Harvard  of  Charles- 
town,  whose  name  it  has  since  borne.  Instruc- 
tions began  in  1038;  the  first  rector  assumed 
office  in  1610 ;  in  1012  the  governor,  deputj'- 
governor,  and  magistrate  of  the  jurisdiction, 
the  teaching  elders  of  six  adjoining  towns,  and 
the  president  of  the  college,  were  constituted  the 
overseers;  and  in  1650  "the  corporation"  was 
formally  chartered. 

At  New  Haven,  Conn.,  a  college  was  proposed 
by  Rev.  John  Davenport,  soon  after  the  settle- 
ment of  the  town,  in  1638 ;  but,  on  account  of  the 
successful  progress  of  the  college  at  the  Bay,  the 
project  was  not  pushed  forward  until  1700,  wlien 
several  of  the  ministers  of  the  neighborhood  gave 
their  books  for  "founding  a  college  in  Con- 
necticut. "  Instructions  began  soon  afterward ; 
and  in  1718  a  gift  from  (Jov.  Elihu  Yale  fixed 
his  name  upon  the  new  institution.  The  first 
charter  was  granted  in  1701,  and  a  second  in 
171.5. 

Soon  after  the  settlement  at  Jamestown,  in 
1U07,  a  university  was  projected  at  Henrico;  but 
the  diiricullies  were  not  overcome  at  once,  and 
it  w.as  1660-61  when  an  act  of  the  (Jrand  Assem- 
bly made  "  provision  for  a  coll<'dge."  In  lf)93  a 
cliarter  was  received  from  William  and  Mary, 
and  in  1700  the  first  ConnMenceinent  was  held. 
It  received  royal,  colonial,  aiul  private  benefac- 
tions ;  and  we  are  told  by  its  historian  that  "in 
1776  it  was  the  riclu'st  college  in  North  .\nierica." 

Between  1700  and  the  Declaration  of  Iu<lepend- 
ence  six  colleges  were  added  to  the  three  already 
named ;  and,  before  the  close  of  tho  eighteenth 
century,  seventeen  more  were  added  to  the  list. 
Since  then,  the  number  has  rajiidly  increased, 
though  all  will  admit  that  many  of  the  institu- 
tions which  are  enrolled  as  "colleges"  are  poorly 
endowed,  and  imperfectly  taught.  A  discrimi- 
nating re|)ort  on  tliis  subject  is  much  to  be 
desired.  The  list  in  the  United-States  comiliis- 
sioner'.f  report  for  1878  includes  3.')8  colleges  and 
universities,   with   3,880   instructors  and   57,087 


COLLEGE. 


511 


COLLBGIAL. 


students  ;  hut  these  figures  are  not  of  much  value 
without  elaborate  statements  in  respect  to  the 
character  of  the  instruction  which  is  given. 

Among  the  new  institutions  are  the  universities 
of  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Cali- 
fornia, and  other  Western  States,  commonly  in- 
cluding professional  schools  of  law  and  medicine 
with  the  collegiate  departments.  Colleges  of 
agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  fostered  by  the 
national  land-grant  of  1802,  are  to  be  found  in 
all  the  States.  To  a  limited  extent  the  older 
colleges  have  received  assistance  from  the  State; 
but  their  chief  reliance  has  been  the  generosity 
of  individuals.  There  is  a  long  list  of  noble 
benefactors,  beginning  with  Harvard  and  Yale, 
whose  names  will  be  held  in  honor  by  those  who 
watch  the  progress  of  knowledge.  In  the  West, 
donations  of  land  from  the  United-States  Gov- 
ernment have  greatly  aided  the  foundation  of 
colleges  and  universities. 

The  most  noteworthy  innovation  upon  the 
traditional  college  system  was  made  by  the  foun- 
dation of  the  University  of  Virginia,  in  1820. 
"  The  class-.system,"  tlien  regarded  elsewhere  as 
of  great  value,  was  not  introduced;  great  free- 
dom was  allowed  in  the  choice  of  studies ;  and 
much  stress  was  given  to  examinations.  Gradu- 
ally many  of  the  ideas  there  introduced  have 
been  adopted  in  other  places.  The  rapid  growth 
of  science,  and  the  demand  for  instruction  in 
modern  languages  and  literature,  have  caused 
important  changes  in  the  college  courses,  and 
tend  to-day  toward  the  encouragement  of  op- 
tional or  eclectic  plans  of  study. 

The  Johns  Hopkins  University,  which  was 
opened  in  Baltimore  in  1870,  with  a  generous 
and  unconditioned  endowment,  has  been  organ- 
ized in  such  a  way  as  to  give  prominence  to  uni- 
versity methods  in  distinction  from  collegiate. 
In  the  middle  of  its  fifth  year  ninety  graduates 
of  colleges  were  enrolled  among  its  students, 
twenty  of  whom  hold  fellowships;  four  scientific 
journals  are  published ;  and  there  are  excellent 
collections  of  apparatus  and  books  adapted  to 
research. 

Within  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  a 
loud  call  for  collegiate  education  for  women. 
To  a  limited  extent,  some  of  the  colleges  for 
men  have  been  opened  to  women  ;  but  at  the 
present  time  more  favor  seems  to  lie  given  to 
new  and  independent  endowments  for  the  in- 
struction of  women  ;  and  the  foinidations  which 
bear  the  name  of  Smith,  Vassar,  Wellesley,  and 
Taylor,  give  promise  of  the  highest  utility. 

The  tendency  to  a  separation  of  colleges  from 
common  schools  is  much  to  be  regretted.  Care- 
ful in(juiries  show  that  the  number  of  college 
students  in  proportion  to  the  population  has 
diminished.  College-bred  men,  for  one  reason 
or  another,  are  less  called  upon  than  formerly  to 
assume  the  lead  in  public  affairs :  they  are  less 
concerned  in  the  administration  of  the  common- 
school  system.  All  this  is  liere  mentioned  with 
regret;  but  there  is  not  space  to  discuss  the  rea- 
sons, or  point  out  the  remedies.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  colleges  grow  in  wealth,  in  libraries, 
in  museums,  in  admirable  buildings:  they  grow 
more  liberal,  also,  in  their  instructions,  and  are 
heartily  sustained  by  the  most  enlightened  men 
in  Church  and  State.     As  we  review  the  politi- 


cal, the  literary,  the  scientific,  and  the  religious 
history  of  the  lan<l,  we  perceive,  that,  after  all,  it 
is  the  college-bred  men  who  liave  moulded  our 
affairs,  and  given  to  this  country  its  present 
standing  as  an  enlightened  and  prosperous  re- 
public. D.  L'.  (JILilAX. 

COLLEGIA  NATIONALIA,  or  PONTIFICIA, 
colleges  for  the  education  of  missionaries  des- 
tined to  go  into  Christian,  but  not  Koman-Catho- 
lic,  countries.  The  first  institution  of  this  kind, 
the  Co/lefjiuin  Gerinanicnm,  was  founded  in  Rome, 
in  1552,  by  Ignatius  Loyola,  and  was  at  the  same 
time  a  monastic  and  an  educational  establish- 
ment. It  had  a  theological  faculty,  and  enjoyed 
all  the  rights  of  a  Roman  university.  It  was 
governed  by  a  rector,  who,  like  all  the  teachers, 
belonged  to  the  order  of  the  Jesuits ;  and  it 
stood  under  the  protectorate  or  special  authority 
of  a  conmiittee  of  six  cardinals.  The  committee 
was  to  coninnniicate  with  trustworthy  emissaries 
in  Germany ;  and  those  emissaries  had  to  select 
among  the  Germans,  Frisians,  Swiss,  and  Scandi- 
navians, a  number  of  young  men  between  sixteen 
and  twenty-one  years  old,  able-bodied,  well  gifted 
in  a  general  way,  and  specially  endowed  with  an 
easy,  pleasant,  and  impressive  address.  Before 
leaving  Germany,  the  3'oung  men  wei'e  informed 
of  the  method  and  purpose  of  the  institution  ; 
and  before  adopted  as  pupils,  generally  after  the 
lapse  of  a  year  of  probation,  they  took  an  oath 
to  labor  for  the  Roman-Catholic  Church  as  long 
as  they  lived,  to  go,  without  a  moment's  hesita- 
tion, at  the  time  and  to  the  place  appointed  by 
the  protectors,  not  to  try  to  evade  their  assumed 
task  by  entering  a  monastical  order,  etc.  By  this 
means  the  Roman-Catholic  Church  hoped  to  cre- 
ate an  effective  propaganda  among  the  German 
heretics,  —  able  disputants  connected  with  their 
adversaries  by  thesecretsynipathy  of  common  race, 
common  language,  etc.  (jregory  XIII.  founded 
a  number  of  similar  colleges  in  Rome,  —  a  Creek 
(1577),  an  English  (1579),  a  Maronite  (1584), 
an  lUyrian,  a  Hungarian,  etc.  The  Hungarian 
college  was  in  1584  connected  with  the  German 
(see  JuLiu-s  Cordara  :  C'olle(/u  Germanici  el  Hnn- 
ijarici  Hisloria.  Rome,  1770).  Some  of  these  col- 
leges died  out,  but  others  were  added.  Also  the 
constitution  of  the  whole  congregation  de  propa- 
ganda Jitlt  underwent  some  changes,  especially  in 
1022.  But  the  idea  on  which  the  institution  was 
based  proved  a  fertile  and  vigorous  one.  See 
Ukis.^x  Ceiuu  :  Elat  pn'senl  de  I'Eylise  C'al/iolique, 
.Amsterdam,  1710;  yoli:ia  Slalinlica  delle  Missioni 
Cai/i(il(tlie  ill  lulto  il  Motidu.  Rome,  1843,  pp.  21- 
27  ;  Me.ier  :  Die  ProjxK/anda,  Gottingen,  1S52, 
Part  I.  pp.  73-91,  225-245.  mejek. 

COLLEGIAL  or  COLLEGIATE  CHURCHES, 
in  contradistinction  to  cathedral  churches,  are  in 
the  Roman-Catholic  Church  served  by  a  body  of 
canons,  regular  or  secular,  living  together  in  coi- 
leijia,  and  in  the  Anglican  Chu'-ch  by  a  dean  and 
a  number  of  canons  ;  while  the  cathedral  churches 
are  always  served  by  a  bishop.  In  Xew-York 
City  the  "term  "Collegiate  Church  "  is  applied  to 
a  corporation  in  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church, 
which  owns  a  large  amount  of  property,  inclusive 
of  three  churches,  with  their  mission-churches. 
Out  of  the  income  their  ministers'  salaries  and 
other  expenses  are  paid.  The  fact  of  several 
clergymen  upon  an  equality  in  the  government 


COLLEGIALISM. 


512 


COLLINS. 


of  the  same  body  of  coinmuaicants  is  true  also  of 
several  other  churches  in  the  country ;  but  the 
term  "collegiate  "  is  not  so  commonly  applied  to 
these  latter  churches. 

COLLEGIALISM,  or  COLLEGIAL  SYSTEM,  a 
technical  term  denoting  a  peculiar  conception  of 
the  relation  between  Church  and  State,  which  de- 
veloped in  the  ecclesiastical  jurisprudence  of  Ger- 
many during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries.  The  name,  first  used  by  J.  H.  Bohner 
of  Ilalle,  was  derived  from  the  Roman  law,  which, 
before  Constantine,  considered  the  Christian  con- 
gi'egatious  as  collegia  illicilu. 

The  Reformation  ass\iraed  that  the  enforcement 
of  the  First  Commandment  belonged  to  the  oifice 
of  the  divinely-instituted  State  government.  In 
Germany,  consequently,  every  petty  state  had  its 
own  church ;  and  it  was  considered  pai't  of  the 
government's  duty  to  exclude  any  other  form  of 
religious  worship  but  the  true  one  from  the  terri- 
tory. In  Switzerland  the  Reformed  Church  was 
organized  on  exactly  the  same  principle  as  the 
Lutheran  Church  in  Germany,  ■ — as  a  State  insti- 
tution, founded,  maintained,  and  superintended 
by  the  secular  government.  As  soon,  however, 
as  the  Reformation  penetrated  into  France,  where 
it  met  with  a  decided  opposition  from  the  side  of 
the  State  authority,  the  Reformed  Church  was 
compelled  to  organize  itself  as  an  independent, 
self-governing  association  ;  and  in  Germany,  too, 
various  circumstances  soon  made  a  re-organiza- 
tion on  a  modified  principle  necessary,  as,  for 
instance,  when  the  peace  of  Westphalia  (1648) 
placed  several  churches  on  equal  terms  on  the 
same  territory.  With  the  altered  practice  fol- 
lowed an  altered  theory.  In  his  Jh.s-  llt'lli  cl  Paris 
(1625)  Hugo  Grotius  defined  the  State  as  an  asso- 
ciation based  on  a  contract,  by  which  each  mem- 
ber sacrifices  a  certain  portion  of  his  individual 
freedom  in  order  to  have  the  enjoyment  of  the 
rest  guaranteed  by  the  a.ssociation.  In  his  De 
Ilahitu  lU'liyionis  Cliristiaiire  ad  Vitam  Civilem 
(1686)  Pufendorff  showed  that  religion  and  reli- 
gious worslnp  did  not  belong  to  that  portion  of 
his  freedom  wliicli  an  individual  sacrificed  by 
entering  the  State;  and  Pufendorff 's  school  at 
Ilalle  further  developed  collegialisni,  or  the  colle- 
gial  system,  as  the  true  view  of  the  relation  be- 
tween Cliurch  and  State.  The  last  step  was  taken 
by  C.  M.  I'faff  in  iiis  Akaih misclic  Ileden  ilher 
das  Kii-i-Iirnrrclil,  Tiibingon,  1712,  in  which  he  de- 
monstrates the  contradiction  between  the  innate 
principle  of  lint  Christian  Church  lierself,  and 
tliat  princiiile  iqiou  which  she  actually  had  been 
organized  in  G<'rniany.  It  must  be  noticed,  how- 
ever, that  even  I'faff  tries  to  prove  by  a  curious 
and  artificial  train  of  reasoning  that  the  actual 
organization,  though  flatly  contradicting  (lie  natu- 
ral principle,  is,  nevertheless,  perfectly  just. 

Lit.  —  Dav.  Nkttki.iii.adt  :  Dc  'I'rilnts  Si/slc- 
7ualihiis  l)<Kliiiia,(jtc.,  Ilalle,  1783;  Staiii.  :  Kircli- 
enverfuss.  niicli  Lclire  uiid  Reclil  d.  I'rulKslanlfn, 
Erlangen,  1810  ;  Kichtku  :  Gescliichle  d.  ecantj. 
Kinftciwer/ass.  in  Deulschtaiid,  Leipzig,  1851  ; 
Me.ikk  :  G lundlarjen  d.  Lulli.  Kirrlnnrcijimcntcs, 
Rostock,  I8til.        "  .VK.IKK. 

COLLECIANTS,  ..i  RHYNSBURGERS,  a  frac- 
tion of  the  Rcunonstrants  formed  by  the  tlirce 
l)ea,sant8,  Joiiann,  Adrian,  and  (iilbert  van  der 
Codde,  and  the  fisherman  Anton  Corneli.son,  who 


afterwards  were  joined  by  Dr.  Kamphusen.  Dur- 
ing the  persecutions  which  resulted  from  the 
synod  of  Dort,  the  scattered  Arminians  held  their 
meetings  at  Warmond,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Leyden.  But  soon  the  above-mentioned  persons 
and  their  followers  separated,  and  held  independ- 
ent meetings,  which  they  called  collegia,  at  the 
neighboring  village  of  Rhynsburg.  They  adopted 
prophecy,  and  called  them.selves  prophets.  In 
many  respects  they  resembled  the  Quakers.  They 
rejected  all  symbolical  books  and  a  regular  min- 
istry. He  who  was  called  upon  by  the  Spirit 
stood  forth  and  preached.  To  serve  in  war,  to 
hold  a  civil  office,  they  considered  incompatible 
with  Christianity.  Like  the  Anabaptists,  they 
used  innnersion  at  baptism.  The  sect  spread 
rapidly  in  Holland  and  West  Friesland,  but  be- 
came extinct  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  ILVGENBACH. 

COLLIER,  Jeremy,  b.  at  Stow-cum-Qui,  Cam- 
bridgeshire, Sept.  23,  1050;  d.  in  London,  April 
20,  1720.  He  took  his  M.A.  at  Cambridge, 
1070;  entered  the  ministry,  but  at  the  Revolution 
he  refused  to  take  the  oaths,  and  was  impris- 
oned (1088  and  1092)  for  .advocating  the  cause 
of  James  II.  In  1007  he  won  considerable  fame 
by  his  Essays  upon  screral  Mond  Suhjecls,  of  which 
a  second  series  appeared  1705,  and  a  third  1709. 
The  essays  cover  much  ground,  and  are  interest- 
ing, and  in  their  way  valuable.  In  1698  he 
issued  A  Short  View  of  the  Profaneness  and  hn- 
fuorality  of  the  English  Stage,  a  vigorous  attack 
which  was  as  vigorously  resisted,  but  resulted  in 
the  reformation  of  the  stage.  The  most  valua- 
ble of  his  works  is  An  Ecclesiastical  Uistorij  of 
Great  Britain,  to  the  End  of  the  lleign  of  Charles  II. 
(1708-18),  new  edition,  with  lif«  of  the  author, 
London,  1840,  9  vols.  He  also  translated  and 
continued  jMorery's  Great  Historical,  Geographical, 
Genealogical,  and  Poetical  Dictionary  (1701-21), 
and  translated  the  Meditations  of  Marcus  Aurcli- 
us,  London,  1701. 

COLLINS,  Anthony,  an  English  deist;  b.  at 
Ileston,  in  ^liddlesex,  June  21,  1070;  d.  in  Lon- 
don, Dec.  13,  1729.  He  was  a  country  gentleman, 
educated  at  Kton  and  Cambridge,  a  justice  of 
peace,  and  the  intimate  friend  of  Locke.  Ills 
best  known  work  is  A  Discourse  <;/'  Frecthinl'ing, 
occasioned  hg  the  Rise  and  Gruicth  <f  a  Sect  called 
Freethinkers,  London,  1713.  This  was  attacked, 
and,  in  the  judgment  of  most,  demolished,  by  Bent- 
ley,  under  the  pseudonyme  of  Phileleutherus  IJp- 
sicnsis.  Swift  also  wrote  against  it  a  pamphlet 
in  his  inimitable  style,  il/r.  Collins's  Discourse 
of  Freethinkuig,  jint  into  plain  English,  liy  wag  of 
abstract,  for  the  use  of  the  Poor.  Collins  tried  to 
]irove  that  all  .sound  belief  must  be  based  on  free 
incjuiry,  and,  furlhcr,  that  the  adoption  of  rational- 
istic principles  would  involve  the  abandi'unient 
of  a  belief  in  supernaturalism.  The  book  was 
weak,  the  critics  were  strong;  and  Collins  went  to 
Holland  to  avoid  the  storm  he  had  raised.  Never- 
theless, he  .soon  returned  again,  and  renewed  the 
attack.  In  1715  appt'ared  ills  brief  hn/uiry  Con- 
cerning IluvHin  I.ihrrty,  a  defence  of  necessitarian- 
ism. In  1724  he  published  his  Discourse  on  the 
Grounds  and  Iteasims  if  the  Christian  Hcllf/ion,  to 
show,  that  since  tlie  fnlfilnient  of  )irophecy  is  the 
only  valid  proof  of  Christianity,  and  such  "  ful- 
filment"  i.s   only   accomplished   by   fraud,   or  .at 


COLLN. 


513 


COLOGNE. 


least  by  unwarraiitofl  liberty  with  the  text,  tliere- 
fore  Cliristiaiiity  has  no  valiil  proof.  In  rejily  to 
Edward  Chandler  (see  title),  he  wrote  Scheme  of 
Literal  Prophecy  considered  (1727).  These  three 
works,  as  well  as  his  earlier.  Vindication  of  the 
Divine  Attributes,  an  attenijit  to  show  tluit  we  can 
attain  to  a  true,  even  if  limited,  knowledjje  of 
the  divine  attributes,  and  Priestcraft  in  Perfection 
(1709),  an  attack  on  the  clergy,  were  published 
anonymously;  but  the  authorship  was  really  no 
secret.  See  Stephen:  Histori/  of  Eni/lish  Thour/hl. 
2d  ed.,  London  and  New  York,  1881;  Caiuxs:  Un- 
belief in  Ihe  Eighteenth  Centunj  (Edinburgh,  1881), 
pp.  37-78. 

COLLKI,  Daniel  Georg  Conrad  von,  b.  at  Oer- 
linghausen,  in  the  principality  of  Lippe-Detmold, 
Dec.  21,  1783;  d.  at  Breslau,  Feb._  17,  ls;j:5 ; 
studied  tlieology  at  Marburg,  Tubingen,  and 
Guttingen,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Marburg  in  1816,  and  at  Breslau  in  1818. 
In  1830  he  published,  together  with  his  friend 
David  Schulz,  Uber  theologische  Lehrfreihcit, 
which  called  forth  from  Schleiermacher  a  Send- 
■schreiben,  in  Theol.  Studien  vnd  Kritiken,  1831,  pp. 
1-39,  also,  in  Schi.eif,rm.\cheu's  SammtHche 
Werke,  P.  1,  vol.  5,  p.  007.  Ctilln  was  a  moder- 
iite  rationalist,  and  his  treatise  a  warning  against 
certain  orthodox  formulas.  In  his  Scndschreihen, 
Schleiermacher  said  that  a  rationalist  might  use 
orthodox  formulas  without  any  hesitation,  men- 
tally reserving  his  own  conception;  which  remark 
caused  much  astonishment,  and  was  vehemeutlj' 
attacked.  Col  In  and  Schulz  also  published  Zirei 
Antwortschreiben,  Leipzig,  1831.  Besides  a  num- 
ber of  articles  to  periodicals,  and  minor  essays, 
CoUn's  principal  work  is  his  BMische  Theoloyie, 
Leipzig,  1836,  2  vols.,  of  which  especially  the 
Old-Testament  part  is  highly  valued.  See  his 
biography  by  Uavid  Schulz,  prefaced  to  liis 
Biblische  Theologie. 

COLLYRIDIANS,  according  to  Epiphanius 
(Hicres,  78),  a  party  of  enthusiastic  women  in 
Arabia,  who  considered  themselves  priestesses  of 
Marv,  and,  on  the  day  consecrated  in  her  honor, 
carried  cakes  (noUvpig)  around  in  a  solemn  pro- 
cession, which  were  presented  as  a  sacrifice  to 
the  Virgin,  and  then  eaten  in  common.  Epipha- 
nius considered  the  whole  affair  as  idolatry: 
probably  it  arose  from  the  Pagan  harvest-feasts 
in  honor  of  Ceres.  hekzou. 

COLMAN,  an  Irish  missionary;  d.  at  Inishbo- 
fin,  County  Mayo,  Ireland,  Aug.  8,  G76.  lie  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Lindisfarne  in  Nortli  Brit- 
ain. 061,  and  in  664  held  with  Wilfrid  (see  title), 
in  the  presence  of  King  Osway,  at  Whitby,  a  pub- 
lic debate  upon  the  Easter  controversy  and  other 
points  then  in  dispute  between  the  Scoto-Irish 
portion  of  the  Christian  population  of  Britain 
and  the  Anglo-Catholic.  Defeated  by  popular 
vote,  Colman,  accompanied  by  all  his  Irish,  and 
thirty  of  his  English  monks,  returned  to  the 
parent  Monastery  of  Ily,  Ireland.  In  668  he 
removed  to  the  Island  of  Inishbo-finne,  now  Inish- 
bofin,  off  the  west  coast  of  Mayo.  Dissensions 
arising  between  his  Irish  and  English  monks,  he 
placed  the  latter  in  a  new  monastery  at  Mayo,  but 
lived  himself  on  the  island. 

COLMAN,  Benjamin,  D.l).,  b.  at  Boston,  Oct. 
Ifl,  1073  ;  d.  there  Aug.  29,  1717.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College  1092,  ordained  in  Lon- 
34-  I 


don,  Aug.  4,  1099,  as  pastor  of  the  Brattle-street 
('luirch,  Boston,  of  which  he  was  the  first  minis- 
ter. He  was  made  D.D.,  by  the  University  of 
(llasgow,  1731.  lie  published  several  volumes 
of  sermons,  besides  jiamphlcts  and  smaller  writ- 
ings. See  the  list  in  the  bibliograpliical  apjien- 
dix  to  Dr.  Dextpr's  Conr/ret/ationalisin  (N.Y., 
1880),  in  addition,  Ernngelical  Sermons,  Collected 
(1707,  1722,  3  vols.),  Poem  on  Elijah's  Translation 
(1707),  Observation  on  Inoculation  (1722),  Treatise 
on  FamUij  Worship  (nZQ).  See  E.  Tukkll:  The 
Life  and  Character  of  the  Reverend  Benjamin  Col- 
man, D.D.,  Boston,  1749. 

COLOCNE,  situated  on  the  Rhine,  and  now  a 
city  of  about  a  hundred  and  forty  thousand  iu- 
haliitants,  was  from  very  old  times  a  place  of 
importance,  and  has  at  various  times  played  a  con- 
spicuous part  in  church  history.  It  was  tlie  chief 
seat  of  the  Ubii.  When  conquered  by  the  Ro- 
mans, it  rose  rapidly.  Agrippina,  the  daughter 
of  Germanicus,  and  the  spouse  of  Claudius,  was 
born  there,  and  planted  a  Roman  colony  there : 
hence  the  name  of  the  place,  Colonia  A  r/rippinen- 
sis.  While  belonging  to  the  Romans,  it  was  the 
metropolis  of  Germania  Sccutida. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  the  city 
was  Christian,  and  the  scat  of  a  liishop.  In  313, 
on  occasion  of  the  Donatistic  controversies.  Mar 
ternus  is  mentioned  as  Bishop  of  Cologne ;  and 
in  314  his  name  is  found  under  the  acts  of  the 
Council  of  Aries.  But  in  330  the  city  was  taken 
by  tlie  Franks,  and  Christianity  had  to  labor  under 
very  difficult  circumstances  till  the  conversion  of 
Clovis  (496).  In  the  hands  of  the  Franks  the 
city  was  the  metropolis  of  the  Ripuarians  until 
the  time  of  Charlemagne,  when  it  was  incor- 
porated with  the  empire.  Hildebald,  Bisliop  of 
Cologne  (784-819),  was  by  Charlemagne  made 
archicapellanus  in  794,  and  archbishop  in  799; 
the  dioceses  of  Utrecht,  Lifege,  Bremen,  Miinster, 
Osnabriick,  and  Minden,  forming  his  province. 
The  territory,  however,  of  the  new  archbishop- 
ric, underwent  many  modifications.  In  834  it 
lost  Bremen,  which  was  transferred  to  Hamburg. 
Nevertheless  the  see  prospered,  and  increased 
both  in  power  and  wealth.  Archbishop  Heribert 
(999-1021)  was  chancellor  of  the  German  Em- 
pire, and  received  the  electoral  dignity. 

Among  the  most  prominent  of  the  archbishops 
of  Cologne  are  Rainald  of  Dassel  (1159-67)  and 
Conrad  of  Hochstaden  (1238-61).  Rainald  was 
a  great  friend  of  Frederic  I.,  who  conferred  many 
and  large  donations  on  the  see,  mostly,  though, 
of  Italian  estates,  which  soon  were  lost.  From 
Italy,  Rainald  brought  to  Cologne  the  remains  of 
the  Three  Holy  Kings,  of  the  martyrs  Felix  and 
Nabor,  of  St.  Apollinaris,  and  otlier  relics  which 
added  to  the  fame  of  the  Church.  Conrad  founded 
the  cathedral  in  1248,  but  was  by  the  unruly  citi- 
zens compelled  to  remove  the  residence  to  Bonn. 
Hermann  V.  (1515-48)  favored  the  Reformation, 
but  was  excommunicated  and  deposed.  Gebhard 
II.  (1577-83)  openly  embraced  Protestantism,  but 
was  also  deposed  and  excommunicated.  For 
nearly  two  centuries  in  succession  the  see  was 
occupied  by  Bavarian  princes,  who  squandered 
its  wealth,  neglected  the  discipline,  and  coquetted 
with  France.  Joseph  Clemens  (1688-1723)  was 
only  eighteen  years  old  when  he  was  enthroned. 
Clemens  August  1.,  who  was  only  fifteen  years 


COLORS  IN  THE  BIBLE. 


ni 


COLORS  IN  THE  BIBLE. 


old  wheu  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Ratisbon,  was 
Bishop  of  Hildesheim  and  of  Osnabriich,  and 
Grand  Master  of  tlie  Teutonic  order,  at  the  same 
time  he  was  Archbisliop  of  Cologne.  Under 
Anton  Victor,  a  son  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  II.. 
the  archbishopric  w;is  secularized  (ISOl) ;  one  part 
of  its  territory  falling  to  France,  others  to  Nas- 
sau, Hesse-Darmstadt,  etc. 

By  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (1815)  the  territory 
was  again  gathered  together,  and  hud  under  the 
Prussian  crown ;  and  in  182i  the  archbishopric 
was  re-established.  But  the  relation  between  the 
Roman-Catholic  archliishop  at  Cologne  and  the 
Protestant  minister  of  state  at  Berlin  soon  became 
very  difficult,  and  under  Droste-Vischering  (1835- 
45)  it  came  to  a  crisis.  The  troubles  arose  from 
the  mixed  marriages.  Droste-Vischering  forbade 
his  priests  to  sanction  any  such  marriage,  unless 
both  parties  promised  that  all  the  children  should 
lie  educated  in  the  Roman-Catholic  faith  ;  and 
the  Prussian  minister,  Altenstein,  answered  by 
having  the  archbishop  arrested  (1837).  The  case 
ended  with  a  compromise  (1840)  equally  unsatis- 
factory to  both  parties. 

The  Cathedral  of  Cologne  —  one  of  the  most 
famous,  and  also  one  of  the  finest,  specimens  of 
Gothic  architecture  —  was  founded  in  1'248.  In 
13:22  the  choir  was  consecrated,  and  in  1437  the 
southern  tower  was  ready  to  receive  its  bells. 
From  that  time,  and  up  to  the  middle  of  the 
present  century,  the  work  with  the  building  pro- 
ceeded very  slowly :  at  times  it  stopped  alto- 
gether. But  in  1842  Friederich  Wilhelm  IV.  of 
Prussia  appointed  a  sum  of  fifty  tlionsand  dollars 
a  year  for  the  completion  of  the  structure,  and  a 
building  association  was  formed.  Rich  contri- 
butions came  in  from  everywhere  in  Germany ; 
and  on  Oct.  1.5,  1880,  the  completed  Catholic 
catliedral  was  consecrated  in  the  presence  of  the 
Protestant  Emperor,  William  I.,  and  his  Protes- 
tant court,  while  the  archbishop  was  absent,  being 
in  e.\ile.  The  length  of  the  building  is  four 
hundred  and  eighty  feet ;  the  breadth,  two  hun- 
dred and  eighty-two  feet;  the  height  of  the  cen- 
tral aisle,  a  hundred  ami  fifty-four  feet ;  that  of 
the  towers,  five  hundred  feet.  The  largest  of  the 
bells  weighs  eleven  tons. 

Lit.  —  Meiu.ng  und  Rkisciikut:  Die  Bixchiife 
und  Erzhisc)iii/'e  con  Ciitit,  Cologne,  1843;  PoD- 
j.KCii:  Gescliiclile  iler  Krziliocexe  KiJlii,  Mainz,  1870; 
W'.  MAUKKNiiRECiiKit :  Die  preusKisc/ie  Kirchenpo- 
lilik  u.  ilcn  Kiilncr  Kirr/ienslreil,  Stuttgart,  1881. 

COLORS  IN  THE  BIBLE.  Thenamesof  colors 
whirli  arr  iii''iitiiiii.-.l  in  the;  Old  Testament  are 
(1)  W/iite,  hrif/lit, /talc,  ijrai/,  creiwi-coloreil ;  (2)  Yet- 
loa;  f/reen  ;  (3)  JieiJ,  fox-coloreil,  ochre-red,  crimson; 
(4)  Purple,  violet ;  (5)  IHack,  hro'vii.  Of  the  natural 
colors  noticed  in  the  Bible  we  find  white,  black. 
red,  green,  but  very  seldom  yellow.  Some  colors 
were  more  preferred  to  others.  Thus  white 
dresses  were  the  raiment  of  a  gentlennin  (as  the 
black  coat  in  our  days)  ;  purple,  the  garuK'nt  of 
the  prince.s,  and  the  sign  of  royal  dignity.  Each 
color  had  its  special  significance.  Light  colors 
were  the  e.'cpre.ssion  of  joy ;  dark,  that  of  sorrow 
(2  Sam.  i.  21;  Mai.  iii.  "ll).  White  wa.s  also 
.symbolical  of  innocence:  hence  the  raiment  of 
angeU  (Mark  xvi.  5;  .John  .\x.  12)  and  of  glo- 
rified saints  (Rev.  xix.  8,  14).  White  w;is  sym- 
boli&il  of  victory,  iu  opposition  to  black,  which 


denoted  evil  (Zech.  vi.  2,  6).  Red  was  sym- 
bolical of  bloodshed.  But  this  color,  of  which 
the  Hebrews  seem  to  have  had  a  clear  conception, 
was  also  regarded  as  an  element  of  personal 
beautj'  (comp.  1  Sam.  xvi.  12;  Cant.  ii.  1,  where 
the  lily  is  the  red  one  for  which  Sj'ria  was  famed ; 
Cant.  iv.  3,  vi.  7,  where  the  complexion  is  com- 
pared to  the  red  fruit  of  the  pomegranate ;  and 
Lam.  iv.  7,  where  the  hue  of  the  skin  is  redder 
than  rubies,  contrasting  with  the  white  of  the 
garments  before  noticed). 

Looking  at  the  artificial  colors,  we  notice  (1) 
the  purple.  This  color  was  obtained  from  the 
secretion  of  a  species  of  shell-fish  found  in  various 
parts  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  especially  on  the 
coasts  of  Phcenicia.  Robes  of  this  color  were 
worn  by  kings  (Judg.  viii.  2G)  and  by  the  highest 
officers,  civil  and  religious  (comp.  Esth.  viii.  15; 
Dan.  V.  7, 16,  29 ;  2  Jlacc.  iv.  38).  Purple  dresses 
were  also  worn  by  the  wealthy  and  luxurious 
(Jer.  X.  9;  Ezek.  xxvii.  7).  Next  to  purple  we 
notice  (2)  scarlet.  This  dye  was  produced  from 
an  insect  somewhat  resembling  the  cocliineal, 
j  w  hioli  is  found  in  considerable  quantities  in  .Arme- 
nia and  other  Eastern  countries.  Robes  of  this 
color  were  worn  by  the  luxurious  (2  Sam.  i.  24; 
Prov.  xxxi.  21;  Jer.  iv.  30;  Lam.  iv.  5),  and  it 
was  also  the  appropriate  hue  of  a  warrior's  dress, 
from  its  similarity  to  blood  (Xah.  ii.  3).  (3)  Blue, 
or  rather  violet.  This  dye  was  also  procured  from 
a  species  of  shell-fish  found  on  the  coast  of  Phoe- 
nicia, and  was  used  in  the  same  way  as  purple, 
as  the  color  of  dresses  worn  by  the  princes  and 
nobles  (Ezek.  xxiii.  6) ;  and  Bab^-lonian  idols 
were  clotlied  in  robes  of  this  tint  (Jer.  x.  9). 
Another  red  color  was  the  vermilion,  a  pigment 
used  in  fresco-painting,  either  for  drawing  figures 
of  idols  on  the  walls  of  temples  (Ezek.  xxiii. 
14),  or  for  decorating  the  walls  and  beams  of 
houses  (,Ier.  xxii.  14). 

Si/mboticnl  Sir/ni/ica»ce  of  the  Colors.  —  Purple, 
blue,  scarlet,  and  white  are  the  four  colors  of  the 
Mosaic  cultus.  The  four  were  used  in  combina- 
tion in  the  outer  curtains,  the  veil,  the  entrance- 
curtain,  and  the  gate  of  the  court,  as  also  in  the 
ephod,  girdle,  and  breastplate  of  the  high  priest. 
The  first  three,  viz.,  purple,  blue,  and  scarlet, 
were  used  in  the  pomegr.inates  about  the  hem  of 
the  robe  of  the  high  priest.  Exclusivelj'  blue 
were  the  robe  of  the  high  prie-st,  the  lace  of  the 
high  priest's  breastplate,  the  lace  on  his  mitre, 
and  the  fifty  loops  of  the  curtains.  Exclusively 
white  were  the  breeches  and  mitre  of  the  high 
priest.  The  cloths  for  wrapping  the  sacred  ves- 
sels were  either  bliu-,  scarlet,  or  purple.  White 
were  also  tin'  clothes  of  the  lower  priests.  Added 
to  this  th(^  bine  ribbon  and  the  fringe  of  the 
Hebrew  dress,  we  perceive  at  once  the  use  and 
application  of  the  colors  used  in  the  Hebrew 
service.  The  red  is  only  used  once  (Exod.  xxvi. 
14).  Black  is  excluded  everywhere,  as  well  as 
yellow  and  green;  which  is  significant.  That 
purple,  blue,  scarlet,  and  white  were  used  only 
is  not  merely  aceiilental,  but  rather  the  outgrowth 
of  tlie  consciousness  of  their  significance.  The 
reason  for  the  use  of  the  white  to  the  total  ex- 
clusion of  the  black  is  ea.sy  to  perceive.  Bl.ack, 
as  it  ab.sorbs  all  colors,  and  thus  buries  the  light, 
is  the  symbol  of  death,  and  of  every  thing  that 
tends  towards  death.     But  life,  light,  holiness,  and 


COLORS  IN  THE  BIBLE. 


515 


COLUMBA. 


joy,  on  the  one  hand,  and  cessation,  death,  dark- 
ness, malice,  q,nd  sorrow,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
biblical  contrasts,  of  which  wliite  and  black  are 
the  repre.sentative.s  of  this  twofold  series  of  oppo- 
sites.  White,  however,  reflects  the  linht;  hence 
it  symbolizes  purity  and  victory.  Whilst  the 
third  riderof  the  Apocalypse  sits  on  a  black  liorse, 
bringiiic:  with  him  famine,  and  with  it  di'ath  ( Hev. 
vi.  .'5),  the  Persian  liorses  in  the  eiijlith  vision  of 
Zechariah  are  white,  because  no  worldly  power 
had  ever  sliown  .a  more  noble  disposition  towards 
I.sr.ael  than  the  dynasty  of  the  Acha'menidi's, 
which  set  the  exiles  free,  and  promoted,  the  build- 
ing of  the  temple.  'I'lie  first  of  the  four  .apoca- 
lyptic riders  has  a  white  liorse;  for  he  went 
forth  to  conquer.  The  "  Ancient  of  days,"  i.e., 
the  Ever-living  (Dan.  vii.  9),  appears  in  a  gar- 
ment white  as  snow  :  even  the  hair  of  his  head 
is  like  the  pure  w'ool.  And  thus,  likewise,  the 
glorified  Christ  (Rev.  i.  14).  Even  the  throne  of 
God  which  Ezekiel  saw  is  white.  White  de- 
notes the  victory  and  triumph  of  tlie  light : 
hence  we  understand  why  the  garments  of  the 
priests  were  white.  Even  the  high  priest  wore 
the  so-called  golden  robes  over  the  white  ones; 
and  in  the  temple  which  Ezekiel  saw  in  his  vision 
the  priests  w'ore  white  garments  only.  The  robes 
of  the  priests  are,  according  to  their  natural  color, 
white,  a.s  the  angels  and  blessed  appeared  to  tlie 
seers,  and  as  the  garments  of  Jesus  became  white, 
whilst  on  the  mount  of  transfiguration,  "  like  the 
light."  White  is  the  color  of  the  light;  and  what 
the  light  is  to  the  luitural  world  God  is  above 
all,  and  to  every  creature.  lie  is  light,  and  gives 
light,  or  he  is  holy,  i.e.,  holy  love.  Suppose  that 
the  colors  in  the  garments  of  the  priests  have  ref- 
erence to  their  office,  viz.,  to  act  as  the  medium 
between  God  and  his  congregation,  it  will  be 
their  duty  to  go  before  the  people  in  holiness  and 
purity. 

Connected  with  white  is  its  opposite,  the  fox- 
color  of  the  scaiiel.  as  the  emblem  of  fire.  The 
red  horses  in  the  first  vision  of  Zechariah  bring 
about  bloody  war;  and  the  fox-colored,  a  consum- 
ing fire.  But  light  and  fire  are  opposites  accord- 
ing to  the  ethical  idea  of  Holy  \Vrit;  viz.,  the 
light  is  the  symbol  of  communicating  love,  the 
fire,  that  of  consuming  anger.  When  Isaiah  de- 
scribes the  sins  of  his  people,  he  speaks  of  them 
as  lieing  red  like  scarlet,  not  like  purple.  The 
scarlet  along  with  the  white  in  the  high  priest's 
garment  means,  therefore,  to  say  that  he  is  not 
only  the  servant  of  the  God  of  love,  but  also 
of  the  God  of  anger.  As  to  the  purple  and  blue, 
which  are  always  connected,  be  it  along  with 
white  and  scarlet,  or  between,  as  they  are  only 
two  kinds  of  one  and  the  same  purple  color,  which 
again  is  not  a  natural  but  an  artificial  color, 
consisting  of  red  and  vioh't.  they  refer  to  a  two- 
fold attribute  of  the  royal  King.  —  the  purple  to 
tlie  majesty  of  God  in  his  glory,  and  the  blue  to 
God's  majesty  in  his  condescension.  The  purple 
of  the  garments  of  tlie  high  priest  denotes,  there- 
fore, that  he  is  a  servant  of  that  God  of  whom 
the  song  at  the  Red  Sea  says,  ''  The  Lord  will 
reign  for  ever  and  ever"  (Exod.  xv.  IS)  ;  and  the 
song  of  Moses,  "  And  he  was  king  in  Jeshurun  " 
(Deut.  xxxiii.  5).  The  red  color  of  the  red 
lieifer,  whose  ashes,  mixed  witli  water,  were  to 
be  used  in  purification  of  the  unclean,  had  also 


a  symbolical  signification,  lied  is  the  color  of 
blood,  which,  again,  is  the  life.  The  animal 
intended  as  antidote  against  uncleanness  through 
contact  with  a  dea<l  body  was  to  be  without  bh'm- 
ish,  and  upon  which  never  came  yoke,  and  thus 
represented  in  its  color  a  picture  of  fresh  and 
vigorous  life.  Maybe  that  tlie  colors  of  the  twelve 
precious  stones  which  were  on  the  breastplate  of 
the  high  priest  had  a  .symbolical  significance  as 
to  their  relation  to  tlie  twelve  tribes  whose  names 
were  engraved  on  them  (Exod.  xxviii.  17-21). 
This,  at  least,  may  be  derived  from  Jewish  tra- 
dition. [Compare  the  art.  Far/jin  (Vm'^.  "colors") 
in  the  Bilile  dictionaries  of  .Smith,  Winer,  Ham- 
burger, Riehm,  and  Scheiikel.  See  also  Bahk: 
S)/inl)olik  ties  monaisclii-ii  Cullux,  Heidelberg,  1837- 
39,  I.  pp.  303  sq.].  DKI.ITZ.SCH  CB.   PICK). 

COLOSS/E.  This  Phrygian  city  was  situated 
upon  till-  Eyrus,  a  branch  of  the  M;eander,  twelve 
miles  above  Eaodic;ea.  In  ancient  days  it  was 
an  important  place,  standing  as  it  did  on  the  line 
of  travel  from  Eastern  to  Western  Asia:  but 
after  the  time  of  Cyrus  it  declined  ;  so  that  wlien 
Paul  wrote  his  epistle  it  was  a  small  town,  and 
is  now  extinct.  Liglitfoot  says  it  "was  without 
doubt  the  least  important  church  to  whicli  any 
Epistle  of  Paul  was  addressed.  Xot  a  single 
event  in  Christian  history  is  connected  with  its 
name ;  and  its  very  existence  is  only  rescued 
from  oblivion,  when,  at  long  intervals,  some  bishop 
of  Colossaj  attaches  his  signature  to  the  decree 
of  an  ecclesiastical  synod."  The  variation  in  the 
spelling  of  the  name  is  an  indication  of  the  insig- 
nificance of  the  place.  Should  it  be  Colossa>,  or 
ColassiB  ?  The  Codex  Sinailicus  gives  K.o?.ocaaL  in 
the  title,  and,  i.  2,  KoAoaaatli ,  but,  in  the  headings 
of  the  pages  and  the  subscription,  Ko/.aaaatic.  The 
former  .spelling  is  found  upon  coins  and  in  classi- 
cal authors,  and  seems  to  be  the  correct,  the  latter 
the  vulgar,  form. 

The  church  at  Colossfe  was  not  founded  by 
Paul,  but  probably  by  Epaphras,  during  Paul's 
three-years'  sojourn  at  Ephesus  (A.D.  54-57). 

COLOSSIANS,   Epistle  to.     See  P.wl. 

COLUMBA,  St.,  or  Columbkille ;  b.  at  Gartan, 
County  Donegal,  7tli  December,  5'21 ;  d.  at  lona, 
Whitsunday.  9th  June,  597.  Like  many  of  the 
Celtic  saints,  he  was  of  princely  descent;  and  this, 
no  doubt,  contributed  to  his  influence,  and  per- 
haps to  the  blemishes,  as  well  as  to  the  virtues,  of 
his  character.  He  was  educated  in  part  under  St. 
Finnian  of  Moville,  and  in  part  under  St.  Finnian 
of  Clonard,  from  whose  school  so  many  noble 
missionaries  sprang.  He  early  gave  himself  to 
mission-work  in  his  native  country,  and,  previous 
to  his  departure  from  it,  had  founded  many  reli- 
gious houses  —  monasteries  in  form.  Christian 
colonies  in  reality  —  in  the  midst  of  a  still  bar- 
barous people.  The  chief  of  these  were  Derry, 
founded  in  545,  and  Durrow.  erected  in  .553.  The 
cause  usually  assigned  for  his  expatriation  from 
Ireland  is  the  part  he  took  in  a  great  contest  in 
vindication  of  the  right  of  sanctuary  in  his  mon- 
asteries, and  stirring  up  war  against  the  king 
who  had  violated  it.  For  this  he  is  said  to  have 
been  excommunicated,  and  to  have  been  enjoined 
as  a  penance,  or  to  have  voluntarily  consented,  to 
go  into  exile,  that  he  might  gain  for  Christ  as 
many  from  among  the  Pagans  as  he  had  occa. 
sioued  the  loss  of  among  the  Christians  of  Ireland. 


COLUMBA. 


516 


COLUMBA. 


But  he  was  thoroughly  actuated  by  the  missionary 
spirit,  then  so  characteristic  of  his  countrymen; 
and  his  expatriation  is  more  likely  to  have  been 
prompted  by  this,  and  desire  to  sustain  and  pro- 
mote the  cause  of  Christianity  in  Alban.  which 
seemed  to  be  threatened  by  the  misfortunes  of 
the  Dalriad  Scots  under  his  relative,  King  Conal. 
With  twelve  like-minded  companions,  he  sailed 
from  Derry  in  503.  in  a  currach,  or  skiff,  of  wicker- 
work  covered  with  hides ;  and  touching  first  at 
Colonsay,  and  then,  according  to  some,  at  the 
■chief  fort  of  his  relative  on  the  mainland,  he 
passed  on  to  the  little  island  since  made  famous 
by  his  residence  and  labors,  —  the  Island  of  Hy, 
loua,  or,  as  Dr.  Reeves  says  it  should  be  written, 
lova.  (See  Iona.)  Bede  says  that  this  island 
was  presented  to  him  by  the  Picts  :  but  the  Irish 
annalists  claim  the  credit  of  the  gift  for  his  rela- 
tive, the  king  of  the  Dalriad  Scots.  Probably  the 
concurrence  of  both  was  sought  for  the  greater 
security  of  the  infant  establishment  as  a  home  for 
himself  and  his  companions,  a  centre  of  mission- 
ary work  among  surrounding  Pagans,  and  a  shelter 
for  such  converts  as  might  desire  to  lead  a  more 
thorough  Christian  life  than  they  could  among 
their  Pagan  relatives.  After  erecting  a  humble 
monastery,  according  to  the  custom  of  his  country, 
he  set  himself  to  gain  for  Christ  the  nearer  Pictish 
tribes.  Having  met  with  sonu;  success  among 
these,  he  next  essayed  to  visit  Briide,  the  king  of 
the  whole  nation,  in  his  fort  by  the  Ness,  to  make 
known  the  truth  to  him.  We  maj-  dismiss  as 
legendary  the  details  of  his  biographer  as  to  the 
miracles  he  wrought  to  secure  access  to  the  reluc- 
tant king,  believing,  with  Bede,  that  it  was  his 
teaching  and  holy  life  that  ultimately  gained  for 
him  the  hearts  of  the  king  and  the  nation ;  and 
liolding  that  the  real  miracle  needed  was  his 
steadfast  faith  in  the  Master  he  served,  and  un- 
wearying devotion  to  that  Master's  work.  In  his 
fir.st  visits  he  maj'  have  addressed  the  Picts  through 
an  interpreter;  and  he  liad  among  his  companions 
at  least  two  of  Iro-Pictish  descent,  Comghall  and 
Cainnpch,  who  would  be  able  as  well  as  accepta- 
ble interpreters  to  the  chiefs  of  this  nation. 
But  the  Pictish  dialect  was  so  nearly  allie<l  to  his 
own,  that  he  could  have  no  difficulty  in  acquiring 
it.  With  the  aid  of  his  companions  lie  strength- 
•ened  and  oonfirmcii  the  Christian  Scots,  and  ulti- 
mately won  over  to  the  Christian  faith  the  Picts 
of  the  North,  as  well  as  the  tribes  on  the  banks 
of  the  Tay,  and  i-ven  the  inhabitants  of  Fife,  once 
partially  evangi'lizi'd  by  .St.  Niniaii.  lie  founded 
among  them,  ajiil  in  the  islands  of  the  West  and 
North,  religious  liouses.  —  littli-  Christian  colo- 
nies.—  all  in  subordination  to  the  mothcr-hou.se 
of  Iona,  and  under  his  own  direction.  His  reli- 
gious establishments  in  Ireland  also  continued 
under  his  guidance,  and  were  occasionally  visited 
by  liini.  One  visit  he  paiil  to  Ireland  in  the  year 
57.")  was  especially  noteworthy,  as  he  took  with 
liim  .'Milan,  wliojn  he  had  inauginaled  as  successor 
to  Conal  iu  the  kingdom  of  the  .\rgyllsliire  Scots, 
and  secured  his  more  entire  independence  of  Ire- 
land. The  evening  of  liis  ilays  was  pa.ssed  in 
his  island  home,  and  the  closing  scene  was  par- 
ticularly touching.  The  day  before  lie  died, 
ascending  the  hill  which  overhioked  the  nu)nas- 
tery  and  its  little  farm,  he  stood  surveying  it  for 
some  time,  and,  lifting  up  but h  his  hands,  bestowed 


on  it  his  parting  blessing.  Returning  to  his  hut, 
he  resumed  his  daily  task  in  transcribing  the 
Psalter,  and  proceeded  to  the  place  where  it  is 
written,  '•  They  that  seek  the  Lord  shall  not  lack 
any  good  thing."  '•  Here,"  he  said  at  the  close  of 
the  page,  "  I  must  stop  :  what  follows  let  Baithene 
write;"  indicating  him  apparently  as  his  succes- 
sor. After  some  time  he  lay  down  to  rest ;  but, 
when  the  bell  for  matins  rang,  he  hastened  to 
the  church,  and,  ere  the  brethren  could  join  him, 
he  had  fainted  before  the  altar.  Unable  to  speak, 
he  made  a  feeble  effort  once  more  to  raise  his  right 
hand  to  bless  them,  and,  with  joy  beaming  in  his 
face,  passed  to  his  rest  and  rew  ard. 

Coluniba  was  "of  lofty  stature  and  noble  bear- 
ing. He  could  express  himself  with  ease  and 
gracefulness,  and  had  a  clear,  commanding  voice." 
•■  He  w  as  a  man  of  quick  perception  and  gi-eat 
force  of  character,—  one  of  those  masterful  minds 
which  mould  and  sway  others  by  mere  force  of 
contact."  His  faith  in  its  essence  was  tliat  of 
the  church  of  his  day,  though  by  his  isolation  he 
may  have  been  jireserved  from  some  of  the  errors 
which  were  already  creeping  in  elsewhere.  He 
had  an  intense  love  for  the  word  of  God,  and 
spent  much  time  in  reading,  studying,  and  copying 
it.  He  gave  much  time  also  to  prayer,  and  to 
the  guiding  of  the  communities  w  hich  put  them- 
selves under  his  care,  endeavoring  to  train  them 
in  useful  arts  as  well  as  in  Christian  knowledge. 
At  times  he  failed  to  curb  an  imperious  temper, 
and  inspired  with  awe,  not  only  his  enemies,  but 
his  votaries,  as  if  his  motto  were  that  afterwards 
appropriated  by  his  adojited  country,  —  "  Netno  me 
impunc  ktcessit."  But  all  in  all  his  character  was 
a  singularly  noble  one,  and  he  deserves  to  be  held 
in  lasting  remembrance  as  the  Apostle  of  Caledo- 
nia. Twenty-four  churches  or  other  religious 
foundations  are  said  by  Dr.  Reeves  to  have  been 
dedicated  to  him  in  Pictland,  and  thirty-two  in 
other  parts  of  Scotland,  and  thirty-seven  in 
Ii'eland.  Three  Latin  hymns  of  considerable 
beauty  are  attributed  to  him;  and  in  the  an- 
cient Irish  Liher  IJi/miioni>ii,  in  which  they  are 
preserved,  there  is  also  a  preface  to  each,  describ- 
ing the  occasion  on  which  it  was  composed. 
Some  Irish  poems  have  also  been  ascribed  to 
him,  but  apparently  without  .so  satisfactory  evi- 
dence, though  tliey  are  undoubtedly  ancient. 

Lit.  —  'J'lic  Life  of  Si.  CuIuiiiIhi,  Founiler  of 
Uji,  written  by  Adamnan,  ninth  abbot  of  that 
IVhmastery,  etc.,  with  Notes  and  Dissert;itions  by 
William  "Reeves,  D.D.,  M.R.I.A,  Dublin,  -Ito, 
18.')7.  New  edition  of  above,  with  English 
translation,  and  re-arrangement  of  notes  by 
W.  1".  .Skene,  being  Vol.A'L  of  "The  Historians 
of  Scotland.  Edin.,  1871,  8vo.  7V«'  /,//'"  of  St. 
Columhd,  lilt'  Ajioslle  and  Patron  Saint  if  the  An- 
cient l^iiix  and  .Sco/.s  etc.,  by  Joiin  Smith,  D.I)., 
Edin.,  1708.  Act<t  ilirema  S.  Ciihunliiv  Ahliati.i,  in 
Colgan's  "Trias  Thaumatnrga  Lovanii."  I(i4.j-17, 
fol.  Life,  in  Pinkerton's  "Vita;  Antiqua:  Sancto- 
rum," 1789,  8vo.  Life,  in  Montalc'mt>ert's  "  Les 
Moines  d'Occident,"'  Vol.  HI.,  pp.  !)9,  .  .  .  332, 
Paris,  1800-77,  8vo.  Notices  in  Skene's  "Celtic 
Church,"  M'Lacldan's,  Lanigan's,  Neander's 
histories,  Greith's  "Geschichte  der  altirischeu 
Kirclie  "  (Freiburg,  18(i7),  and  Ebrard's  "  Dii^  iro- 
schottische  Missionsl^irciie  der6.,7..u.  8.,  .lahrh." 
((iule.riiloh,    1873.)  .\1,K.\.  F.  MITCIIKLI.. 


COLUMBANUS. 


>17 


COMENIUS. 


COLUMBANUS,  b.  in  Leinster,  Iroland,  about 
5J:i  ;  il.  in  l>ol>liio,  Glo  ;  was  odiicatfid  at  I'angoi-  ; 
went  about  !'>'.)'>,  with  twelve  brotlier-nionks,  to 
France,  and  settled  in  the  wilderness  of  the 
Vosges,  where,  on  the  ruins  of  the  Castle  of  Anne- 
gray,  lie  founded  a  monastery  after  the  Irish 
model ;  that  is,  a  school  at  once  for  ascetic  devo- 
tion and  sacred  learning.  The  undertaking  was 
eminently  successful.  Similar  estalilishments 
arose  at  Luxeuil,  Fontaine,  Resan<,-on,  etc..  an<l 
in  the  next  generation  all  the  most  prominent 
members  of  the  clergy  of  Gaul  had  been  educat- 
ed in  Columban"s  schools.  But  the  success  en- 
gendered jealousy.  Brunhilde,  the  grandmother 
o.  King  Theodoric,  was  afraid  of  tlie  influence  of 
the  austere  monk,  and  used  the  discrepancies  be- 
tween him  and  the  Frankish  Church  with  respect 
to  the  computation  of  Easter,  the  tonsure,  the 
monastical  organization,  etc.,  so  cunningly,  that  a 
synod  condenmed  him,  and  banished  him  from 
the  country.  He  found  refuge  with  Chlotar  of 
Neustria,  and  afterwards  went  to  Austrasia,  where 
King  Theodebert  also  received  him  well.  He 
settled  on  the  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Constance,  at 
Bregenz,  where  he  took  possession  of  an  aban- 
doned church,  and  enjoyed  the  support  of  the 
bishop.  But  in  012  Theodebert  was  defeated  by 
Theodoric,  and  his  dominions  were  conquered, 
and  incorporated  \\ith  the  realm  of  the  Salian 
Franks.  Columban  once  more  was  homeless. 
He  went  to  Italy,  and  obtained  the  protection  of 
Agilulf,  King  of  the  Lombards.  On  the  Trebia, 
south  of  Pavia,  he  founded  a  new  monastery, 
Bobbio,  which  soon  became  a  prominent  centre  of 
learning  and  studj'.  There  he  died,  according  to 
general  acceptation,  on  Nov.  1.5;  according  to 
Marlyrol.  Rom.,  on  XI.  Cat.  Decumh.,  according 
to  the  biography  by  Jonas,  on  //.  Cal.  IJcccmb. 

As  a  pupil  of  Bangor,  and  son  of  the  old  Irish 
church  commuMit\',  Columban  occupied  a  very 
peculiar  position  with  respect  to  Rome  and  the 
Pope.  He  deviated  from  the  Roman  Church  in 
many  points  of  rites,  liturgy,  and  government ; 
and,  though  he  acknowledged  Rome  as  the  me- 
tropolis of  the  Church,  the  idea  of  a  papal  primacy 
was  entirely  foreign  to  him.  In  602  he  addressed 
a  letter  to  Gregory  I.  to  defend  his  computation 
of  Easter;  but  he  received  no  answer.  Two  more 
letters,  one  to  Boniface  III.,  after  the  condennia- 
tion  of  the  Gallic  .synod,  and  one  to  Boniface  IV., 
in  the  controver.sy  of  the  Three  Chapters,  had 
the  same  fate.  But  in  spite  of  their  small  effect, 
the  general  tone  of  these  letters  shows  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  writer.  More  difficult  to  decide 
is  the  point  of  difference  between  the  Roman  and 
the  Iro-Scottish  Church  with  respect  to  monasti- 
cal organization  and  rules.  Two  documents,  both 
referring  to  the  subject,  but  of  a  very  different 
character,  are  still  extant, —  the  Retjula  Cnhimbani 
and  the  Reijulii  Caniihialh  Fralrum  tie  Ifihernia. 
The  former  is  a  thoroughly  biblical  direction 
towards  a  Christian  life  in  evangelical  fi-eedom : 
the  latter  orders  that  he  who  neglects  to  make 
the  sign  of  the  cross  over  the  spoon  before  eat- 
ing shall  be  punished  by  a  sound  whipping; 
that  he  who  speaks  to  a  layman  shall  be  punislied 
by  singing  a  number  of  hymns,  etc.  But  while 
the  character  of  the  Hfr/ula  Culumbani  corresponds 
very  closely  with  that  of  Columban's  sermons, 
which  are  genuine,  the  Liber  Poenilenlialis  Colum- 


bnni,  which  coiTesponds  to  the  Reyula  Ccnnobialis, 
is  evidently  spurious. 

Lit.  —  The  works  of  Columban  were  edited 
by  Fleming,  Louvain,  ICdT  ;  his  Rec/ula  is  found 
in  Coil,  licf/.,  I.  10(i,  ed.  liolsten  Brockie;  his 
Ijiography  liy  Jonas,  in /Ic/.  Sajicl.  Ord.  S.  lien., 
II.  ;!.  See  EiiRAitr):  Die.  Irofcliolllxclic  Missions- 
/cin-lir.  AUG.   WEltNEK. 

COLOMBIA,  United  States  of,  contain,  accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  bS71  (not  so  very  ndiable), 
2,010, :52!)  inhabitants,  besides  about  a  hundred 
thousand  Indians  living  in  a  state  of  savagery. 
The  religion  of  the  State  is  Roman-Catholic. 
The  Church  is  governed  by  the  Archbishop  of 
I?ogotd  and  the  Bishops  of  Popayan.  Cartagena. 
Santa  Marta,  Antioquia,  Panamd,  and  Pamplona. 
The  number  of  priests,  however,  is  insufficient. 
In  18.51  there  were  thirty-two  monastic  establish- 
ments, with  six  hundred  and  ninety-seven  in- 
mates ;  but  the  number  is  decreasing.  For  tlie 
education  of  the  clergy  a  theological  faculty  and 
four  seminaries  are  provided ;  but  the  provision 
is  inadequate,  and  the  moral  influence  of  the 
clergy  on  the  population  is  said  to  be  small. 
Since  1851  other  denorainations  have  the  liberty 
of  public  worship:  but  ihi  Protestants  of  Bogota 
liave  no  church,  and  form  no  congiegation ;  they 
have  only  a  separate  cemetery.  The  Christiani- 
zation  of  the  Indians  is  still  one  of  the  great 
problems  of  the  government.  G.  FLIT"'. 

COMBEFIS,  FranQois,  b.  at  Marmade,  in  the 
department  of  Lot-et-Garonne,  160.5;  d.  in  Paris, 
March  23,  1679 ;  entered  the  Dominican  order  in 
1624 ;  taught  theology  and  philosophy  in  several 
of  the  schools  of  the  order,  but  retired,  and  de- 
voted himself  exclusively  to  the  restitution  of  the 
texts  of  the  works  of  the  Fathers,  for  which  pur- 
pose he  was  pensioned  by  the  French  clergy. 
His  principal  works  are  Graco-Lalitice  Palrum 
Bihliolliecce  Novum  A  aclunrium,  Paris,  1648,  2  vols, 
fob,  which  work  displeased  the  papal  court  on 
account  of  the  openness  with  which  tlie  Monothe- 
letic  controversy  was  represented;  Bibliolheca  Pa- 
trum,  Paris,  1662,  8  vols,  in  fob  reprinted  1747; 
a  complete  edition  of  the  works  of  Basil  the 
Great.  1679,  2  vols. ;  the  works  and  fragments  of 
Amphilochus,  Methodius,  Andreas  of  Creta,  St. 
Maxinius.  etc. 

COMENIUS,  Latinized  form  of  Komensky, 
Johann  Amos,  the  last  bishop  of  the  Church  of 
the  Bohemian  Brethren ;  b.  at  Niwnitz.  Moravia. 
July  28,  1592 ;  d.  in  Amsterdam,  in  November. 
1670.  After  studying  theology  at  Herborn  and 
Heidelberg,  he  eiitered  the  ministry,  and  had 
charge,  first  of  the  parish  of  Prerau,  afterw'ards 
of  tiiat  of  Fulnek.  In  1624  he  and  his  co- 
religionists were  expelled  from  Bohemia,  and 
in  1627  he  settled  at  Lissa  in  Poland.  Driven 
away,  also,  from  this  place,  in  1654,  he  finally 
settled  in  Amsterdam.  As  a  preacher,  and  leader 
of  the  Church,  he  enjoyed  a  great  reputation  ;  and 
his  Ltibi/rintli  der  Welt  und  Parodies  de.'i  Hcrzcns 
and  Unum  Neces.iarium  belong  to  the  best  which 
the  Church  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren  produced. 
But  his  greatest  fame  he  attained  as  a  peda- 
gogue. His  Gevfliiele  S/traclienlur  and  Orbis 
Pictu.'i  were  tran-^ilated  into  all  European  lan- 
guages ;  the  former  even  into  Persian  and  Arabic, 
and  reprinted  over  and  over  again  for  two  cen- 
turies.    He  was  specially  invited  to  England  (by 


COMMENDA. 


518 


COMMODUS. 


Parliament,  1642),  Transylvania  (by  Rakoezy, 
1650),  Sweden,  etc..  to  examine  and  reform  the 
whole  educational  department;  and  many  of  the 
ideas  of  Rousseau  and  Pestalozzi  may  be  found 
in  his  writings  in  fully  develojied  form.  [He 
was  even  invited,  through  Governor  Winthrop, 
to  succeed  Henry  Dunster  as  president  of  Har- 
vard College.  See  Cotton  M.^thei'.'.s  Mtignalia, 
4th  book,  pt.  1,  §  5,  ed.  Hartford,  1853,  vol.  ii. 
p.  14.  For  biographies,  see  Criegern  :  Johann 
Amos  Comenius,  als  Tiieoloy,  Leipzig,  1881 ; 
Laurie  :  The  Life  and  Educational  Works  of 
Comrnius,  London,  1881.]         PAUL  KLEINERT. 

COMMENDA,  or  in  coinmendam,  from  the  Latin 
rommendare,  "to  intrust;"  a  term  .applied  when 
the  administration  of  an  ecclesiastical  office  and 
the  enjoyment  of  its  revenues  are,  for  some  rea- 
son, temporarily  intrusted  to  a  person  already 
holding  another  ecclesiastical  officii.  As  the 
canon  law  forbade  the  accumulation  of  offices, 
the  way  in  which  tlie  popes  evaded  the  law,  and 
indulged  their  nepotism  and  favoritism,  was  to 
give  offices  in  cominendain,  but  for  lifetime ;  and 
so  general  became  this  irregularity,  that  tlie 
Council  of  Trent  felt  unable  to  cope  with  the 
evil,  and  confined  itself  to  making  some  restric- 
tions. 

COMMERCE  AMONG  THE  HEBREWS.  The 
ancient  Hebrews,  whose  descendants  became  tlie 
commercial  people  of  the  globe,  were  not  origi- 
nally predestinated  for  commerce  and  traffic  on 
account  of  their  theocratic  position,  although 
Palestine  possessed  all  the  conditions  for  com- 
mercial enterprises.  The  many  enactments  for- 
bidding the  intercourse  with  Gentiles,  rather 
tended  to  impress  the  belief  that  commerce  was 
ill  becoming  a  theocratic  people;  which  was  not 
the  case  witli  agriculture,  on  account  of  the 
many  religious  duties  connected  with  it.  On  the 
whole,  foreign  trade  was,  indeed,  contemplated 
by  the  law,  and  strict  rules  for  morality  in  com- 
mercial dealings  were  laid  down  by  it  (Deut. 
xxviii.  12,  XXV.  1.3-16;  Lev.  xix.  35,  3(i)  ;  and 
the  tribes  near  the  sea  and  the  Phcenician  terri- 
tory appe.ar  to  have  engaged,  to  some  extent,  in 
maritime  affairs  (Gen.  xlix.  13;  Deut.  xxxiii. 
18;  .Judg.  V.  17);  but  the  spirit  of  tlie  law  was 
more  in  favor  of  agriculture,  and  against  foreign 
trade  (Deut.  xvii.  10,  17;  Lev.  xxv.).  .\s  the 
country  was  rich  in  produce,  the  possibility  for 
ai]  exi>ort  trade  was  given  (Deut.  xxviii.  12)  ; 
and  we  know  tliat  Phcenicia  was  supplied  from 
Judiea  with  wheat,  honey,  oil,  and  balm  (1  Kings 
v.  11;  Ezek.  xxvii.  17";  Acts  xii.  21)).  Until 
the  time  of  Solomon,  the  Hebrew  nation  may  be 
said  to  liave  had  no  foreign  trade.  The  earliest 
cont.acl  of  the  Hebrew.s  with  foreign  trading 
nations  was  in  the  time  of  tin-  patriarchs.  Witli 
the  exception  of  the  Ishmaelites.  or  Midianitcs, 
wlio,  on  account  of  their  desciMit  from  Islimael, 
were  related  with  the  Hebrews,  all  trading 
nations  mentioned  in  Scripture  were  mostly 
llamites,  modified,  iierhajis,  .somewhat  througli 
.Semitic  elements.  I'romineiit  among  these  ii.a- 
(ions  were  especially  the  I'ho'iiiciaiis  (comp.  Isa. 
xxiii.  ;  Lzek.  xxvii.  17  ;  Joel  iii.  l  m\.).  During 
the  reign  of  Solomon  the  peojile  of  Israel  h.id  an 
active  part  in  tin;  ti;ide  of  tln^  woild,  mainly 
rupresent^'d  by  the  king  him.self.  Against  the 
prohibition  of  the  law  (Deut.  xvii.   16),  lie  im- 


ported from  Egypt  liorses  for  himself  and  other 

kings.  Ships  were  built  for  him  in  Eziongeber. 
which,  with  Hiram's  ships,  used  to  sail  into  the 
Indian  Ocean,  and  every  three  years  brought 
back  gold,  silver,  ivory,  etc.  (1  Kings  ix.  26,  x. 
11;  2  Chron.  viii.  17,  ix.  10).  After  Solomon's 
death  the  maritime  trade  declined,  and  an  at- 
tempt made  by  Jehoshaphat  to  revive  it  proved 
unsuccessful  (1  Kings  xxii.  48,  40).  After  the 
exile  the  places  of  public  market  were  chiefly 
the  open  spaces  near  the  g.ates,  to  which  goods 
were  brought  for  sale  by  those  who  came  from 
the  outside ;  and  the  traders  in  later  times  were 
allowed  to  intrude  into  the  temple,  in  the  outer 
courts  of  which,  victims  were  publicly  sold  for 
the  sacrifices  (Zech.  xiv.  21 ;  >Iatt.  xxi.  12;  John 
ii.  14).  Under  the  ^Maccabees,  Joppa  was  forti- 
fied (l  Mace.  xiv.  34),  and  Herod  the  Gre.at 
made  C'a5sarea  a  port.  Hut  all  trade  was  mainly 
in  the  hands  of  the  Greeks;  and  t!ie  .Tews  did  not 
care  much  for  it,  as  long  as  they  lived  in  the  land 
of  their  fathers,  and  could  devote  themselves  to 
agriculture.  Pharisaic  separatism  from  the  un- 
circuincised,  it  is  true,  quenched  the  spirit  of 
traffic ;  although  the  prophets  Hosea  (xii.  7), 
Amos  (ii.  6,  viii.  5  sq.),  INIicah  (vi.  lU  sq.)  had 
greatly  to  complain  against  injustice  and  unf.air- 
ness  in  dealing.  Their  present  position  in  the 
commercial  world,  the  Hebrews  owe  in  part  to 
their  exile  among  other  nations,  in  part  to  the 
position  which  they  occupy  among  such  nations, 
which  excluded  them  from  political  rights.  Comp. 
Herzi'Eld  Gexcliiclilc  dcs  Hanilels  bei  den  Juden 
im  Allerllium,  Braunschweig,  1879  [the  arts.  Com- 
vierce,  in  Kitto's  Cyrlop.  and  in  Smith's  Diet. 
vf  the  Bihli~\.  LKYRER. 

COMMINATION  (threaten in<i)  SERVICE  is  an 
addition  to  the  usual  service  on  Ash- Wednesday 
in  the  Church  of  Kngland,  so  called  from  the 
opening  address,  or  exhortation  to  repentance, 
which  contained  a  list  of  God's  curses  against 
sin.  It  was  a  substitute  introduced  by  the  Re- 
formers for  the  sjirinkling  of  ashes  on  Ash- 
Wednesday. 

COMMODIANUS,  b.  at  Gaza  in  Syria,  and  edu- 
cated in  Paganism;  was  by  the  reading  of  the 
lUble  led  to  Christianity,  and  stands  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Churcli  as  one  of  lierfiist  Latin  poets. 
Two  of  his  works  are  still  extant,  —  Itmtnictiones, 
consisting  of  eiglity  acrostics  of  partly  apolo- 
getic and  polemical  contents,  partly  parenetical, 
written  in  the  third  decade  of  tlie  tliird  century, 
first  edited  by  KuiAi.rii's,  Toiil,  lO.'X),  last  by 
OEni.EU,  in  (;ei!M)i)I!1''s  liililiolh.  /'air.  7w-c/(.<.  Lat., 
XIII.,  Leipzig.  1817;  and  Carnun  A/ioloi/cticiim, 
consisting  of  ten  hundred  and  fifty-three  verses, 
written  in  24!J,  first  edited  by  PiiRA,in  the  .Syjiti- 
lei/.  Solenmcnsc.  Paris,  18.52,  '!".  I.,  last  by  KiixscH, 
ill  Zeit.tchrifl  f.  il.  hialor.  Thro/of/ie,  XLlI.,  1872. 
In  both  iioeins  the  author  shows  liiniself  to  be 
addicted  to  Chiliasm  and  Patri|ia.ssianism.  In 
formal  res]iect  it  is  noticeable  that  he  models  his 
verses,  not  on  the  principle  of  ijuantity,  but  on 
the  jirinciple  of  accent.  A  new  edition  has  been 
given  by  VA.  Ludwig,  Lei[izig,  1877.        KHEUT. 

COMMODUS,  Koman  enqieror  from  180  to 
l;i2;  sui-ccimIimI  his  father,  Marcus  Aurelins,  but 
resembled  him  very  little.  Not  from  any  just 
apiireciation  of  Christianity,  but  from  utter  in- 
difference to  all   religion,  he  left  tue   Christians 


COMMON. 


619 


COMPOSTELLA. 


at  peace.  Accordiiie:  (o  I'io  Cas.sius  (72,  4)  it 
was  liis  cniiciil)iii(!  M:irci:i,  wlio,  tlioii},'li  not  a 
Cliristiaii  herself,  induoiMl  liiiii  to  stop  tlie  ])erse- 
cutioiis.  Ireiia-us  ."iuys  (Adv.  liter.,  4,  .'!())  that 
Christians  held  position.s,  even  in  the  imperial 
palace.  As  the  laws  against  the  Christians  still 
existed,  instances  of  martyrdom  continued  to 
occur.  Thus  the  senator  Appollonius  was  decapi- 
tated. IIEKZOU. 

COMMON  LIFE,  BRETHREN  OF.  See  ]'.ui;tii- 
i!KN  (IK  Tnr,  CoMMiix  ]^im:. 

COMMON  PRArER.     See  Litukgiks. 

COMMUNICATIO  IDIOMATUM,  a  dogmatical 
term,  referring  to  the  relalion  between  tlie  divine 
and  tlie  human  nature  as  united  in  the  one  per- 
son of  Christ.  While  the  ancient  church,  during 
the  Nestorian,  ^lonophysitic,  and  IMonntheletic 
controversies,  confined  itself  to  sim)ily  asserting 
the  fact  of  the  personal  union  of  the  two  natures, 
the  Lutheran  theologians,  in  tlie  dogmatic  inter- 
est of  their  doctrim^  of  the  eucharistic  presence, 
undertook  to  expound  its  internal  relations,  which 
resulted  in  the  doctrine  of  an  actual  transfer  of 
attributes  or  properties  of  tlie  one  nature  to  the 
other.  There  are  logically  (on  the  basis  of  the 
Chalcedonian  dyophysitism)  four  possible  kinds 
of  this  interchange  of  attriliutes,  —  (1)  The  com- 
munication of  attributes  of  one  nature  to  the 
whole  person  {(jcntis  idimndlinim)  ;  (2)  The  execu- 
tion of  personal  acts  and  functions  by  one  of  the 
two  natures  (i/cnusfij>ofelesmaticuni),  (3)  The  trans- 
fer of  divine  attributes  to  the  human  nature 
((/enus  majeslatlciuii)  ;  (4)  The  transfer  of  human 
attributes  to  the  divine  nature  (tjenus  kennticum 
or  tupeinolicum).  Tlie  first  three  were  adopted 
and  taught  by  the  Formula  of  Concord  (1577) 
and  the  scholastic  Lutherans  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  The  fourth  was  rejected  on  the  ground 
of  the  unchangeableness  of  tlie  divine  nature,  but 
has  been  adopted  by  the  modern  Kenoticists,  as 
Thomasius,  Gess,  and  others.  The  whole  theory 
is  very  artificial.  The  Reformed  and  Anglican 
churches  rejected  the  third  kind  as  destructive 
of  the  necessary  limitations  of  the  human  nature 
of  Christ,  to  which  the  Lutherans  ascribed  om 
nipotence.  omnipresence,  and  omniscience,  even 
in  the  state  of  his  humiliation.  The  most  recent 
work  on  the  subject  is  IIkkmann  Schulz:  Die 
Lehrc  foil  fh'rGoilhcil  ( '/iri.ili.  Ciimiiiuiiicalio  Jilioma- 
/i(m,  Gotha,  188L  There  is  also  a  long  article  on  this 
title  by  Schenkel,  in  Ilerzog,  ed.  L,and  one  by  H. 
Frank,  in  Herzog,  cd.  IL     See  art.  Christology. 

COMMUNION.     See  LoHii's  Supper. 

COMMUNION  OF  THE  DEAD.      See   Dead, 

COMMIXION    OF. 

COMMUNION  OF  SAINTS,  a  dogmatic  ex- 
pression in  the  third  article  of  the  .\postle.s' 
Creed:  "I  believe  iu  the  Holy  [Catholic]  Church, 
the  communion  of  saints."  Iu  the  creeds  in  the 
GreekC'hnrch  the  phrase  is  not  found.  We  find 
it  in  the  \\'est,  for  the  first  time,  in  Faustus,  I?isho]) 
of  Reji,  Southern  Gaul,  about  45.5;  also  in  the 
church  at  Aquileja,  iu  Rufinns'  Kxponilin  .Si/mholi, 
where  it  is  exjilaini'd  of  the  Christian  Church, 
made  up,  from  the  beginning,  of  the  saints.  The 
words  express  the  coniiiion  Christian  idea  that  in 
the  Church  one  enjoys  the  society  of  the  saints, 
shares  in  their  divine  gifts,  and  looks  forward  to 
the  final  blessedness.  Hence  in  the  creed,  closely 
linked  with  such  communion,  are  the  ideas  of  the 


forgiveness  of  sins,  and  eternal  life;  for  in  the 
communion  of  the  Church  one  attains  to  these 
things.  'J'he  Roman-Catholic  Church  expresses 
the  development  of  lier  ideas  of  the  saints,  and 
of  cfuunumion  with  them,  in  the  explanation 
given  in  the  Roman  Catechism  of  the  jihrase, — 
Communion  is  in  the  sacraments  and  other  gr.a- 
cious  gifts  to  the  Church,  and  in  the  fellowship 
of  her  members  with  one  another.  Tlie  commun- 
ion of  saints  is  therefore  only  in  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Church.  Distinction  is  made  between 
the  faithful  upon  the  earth,  the  saints  in  heaven, 
and  the  souls  iu  purgatory :  yet  are  these  classes 
one;  .so  that  the  saints'  prayers  avail  for  those  on 
earth,  while  ]irayers,  masses,  and  good  works  help. 

Th(^  churches  of  the  Reformation  rejected  these 
ideas.  Luther  declared  the  Church  was  the  body 
of  believers,  who  by  faith  were  saints:  hence 
the  ]ihrase  was  exegetical  of  the  "Holy  Church." 
So,  also,  the  Reformed  Church  at  first  in  its 
.syml)ols,  the  First  Helvetic,  and  the  Scotch  Con- 
fession of  1500.  Calvin,  liowever,  did  not  accept 
the  phrase  in  this  way,  but  ratheras  a  description 
of  a  peculiarity  of  tlie  Church;  for  he  says  (Bk. 
IV.,  chap,  i.,  §  .3),  "It  excellently  expresses  the 
character  of  the  Church  ;  as  though  it  had  been 
said  that  the  saints  are  united  in  the  fellowship 
of  Christ  oil  this  condition  that  whatever  benefits 
God  bestows  upon  them  they  should  mutuallv 
communicate  to  each  other."  He  is  followed  in 
the  Genevan  and  Heidelberg  Catechisms,  and  in 
the  Westminster  Confession.  J.  kostlin. 

COMMUNISM  means  the  abolition  of  personal 
property,  or  the  surrender  of  all  individual  rights 
in  property  to  the  community,  which  acts  as  the 
proprietor  proper  in  all  relations,  both  to  other 
communities  and  to  its  own  memliers.  Whether 
the  communistic  character  of  the  primitive 
Church  of  Jerusalem  (.\cts  ii.  44,  45)  was  the 
result  of  incidental  circumstances,  or  whether 
there  is  in  Christianity  an  innate  tendency  to- 
wards communism,  has  been  a  much  debated 
question,  differently  answered,  for  instance,  by 
the  Church  of  England  and  the  Moravian  .Soci- 
ety. But  none,  except  sectarian  fanatics  such  as 
Thomas  Miinzer,  have  ever  held  that  communism 
was  an  essential  element  of  Christian  life  (conip. 
Lamennais).  Whenever  communism  has  been 
practised  by  small  communities,  and  as  an  ap- 
pendi.x  to,  or  natural  consequence  of,  a  religious 
principle,  it  has  proved  successful.  The  history 
of  mon.asticism  gives  ample  illustrations;  lay- 
societies  also,  as,  for  instance,  the  Beghards.  But 
preached  or  practised  simply  as  a  principle  of 
national  economy,  as  the  ou\y  means  to  reconcile 
the  niillionnaire  and  the  jiroletaire,  it  has  always 
ended  in  foolishness  and  failure.  See  Revb.\ud: 
Hifnniialcura  Moilenis,  Paris,  184o;  Suduk:  //«- 
Idirc  (Iu  CoiHiinini.wi,  Paris,  1850;  Nokdiioff: 
Coiiimuni.itic  .Societies  of  lite  United  JStatc.i,  New 
York,  1874.     See  Socialism. 

GOMPETENTES.     See  Catfciiktics. 

COMPLINE,  or  COMPLETINUM,  or  COM- 
PLETORIUM,  tlie  last  of  the  canonical  hours 
forcuninion  prayT,  celebrated  respectively  at  the 
first,  third,  si.xth,  ninth,  eleventh,  and  twelfth 
hour  of  the  day.  See  Order  of  Compline  iiccord- 
inij  to  the  Jllustrious  (_'liurch  of  Saruvi,  London, 
1881.     See  Canoxicai.  Horits, 

COMPOSTELLA,  The  Order  of  the  Knights  of 


COMPTON. 


520 


COMTE. 


San  lago  de.  According  to  a  Spanish  tradition, 
the  apostle  James  the  Elder,  son  of  Zebedee 
(Acts  xii.  2),  who  was  beheaded  in  Jerusalem 
(44),  came  to  Spain,  and  suffered  martyrdom 
there.  The  place  of  his  suffering  was  called  ad 
Sanctum  Jacabum  Ajjoslolum,  or  Giacoino  Poxtolo  : 
hence  Corapostella.  The  legend  is  first  recorded 
in  the  ninth  century  by  Walafried  Strabo,  in  his 
Poema  tie  12  Apostolis:  and,  though  the  Bolland- 
ists  still  maintain  it,  it  has  been  abandoned  even 
by  Roman-Catholic  writers,  as,  for  instance, 
Natalis  Alexander.  Among  the  people,  however, 
it  always  found  much  favor;  and  it  made  Com- 
postella  the  most  celebrated  and  most  frequented 
place  of  pilgrimage  in  Spain.  It  also  gave  the 
name  to  one  of  the  richest  and  most  renowned 
military  orders  in  Spain,  founded  in  1161  by 
Don  Pedro  Fernandez,  confirmed  by  Ccelestine 
III.,  and  not  dissolved  until  1835.  HEUZOG. 

COMPTON,  Henry,  Bishop  of  London;  b.  at 
Compton,  1632;  d.  at  Fulham,  near  London, 
July  7,  1713.  He  was  Bishop  of  Oxford,  1674. 
and  in  the  following  year  transferred  to  London, 
made  a  privy  councillor,  and  intrusted  with  the 
education  of  the  prince.sses  Mary  and  Anne. 
His  opposition  to  Koman  Catholicism  was  firm, 
and  cost  liim  his  councillorship,  and  his  suspen- 
sion on  the  accession  of  James  II.;  while  his 
liberality  toward  the  Nonconformists  was  unusu- 
ally great.  He  joined  the  side  of  William  and 
Mary  in  the  Revolution,  and  crowned  the  king. 
His  prosperity  returned.  He  regained  his  former 
positions,  and  was  appointed  one  of  the  revisers 
of  the  liturgy  ;  but  the  close  of  his  life  was  imbit- 
tered  by  his  disappointment  at  not  receiving  the 
primacy.  He  wrote  A  Treatise  of  the  Holy  Commu- 
nion (London,  1677),  and  translated  from  the  Ital- 
ian The  Life  of  Donna  Olyinpia  Maldachiui  (1667), 
and  from  the  French  Tlie  Jesuits'  IntriQues  (1669). 

COMTE,  Auguste,  the  founder  of  the  positivist 
school  of  philosophy,  was  b.  at  Montpellier,  Jan. 
12,  17!)S,  and  d.  in  Paris,  Sept.  5,  1857.  He 
entered  the  Ecole  Poh/lechniijue  in  1814,  and  con- 
tinued to  live  in  I'aris  alter  the  school  was 
broken  up  in  1816,  giving  lessons  in  mathematics. 
For  a  short  time  he  was  tutor  in  the  family  of 
Casimir  Perier.  In  1818  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  .St.  .Simon,  and  soon  became  one  of  his 
most  enthusi.'istic  disciples.  But  the  sustained 
energy  and  systematic  power  of  the  pupil  could 
not  fail  to  outgrow  the  authority  of  a  master 
whose  inspirations  were  mainly  due  to  his  loose 
mental  habits.  In  1824  a  comiilete  and  violent 
breach  took  place.  From  .St.  .Simon,  however, 
Comte  received  the  first  impul.se  towards  pliiloso- 
phy,  a  number  of  loose  but  brilliant  ideas,  and 
the  whole  informing  tendency  of  his  .system. 

In  1825  Comte  married,  and  in  1826  he  began 
the  first  series  of  lectures  on  positive  philosophy. 
But  after  the  third  lecture  lie  was  overcome  by 
a  cerebral  derangement,  and  for  a  whole  year  he 
was  confined  in  a  lunatic-asylum.  In  1828  the 
lectures  were  renewed.  In  1830  the  first  volume 
of  /,((  I'hiloso/iliic  Positive  was  ]iMblished.  In 
1833  Comte  was  ^appointed  examiner  at  the  ad- 
mission to  the  ICcole  I'oti/tec/inii/ua,  and  in  1842 
he  finished  his  great  work  by  the  ]iublication  of 
the  sixth  volume.  According  to  its  ground-plan, 
this  work  is  simply  a  re-arrangement  of  the 
hierarchy  of  the  sciences  on  a  new  priuciple, — 


the  positive  principle,  in  contradistinction  to  the 

theological  and  metaphysical  principles.  Moving 
from  tlie  more  simple  and  abstract  to  the  more 
complex  and  concrete,  the  scale  runs  thus : 
mathem.atics,  astronomy,  physics,  chemistry,  bi- 
ology, and  sociology.  There  seems  to  be  nothing 
alarming  in  this.  .Vs  here  represented,  positiv- 
ism is  a  method,  r.ather  than  a  doctrine.  It  be- 
comes a  doctrine,  however,  partly  by  that  which 
the  method  exclu<les  (all  inquiry  into  the  causes 
of  phenomena,  all  theology,  all  metaphysics),  ami 
partly  by  that  which  the  method  adds  (a  new 
science,  the  great  panacea  for  all  the  sufferings 
to  which  flesh  is  heir,  —  sociology).  Comte  meant 
that  the  revolutionary  state  of  modern  society  is 
solely  due  to  the  mental  anarchy  into  which 
theology  and  metaphysics  have  led  us.  The 
only  w.\v  out  of  this  confusion  is  the  positive 
philosophy;  for  the  only  cognition  which  can 
compel  universal  acceptance,  and  unite  all  minds 
into  perfect  agreement,  is  that  which  refuses  to 
pay  any  regard  to  the  cause  of  a  phenomenon, 
and  simply  confines  itself  to  ascertaining  the  law 
of  the  evolution  of  [ihenomena;  and  that  is  just 
the  sole  object  and  contents  of  positive  philoso- 
phy. .\s  soon,  therefore,  as  the  laws  of  social 
and  political  evolution  are  recognized  in  their 
positive  shape,  stripped  of  all  theological  and 
metaphysical  dreams,  new  and  satisfactory  forms 
of  social  and  political  life  will  present  them- 
selves, and  revolution  will  cease  forever. 

Some  remarks  in  the  preface  to  the  sixth  vol- 
ume of  La  Philosophie  Positire  caused  Comte's 
dismission  from  his  position  at  the  Ecole  Poly- 
techni(/ue  in  1842:  and  from  that  time  till  his 
death  "he  lived  as  best  he  could,"  receiving  sup- 
port .at  one  time  (1842-45)  from  some  English 
friends  of  J.  Stuart  Mill,  and  at  another  (after 
1848)  from  public  subscriptions.  )ther  calami- 
ties were  added.  In  1842  he  separated  from  his 
wife.  Meanwhile  he  w;is  busy  with  his  Si/st'eme 
lie  la  Politique  Posilice,  of  which  the  first  volume 
•appeared  in  1851,  the  fourth  and  last  in  1854. 
It  proposes  to  found  a  new  religion,  —  the  religion 
of  liumanity.  But  while  positivism  as  a  philo- 
sophical school  h.as  exercised,  and  is  still  exer- 
cising, a  most  powerful  influence  on  modern 
civilization,  positivism  as  a  religion  has  proved 
a  miser.able  failure.  Comte  describes  the  devel- 
opment of  human  intellect  as  having  passed 
through  two  stages,  —  the  theological,  at  which 
all  phenomena  are  explained  as  the  effects  of  hid- 
den, supernatural,  divine  causes ;  and  the  meta- 
physical, .at  which  the  causes  are  defined  as  a 
kind  of  mystical  entities,  which  form  the  real 
substance  underlying  all  phenomena.  These  two 
st.ages  passed,  tin'  third  is  reached,  —  the  posi- 
tive, at  which  no  more  questions  are  made  about 
the  causes  of  phenomena;  only  the  laws  of  the 
evolution  are  ascertained.  As  this  description 
is  itself  the  definition  of  a  law,  it  is  evident  that 
positivism,  tin;  religion  of  humanity,  can  have  no 
theology.  Hut  it  has  no  (iod,  either.  Humanity 
is  an  iileal,  and  can  never  be  made  a  god ;  and, 
at  this  time  of  tin;  day,  to  try  to  press  tlio  devel- 
opment of  mankind  back  to  that  tnoment  when 
the  (ireek  tragedy  was  produced,  when  the  god 
was  the  ideal,  wlnui  religion  and  art  were  still 
slumbering  on  each  other's  bosoms,  is  simply 
futile.     Still  worse:  iu  1845  Comte  fell  desper- 


CONCEPTION. 


CONCORD. 


ately  in  love  with  Madame  Clotilde  <le  Vaiix, 
wlio  died  in  tlie  followinjj;  year;  and,  in  liis 
plans  of  orf;;ani7,al.ion  which  he  laid  for  the 
church  of  hiuiianity,  memories  of  this  passion 
mix  in  a  most  disajjreeable  maimer  with  remi- 
niscences from  the  palmiest  days  of  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Church.  It  is  true,  as  Mr.  Morley  says 
in  the  last  edition  of  Jinri/cln/xvdid  ISrilainika, 
that  the  queer  dreams  of  the  Si/sliiiiK  de  la 
/'.(>!ilii/ue  Positive  are  not  altoi;ether  incidental, 
hut  foreshadowed  in  the  earliest  writings  of 
Comte.  But  it  is  also  true,  as  .1.  Stuart  Mill  says 
in  his  essay  on  Positivism,  tliat  there  is  "a  Rulf  " 
between  that  book  and  the  J'/iilosa/i/iic  I'osilii-e. 
'The  latter  has  a  relation  to  theology;  it  excludes 
it:  the  formc^r  has  none  ;   it  oidy  counterfeits  it. 

Of  La  J'hili)soji/iie  Positive,  l\Iiss  Harriet  Mar- 
tinean  has  given  an  excellent  English  condiMisa- 
tion  in  2  vols.,  London,  \ii7)'i.  The  Calechism  of 
Positivism  was  translated  into  English  by  Dr. 
Congreve  in  18.j8;  the  I'olitii/tie  Positive,  anony- 
mously, in  1875-77.  E.ssays  on  positivism  have 
been  written  by  .1.  Stuart  Mill,  Herbert  Spencer, 
JIuxley,  etc.  See,  also,  Fiskk:  Oul/ities  of  Cosmic 
/'/litosoplii/.  Host.,  1874,  2  vols.;  Lkwks:  Biorj. 
Hist,  of  Pliilosophij,  Lond.,  N.  Y.,  4th  ed.,  1871, 
2  vols.'  (vol.  ii.).  '  CLEMEMS  PETERSEN. 

CONCEPTION,  Feast  of,  a  festival  of  the 
lloman-Cathdlic  t'hureh  which  is  celebrated  Dec. 
8,  in  honor  of  the  immaculate  conception  of  the 
Virgin  Marv.      See  I.mm.\cul.'VTE  Coxckption. 

CONCEPTION  OF  OUR  LADY,  Nuns  of  the 
Order  of.  This  religious  order  was  founded  by  Bea- 
trix, sister  of  James,  first  Count  of  I'oralego,  Por- 
tugal, in  1481;  confirmed  by  Innocent  VIII.  1489; 
given  the  rule  of  St.  Clara  by  Cardinal  Ximenes, 
but  liy  .Julius  II.  given  a  separate  rule  in  1.511. 

CONCEPTUALISM  denotes  an  intermediate 
stand-point  between  nominalism  and  realism. 
Rejecting,  on  the  one  side,  nominalism,  which  de- 
tines  the  universalia  as  merely  subjective  notions, 
as  mere  words  {voces),  and,  on  the  other  side,  real- 
ism, which  defines  the  universalia  as  the  very 
essence  of  all  individual  existence,  Abelard  tried 
to  define  the  universalia  as  sermones ;  that  is,  as 
mental  conceptions,  which,  though  in  themselves 
merely  the  result  of  an  intellectual  process,  never- 
thele.ss  corresponded  to  something  real,  existing 
in  all  individuality.  The  stand-point  W'as  after- 
wards more  clearly  defined  by  Petrus  Lorabardus 
and  Albertus  Magnus. 

CONCLAVE  means  the  assembly  of  cardinals 
convened  in  order  to  elect  a  new  pope.  Up  to  the 
latter  part  of  the  eleventh  century,  the  pope  was 
elected  by  the  clergy  and  peojde  of  Home;  but 
by  a  decree  of  1059  Nicholas  II.  gave  the  whole 
election  into  the  hands  of  the  cardinals,  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  clergy  and  the  people  ;  and  by  a 
decree  of  1179  Alexander  III.  constituted  a  major- 
ity of  two-thirds  of  the  conclave  sufficient  to  make 
an  election  valid.  At  times,  however,  it  proved 
very  difficult  to  procure  such  a  majority.  When 
Clement  IV.  died  at  Viterbo  (l"j(i8)  seventeen 
months  elapsed,  and  no  agreemi'nt  was  arrived 
at.  Bonaventura,  the  general  of  th(^  Minorites, 
then  induced  the  inhabitants  of  Viterbo  to  shnt 
up  the  cardinals  in  the  palace;  and  there  they  sat 
for  a  whole  year,  but  still  no  agreement.  Finally 
.somebody  liit  upon  the  device  of  depriving  the 
building  of  its  roof,  and  exposing  the  electors  to 


the  whims  of  the  weather ;  and  the  very  same 
day  (iregory  X.  was  elected.  This  experience 
led  the  Second  council  of  Lyons  (1274)  to  estab- 
lish a  number  of  minuto  rules  for  conducting  a 
conclave,  which,  in  the  main,  are  still  adhered 
to.  The  cardinals  are  absolutely  8ei)arated  from 
the  surrounding  w'orld,  the  windows  and  doors 
of  the  assembly-room  having  been  walled  up,  all 
but  one.  If  no  agreement  has  been  arrived  at 
after  the  \;ipsi:  of  three  days,  only  one  meal  a 
day  is  served  to  the  electors,  and,  after  the  lap.S(! 
of  eight  days,  only  bread  and  wine,  etc.  The 
method  of  electing  generally  used  is  the  ballot; 
and,  concerning  this  point,  too,  a  number  of 
minute  rub's  have  been  established  in  order  to 
])revent  fraud.  Every  morning  a  ballot  is  cast, 
followed  in  the  evening  by  an  "acccssit ;  "  lh;it 
is.  if  the  morning  ballot  has  led  to  no  result,  any 
of  the  electors  is  allowed  to  transfer  his  vote  to 
that  one  of  the  candidates  whom  he  can  expect 
thereby  to  get  elected.  In  spite  of  the  minute 
rules,  however,  which  govern  the  proceeding.s, 
and  in  spite  of  the  solemn  oath  which  binds  the 
electors,  the  history  of  the  papal  conclave  is 
crowded  with  the  meanest  and  grossest  frauds 
and  intrigues  which  any  election  can  present. 
See  T.  A.  Trollopk  :   On  the  Papal  Conclaves. 

CONCOMITANCE  denotes  tlie  doctrine,  that, 
when  Christ's  body  is  present  in  the  Eucharist, 
his  blood  is  so  too,  and  that,  the  godhead  and 
manhood  of  Christ  being  inseparable,  Christ 
himself.  God  and  man,  is  present  in  the  Eucha- 
rist when  either  his  body  or  his  blood  is  present. 
This  doctrine  forms  the  basis  for  the  disciplinary 
rule  of  the  Koman-Catholic  Church,  withholding 
the  cup  from  the  laity  in  the  administration  of 
the  Lord's  Supper, 

CONCORD,  Formula  of  (FonH«/n  Concordia), 
the  last  of  the  six  symbolical  books  of  the 
Lutheran  Church,  was  issued  on  the  fiftieth  anni- 
versary of  the  Augsburg  Confession  (.June  25, 
1580),  and  was  signed  by  three  electors,  twenty 
dukes  and  princes,  twenty-four  counts,  four  bar- 
ons, and  thirty-five  free  cities.  Since  the  death 
of  Luther  (1546)  alarming  dissensions  h.ad  in- 
vaded the  Church,  and  a  split  between  the  ultra- 
Lutheran  orthodoxy  and  the  Melanchthoniau 
Crypto-Calvinism  seemed  imminent.  The  neces- 
sity of  unity  and  concord  was  very  strongly  felt, 
however;  and  in  1567  Duke  Cliristoph  of  Wiir- 
tendjerg,  and  Landgrave  William  IV.  of  Ilesse- 
Cassel,  commissioned  .Lacob  Andreii  to  draw  up 
a  formula,  based  upon  the  Confession  of  Augs- 
burg, and  capable  of  uniting  all  the  Lutheran 
churches  of  Germany.  The  attempt  failed  ;  but 
in  1.573  Andrea  tried  again,  and  the  so-called 
Suabian  Concordia  — a  remoulding  of  his  famous 
six  sermons  On  the  Differences  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  —  found  much  favor.  On  the  instance 
of  Duke  Lewis  of  Wiirtemberg  and  IMargrave 
Charles  of  Baden,  Lucas  Osiander,  Balthasar  P>i- 
dembach,  and  Abel  Scherdinger  compo,sed,  in 
1575,  the  Formula  of  ^laulbronn;  and  in  the 
following  year  the  Elector  of  Saxony  invited  a 
number  of  theologians  to  meet  at  Torgau.  and 
to  form,  on  the  basis  of  these  two  formulas,  a 
third  one  acceptable  to  all  parties.  The  residt 
was  the  so-called  Book  of  Torgau,  which  w;is 
sent  to  all  the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany, 
and  ou  which  the  elector  received  no  less  than 


CONCORDANCE. 


522 


CONCORDANCE. 


twenty-three  more  or  less  elaborate  criticisms. 
A  new  committee  of  tlieoloj;^iaiis,  amoii<r  whom 
were  Martin  Chemnitz,  Nicolaus  Selnecker,  Da- 
vid Chytrsus.  etc.,  was  formed  to  digest  and 
utilize  these  criticisms.  They  began  tlieir  meet- 
ings at  Bergen,  near  Magdeburg,  in  1577  ;  and  the 
final  result  of  their  labor  was  the  Formula  Con- 
cordia. It  was  immediately  accepted  by  Saxony, 
Brandenburg,  Brunswick,  W'iirtemberg,  Baden, 
Hamburg,  Liibeck,  etc. ;  but  it  was  rejected  by 
Hesse,  Anholt,  Lauenburg,  Holstein,  Nassau, 
Strassburg,  Frankfort,  Spires,  Worms,  Xeurem- 
berg,  Bremen,  etc.  Outside  of  Germany  it  was 
.accepted  by  Hungary,  Sweden,  and  Denmark; 
though  in  the  last-mentioned  country  it  was  first 
rejected,  and  its  publication  was  forbidden  under 
penalty  of  deatli.  The  Formula  consists  of  two 
parts,  —  the  Epitome,  and  the  Soiut  Repetition  and 
Declaration,  each  containing  twelve  articles. 

Lit.  —  Best  edition  of  tlie  Formula,  Mi.'LLF.u  : 
Die  symhiilisrhen  Biicher  dcr  evanrj.  luth.  Kirche, 
fourth  edition,  Oiitersloh,  1S7G;  [Eng.  trans,  of 
the  Epitome  in  Scii.\ff:  Creeds,  IH.  9-_'-lS0.] 
See  GiisCHEl,:  Die  Concordienformel  nach  Hirer 
Oeschichle,  Leipzig,  1858;  F.  H.  R.  Fu.\XK :  Die 
Thfolof/ie  der  Concordienformel,  Erlangen,  1858- 
Go,  4  vols.  [Sciiafk:  Creeds  of  Christendom,  vol. 
L,  L'o8-340].  F.  FKANK. 

CONCORDANCE,  from  Latin  concordare,  to 
agree:  hence  a  collection  of  passages  which  in 
one  respect  ar/ree  with  one  another.  Concord- 
ances are  of  two  kinds,  verbal  and  topical :  the 
first  gives  tlie  exact  ])lace  in  the  text  where  a 
certain  word  can  be  found ;  the  second  is  an  or- 
derly analysis  of  the  contents  of  the  work.  It  is 
evident  concordances  can  be  made  to  any  work, 
and  we  liave  them  upon  classic  authors  (e.g., 
Shakspeare,  Milton,  Pope,  Tennyson,  etc.);  but  in 
this  article  we  treat  of  those  upon  the  Bible,  for 
which,  of  course,  there  has  been  most  demand. 

L  /,/ir/.V.  — Cardinal  Hugo  dk  S.  C.\ro  (d. 
12G3)  led  the  way.  In  1244,  with  the  help  of 
five  hundred  Dominican  monks,  he  prepared  a 
concordance  upon  the  Vulgate  (see  Bici.larmin: 
De  Script,  eccles.  ad  nnn.  12^5,  pp.  247  sqq.)  as  an 
aid  in  liis  Commentari/  on  llie  Bible.  Since  the 
verse-divisions  did  not  yet  exist,  he  supposed 
each  chapter  divided  arbitrarily  into  seven  parts, 
which  he  di-signated  by  as  many  letters  consecu- 
tively (e.g.  terra.  Gen.  i.  a;  i.e.,  the  word  terra 
is  in  the  first  jiart  of  Gen.  i.).  The  work  was 
defective  and  short,  as  in  the  references  merely 
words,  and  not  sentences,  were  given.  It  was 
called  Coiicorilnitiia:  S.  ,/acohi,  because  Hugo  pre- 
pared it  at  the  Convent  of  St.  .Jacob,  in  I'aris. 
The  moidis  of  this  house  found  it  most  useful  in 
preparing  their  sermons,  but  at  the  same  time 
they  recognizi'(l  its  defects;  and  so  .John  of  Der- 
lington,  Hichard  of  Stavensby,  an<l  Hugo  of 
Croyndon  (about  1250)  set  iibout  to  correct  it  by 
adding  the  words  in  immediate  connection.  This 
made  Hugo'.s  work  .a  veritable  concordaiuie  in  our 
gense  of  the  term.  On  account  of  the  Knglish  ex- 
traction of  tlie  revisers,  their  work  was  known  as 
the  Eni/li.ih  ('oriron/anre.  TIk!  next  buihler  upon 
H  ugo"8  foundation  was  Con- u  A  I)  OK  Hai-iikiistadt, 
oroi'GKliMAXY  (de  .Atcmannia),  niK  Ki.dkh,  who, 
towards  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  furth<'r 
iii.|iroved  the  original  work  by  subdividing  the 
_  Bliortiir  chajiters  into  four  parts  each  (letters  a-d), 


while  the  longer  were,  as  usual,  divided  into 
seven  (letters  a-g),  and  by  reducing  the  number 
of  words  cited  in  connection  with  one  another, 
which  materially  reduced  its  size.  This  new  sort 
of  concordance  entirely  supplanted  the  old,  and 
was  the  one  printed.  The  influence  of  this  con- 
cordance is  seen  in  the  printing  upon  the  margin 
of  the  Vulgate,  even  as  late  as  182(5,  in  an  edition 
printed  at  Frankfurt,  of  the  letters  Conrad  used 
to  divide  the  chapters.  During  the  Council  of 
Basel  (1431-49)  a  grave  defect  in  the  concord- 
ance was  discovered.  John  of  Hagusa,  a  very 
learned  man  (d.  1444),  held  an  animated  di.s- 
cussiou  with  Bohemians  at  the  council,  upon 
the  true  meaning,  in  the  Bible,  of  the  particle 
nisi,  and  later,  with  Greeks  at  Constantinople, 
whither  the  council  had  sent  him,  over  the  true 
meaning  of  per  and  ex.  But  the  concordance 
failed  him  just  here;  for  it  did  not  contain  par- 
ticles. He  determined  to  remedy  this  defect, 
and,  unable  himself  to  command  the  time,  in- 
trusted the  task  to  the  Spanish  doctor  of  theology, 
.John  of  Suabia,  who  alphabetically  arranged 
the  particles,  and  then,  in  1437,  published  the 
work,  with  an  historical  introduction.  Sebastian 
Brant  carried  the  first  edition  of  it  through  the 
pre.s3  of  John  Peter  and  John  Froben,  in  Basel, 
1496,  under  the  title  Concordanticc  parlium  sire 
dictionum  indeclinahilium  lotius  Bililim  ("  Concord- 
ance to  the  particles  or  indeclinable  words  in  the 
entire  Scriptures"),  as  the  second  part  of  the 
Conrad  Concordance.  And  so  the  defect  in 
Hugo's  Concordance  was  supplied.  The  first 
printed  concordance  bore  the  title  Fratis  Conradi 
de  Alemannia  Ord.  Pradic.  Coneordantice  Bibliorum, 
etc.,  Argentorati  (Strassburg),  c.  1470,  2d  ed.. 
1475.  Bindseil  (see  Lit.)  gives  a  list  of  sixty- 
four  concordances  to  the  Vulgate  :  of  these,  that  by 
Robert  Stephens,  Geneva,  1555,  deserves  especial 
mention.  In  it  he  introduced  the  verse-numbers 
alrc^ady  used  in  his  Greek-Latin  Testament.  The 
hist  is  by  F.  P.  Duthipon:  Bibliorum  Sacrorum 
Concordantite,  7th  ed.,  Paris,  18MI. 

H.  HEBREW.  — The.  first  Hebrew  concord- 
ance was  made  by  Rabbi  Isaac  (or  Moudecai) 
Nathan.  The  origin  of  the  work,  according  to  the 
author's  preface,  was  as  follows:  he  was  disturbed 
by  the  repeated  challenges  of  his  Christi:in  com- 
panions, and,  in  his  search  after  materials  for  an 
answer,  lighted  upon  a  Latin  Bible  concordance. 
By  diligent  use  of  this  he  repidled  the  attacks, 
and,  having  tested  its  great  utility,  determined 
to  pre|)are  a  concordance  to  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
which  he  conceived  would  be  more  useful  than  a 
mere  translation  of  the  Latin.  Accordingly  he 
began  the  work  in  1  138,  and  finished  it,  having 
called  in  many  helpers,  in  1448.  He  kept  the 
chapter-divisions  of  the  Vulgate,  but  added  ver.se- 
divisions  of  his  own.  Thi?  concordance  was  first 
printed  at  Venice,  by  Daniel  Ikmibi-rg,  in  the 
year  1524,  under  the  title  t!'"t!'JNTTip:ip  XIpJH 
3"nj  TSD;  i.e.,  The  Lit/hi  to  tlie\y(n/,ridlcd  "Concor- 
dances." An  interesting  jioint  in  connection 
with  this  title  is  the  f;ict  that  the  final  word  is  a 
mere  transliteration,  in  llebri'W  characters,  of  the 
Latin  Conrordatitiw.  After  the  worils,  allihaheti- 
cally  arrang(!d,  are  explanations  in  raliliinical 
characters,  and  then  the  ])assages  in  which  they 
occur.  Kditions  of  this  work  appeared  subse- 
quently at  Venice  (1504)  and  at  Basel   (1581), 


CONCORDANCE. 


523 


CONCORDANCE. 


under  Buxtorf s  supervision ;  and  a  Latin  trans- 
lation (poor  and  very  defective)  was  made  by 
Heiiclilin,  Basel,  luoC.  An  unprintcd  Latin 
translation  l>y  Nicliolas  Fuller  is  preserved  in  the 
lioilleian  Library,  Oxford. 

The  second  Hebrew  concordance  was  under- 
taken by  the  Franciscan  scholar,  Makius  dk 
('alasio,  appointed  by  Pope  Paul  V.  public 
teacher  of  IIe[)rew  at  Rome.  He  wrote  a  Hebrew 
grammar  and  dictionary;  d.  Jan.  24,  1G20.  He 
was  over  seventy  wlien  ho  bef^an  the  concord- 
ance, and  at  his  death  left  it  not  quite  ready  for 
the  press.  By  papal  command  it  was  given  over 
to  the  MinoriU?  general,  Benignus  of  (ienua,  who 
employed  upon  it  the  Minorite  provincial,  Michael 
Angelus  of  St.  Romulus,  ]irofessor  of  theology 
and  Hebrew.  It  was  finally  printed  in  four  folio 
volumes,  in  Rome,  1621,  under  the  title  Concor- 
danliie  Sacrorum  Bibliorum  llehrniconim.  Each 
word  was  accompanied  by  its  different  nie.anings 
in  both  Hebrew  and  Latin,  then  the  correspond- 
ing words  in  the  other  Shemitic  languages,  with 
Latin  interpretations,  and  finally  the  Bible  pas- 
sages in  which  the  word  is  found,  —  Hebrew 
verses  on  the  right  hand,  Latin  on  the  left.  This 
concordance  was  three  times  jniblished,  —  Cologne 
(1640),  Rome  (10u7),  Loudon  (1747-49),  4  vols.  fol. 

The  third  concordance  was  begun  by  Jon.wx 
Bu.\TORF  TiiK  Elder,  and  finished  by  his  .son 
Joh.ann  Buxtorf,  Basel,  1032,  fol.  It  was  pro- 
fessedly an  improved  edition  of  Nathan's.  It  is, 
therefore,  upon  the  same  general  plan.  Each 
word  is  followed  by  Natlian's  explanations  in 
rabbinical  characters,  but  also  in  Latin.  An  im- 
provement is  the  assignment  of  the  different 
forms  to  the  different  pa.ssages  in  which  tliey 
occur,  instead  of  massing  the  passages  together. 
A  great  many  missing  references  were  supplied, 
errors  corrected,  and,  not  the  least,  at  the  end  a 
concoidance  of  the  Chaldee  words  in  the  Old 
Testament.  Yet  two  defects  are  pointed  out  by 
Buxtorf  himself:  ceitain  particles  are  missing, 
and  all  the  proper  names.  Modern  edition,  edited 
by  Bernhard  Biir,  Stettin,  1801.  Two  abridg- 
ments of  Buxtorf 's  great  work  were  published  : 
one  at  Wittenberg,  1053;  the  other,  edited  by 
Christian  Raw,  under  the  title  Fount  of  Sion, 
Berlin  and  Frankfort,  1077. 

The  two  defects  already  noticed  in  Buxtorf 
were  remedied,  as  far  as  the  Hebrew  particles 
^vere  concerned,  in  the  Concordance  of  Chris- 
tian NoLPK,  Copenhagen,  107!),  small  quarto. 
Later  came  other  Hebrew  concordances;  among 
others  Dr.  .Toii.x  T.\ylor's  Hebrew  CuncorJance 
adapted  to  the  Fn(/lish  Bible,  disposed  after  the  man- 
ner of  Buitorf,  London,  1754-57,  '2  vols.  fol. 

These  were  superseded  when  Baron  Tauchnitz 
brought  out  that  of  Dr.  Jui.ius  Furst,  assisted 
tlirougliout  by  Dr.  Franz  Dehtzsch  (to  whom 
he  generously  ascribes  great  praise),  Librurum 
Sacrorum  Veteri.i  Testamenti  Cimcordantice  He- 
braicce  atque  Chatdaicee,  Leipzig,  1840,  folio.  Tliis 
well-known  and  elaborate  work  is  based  upon 
Buxtorf,  but  is  a  great  improvement  upon  the 
original.  Yet  even  in  it  are  wantiug  most  of  the 
Hebrew  particles  and  pronouns,  and  all  proper 
names.  Fiirst  follows  Buxtorf's  plan.  He  gives 
under  each  word  the  explanations  in  the  r.ibbini- 
cal  character;  then  arranges  the  different  inflec- 
tions  of   the  word   iu  regular  order,  and  under 


each  the  passages  in  unpointed  Hebrew.  There 
are  eight  apjiendixes:  1.  Etymological  Index; 
2.  Exiilan.atoiy  List  of  Bible  names  (pointed 
Hebrew),  to  which  is  appended  a  syllabus  of 
Ethnic-Hebrew  (i.e.,  Phfcnician)  names;  3.  A 
Lexicon  of  .Aramaic  and  New  Hebrew  (i.e.,  the 
correspondences  to  Ilelirew,  arranged  in  alpha- 
i)etical  onler) ;  4.  An  Etymological  Table;  5.  A 
Scheme;  of  the  Formation  of  Words:  fl.  "Propylaea 
Ma.sora; "  (an  ordcily  arrangement  of  the  Masoretic 
notes);  7.  "Chronicles  of  tlie  Holy  Tongue"  (en- 
tirely iu  unpointed  Hebrew);  8.  A  Comjiarativc 
Table  of  Arabic,  Syriac,  Aramaic,  and  Hebrew. 

But  Furst's  bonk,  by  its  unwieldy  size,  and  use 
of  Liitin  tliroughout,  is  uiiadapted  to  the  wants 
of  the  ordinary  English  student.  For  liis  benefit 
the  Enr/lishntait's  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Concordance 
was  prei>ared,  ilesigned  1830,  published  London, 
1813,  3d  ed,,  18(i0,  2  vols.  The  editor,  who  also 
paid  for  the  work,  was  George  V.  Wigram,  who 
contributes  an  eccentric  preface.  Among  thu 
coU.aborators  were  S.  P.  Tregelles  and  B.  David- 
son. The  work  is  superior.  Each  page  presents 
(1)  The  Hebrew  word  (pointeil)  ;  (2)  Its  pronun- 
ciation; (3)  In  the  case  of  nouns,  the  gender,  of 
verbs,  the  moods  and  tenses;  (4)  The  ]iassages 
of  Scripture  in  whicli  the  words  occur,  quite  fully 
printed,  the  title-words  being  distinguished  by 
Italics.  The  appendixes  are  (1)  Hebrew  and 
English  index  (after  each  Hebrew  word  the  vari- 
ous English  terms  by  which  it  is  rendered  in 
the  authorized  version  are  given  in  alpli.abeti- 
cal  order)  ;  (2)  Table  of  the  variations  of  chap- 
ter and  verses  in  the  English  and  Hebrew  Bibles; 
(3)  List  of  proper  names  (pronounced),  together 
with  their  occurrences,  with  index  to  the  same. 
The  work  is  very  painstaking  and  useful,  but  is 
defective  in  that  it  makes  no  distinction  between 
the  inflections  of  the  nouns ;  e.g.,  father  and  Jtii 
father  are  under  the  same  liead. 

The  Hebraist's  Vade  Mecum,  edited  by  Mr. 
Wigram  (a  verbal  index  to  the  Hebrew  and 
Chaldee  Scriptures),  London,  18G7,  is  valuable. 
It  gives  all  the  words,  grammatically  arranged, 
and  under  each  form  the  passages  wherein  it 
occui's.  A  revised  and  corrected  edition  of  B. 
Davidson's  excellent  Concordance  of  the  Hebrew 
and  Chaldee  Scriptures  appeared  iu  London,  1876, 
under  the  care  of  the  Rev.  Joseph  Hughes. 

HI.  GREEK.  —  Euthalius  Rhodius,  a  monk 
of  St.  B.asil,  is  said  to  liave  finished  (1300)  a  con- 
cordance to  the  entire  Bible  iu  Greek.  But  the 
work  was  never  printed,  if,  indeed,  it  was  ever 
written.  These  Greek  concordances  are  usually 
either  to  the  Old  Testament  with  the  Apocrypha, 
or  to  the  New  Testament.     We  consider  first, 

(1)  The  Concordances  to  the  Old  'Testament  and 
Apocrypha. — The  Jirsl  was  made  by  Coxhad 
Kirciier,  Frankfort,  1607,  and  was  a  Hebrew- 
Greek,  rather  than  a  (!reek,  concordance,  inas- 
much as  the  work  follows  the  order  of  the  Hebrew 
words,  placing  the  corresponding  Greek  word 
after  it.  Each  Hebrew  word  had  its  Latin  trans- 
lation ;  and  then,  witliout  alphabetical  arrange- 
ment, followed  the  various  Greek  equivalents, 
with  the  passages  iu  w  hich  they  occur.  There  is 
a  register  of  the  Greek  words,  and  a  distinction 
made  between  canonical  and  apocryphal  passages. 

But  the  second  independent  coucordance  is 
niupJj  more   valuable.      It   appeared  under  the 


CONCORDANCE. 


524 


CONCORDANCE. 


title  Abraiiami  Trommi  Concordantict  Gracm 
Versionis  vult/o  dicta  LXX.  Inter/>retu7ii,  cujus  iwccs 
xecmvlum  orilinem  elementorum  sermonis  Grceci  di- 
geslCE  recensentur,  contra  alque  in  opere  Kirchcriano 
fiiclum  fuerat.  Anistelodami  (Anisterdara)  et 
Trajecti  ad  Ulieiium  (Utreclit),  1718,  2  vols.  fol. 
Tills  is  a  gemiiue  Greek  concordance,  containing 
the  Greek  words  in  ])roper  order,  with  their  mean- 
ings in  Latin,  the  corresponding  Hebrew  words 
alphabetically  arranged  below,  and  under  them 
the  p.assages  in  the  canonical  and  apocryphal 
books.  When  tlie  word  occurs  in  any  of  the 
Greek  versions,  —  Aquila,  Theodotion,  or  Sym- 
machus,  —  the  passages  are  put  below  those  from 
the  Septiiagint,  as  are  also  tlie  passages  from  the 
Apocrypha.  The  work  cost  Tronim  sixteen 
years'  labor,  and  he  was  eighty-four  when  it  ap- 
peared.    It  is  still  the  standard  work. 

Troinm's  derogatory  remarks  on  Kircher  led  to 
the  publication,  by  Professor  John  Gagnier,  of 
Vindicim  Kiixlierianre  aniiiiadreivionex  in  nmms 
Ahr.  Trommii  Concordantias  f/racas  versionis  LXX., 
Oxford,  1713. 

-  (2)  Cuiicordancen  to  Vie  New  Testament.  —  The 
first  appeared  under  tlie  title  ^vfiguvia,  y  avXAt^i^ 
ri7c  dtadr)K7/i:  T7]r  KQivr/f  (literally,  '•  Symphony,  the 
gathering-together  of  the  New  Testament "), 
Uasel,  1.51*5.  It  was  the  work  during  eight  years 
of  Xystus  Betulk.ius  (Sixtus  Birken),  librarian 
of  the  city  library  at  Augsburg.  Tlie  references 
are  only  to  books  and  chapters,  as  verses  did  not 
then  exist. 

The  second  was  brought  out  by  IIexry  Stk- 
FiiF.NS,  the  famous  printer,  Paris,  1504.  Stephens 
did  not  do  the  work  liimself,  but  merely  wrote  tlie 
preface.  In  this  concordance  the  verses,  invented 
by  his  father,  Robert  Stephens,  are  for  the  first 
time  u.sed  in  a  Greek  concordance.  The  Greek 
words  are  interpreted  in  Latin. 

The  third  was  by  Erasmus  Schmip,  Witten- 
berg, l(i38.  It  corrected  the  faults  of  the  two 
concordances  mentioned,  and  won  at  once  univer- 
sal api)lause.  In  1717  Ernst  Salomon  Cyprian 
brought  out  a  new  edition  containing  a  few  cor- 
rections. Pagster  (London,  n.d.)  has  published 
a  ;{'2mo  edition  of  it. 

'Ihf.  foarlk  is  Kaui.  IIkrmann  I?rudei;'.s,  under 
the  title  'Vafiulov  tCiv  r^f  Katvf/i^  Oi(zOi/Kjj(;  '/J.^fuiv 
("  Treasury  of  the  words  of  the  New  Testament  "), 
Leipzig,  1812.  This  is  the  latest  and  best  con- 
cordance to  the  Greek  Ne.w  Testament,  and  is  to 
be  credited  to  the  famous  publisher,  Karl  Chris- 
tian Tauchnitz. 

Besides  the  above,  there  is  the  Enr/lishiiian'.i 
Greek  Concordance  of  tlie  New  Testament  (London, 
1810,  5th  ed.,  1808),  edited  and  jiaid  for,  as  was 
tlie  Enf/Usliman's  Hebrew  (^jnconlance,  by  George 
v.  Wigram,  and  prefaced  in  the  same  eccentric 
manner.  'I'he  work  is  excellent,  and  by  English 
readers  is  decidedly  to  !»!  ))ref<'rred  to  all  others. 
It  give.s  all  the  woi'ds  of  the  (irc'ck  New  Testa- 
ment in  alphabetical  order,  U(x'or(ling  to  their  iiii- 
inflected  forms,  as  in  a  ilietionaiy.  Each  wind  is 
transliterated;  but  no  further  attempt  is  made 
to  indicate  il,s  pronunciation,  exce]it  by  marking 
a.  diaeresis  or  a  long  vowel.  L'ndcr  the  word  are 
the  pa.ssages  from  the  ICn</ti.ili  New  Testament  in 
which  the  word,  in  its  various  ca.ses  or  tenses,  etc., 
aiipears,  the  translation  of  the  word  being  Itali- 
cized ;  e.g.,  intytvuoKo  (cpiginOsko).    On  next  line, 


Matt.  vii.  10:  "Ye  shall  know  them  by  their 
fruits."  Mark  ii.  8  :  "  And  immediately  when  Je- 
sus perceived  "  etc.  At  the  close  is  an  English- 
Greek  index,  by  means  of  which  the  English 
reader  can  see  how  many  words  in  Greek  are 
used  to  express  the  English,  and  a  Greek-English 
index,  dift'erently  arranged,  which  performs  ex- 
actly the  opposite  service. 

In  1870  appeared  .1  Critical  Greek  and  I-^nt/lish 
Concordance  of  the  New  Testament.  Prepared  hi/ 
CHAIU.ES  F.  iluDSOX,  under  the  direction  of  Hor- 
ace L.  Hastings.  Jieciseil  and  completed  hi/  Ezra 
AnnoT,  Boston,  3d  ed  ,  1875,  .508  pp.  12nio.  The 
smallest  and  most  convenient  complete  Greek- 
English  concordance.  Novel  in  plan,  and  schol- 
arly in  execution,  it  has  been  indorsed  by  all 
examiners.  The  preface  gives  a  minute  account 
of  its  genesis  and  execution.  It  gives  the  Greek 
words  in  dictionary  order,  the  English  transla- 
tions of  the  authorized  version  alphabetically,  in 
bold-faced  type,  and  by  each  all  the  pass.ages 
where  the  translation  is  found.  Thus,  /icra^ij, 
between,  Matt,  xviii.  15.  etc. ;  mean-while,  .folin 
iv.  31 ;  next,  Acts  xiii.  42.  At  the  dose  all  the 
proper  names  are  given  and  assigned  ;  then  follow 
an  index  of  the  English  words,  an  appendix  of 
various  readings  in  larger  clauses,  and  a  supple- 
ment giving  the  readings  of  Tischendorf's  eighth 
edition,  which  vary  from  those  of  his  seventh 
edition.  The  last  two  parts  are  the  work  of  that 
admirable  scholar.  Professor  Ezra  Abbot. 

IV.  5}7tV.4C.— Carl  Schaaf  published  at 
Leyden  (1709)  a  Lexicon  Si/riaeutn  Concordantiale, 
omnes  Nori  'J'eslamenti  Si/riaci  voces  —  complectens. 
As  the  title  indicates,  it  is  more  a  lexicon  than  a 
concordance  ;  yet  its  completeness  is  sufficient  to 
allow  its  use  in  this  way. 

V.  GLiRM.iN.  —  1.  The  honor  of  preparing 
the  first  concordance  to  any  modern  version  be- 
longs to  Johannes  Sciihotkr,  who  published 
Concordant:  lies  Newen  Testaments  zu  teutsch, 
Strassburg,  1524,  folio,  —  a  concordance  to  Lu- 
ther's version. 

2.  Conrad  Ac.ricoi.a  (Bauer)  first  brought 
out  a  concordance  upon  the  entire  German  Bible, 
Concordantia  lUhliorum,  Das  ist  hil/lisrhe  Concor- 
dant: end  Verzeichniiss  der  I'iiniinihsten  Wiirtcr, 
Frankfurt-a.-M.,  KilO.  In  1012  he  issued  an 
appendix,  which  sn|>iilied  deficiencies.  Editions 
ai)))eared  1021.  1()32,  and  1010,  which  incorporat- 
ed the  appendix.  Chkistia.n  Zeisius  (in  Leii>- 
zig,  1658)  brought  out  an  improved  concordance 
based  upon  Agricola's. 

3.  Friedkicii  La.nckiscii  issued  Concordantim 
Bihliorum  Geiinanico-Hehraico-Grceca;  Deutsche, 
Hebraiscke  und  Grierhische  liiliel,  Leipzig  u. 
Frankfurt-a.-M.,  1077,  folio.  This  was  a  truly 
important  work,  and  w<'ll  received;  2d  ed.,  11)88, 
3d  ed.,  lOilO,  4th  ed.,  1705,  each  edition  being 
carefully  revised  and  improved.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  jiains  already  taken,  (Christian  Keineck 
found  it  woith  while  to  jirepare  a  iifth  edition 
(1718).  Lanckisch  himself  die.l  in  100!),  before 
the  first  appearance  of  his  laborious  wcirk,  which 
had  lhes(^  objects,  —  to  revise,  correct,  and  enlarge 
the  Zeise  eiiition  of  Agricola;  to  arrange  under 
e.acli  German  word  the  (Jn^ek  or  Hebrew  words 
of  which  it  was  the  translation  ;  to  jilaco  next 
to  every  IIei)rew  word  a  (ireek  letter,  and  to 
every  Greek  word  a  Latin  letter,  and  then  to  ush 


CONCORDANCE. 


r.2r 


CONCORDANCE. 


these  letters  to  represent  the  wm-d  in  the  passaojes 
quoted  from  Lutiier's  IJilile,  so  that  tlio  reader 
seeing  the  letter  would  know  of  what  Hebrew  or 
Greek  word  the  German  was  the  translation. 

4.  The  Crudeu  of  (iermany  is  GorrFUiEi) 
BiJciiNK.u.  His  concordance,  moreover,  agrees 
with  Cruden's  in  that  it  is  a  so-called  Ilciil  Von- 
cordanz,  i.e.,  it  contains  detinition.s  and  notes. 
After  the  notes  come  the  texts,  as  in  other  con- 
cordances. It  appeared  in  two  forms.  Of  the 
smaller  the  1st  edition  appeared  Jena,  1740; 
2d,  1740;  3d,  175G;  4th,  17(io;  oth,  1770:  of  the 
larger  the  1st  edition  appeared  Jena,  1750;  2d, 
1757,  2  vols. ;  4th,  1705.  Up  to  1770  the  small- 
er or  Hand-Concorilanz  was  a  widely-circulated 
■work;  but  in  that  year  the  publisher  failed,  and 
the  concordance  oddly  fell  into  disuse.  The  ap- 
pearance of  Wichmann's  Concordance  (Dessau 
und  Leipzig,  1782,  new  ed.,  1806,  2  parts),  and 
the  theology  of  Biiohner,  were  two  causes  opera- 
tive against  the  work.  It  would  not  sell  at  any 
price ;  and  the  remaining  copies  were  about  tii 
fall  into  the  paper-manufacturer's  hands,  when 
their  then  owner  determined  to  make  a  final 
attempt.  He  employed  Dr.  II.  L.  Heubner  to 
revise  the  work,  ami  got  out  a  new  edition  (the 
Cth,  Ilalle,  1840)  at  an  increased  price.  His 
confidence  was  justifieil  by  results.  Once  more 
BUclmer  was  the  popular  work :  the  7th  edition 
appeared  1844;  8th,  1850;  11th,  liraunschweig, 
1859;  1.5th,  1877.  In  1871  the  first  American 
edition  appeared  in  Philadelphia  (published  by 
I.  Kohler),  provided  with  a  Preface  by  Dr. 
Schaff,  and  an  Appendix  of  eight  thousand  and 
sixty  omitted  passages  by  Professor  A.  Spiith. 
The  work  answers,  in  a  measure,  the  piirposes  of 
a  Bible-dictionary:  thus  an  historical  sketch  of 
Jerusalem  is  given  under  the  name. 

VI.  FRENCH.  —  Of  these  may  be  mentioned 
Mark  Wilks:  Concordance  des  Saintes  Ecritures, 
Paris,  1840. 

VH.  ENGLISH.  — The  first  concordance  was 
entitled  The  Concordance  of  the  New  Testament, 
most  necessari/  to  be  had  in  the  hands  of  all  soche  as 
desire  the  communication  of  am/  place  contained  in 
the  New  Testament,  London,  n.d.,  but  certainly 
before  1540,  and  vei-y  probably  by  the  printer 
John  Day,  though  attributed  to  a  "Mr.  Thomas 
Gybson."  The  first  concordance  to  the  eiitire 
Bible  was  by  JoH.\  Makuecke,  entitled  A  Con- 
cordance, that  is  to  sale,  a  Worke  wherein,  by  the 
ordre  of  the  letters  A,  B,  C,  ye  maie  redely  finde  any 
ittorde  conleiyned  in  the  Bible,  London,  1550,  folio. 
The  references  are  only  to  chapters.  In  the  same 
year  appeared  a  translation  from  the  German,  A 
Briefe  and  a  Compendious  Table,  in  maner  of  a 
Concordance,  iijtenyni/  the  waye  to  the  jirincipnll  Ilis- 
tories  of  the  whole  Bible,  and  the  most  comon  articles 
grounded  anil  comprehended  in  the  Newe  Testament 
and  Olde,  in  maner  as  amply  as  doeth  the  great  Con- 
cordance of  the  Bible.  Gathered  and  set  forth  by 
Henry  BuUinijer,  Leo  Jude,  Conrade  Pelliciine,  and 
by  other  ministers  of  the  Church  of  Liijurie  (Zurich). 
Translated  from  the  Uyijh  Almayne  into  Enylish  by 
Walter  Lyiine.  To  which  is  added  a  translation  of 
the  Third  Booke  of  Machabees.  This  was  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Index  Bililiorum  of  Conrad  Pellican, 
Zurich,  1837.  See  additional  titles  in  Darling's 
Cyclo/iaidia  Bibliographica.  Subjects,  folio,  185.0. 
He  enumerates  six  concordances  made  between 


1.578  and  1737,  of  which  the  mo.st  important  w.is 
by  Samuki.  Nkw'man,  London,  lO.jO,  r(^i)rint/!d 
at  Cambridge,  1720,  and  generally  known  as  the 
Cambridr/e  (.'iinrordance. 

But  all  thes<i  attempts  were  forgotten  on  the 
publication  by  Alexandeu  Chuue.s  of  his  Com- 
jiti/te  Concordance  to  the  Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament,  London,  1737.  This  work 
is  likely  to  keep  its  ])lace  as  tlic  best  of  all  tlio 
concordance.s,  so  long  as  King  James's  Versioji 
remains  in  use.  It  has  appeared  in  different 
.shapes,  and  with  more  or  less  completeness. 
The  original  work  contains  explanatory  notes  on 
important  words,  exhibiting  oftentimes  much 
acutene.ss,  and  always  profound  piety.  Those 
editions  which  contain  them  are  therefore  de- 
sirable. The  concordances  of  Brown,  Cole,  and 
Eadie,  are  only  revisions  of  Crudon.  The  So- 
ciety for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  issued 
an  edition  (London,  1850),  which  i.s  an  improve- 
ment upon  his,  inasmuch  as  it  is  more  comjilete  ; 
for  Cruden  does  not  give  all  the  words  of  the 
Bible,  and  is  especially  defective  in  {>ropcr 
names.  There  are  several  American  editions  of 
Cruden  :  the  most  to  be  commended  is  that  o£ 
Dodd,  Mead,  &  Co.,  New  York. 

The  latest,  best,  and  most  comprehensive  con- 
cordance is  by  Hobekt  You.ng,  LL.D.  :  Analyti- 
cal Concordance  to  Ike  Bible,  Edinburgh,  1879, 
4th  revised  ed.,  1881.  According  to  the  title- 
page  it  is  "on  an  entirely  new  plan,  containing 
every  word  in  alphabetical  order,  arranged  under 
its  Hebrew  or  Greek  original,  with  the  literal 
meaning  of  each,  and  its  pronunciation  ;  exhibits 
ing  about  three  hundred  and  eleven  thousand 
references,  marking  thirty  thousand  various  read- 
ings in  the  New  Testament,  with  the  latest  in- 
formation on  biblical  geography  and  antiquities,  ^ 
etc.;  designed  for  the  simplest  reader  of  the  Eng- 
lish Bible."  It  is  the  outcome  of  forty  years' 
labor,  and  took  Dr.  Young  "nearly  three  years 
(from  six  a.m.  to  ten  p.  M.)  merely  to  carry  it 
through  the  press."  It  has  been  well  received, 
and  needs  only  revision  in  accordance  with  the 
revised  version  to  be  a  work  of  permanent  val- 
ue. For  the  first  time  we  have  a  really  com- 
plete concordance.  Very  curiously  in  the  first 
edition  all  reference  to  the  "  Holy  Spirit "  and 
"  Holy  Ghost  "  under  "  Holy  "  was  missing.  By 
means  of  this  concordance  the  merely  English 
reader  may  become  to  no  inconsiderable  degree  a 
Bible  critic. 

Akin  to  a  concordance  is  an  analysis.  Such  a 
one  was  that  made  by  Matthew  'Talbot,  Lon- 
don, 1800,  quarto,  revised  and  reproduced  in 
America  by  Nathaniel  West,  D.D.,  New  York, 
1853,  which  was  again  thoroughly  revised  and 
greatly  improved  by  Profes.^or  Roswell  D. 
Hitchcock,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  and  issued  under  the 
title  Neiu  anil  Complete  Analysis  of  the  Holy  Bible, 
N.  Y.,  1870.  It  is  the  best  work  of  its  kind. 
Besides  the  analysis  proper,  it  contains  Cruden's 
Concordance  as  revised  by  Dr.  Eadie,  and  sev- 
eral appendixes,  including  a  brief  Dictionary  of 
Reliyious  Denominations,  Sects,  Parlies,  and  Asso- 
ciations. 

See  H.  E.  Bindseil  :  Concordantiarutn  Homeri- 
carum  .specimen  cum  Proleyomtnis  in  ipiibus  prceser- 
tim  Concordantice  biblicie  recensentur  earumque 
oriyo  el  proyressus  declarantur.  Kalis,   1807;  the 


CONCORDAT. 


526 


CONCORDAT. 


same :  Ueber  die  Concordanzen,  in  Theol.  Stiiflie7i 
u.  Kriliien.  1870  SAMUEL  M.  JACKSON. 

CONCORDAT  means  a  treaty  between  the 
Pope,  as  tlie  head  of  tlie  Roman-Catliolic  Church, 
and  a  temporal  sovereign,  concerning  the  rela- 
tions between  the  State  and  the  Church.  The 
name  was  first  used  in  1418  for  those  agreements 
on  reform  which  Martin  V.  made  with  the  nations 
of  the  Council  of  Constance.  But  it  soon  became 
general,  tliough,  officially,  a  distinction  is  still 
made  between  concordats  and  conventions;  the 
latter  name  being  applied  to  treaties  with  sover- 
eigns not  belonging  to  the  Roman  Church.  There 
is,  however,  a  striking  difference  between  the 
earliest  concordats  and  those  of  a  later  date. 
Thus  the  Concordat  of  Worms  (Sept.  23,  1122) 
contains  nothing  but  concessions  from  the  side  of 
the  emperor.  He  gives  up  the  right  of  investiture 
■with  ring  and  staff;  he  guarantees  the  freedom 
of  the  elections  and  consecrations  of  bishops  in 
Germany;  he  promises  to  restore  all  ecclesiasti- 
cal estates  in  his  possession,  etc.  But  from  tlie 
beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when  national 
kingdoms  were  consolidating  and  monarchical 
states  organizing,  the  concordats  changed  char- 
acter. It  was  now  the  Pope  who  had  to  make 
concessions  ;  or,  at  all  events,  the  concessions  be- 
came reciprocal. 

The  motion  that  the  principal  measures  of  re- 
form should  be  agreed  upon  before  the  new  pope 
was  elected  could  not  be  carried  in  the  Council 
of  Constance ;  and  when  Martin  V.  was  elected 
(Nov.  11,  1417),  it  soon  became  evident  that  he 
intended  to  frustrate  the  reform.  Nevertheless, 
concordats  were  made  with  France,  Germany, 
and  England.  The  two  first  are  dated  May  2, 
1418;  the  last,  July  11.  All  three  are  given  by 
Vox  DEI!  Hardt  in  liis  (T^cum.  Conxtanfiense  Con- 
di.. Leipzig,  1700,  in  toni.  I  p.  105.),  torn.  IV. 
p.  156."),  and  torn.  I.  p.  1079,  respectively.  That 
with  England  was  considered  as  final,  those  with 
France  and  Germany  only  as  provisional.  The 
principal  features  of  the.se  concordats  are  limi- 
tation of  the  number  of  cardinals,  and  provis- 
ions with  respect  to  their  appointment,  revenues, 
etc. ;  restrictions  of  the  appi^als  to  the  Pope,  of 
papal  dispensations,  of  indulgences,  etc.  ;  provis- 
ions with  respect  to  annates  and  other  papal 
ta.xes,  to  commendaa,  etc.  ;  very  severe  rules 
against  simony,  etc. 

The  opposition  of  the  episcopal  .system  to  the 
papal  .system,  which  had  showed  itself  already  in 
the  Council  of  Constance,  became  still  more  ap- 
parent in  the  Coiuicil  of  Basel.  A  series  of  the 
decrees  of  that  council  was  adopted  by  the  French 
clergy,  .July  7,  14-)8,  and,  under  tlii!  name  of  the 
Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Bourges,  incorporated  with 
the  law  of  France.  The  popes,  however,  never 
recognized  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  :  at  times  it 
was  not  maintained  even  by  the  French  kings; 
and  Aug.  18,  lOlfi,  a  new  concordat  was  con- 
cluded between  Leo  X.  an<l  Francis  I.,  the 
principal  feature  of  which  was.  that  it  left  the 
nomination  of  bishops  to  the  king,  but  made  no 
provision  with  respect  to  the  term  within  which 
the  papal  institution  should  follow.  Much  hag- 
gling between  the  pa|ial  curia  and  the  royal  gov- 
ernment was  the  necessary  result;  and  in  U!82 
the  French  clergy,  headed  by  Bossuet.  issued  tlie 
famous  declaration   in   which    the    princijiles  of 


the  episcopal  system  and  the  National  Church 
were  formally  asserted.  See  Hlsloire  contenant 
I'Origine  de  la  Prai/maliijue  Sanction  et  des  Concor- 
dalx,  in  Trailes  de  Drnits  et  Libertes  de  I'Eglise 
Gallkane,  Paris,  1731,  tom.  I. 

By  the  Revolution,  the  Roman-Catholic  Church 
was  abolished  in  France,  but  re-established  by 
the  concordat  of  July  15,  1801,  concluded  between 
Pins  VII.  and  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  It  was  ex- 
tremely humiliating  to  the  Pope;  and  the  high- 
handed manner  in  which  Napoleon  carried  on 
the  negotiations  did  not  sweeten  the  pill.  The 
number  of  bishops  was  reduced  from  a  hundred 
and  fifty-eight  to  sixty  ;  and  the  right  of  nomina- 
tion was  vested  in  the  first  consul.  All  claims 
to  property  confiscated  by  the  Revolution  were 
renounced,  and  the  clergy  were  to  be  paid  by  the 
State  at  a  fixed  rate.  The  worship  should  be 
free,  though  subject  to  the  general  police  regula- 
tions of  the  country,  etc.  ^Vithout  awaiting  the 
final  consent  of  the  Pope,  Napoleon  published 
the  concordat  in  the  Monileur  as  part  of  the  law 
of  France,  and  together  with  the  concordat  a 
number  of  organic  articles  which  the  Pope  had 
never  seen,  and  never  would  recognize.  See  PoR- 
T.\LIS  :  Discour.i,  Rapports,  etc.,  sur  le  Concordat  de 
1801,  et  leu  Articles  Oryaniquen,  Paris.  1845;  Me- 
moirs lies  Cardinal  Consrdri,  Paris,  1864,  2  vols.  ; 
Haussonvillk  :  L'1-lylise  Romaine  el  le  Premier 
Empire,  Paris,  1S08;  Aug.  Tiikiner:  Histoire 
des  deux  Concordats,  etc.,  Paris,  18B9.  After  the 
restoration,  the  papal  curia  and  the  royal  gov- 
ernment labored  in  unison  to  etfect  a  complete 
change.  The  concordat  of  1801  was  abolished, 
and  that  of  1516  was  restored.  It  was  intended 
to  re-establish  a  number  of  episcopal  sees,  and  to 
endow  them  with  real  estate,  etc.  But,  when 
the  proposition  was  laid  before  the  chambers,  it 
met  with  such  an  opposition,  that  it  had  to  be 
abandoned.  After  the  revolution  of  1830,  the 
concordat  of  181)1  was  again  adopted  ;  and,  though 
somewhat  modified,  it  still  forms  the  basis  for  the 
relation  between  the  (iallican  Church  and  Rome. 

'I"he  reformatory  decrees  of  the  Council  of 
Basel  were  also  adopted  in  Germany  by  the  diet 
of  Mayence,  March  26,  1439,  though  not  in  ex- 
actly the  same  form  as  in  France.  The  decrees 
specially  empha-sized  by  the  Inslrumentum  Ac- 
cejitationis  (see  Kocii:  Snnc/io  I'rngmalica  Ger- 
manorum  Illustrata,  Strassburg,  1789)  are  those 
concerning  the  regular  recurrence  of  (voumenical 
councils  and  the  Po])e"s  snlunission  to  them,  con- 
cerning provincial  synods,  the  discipline  of  the 
clergy,  the  appeals  to  the  Pope,  the  annates,  etc. 
Eugene  IV.  tried  to  make  resistance,  and  deposed 
the  archbishoji-electors  of  Treves  and  Cologne, 
the  two  first  prelates  of  the  Cermiin  Church,  but 
also  known  as  the  two  stanehest  adherents  of  the 
Council  of  Basel.  At  the  diet  of  Francfort,  how- 
ever (Marcii  21,  1440),  all  the  electoral  ]>rini'esof 
Germany  agreed  to  present  an  nllimahtm  to  the 
Pope,  —  either  he  should  accept  the  decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Basel,  restore  the  two  archbishops, 
convoke  an  wcumenical  council  in  some  (ierinan 
city  on  May  1,  1447,  or  they  would  leave  hia 
guidance,  and  follow  the  council;  which  might 
mean  that  they  would  follow  Felix  V.,  the  Anti- 
pope.  lOiigene  IV.  yielded,  lie  accepted  the 
Concordata  I'rincipnm  h'riinrnfordensis ,  and  bis 
successor,  Nicholas  V.,  confirmed  it.    See  Kocr, 


CONCORDAT. 


527 


CONCUBINAGE. 


1.  c.  p.  197.  Some  modifications,  liowover,  wore 
iiitroduocd  in  the  final  text  of  the  concordat, 
among  othc>r.s  a  passage  about  restitution  for 
lo.sses  wliich  the  papal  see  inifjht  incur  from  the 
restrictions  of  the  appeals,  indulgences,  dispensa- 
tions, annates,  etc.;  and  the  fullilfnent  of  this 
obligation  gave  occasion  to  a  new  conconiat,  that 
of  .Aschaffenburg,  concluded  at  Vienna  with 
Frederic  HI.,  Feb.  17,  1118.  liy  this  agreement 
(he  Po[ie  gained  great  advantages,  especially  with 
respect  to  the  nomination  ami  institution  of  bish- 
ops. The  relation  between  the  (Jerinan  Church 
and  Rome  was  thereby  made  vague  and  uncer- 
tain, and  remained  so  until,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century,  the  influence  of  the  French 
Revolution,  the  wars  with  France,  and  the  disso- 
lution of  the  German  Empire,  produced  a  com- 
plete change. 

The  confusion  began  to  break  into  the  German 
Church  immediately  after  the  peace  of  Luneville 
(1801),  when  Germany  adopted  the  French  idi-a 
of  secularizing  the  ecclesiastical  estates ;  and  at 
the  time  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  it  had  become 
so  complete,  that  only  five  bishops  were  left  in 
the  whole  church  of  (iermany.  The  curia,  how- 
ever, did  not  want  a  new  organization  :  it  simply 
demanded  a  restitution  of  the  slalus  quo  atile  hel- 
ium, the  restoration  of  the  ecclesiastical  property 
and  revenues,  the  re-establishment  of  the  eccle- 
siastical principalities,  etc.  This  was  soon  found 
to  be  an  impo.ssibility ;  and  in  1815  negotiations 
began  between  the  Pope  and  the  various  German 
states.  Concordats  were  concluded  with  Bavaria 
in  1817,  with  Prussia  and  Hanover  in  1821,  with 
Baden  and  Wiirtemberg  in  1827,  with  Hesse  in 
1829,  etc.  The  most  remarkable  of  all  the  Ger- 
man concordats  is  that  with  Austria  of  Aug.  18, 
185.5.  See  MoY  and  Vering:  Arcltiv.  fiir  kalkol. 
KirckenrechI ,  21,  22.  In  Austria  the  Josephine 
traditions  were  still  continued,  though  tempered 
by  the  character  of  ruler  and  the  spirit  of  the 
government.  After  the  confusion  of  1848,  how- 
ever, a  strong  re-action  set  in ;  and  the  result 
was  a  concordat,  which,  in  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  actually  attempted  to  gal- 
vanize into  life  the  principles  of  the  middle  ages. 
It  opens  with  the  declaration  that  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Church  shall  enjoy  all  its  prerogatives 
and  privileges  in  full  and  unimpeded,  that  is,  no 
other  denomination  shall  be  tolerated;  and  it 
ends  by  cancelling  as  nidi  and  void  all  Austrian 
laws  which  are  opposed  to  the  doctrines  and  prac- 
tices of  the  Roman-Catholic  Church.  The  most 
important  institutions  in  .social  life,  the  most  i]n- 
portant  forms  of  personal  life,  the  school,  the 
university,  literature,  .science,  art,  matrimony,  etc., 
were  delivered  up,  bound  hand  and  foot,  to  the 
papal  curia.  But  the  ex|ierinient  failed.  Most 
of  the  provisions  of  the  concordat  couhl  not  possi- 
bly be  carried  out;  and  the  effect  of  those  wdiich 
could  became  so  strikingly  apparent  in  the  battle 
at  Sadowa,  that,  in  spite  of  the  protest  of  the 
Pope,  no  further  effort  was  made  to  carry  them 
out.  After  the  declaration  of  the  new  dogma  of 
the  infallibility  of  the  Pope  in  1870,  the  whole 
concordat  was  abolished. 

For  details  respecting  the  other  countries, 
.Savoy,  Spain,  Naples,  etc.,  see  the  respective  arti- 
cles. The  most  important  works  on  the  question 
iu  general  are,  E.  Mijnch  :   Vollsliindige  Sammlung 


alter  ilUeren  unrl  neneren  Konkordale,  Leipzig, 
18.'5I)-31,  2  vols.;  Nassi  :  Cunventiones  fie  liehiu 
EcL,  Mayence,  1870.  ME.IEU. 

CONCUBINAGE   AMONG   THE   HEBREWS. 

See  Makuiaok  am<).\(;    rni;   IIi:niiKws. 

CONCUBINAGE.  The  word  has  two  entirely 
different  .senses,  —  a  good,  as  in  application  to 
Hebrew  usage,  and  a  nad,  as  in  use  among  u.s. 
The  ancients  recognized  inferior  wives,  who  yet 
had  rights,  and  whose  children  were  legitimate. 
The  Romans  had  three  sorts  of  "  marriages,"  which 
might  be  simultaneous  in  any  particular  case. 
The  highest  was  a  genuine  marriage,  with  certain 
rites.  The  children  were  full  heirs:  the  wife  wa.s 
maler  familias.  In  the  second  sort  the  wife  wa.s 
called  a  uxor  tanlum  ("  wife  "  only,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  mater  J'amilUis,  "mother").  No  for- 
malities were  required,  only  residence  for  a  year 
uninterruptedly  in  the  man's  house.  The  bond 
was  a  loose  one,  for  an  absence  of  tliree  succes- 
sive nights  broke  it.  The  third  .sort  was  simple 
concubinage.  The  children  were  not  called  bas- 
tards, yet  they  could  not  inherit  This  last  con- 
dition was  legalized.  Tlie  Justinian  Code  calls  it 
ticila  cnnnuetudo  ("allowed  custom").  This  legal 
concubinage  is  still  known  in  Germany,  Austria, 
and  Denmark,  where  morganatic  ("  left-handed," 
because  the  man  gives  the  left  hand)  marriages 
occasionally  take  place  between  persons  of  vary- 
ing ranks,  e.g.,  a  prince  and  a  connnoner.  In 
such  cases  neither  the  wife  nor  the  children  have 
claim  upon  the  man's  name,  title,  or  estate ;  yet 
the  marriage  is  real,  as  among  the  Romans,  in  the 
sense  that  infidelity  in  the  woman  is  adjudged 
adultery. 

The  Christian  Church  was  founded  in  a  com- 
munity accustomed  to  far  laxer  notions  on  the 
relations  of  the  sexes  than  ours ;  and  some  schol- 
ars see  in  Paul's  demand  that  "  a  bishop  nnist  be 
the  husband  of  one  wife"  (1  Tim.  iii.  2)  a  repu- 
diation by  the  apostle  of  tho.se  who  had  concu- 
bines. The  Church  could  not  legislate  against 
such  unions  in  all  cases;  yet  for  a  married  man  to 
have  a  concubine  was  declared  to  be  adultery. 
So  Augustine,  in  Sermo  CCXXIV.  (.Migne's  ed., 
tom.  V.  1093).  But  the  connnon  ca.se,  where 
the  man  was  unmarried,  was  differently  dealt 
with.  The  Apostolical  Constitutions,  dating  from 
before  325  (see  title),  in  a  section  (}'iii.  32)  re-. 
puted  to  come  from  Paul,  siiys,  "  Let  a  concubine 
who  is  slave  to  an  unbeliever,  and  confines  her- 
self to  her  master  alone,  be  received;"  but,  "if 
one  of  the  faithful  hath  a  concubine,  if  she  be 
a  bond-.servant,  let  him  leave  off  that  way,  and 
marry  in  a  legal  manner;  if  she  be  a  free  woman, 
let  him  marry  her  in  a  lawful  nuimier :  if  he  does 
not,  let  him  be  rejected."  It  may  be  said,  there-  ■ 
fore,  that,  before  the  fifth  century,  the  Church 
tolerated  concubinage.  So  the  Council  of  Toledo 
(.\.D.  400)  in  its  seventeenth  canon  :  "  If  any  one 
has  not  a  wife,  but  instead,  a  concubine,  let  him 
not  be  kept  from  communion  "  (Hefele,  Concilien- 
(leschtchte,  1st  ed.,  vol.  ii.  p.  07).  But,  from  that 
time  on,  the  Church  frowned  upon  the  custom. 
So  Leo  I.  (458),  in  his  decretals,  declared  mar- 
riage was  the  only  moral  sexual  union,  although 
he  did  not  directly  condemn  concubinage.  See, 
also,  the  canons  of  the  following  .synods,  as  given 
in  Hefele,  vols,  iv.-vii.  :  Mantua  (827),  Paris 
(829),  Mainz  (851),  c.  12,  "  Whoever  has  a  con- 


CONCUBINAGE. 


CONFERENCE. 


cubinc  not  regularly  pledged  to  him  can  leave 
lier,  and  many  another;"  c.  1-3,  "  \\'hoever  has 
both  wife  and  concubine  must  be  kept  from  com- 
munion; not  so  he  who  has  only  the  latter." 
'I'ribur  (89.5),  c.  3S,  "Jlarriage  is  only  allowable 
among  equals.  A  man  who  already  has  a  concu- 
bine can  marry ;  but,  if  he  has  maiTied  an  eman- 
cipated slave,  he  must  remain  faitliful  to  her." 
The  great  .synod  in  Rome  (1059),  c.  12,  '•  A  lay- 
man who  lias  both  wife  and  concubine  will  be 
excommunicated."  Piacenza  (lOO.j),  which  i.s  very 
strong,  c.  1,  "Xobody  will  be  allowed  to  do  pen- 
ance who  does  not  renounce  concubinage,  liate,  and 
other  deadly  sins."  The  Roman  synod  of  1099  also 
forbade  the  Eucharist  to  all  living  in  concubinage. 
The  Hungarian  national  synod  at  Ofeu  (1279), 
c.  47,  "Xo  laic  may  publicly  have  a  concubine." 
Xougarot  (130.3),  c.  14, '•  All  notorious  conciibl- 
nators,  usurers,  and  adulterers  are  to  be  publicly 
announced  as  excommunicated;"  c.  5,  no  concu- 
bine was  to  be  tolerated  by  the  priests,  under 
penalty  of  a  heavy  fine.  Valladolid  (1322),  c.  22, 
"  A  married  man  who  has  openly  a  concubine,  and 
also  every  unmarried  man  who  has  an  infidel  con- 
cubine, is  ipso  facto  excommunicated."  Benevent 
(1331),  c.  57,  "  Xo  married  man  is  allowed  a  con- 
cubine." I'alencia  (13S8),  similar  to  Valladolid. 
Copenhagen  (1425)  ordered  the  parish  priests  to 
announce  to  those  living  in  concubinage  that  they 
must  separate  within  a  year.  As  will  be  seen  by 
the  above-quoted  canons,  concubinage  was  a  very 
common  practice;  and  the  reason  why  it  lasted, 
notwithstanding  its  repeated  condemnation,  was 
l)ecanse  the  clergy  very  commonly  set  the  example, 
for  the  Church  called  their  unions  with  women, 
which  were  to  all  intents  and  purposes  marriages, 
"  concubinages,"  and  in  many  places  the  payment 
of  a  yearly  tax  to  the  bishop  secured  tliem  immu- 
nity from  molestation.  See  Celib.\cy.  It  was 
therefore  evident  to  the  earnest  moralists  that  the 
evil  auiong  the  laity  could  best  be  reached  tlirough 
the  clergy :  hence  the  reform-legislation  in  the 
Council  of  Basel  (1431-49),  which  was  of  the  mo.st 
rigorous  description.  The  guilty  priests  were  to 
be  punished  with  loss  of  position,  imprisonment, 
and  fine.  Concubines  and  all  suspicious  women 
were  to  be  driven  from  the  liouses  of  the  clergy, 
and  the  children  born  of  such  unions  were  not  to 
be  allowed  to  remain  with  their  father. 

In  the  wake  of  this  earnest  eii'ort  to  clear  the 
Church  of  reproach  came  the  Lateran  Council 
(1516),  imdertlie  guidance  and  inspiration  of  Leo 
X.,  which  inauguraUui  chnn^li-legishition  against 
the  unmarried  men  who  had  concubines.  The 
Council  of  Trent  (1513-G3)  likewise,  not  only  put 
this  sort  of  concubinage  under  the  ban  of  the 
Church  (sess.  XXIV.,  c.  8,  J)e  lief.  Matrimonii), 
but  revised  the  marriage  legulations,  and  thus 
made  the  distinction  between  concubinage  and 
man'iage  more  iirononnced;  for  tlie  bridegroom 
and  bride  must  pidiiish  their  intention  before  tlieir 
own  pa.stor  ami  two  witnesses.  According  to  the 
present  law  in  the  Roman-Catholic  (Tnurh,  every 
commerce  of  the  .sexes  other  than  in  lawful  mar- 
riage is  forbidd(tn  and  punisliable.  If.  afti^r  thn'e 
warnings,  the  concniiini'  is  not  given  up,  both 
parties  are  put  nndi-rthe  ban  ;  and  it",  in  the  course 
of  a  year,  a  8ei)aration  does  not  take  place,  tlie 
»;oiicnl)ine  i.s  remored,  if  necessary,  by  the  civil 
power.    The  cunon.s  of  the  Council  of  'I'rent  (.sess. 


XXIV.,  De  Sacramento  Matrimonii)  have  nothing 
to  say  about  concubinage.  In  canon  2  we  read, 
"  If  anj'  one  saith  that  it  is  lawful  for  Christiana 
to  have  several  wives  at  the  same  time,  and  that 
this  is  not  prohibited  by  any  divine  law,  let  him 
be  anathema."  This  is  rather  a  prohibition  of 
polygamy  (Schaff,  Creeds,  \ol.  ii.  p.  195).  —  In 
Protestant  churches  the  immorality  of  concubin- 
age has  never  been  doubted.  It  constitutes  ample 
ground  for  the  excommunication  of  a  member. 
The  connivance  by  the  Lutheran  Reformers  at 
the  bigamy  of  Philip  of  Hesse  is  an  exceptional 
ca.se.  "  SAMUEL  M.  JACKSON. 

CONCURSUS  DIVINUS,  a  dogmatical  term 
referring  to  the  relation  which  exists,  in  the  evo- 
lution of  nature  and  history,  between  the  divine 
agency,  as  cattsa  Jinalis,  and  the  natural  agencies, 
as  causce  efficientes.  In  the  Bible  the  idea  does 
not  occur.  The  Bible  says  that  the  earth  covers 
itself  with  grass  and  herbs,  that  men  and  animals 
nudtiply,  etc.  ;  and  it  also  says  that  it  is  God  who 
covers  the  earth  with  grass  and  herbs,  and  God 
who  makes  men  and  animals  multiply.  And. 
again,  the  Bible  says  that  we  act  from  the  impulses 
of  our  own  hearts,  and  it  also  says  that  in  <!od 
alone  we  live,  and  move,  and  have  our  being.  The 
idea  belongs  to  the  dogmatic  speculation,  and  is 
the  result  of  philosophical  reflection.  It  has  been 
most  elaborately  expounded  by  the  schoolmen 
(Thomas  Aquinas)  and  the  theologians  of  the 
old  Lutheran  orthodox  school  (Gerhard.  Qnen- 
stedt);  while  modern  dogmatists  seem  most  in- 
clined to  leave  the  questio.i  in  the  form  it  has  in 
the  Bible,  and  refer  the  whole  matter  to  philoso- 
phy. 

CONDIGNITY  and  CONCRUITY,  or  vieritum 
de  condif/no  and  merilum  de  covrjriin,  are  terms  n.scd 
by  the  schoolmen  after  Thomas  Aquinas  in  their 
attempts  at  reducing  the  doctrines  of  grace  into 
one  harmonious  system ;  meritmn  de  conr/ruo  de- 
noting the  inborn  ability  of  the  human  will  to 
perform  certain  works  of  a  lower  order  of  obedi- 
ence, thereby  throwing  itself  in  the  direction  of 
divine  grace,  while  merilum  de  condiijno  denotes 
the  ability  to  perform  works  wliich  are  pleasing 
and  acceptable  to  God,  after  the  infusion  of  grace, 
and  by  the  aid  of  the  .Spirit. 

CONE,  Spencer  Houghton,  D.D.,  b.  at  Prince- 
ton, \..I.,  April  30,  1785;  d.  in  New  York,  Aug. 
28,  1855.  After  teaching  for  several  years,  in 
1805  he  went  on  the  stage,  and  played  w  ith  great 
success.  But  in  1812  he  became  a  journalist,  and 
in  1815  a  Baptist  minister;  and  the  cliajilain  to 
Congress,  1815-10.  He  was  pastor  of  the  Baptist 
church  in  Alexandria,  D.C,  18Ui-23;  of  the 
Oliver-street  Church,  New  York,  1823-41,  and  of 
the  first  Bajitist  Chinch,  from  1841  till  his  death: 
a  corresponding  secretary  ot  the  .\merican  Bible 
Society,  1832-35,  but  resigned  because  of  its  action 
in  the  niatter  of  th(!  Burme.se  translation  of  the 
New  Testament;  and  w.is  the  leader  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  American  and  Foreign  Bilile  Society 
(1831)),  and  later  of  the  American  Bible  I'nion 
(18.)0),  of  botli  of  which  siicielies  he  was  presi- 
dent. See  Bini.K.  SociKTiKs,  ]>i).  203.  2t)l.  His 
Memoir  was  written  by  his  sous,  New  York,  18,57 

CONFERENCE.  I.  —  In  the  Roman-Catuo- 
Lii;  CiiUKtir  llir  term  is  n.sed  to  describe,  (1)  the 
.a,ssiMid>lies  of  priests  called  by  theni.Helves  ot  free 
choice  pa.storal  conferences,  and  (2),  tiio.se  called 


CONFERENCE. 


329 


CONFERENCE. 


by  the  constituted  colleges  of  priests,  chapter 
conferences.  1.  Although  the  Roman-Catholic 
Cliurch  docs  not  forbid,  she  by  no  means  favors, 
such  irri'gular  gatherings.  She  demands  tliat 
they  shall  be  limiteil  both  in  numbers  and  in 
topics,  ami  shall  be  under  the  entire  control  of 
the  onlinariat.  The  amount  of  liberty  enjoyed 
may,  therefore,  bo  imagined.  Yet  such  course  is 
eminently  wise,  for  Rome  has  never  pretended  to 
be  the  friend  of  free  speech  or  ot  progress. 

2.  The  second  kind  of  conference  first  took 
place  in  the  ninth  century,  as  a  cons(^qu(!nce  of 
the  great  size  of  the  diocesan  synods,  which  made 
it  impossible  for  all  the  clergy  to  meet  together ; 
so  district  meetings  were  ordained.  These  con- 
ferences were  held  upon  the  first  day  of  every 
month,  if  it  was  not  a  feast  (hence  the  name 
Calenilir),  and  were  called  by  the  archpresbyter 
or  dean.  Ilarduin  gives  account  of  several.  One 
was  held  in  London,  1237 ;  but  after  that  date 
there  is  no  record  of  any,  until,  in  l.Oti.'),  Cardinal 
Carl  Borromeo  issued  directions  for  their  organi- 
zation and  guidance,  and  accordingly  several  met. 
They  were  looked  upon  as  substitutes  for  the  dio- 
cesan synods,  but  have  failed  to  become  general 
in  the  Roman-Catholic  Church.  See  Wetzkk  u. 
Wktte,  Kirchen-Lexlkon,  s.  "  Conferenzen  "  (1st 
ed.  vol.  ii.  pp.  760-709). 

II.  —  In  the  LuTiiKUAN  Church  in  Germany 
there  are  diocesan  clerical  conferences,  at  which  the 
superintendents  preside.  For  the  conference  in 
the  Lutheran  Church  of  the  United  States  see  title. 

III.  —  Two  famous  and  fruitful  English  eccle- 
siastical gatherings  are  known  as  conferences.  1. 
The  Udinplnii  Court  Conference.  Hampton  Court, 
which  is  near  London,  the  favorite  residence  of 
Henry  VIII.,  and  one  of  the  principal  royal  pal- 
aces until  Geoi'ge  1 1.,  was  built  by  Cardinal  W'olsey, 
and  by  him  given  to  his  king.  There,  on  Saturday, 
Monday  and  Wednesday,  Jan.  14,  16,  and  18,  1601 
(old  style,  1003),  a  conference  between  four  lead- 
ing Puritans,  and  nine  bishops,  and  eight  deans, 
was  held,  presided  over  by  King  James  I.,  who 
also  took  a  leading  part  in  the  discussions.  The 
leaders  were  John  Whitgift,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, Richard  Bancroft,  Bishop  of  London,  and 
])r.  John  Reynolds,  President  of  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Oxford,  the  spokesman  for  the  Puritans. 
The  conference  was  nominally  called  to  discuss  the 
usages  complained  of  by  the  Puritans ;  such  as  non- 
residence,  pluralities,  the  use  of  the  cross  in  bap- 
tism, the  cap  and  the  surplice,  and  other  ceremonial 
jieculiarities:  but  in  reality  tlie  prelates  were  so 
insolent  toward  their  adversaries,  and  so  servile 
to  the  king,  and  the  Puritans  were  so  intimidated, 
that  discussion  was  impossible.  Yet  the  confer- 
ence had  one  most  important  result,  —  the  revision 
of  our  English  Bible.  Dr.  Reynolds  suggested 
it;  and  the  king,  seeing  in  the  proposition  a 
chance  to  immortalize  his  reign,  at  once  assent- 
ed, and  ordered  the  work  to  be  done.  And  so 
appeared,  seven  years  thereafter,  King  James's 
Version.  Besides,  the  conference  made  some 
alterations  in  the  Liturgy,  forbade  women's  bap- 
tizing of  inf,ants  (formerly frequent), inserted  "re- 
mission of  sins  "  in  the  Rubric  of  Ab-solution,  and 
altered  some  words  in  the  Dominical  Gosjiels. 
See  Fuller  :  Church  Histori/  of  Britain,  vol.  v.  pp. 
266-303;  Teggs's  ed.,  London,  1808,  vol.  iii.  pp. 
193-215;  PuocTOU  :  Histortj  of  the  Book  of  Com- 

85  —  1 


mon  Prtii/er,  lip.  88-93;  Schafk:  Creeds,  vol.  i. 
pp.  7().)-70!). 

2.  'Th(!  Sacoij  Conference  wius  held  in  the  Sa- 
voy Palace,  London,  from  A])ril  15  to  July  2.'5, 
1601,  b(itween  twenty-one  Episcopalians  (twelve 
bishops  and  nine  assistants)  and  an  equal  number 
of  Presbyterians.  The  object  of  the  meeting  was 
the  revision  of  the  Prayer-book ;  but  such  was 
the  temper  on  both  sides,  that  no  results  were  ar- 
rived at.  Baxter  embodied  the  changes  desired 
by  the  Pviritans  in  his  Liturgy,  the  hasty  work  of 
a  fortnight.  The  book  was  never  u.sed,  yet  ha-s  a 
certain  value.  It  wa-s  republished  by  I'rofessor 
C.  VV.  Shields  of  I'rinceton,  Philadelphia,  1807; 
new  edition,  \ew  York,  1880. 

IV. —  In  the  Metiiodist-Epi.scopal  Ciiurcm 
in  America  there  are  ftiur  judicatories  .so  named. 
1.  The  General  Conference,  which  meets  once  in 
four  years,  is  compo.sed  of  ministeiial  and  lay 
delegates ;  one  ministerial  for  every  forty-five 
members  of  each  .\nnual  Conference,  and  two 
lay  for  each  Annual  Conference.  Two-thirds  of 
the  whole  number  of  delegates  constituti;  tlie 
quorum.  The  two  classes  of  delegates  deliberate 
together,  but  vote  separately  whenever  such  sepa- 
rate vote  is  demanded  by  a  third  of  either  order. 
One  of  the  general  superintendents  presides. 
The  conference  has  full  power  to  make  rules  and 
regulations  for  the  Church,  provided  .such  enact- 
nu'nts  do  not  alter  in  essentials  the  doctrine  nor 
the  polity  of  the  Church.  ^^ Prodded,  nevertheless, 
that  iqion  the  concurrent  recommendation  of 
three-fourths  of  all  the  members  of  the  several 
Annual  Conferences  who  shall  be  present  and 
vote  on  such  reconnnendation,  then  a  majority  of 
two-thirds  of  the  General  Conference  succeeding 
shall  suthce  to  alter  any  of  the  restrictions  [except 
in  relation  to  doctrine]  ;  and  also,  whenever  such 
alteration  sh.all  have  been  first  reconnnended  by 
two-thirds  of  the  General  Conference,  so  soon  as 
three-fourths  of  the  members  of  all  the  Annual 
Conferences  shall  have  concurred  as  aforesaid, 
such  alteration  shall  take  effect "  {Book  of  Disci- 
pline, ed.  of  1880,  tlf  03-72,  pp.  47-52).  _ 

2.  The  Annual  Conference  appoints  its  own 
place  of  meeting;  but  the  length  of  its  sessions, 
over  a  \\  eek,  is  determined  by  the  bishop  who  pre- 
sides. There  are  now  (1880)  ninety-four  annual 
conferences  (Discipline,  pp.  231-258).  Attendance 
is  obligatory  upon  all  travelling  preachers.  The 
conference  takes  cognizance  of  all  matters  prop- 
erly ecclesiastical,  collects  statistics  of  member- 
ship, baptisms,  church-property,  Sunday  schools, 
benevolent  collections,  ministerial  support,  and 
current  expenses,  and  publishes  the  same.  It 
elects  and  ordains  deacons  and  elders.  Particular 
attention  is  given  to  the  mission  churches;  and  all 
those  able  to  support  themselves  are  not  allowed 
to  remain  on  the  list  of  its  missions.  A  certified 
copy  of  the  minutes  is  sent  to  the  General  Con- 
ference (Discipline,  TfH  73-80,  jip.  53-61). 

3.  The  District  Conference  is  composed  of  the 
travelling  and  local  preachers,  the  exhorters,  the 
district  stewards,  and  one  Sunday-school  superin- 
tendent and  one  class-leader  from  each  pastoral 
charge  in  the  district.  It  meets  once  or  twice  a 
year.  A  bishop,  or  else  the  presiding  elder,  pre- 
sides. Minutes  sent  to  the  Annual  Conference. 
Its  province  is  the  superintendence  of  church 
matters  in  the  district  in  a  manner  similar  to  the 


CONFESSION  OF  FAITH. 


530 


CONFIRMATION. 


Quarterly  Cdn'fereace  ('Discipline,  IHT  87-94,  pp. 
Ul-(i8). 

4.  The  QuavterlyConference  "is  composed  of  all 
the  travelling  and  local  preachers,  exhorters,  stew- 
ards, class-leaders,  and  trustees  of  the  churches 
in  the  circuits  or  stations,  and  the  first  superin- 
tendents of  our  Sunday  schools  ;  said  trustees  and 
superintendents  being  members  of  our  church, 
and  approved  by  the  Quarterly  Conference." 
The  presiding  elder,  and,  in  his  absence,  the 
j)reacher-in-charge,  is  president.  The  regular 
business  of  the  conference  is  to  hear  complaints, 
and  to  receive  and  try  appeals,  take  cognizance  of 
all  the  local  preachers  and  exhorters  in  the  cir- 
cuit or  station,  to  inquire  into  their  usefulness,  to 
license  proper  persons  to  preach,  and  to  try,  sus- 
pend, deprive  of  ministerial  office  and  credentials, 
expel  or  acquit,  any  local  preacher  against  wliom 
charges  may  be  preferred,  to  elect  trustees  and 
also  stewards,  and  to  supervise  the  Sunday  schools 
within  the  circuit,  and  to  remove  unworthy  super- 
intendents. The  order  of  business  in  the  respec- 
tive successive  Quarterly  Conferences  is  minutely 
and  'clearly  laid  down. 

V.  — The  AVesleyans  of  England  and  Ireland 
have  annual  conferences  attended  by  all  the  min- 
isters. The  Freewill  Baptists,  as  well  as 
other  minor  religious  bodies,  call  their  annual 
meeting  by  this  term. 

COtsJFESSION  OF  FAITH.     See  Creed. 

CONFESSION  OF  SINS.  Roman-Catholic 
writers  like  to  date  the  institution  of  private  or 
auricular  confession  back  to  tlie  very  first  days 
of  the  Christian  Chiwcli.  See  Bixterim:  Dcnl- 
icUrdir/Keile>t,lii2'^'-y-i,\.  1,3;  Klee  :  Die  lieidile, 
1823;  SiEMEUs:  Die  sacrament.  Beichte,  1814. 
Already  Dallasus,  however  (Z)e  Sacramcn'.ali  s. 
Auric.  Confcssione,  Geneva,  1031),  proved  that 
this  assertion  rested  on  a  confusion  between  pri- 
vate and  public  confession.  See,  for  the  latter, 
the  article  on  I'enance.  Private  confession  ori- 
ginated in  the  monastery,  wliere  only  transgres- 
sions of  the  rules  of  tlie  order  were  subject  to 
public  confession  and  penance.  According  to  its 
idea,  monastic  life  presupposes  all  sin  impossi- 
ble but  sin  in  thought,  and  this  was  to  be  con- 
fessed privately  to  the  abbot.  See  .Ieuome  :  De 
Reijul.  Monacliur.,  in  Op.  XI.  499;  and  Basil: 
lleyul.  Breo.,  in  Op.  H.  492.  Outside  the  monas- 
terj%  private  confession  at  first  met  with  opposi- 
tion from  the  side  of  the  clergy.  The  Bishops 
of  Apulia  and  Canqiania  demanded  that  sins 
confessed  in  private  should  be  made  publicly 
known  to  the  congregation ;  and  it  was  this 
demand  whicli  first  caused  Leo  the  Great  to 
officially  recognize  and  confirm  private  confession 
as  a  li^gal  institution.  See  Op.  Lconi.i  M.,  ed. 
Balleui.m,  Ep.  1G8.  In  the  eiglith  and  ninth 
centuries  tlio  practice  thus  legalized  was  made 
compulsory.  The  synod  of  Liege  (710)  decreed 
that  every  person  shovdd  confcs.s  once  a  yvnr  to 
the  priest  of  lii.s  parish ;  and  the  can.  21  of 
the  Lateral!  Council  of  121.3  confirms  the  old 
establislied  custom.  Clirodegang's  rules  (Manst, 
XIV.  313)  demanded  that  ccclesia.stics  should 
confess  twice  a  year;  an<l,  while  the  synods  of 
the  .sixteenth  century  reconniiended  lay  ])e(iple  to 
confes.s  frequently,  tliey  made  the  confession  of 
ecclesiastics  weekly  (1L\rt/.iieim,  \TL  079). 
The  Council  of  Trent  (sci'3.  '2o,  can.  10)  decreed 


that  nuns  should  confess  once  a  month.  It  wa-s 
also  hi  the  thirteenth  century  that  the  formula  of 
absolution  used  by  the  priest,  Domirms  nhsulvnt 
("  Jlay  the  Lord  absolve  thee  "),  was  changed  to 
E</n  le  uhsnh-o  ("I  absolve  thee").  When  the 
right  of  hearing  confessions  was  granted  to  the 
Doininiean  order,  conflicts  arose   with  the  paro- 


chial clert 


and  in  1321   the   chancellor  of  the 


University  of  Paris  denianiied  that  confessions 
made  to  a  Dominican  friar  should  be  repeated  to 
the  priest  of  the  parish,  but  Pope  .John  XXII. 
refused  his  confirmation.  The  Keformers  abso- 
lutely rejected  compulsory  confession,  though  the 
Lutheran  churches  generally  retained  confes.'don 
in  some  form  as  a  preparation  to  the  celebration 
of  the  Lord's  Supper.  VON  ZEZSCHWITZ. 

CONFIRMATION.  In  the  Apo.stolic  Church 
baiitisin  was  invariably  connected  with  imposi- 
tion of  hands,  by  which  act  the  gift  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  was  communicated,  and  without  which  the 
sacrament  was  not  complete.  From  several  pas- 
sages, however,  of  the  Xew  Testament  (such  as 
Ileb.  vi.  2,  Acts  xix.  0,  viii.  12-19)  it  would  .seem 
as  if  these  two  features  were  or  could  be  kept 
separate ;  the  latter,  tlie  imposition  of  hands, 
being  considered  an  apostolical,  and  afterwards 
an  episcopal,  prerogative ;  and  this  direction  tlie 
development  took  during  the  first  century.  Ter- 
tullian  describes  the  sacramental  act  as  consist- 
ing of  three  distinct  elements.  —  the  baptism 
proper,  the  anointing  with  chrism,  and  the  impo- 
sition of  hands.  The  question  of  the  validity  of 
heretical  baptism  gave  occasion  to  a  still  sharper 
separation  between  these  elements,  as  the  Jiarty 
which  refused  to  repeat  tlie  baptism  maintained 
the  necessity  of  the  imposition  of  hiiiuls;  and 
the  circumstance  that  the  baptism  jnoper  was 
administered  by  the  lower  ranks  of  the  clergy, 
while  the  imposition  of  hands  was  reserved  tor 
the  bishops,  finally  caused  a  separation  also  in 
time  between  these  two  acts.  Both  Jerome  and 
Augustine  were  opposed  to  the  tendency  involved 
in  this  development;  but  the  interest  of  tlie  hie- 
rarchical system,  and  the  tremendous  growth  of 
this  interest,  finally  forced  the  measure  through; 
and  by  the  synods  of  Lyons  (1271)  and  Flonuice 
(1439)  the  imposition  of  iiands  by  the  bishop, 
the  cpi.scopal  act  of  confirmation,  was  establislied 
as  the  second  sacrament  of  the  Koman-Catholic 
Church. 

The  sacrament,  which,  in  accordance  with  the 
various  aspects  from  wliich  it  may  be  viewed,  is 
called  confinnatin,  sipilluni,  consiipiittio,  cliriama, 
unclio,  or  imposilio  7>ia>iijiii,  is  administered  by 
the  bi.shop  at  various  places  of  his  diocese,  and 
at  various  times  of  the  year,  according  to  con- 
venience. The  catechumen  must  have  filled  his 
seventh  year.  lie  lias  generally  a  .sponsor,  and 
receives  a  confirmation-name.  A  spiritual  prep- 
aration is  recommended,  but  not  deniaiuled  :  the 
external  signs  —  fasting,  cutting  off  the  liair,  etc. 
—  are  siiflieient.  The  princijial  featun^  of  the 
act  is  the  anointing  with  tlie  chrism.  After  an 
introduction  with  prayer,  the  liislii)])  makes  tlie 
sign  of  the  cross  on  the  forehead  of  the  eatechu- 
iiien  with  the  prepare<l  and  consecrated  oil,  ad- 
dre.ssing  him  as  follows:  Sii/no  te  ,v(V/r(»  orari.^  et 
confirino  Ic  rhrifinntc  siiluli.i.  Tlie  sacrament  is 
not  absolutely  necessary,  but  cannot  bi^  repealed  : 
its  effect  is  the  fouimunicalion  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 


CONFLICT  OF  DUTIES. 


531 


CONFUCIUS, 


ail  equipnieiit  for  thu  battle  of  life.  In  the 
lireek  Church  it  lias  essentially  the  same  charac- 
ter as  ill  the  Koiiiaii,  with  the  exception  that  it 
can  be  adiniiiistered  by  every  priest. 

From  the  very  first  the  Keforiiiers  rejected  con- 
tirinatioii  as  a  sacramental  act,  —  partly  because  it 
lacks  the  true  characteristics  of  a  sacrament  (it 
was  not  established  by  Jesus ;  and  it  involves  no 
divine  promise),  and  partly  because  it  detracts 
from  the  sacrament  of  baptism.  Calvin  has  es- 
l«!cially  expounded  this  latter  point  with  great 
vigor.  It  was  not  the  idea,  however,  of  the  Ite- 
fonners  simply  to  abolish  the  institution  without 
putting  any  thing  in  its  place.  There  is  also  an 
evangelical  conhrination,  though  without  any 
sacramental  character.  Most  closely  this  new 
institution  resembles  the  old  Roniau-Catliolic  in 
the  Anglican  Church,  where  it  is  administered 
by  the  bishop  or  his  assistants,  and  while  the 
catechumens  are  still  very  young.  In  the  other 
lleformed  churches,  and  al.so  in  the  l^utheran,  it 
was  often  put  in  a  certain  relation  to  the  first 
communion  as  a  preparation  for  the  sacrament 
of  thu  Lord's  Supper;  the  catechetical  exercises 
being  its  most  characteristic  feature.  It  was  not 
generally  adopted,  however,  nor  did  it  develop 
any  high  degree  of  vigor  until  the  time  of  Spener. 
His  idea  of  confirmation  was  that  of  a  renewal  of 
the  baptismal  pact,  a  conscious  and  responsible 
jussuinption,  by  the  individual  him.self,  of  the 
vow,  which,  at  his  baptism,  had  been  made  for 
him  by  his  sponsors.  Its  principal  features  were 
the  catechetical  exercises,  the  confession,  and  the 
vow,  and  its  purpose  a  kind  of  new-kindled  or 
revived  devotion.  In  this  form  it  was  almost 
unanimously  and  universally  adopted  by  the 
Lutheran  churches  of  Germany  and  Scandinavia. 
In  the  Calvinistic  churches  ot  the  United  States 
a  public  confession  of  faith,  prior  to  the  fir.st 
communion,  is  the  substitute  for  confirmation. 
See  Baciimann  :  Die  Konjirmalimi  der  Kate- 
chumenen  in  der  eoangdischen  Kirchc,  Berlin, 
18.32.  C.  WElZS.iCKER. 

CONFLICT  OF  DUTIES.  See  Duties,  Con- 
1  i.u^r  OK. 

CONFUCIUS  (a  name  Latinized  from  Kiing 
fu-tsze,  i.e.,  the  "Master  Kung")  was  born  in  the 
district  of  Tsow,  in  the  feudal  kingdom  of  Ln, 
now  the  southern  part  of  Shantung,  in  the  year 
5.51  B.C.  His  father  was  governor  of  the  district 
at  the  time,  —  a  man  of  prowess,  and  honored  by 
his  country,  who  died  at  the  age  of  seventy-three, 
when  his  son  was  three  years  old.  His  mother, 
though  struggling  with  poverty,  carefully  cher- 
ished his  love  of  learning;  but  our  information 
concerning  his  early  training  is  .scanty  and  legen- 
dary. His  grave  demeanor  and  precocious  mind 
early  attracted  attention,  and  he  was  led  to  study 
carefully  the  ancient  laws  and  records.  At  nine- 
teen he  married.  The  following  year  he  became 
a  keeper  of  granaries,  and  overseer  of  public 
fields,  in  which  the  reforms  he  instituted  gained 
liim  the  favor  of  his  sovereign.  Induced  by  the 
disregard  for  law  among  his  countrymen  to  ex- 
amine more  closely  the  ancient  writings,  and 
satisfied  as  to  the  ability  of  their  teachings  to 
check  existing  evils,  he  oegan  to  gather  puyiils 
around  him.  Although  only  twenty-two,  his 
reputation  attracted  many  young  men  to  his 
house ;  and  tlieir  numbers  increased  as  the  value 


of  his  instructions  was  recognized.  The  death 
of  his  mother  when  he  was  twenty-four  afforded 
him  opportunity  to  offer  a  sincere  tribute  to  her 
memory,  and  al.so  to  revive  an  old  custom  of 
retiring  from  olhce  in  order  to  mourn  three  years, 
upon  the  death  of  a  jiarent.  His  exanijile  ha.s 
been  followed  to  the  present  day.  With  the 
exception  of  a  visit  to  the  court  of  the  Duke  of 
Lu,  he  devoted  the  next  ten  years  of  his  life  to 
still  further  .study  and  instruction  of  his  numer- 
ous disciples,  all  the  while  rising  in  influence  a.s  a 
public  t<:aclier  and  learned  man,  one  who  wa.s 
(|ualified  to  rule  and  advise  in  affaii's  of  the  state, 
'i'his  course  of  life  he  continued  till  he  was  thirty- 
four  years  old,  when  liis  wi.sh  to  enter  [lublic 
.service  was  gratified.  One  of  the  chief  minister.') 
of  Lu  on  his  death-bed  (B.C.  017)  advised  his  son 
to  join  the  school  of  Confucius  to  learn  the  nature 
of  ceremonial  observances,  in  order  to  better  per- 
form his  othcial  duties.  He  and  a  near  relative 
did  so ;  and  they  gave  new  eclat  to  the  master, 
who  was  ere  long,  at  their  representation,  sent  by 
his  sovereign,  Duke  Chao,  to  the  imperial  court  at 
Loh-yang,  to  study  the  rites  then  in  use,  so  as  to 
introduce  them  into  Lu.  He  went  as  a  private 
man,  to  see  and  learn,  which  he  was  i)ermitted  to 
do  without  restraint,  and  returned  home  the  same 
year. 

Soon  after,  Duke  Chao  was  obliged  to  fly  to  the 
.adjoining  state  of  Tsi  to  save  his  life ;  and  Con- 
fucius followed  as  a  loyal  subject.  Not  approv- 
ing his  position  there,  the  sage  returned  home. 
He  was  now  known  as  a  great  teacher.  Lu  was 
distracted  by  civil  strife,  from  which  he  managed 
to  keep  aloof  during  the  next  fifteen  years.  In 
the  year  500  Duke  Chao's  brother  Ting  caine  into 
power  in  Ln,  and  the  rival  factions  were  gradu- 
ally put  down.  Confucius  was  fifty  years  old 
when  he  was  appointed  magistrate  of  the  town 
of  Chung-tu.  The  influence  of  his  stern  virtue, 
and  the  wisdom  of  his  administration,  wrought  a 
speedy  revolution  in  the  social  and  economical 
condition  of  the  place.  The  next  year  he  was 
rai.sed  to  be  minister  of  crime,  in  which  he  intro- 
duced many  reforms  to  simplify  and  enforce  the 
administration  of  justice.  These  reforms,  how- 
ever successful,  excited  the  envy  of  neighboring 
lords,  whose  efforts  finally  succeeded  in  seducing 
the  ruler  of  Lu  to  remove  the  sage  from  office 
(B.C.  496). 

During  the  next  thirteen  years  he  wandered 
from  state  to  state,  at  one  time  honored,  at  anoth- 
er in  danger  of  his  life,  but  always  surrounded 
by  a  band  of  faithful  disciples.  In  many  respects 
it  was  the  most  useful  and  influential  period  of 
his  career.  When  sixty-six  years  old,  he  returned 
to  Lu,  and  employed  his  remaining  years  in  com- 
pleting his  literary  works.  He  died  478  B.C.,  at 
the  age  of  seventy-three.  His  wife  and  only  son, 
Kung  Li,  had  both  died  before  him;  but  he  was 
honored  and  mourned  by  many  attached  followers. 
His  tomb  at  Kiuh-fau  in  Shantung  is  surrounded 
by  an  extensive  collection  of  temples,  halls,  and 
courts,  and  has  been  recently  described  by  Rev.  A. 
Williamson  in  his  Jmirnei/fs  in  North  China,  vol.  I. 
chap.  xiii.  His  descendants  still  live  in  that 
region,  and  the  head  of  the  family  is  known  as 
the  Sacred  Duke  Kung.  Though  discouraged 
and  neglected  at  the  end  of  his  career,  Confucius, 
through  his  literary  works,  was  destined  to  com- 


CONFUCIUS. 


532 


CONGREGATIO. 


)iel  such  homage  from  his  fellow-men  as  no  other 
man  lias  ever  had,  and  which  amounts  in  reality 
to  worship.  In  every  city  of  China,  down  to 
those  of  the  third  order,  there  is  a  temple  to  him, 
and  in  every  college  and  school  he  is  venerated 
and  adored. 

The  ideal  of  Confucius,  to  tlm  attainment  of 
which  all  his  etforts  and  teachings  were  directed, 
was  a  condition  of  happy  tranquillity  prevailing 
throughout  the  empire.  He  considered  that  this 
could  be  accomplished  by  maintaining  the  sacred- 
ness  of  the  universal  obligations  of  liuman  society; 
viz.,  those  between  sovereign  and  minister,  be- 
tween father  and  son,  between  husband  and  wife, 
between  elder  and  younger  brother,  and  between 
friends,  each  one  faithfully  performing  the  recip- 
rocal duties  arising  from  each.  lie  claimed,  to  a 
oerUiin  degree,  miliniited  authority  for  the  sover- 
eign over  the  minister,  father  over  the  son,  liu.s- 
band  over  the  wife,  elder  brother  over  younger; 
and  he  enjoined  kind  and  upright  dealings  among 
friends,  thus  inculcating  as  his  leading  tenets 
subordination  to  superiors,  and  virtuous  conduct. 
In  harmony  with  the  practical  character  of  his 
system,  he  taugiit,  with  great  minuteness,  rules 
for  social  intercourse,  and  laid  special  stress  upon 
the  care  and  education  of  the  young,  which  he 
regai'ded  as  the  foundation  of  tlie  welfare  of  the 
state.  His  teachings  in  regard  to  political  and 
social  morality  are  based  essentially  upon  the 
same  gi'ounds.  He  taught  that  the  sovereign 
was  the  father  of  his  people,  and  as  such  entitled 
to  the  same  obedience,  mingled  with  reverence, 
wliich  is  due  from  a  child  to  its  parent.  His  idea 
of  goviirnmeiit  was  a  jiaternal  despotism.  But 
on  tlie  otiier  hand,  ascribing  great  importance  to 
the  power  of  example,  he  insisted  upon  personal 
rectitude  and  good  government  as  the  jiledges 
and  arguments  for  a  ruler's  maintenance  in  power. 
The  genei'al  tendency  of  the  philosophy  of  Con- 
fucius is  good  ;  and,  compared  with  that  of  fireece 
and  Rome,  it  takes  precedence  by  the  purity  of 
iUs  teachings  and  the  attention  paid  to  the  rules 
governing  the  connnon  intercourse  of  life;  but  is 
inferior  to  them  in  the  profundity  which  was  ex- 
hibit/ed  by  those  philosophers  in  their  gropings 
after  truth. 

Throughout  his  works  and  teachings  Confucius 
seldom  referred  to  the  great  problems  of  human 
condition  and  destiny.  To  his  practical  mind 
the  consideration  of  theology  and  metaphysics 
seemed  uncertain  and  useless  in  its  results ;  and 
he  evaded,  it  he,  did  not  rebuke,  his  disciples,  for 
prying  into  things  beyond  tliinr  depth.  "  To 
give  one's  self  earnestly,"  said  he,  "to  the  duties 
due  to  men,  and,  while  respecting  spiritual  be- 
ings, to  keep  aloof  from  them,  may  be  called 
wisdom."  Tliis  contains  tiie  essence  of  his  teacli- 
in'j;s  ill  regard  to  the  ancient  creed  of  China. 
\Vliile,  he  enjoined  res|)ec.t  for  its  twofold  worshi)i 
:ind  ndigious  observances,  enforcing  his  command 
by  his  exainp)le,  yet  he  crushed  out  every  spiritual 
t(!ndency  by  di.scount«nancing  speculation  iijion 
higher  tilings.  It  ha-s  been  questioned  whether 
he  even  did  not  <loiibt  the  exist<!nce  of  a  divine 
I'ower,  a:id  regard  the  uiiivei'se  as  !i  vast  self- 
sustaining  mechanism  ;  but  he  undoubtedly  gave 
occasion  to  his  disciples  for  siicji  a  belief  by  his 
silence  upon  the  subject,  and  liis  use  of  the  iiideli- 
nite  term  "lieaven." 


For  twenty-three  centuries  Confucius  has  held 
complete  sway  over  the  minds  of  nearly  a  third 
of  the  human  race.  The  source  of  this  influence 
may  be  ascribed  to  the  use  of  the  Four  Books 
and  the  Five  Classics  as  text^books.  In  adopting 
them  as  the  text-books  at  the  national  exanuna- 
tions,  the  rulers  of  China  took  the  best  moral 
giudes  their  litei'ature  afforded,  and  trained  their 
rising  youth  in  the  best  principles  of  government 
they  possessed.  Kot  only  does  every  scholar 
learn  at  the  lap  of  Confucius,  but  all  civil  offices 
are  reached  only  after  going  through  the  com- 
petitive examinations  in  those  nine  classics.  His 
doctrines  are  thus  deeply  impressed  upon  the  Chi- 
nese mind.  But,  however  great  his  influence  has 
been  in  the  past,  it  is  destined  to  wane  in  the 
near  future.  His  syst^-m  is  not  capable  of  being 
expanded  proportionately  with  the  progress  of  the 
nation,  for  it  lacks  the  high  sanctions  and  the 
vital  force  of  Christianity. 

For  particulars  of  the  life  and  times  of  Con- 
fucius, see  Leggk  :  Chinese  Classics,  vol.  I.  chap. 
V.  of  the  Prolegomena,  pp.  56-120,  ed.  1861;  it 
contains  all  that  is  really  trustworthy.  See  also 
Pauthikr  :  La  Chine,  pp.  121-183  ;  Tiiohnton  : 
Hist,  of  China,  vol.  I.  pp.  151-21.5;  Mc'moires  con- 
ccrnant  les  Chinois,  torn.  HI.  and  V.  passim.  The 
Ahn'<ie  Historique  ties  principaux  trails  de  la  Vie  de 
Con/'ucius  contains  twenty-four  native  drawings, 
finely  engraved  by  Holman,  Paris,  illustrating 
those  ancient  times.  Lkggf.  :  'J'he  Ueligions  of 
China ;  Confucianism  and  Taoism  compared  with 
Christianili/,'honA.,  1880.     S.  WELI.S  WILLt.VM.S. 

CONGREGATIO  DE  AUXILIIS  DIVINE 
GRATI/E.  The  name  is  applied  to  the  commi.s- 
siou  ordered  by  Pope  Clement  VHl.,  in  15i)S,  to 
examine  the  Jesuit  Molina's  book,  Concordia  lilicri 
arbilrii  cum  t/ratia  ("On  Harmony  between  the 
Freedom  of  the  Will  and  Divine  Grace"),  Lisbon, 
1588.  The  occa-sion  of  this  famous  examination 
was  briefly  this :  A  Spanish  Dominican,  Domiui- 
cus  Banen,  issued  a  book  on  the  doctrine  of  grace, 
which  w.is  aimed  at  the  newly-established  order 
of  the  Jesuits.  Molina  prepared  the  above-men- 
tioned book,  which  received  ere  i.ssue  the  appro- 
bation of  the  censor  of  books  in  the  Spanish 
Inquisition,  and  of  the  Portuguese  arch-inquisi- 
tor, who  had  examined  it  on  conqilaint  of  lianez. 
The  work  met  at  first  with  almost  universal  aji- 
plau.se.  The  Dominicans  alone,  >mdor  the  leader- 
ship of  lianez,  opposed  it  strenuously,  on  the 
ground  that  it  was  Semi-Pelagian  in  its  te.achings, 
inasmuch  as  it  emphasized  the  freedom  of  the 
human  will  at  the  cost  of  divine  grace,  really 
made  the  divine  action  dependent  on  the  human, 
and  thus  impeached  the  authority  of  Augustine 
and  Thomas  A(iuinas,  and  revived  the  old  Pela- 
gian and  Semi-Pelagian  theology.  It  was  said, 
moreover,  that  the  Moliuists  denied  the  necessity 
of  divine  grace  at  all  in  the  work  of  human  salva- 
tion, and  ascribed  to  purely  natural  works  the 
first,  rank  of  merit. 

So  between  the  Dominicans  and  the  Jesuits  a 
great  fight  broke  out,  and  continned  for  many 
years.  In  the  begiiniing  of  15;»8  the  Pope  ordered 
the  formation  of  the  .so-calleil  "  Cougregatio  de 
auxiliis  diviiue  gratia',"  to  examine  Molina's  book. 
After  tlinu'.  months  and  eleven  sittings,  nine  out 
of  the  ('level!  examiners  condemned  the  book  in 
the  strongest  term.s;  and  the  result  of  a  second 


CONGREGATION. 


CONGREGATION. 


examination,  at  the  papal  order,  was  precisely  the 
xaiiK'.  Meanwhile  inlluence  of  all  kinds  w:is 
lirouglit  to  bear  in  favor  of  Molina;  and  accord- 
ingly th(!  I'ope  ordered  a  del)ate  between  the  two 
partii^s,  wlio,  however,  argued  on  tlie  (juestions 
in  dispute  rather  tliun  upon  Molina's  book.  As 
the  I'ope  himself  inclineii  to  the  Donunican  .side, 
the  .lesnit  Gregor  Vaknitia  very  shrewdly  ad- 
dressed himself  directly  to  him,  and  with  such 
effect,  that  the  I'ojie  did  not  condenni  Molina's 
book,  but  determined  upon  a  .second  debate.  This 
liegan  March  20,  1002,  in  tlie  Vatican,  before  the 
I'ope,  and  lasted  four  years.  'J'he  debaters  wei-c 
cardinals,  bishops,  doctors  of  theology,  censors, 
generals  of  the  Dominican  and  .Jesuit  orders,  and 
professed  theologians.  After  listening  for  some 
three  years  to  the  discu.ssion  of  Molina'.s  book,  the 
I'ope  formed  the  odd  notion  to  read  it  himself, 
but  unhappily  died  (March  •■(,  1005)  ere  lie  could 
find  time  to  do  .so.  TIk;  weary  debate  continued 
under  his  successor,  I'aid  V.,  until  Aug.  28,  1007, 
wlien  Paul  V.  closed  the  proceedings,  and  after- 
wards issued  an  order  allowing  each  party  to 
teach  as  it  pleased,  so  long  as  it  did  not  call  the 
other  heretical.  Thus  ended  the  struggle  of  many 
years.  It  was  a  virtual  victory  for  tlie  .Jesuits, 
who  obtained  full  lilierty  to  preach  their  ]ierni- 
cious  doctrines  to  the  i^resent  corruption  of  Ro- 
man-Catholic theology. 

Naturally  the  history  of  this  Conrjreyatio  was 
one  of  the  burning  questions  in  the  subsequent 
.Jansenist  controversy.  Sautainour  and  other 
.lansenists  circulated  the  history  written  by  Peg- 
na,  Coronell,  and  I)e  Lemos,  along  with  a  decretal, 
said  to  have  been  prepared,  but  not  promidgated, 
by  Paul  v.,  in  which  he  condemned  Molina.  15ut 
it  may  be  a  forgery.  In  the  begiiming  of  the 
eighteenth  century  a  Donuuican,  Ilyacinth  Serry 
(under  tlie  name  Augustine  Le  Blance),  and  a  .lan- 
.senist  (anonymous),  published  at  Lyons  another 
history.  To  meet  this,  the  Jesuit  Levin  I\Ieyer, 
under  the  name  of  Theodore  I'>leutherins,  pre- 
pared his  llistoria  Controversiarum  de  divinm  gra- 
lice  auxiliis  .tub.  P.  Sixto  V.,  Clemcnle  VIII.,  el 
Paulo  v.,  Antw.,  1705.  See  complete  and  inter- 
esting art.  Conijreriatin  de  (iiixiliis,  in  Wkt/.f.k  U. 
M'lii.TK  :  Kirchen-Laxikoii,  1st  ed.  .'ol.  ii.  pp.  780- 
704;  also  G.  ScuNicKMANN  :  Weilcre  Knln-ickcl.  d. 
llwvdslifch-mijlinis.  Cimlrov.  Dof/)iicrii/esc/iich.  .'^Iiidie, 
rreib.-ini-Lreisgau,  1881.    BAMUEL  M.  J.VCKSOX. 

CONGREGATION  (Hebrew  '^np,  or  ni;',  a.f- 
sembly :  Greek  innXrjma,  those  called  toijclher,  from 
Ka'Mu,  to  call:  see  further,  on  etymology,  under 
t'nuKCH),  an  as.sembly,  a  gathering  of  people  for 
cither  political  or  religious  purposes. 

1.  Sci{irTUR.\L  Usage.  —  In  the  Old  Testa- 
ment the  word  denotes  the  Hebrew  people  in  its 
collective  capacity,  under  its  peculiar  aspect  as  a 
holy  community,  held  together  by  religious  rather 
than  by  political  bonds  (l)eut.  xxxi.  ;50;  .Josh, 
viii.  35;  1  C'hron.  xxix.  1).  The  congregation 
was  governed,  ere  Israel  had  a  king,  by  a  coun- 
cil of  seventy  elders,  chosen  from  the  chiefs  of  the 
tribes  and  head  of  families  (Num.  xvi.  2,  xi.  10). 
In  post-exilian  days  this  council  developed  into 
the  Sanhedrin.  By  this  council  the  king  was 
chosen  (1  Sam.  x.  17 ;  2  Sam.  v.  1  :  1  Kings  xii. 
20;  2  Kings  xi.  19).  In  the  New  Testament 
the  word  is  used  of  the  Christian  Church  at  large, 


or  in  a  local  congregation  as  the  translation  of 

iKKhiaia.     See  Ciiuncir. 

II.  Ecclesiastical  Usage.  1.  General. — 
The  primitive  congregations  were  niod(-lled  ui>on 
the  .synagogue,  and  governed  by  the  elders,  who 
were  styled  "  pi'esbyters,"  or  "bishojis;"  whili- 
deacons  cared  for  the  temporalities;  but  in  all 
the  arrangements  and  proceedings  the  enlin'  con- 
gregation took  part.  With  the  growth  of  the 
])riesthood  in  anthorii;y,  especially  because  of 
the  development  of  the  mass,  the  congi'egation 
decreased  in  power,  until  the  lionian  Churcli 
reached,  long  before  the  Ileforniation,  its  present 
.system  of  government,  in  which  the  l'oi)e,  as  the 
representative  of  Christ,  appoints  for  each  dioce.so 
the  bishop,  who,  in  turn,  appoints  the  parochial 
clergy,  and  thus  the  congregational  jiower  is 
reduced  to  a  minimum.  Yet  the  primitive;  idea 
is  .so  far  recognized,  that  each  parish  h.as  its  .so- 
called  piilrini  ("church  fathers  "),  who,  however, 
although  chosen  by  the  congregations,  have  very 
limited  powers.  The  churclies  of  I  Ik;  lieforma- 
tion,  both  Lutheran  and  Heforined,  rejected  the 
papal  theory,  and  restored  in  a  measure  the  i)iimi- 
tive  system.  The  Lutheran  Church  vindicates 
the  rights  of  the  congregation  to  representation 
and  expression  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  to  com- 
plaint against  pastors  offensivi!  in  doctrine  or  con- 
duct, to  at  least  a  negative  vote  in  the  choice  of 
pastors,  and  of  local  self-government.  Yet  so 
closely  allied  are  these  churches  to  t,li(!  state,  that 
they  are  considerably  under  its  control.  The  !!(> 
formed  Church  gives  much  more  authority  to  the 
congregation.  It  is  republican  in  its  idea.  Cal- 
vin taught  the  complete  identification  of  Chnrcli 
and  State.  He  organized  the  presbyteiT,  com- 
po.sed  of  both  teaching  and  ruling  elders,  as  the 
board  of  control,  into  its  hands  placed  the  govern- 
ment of  the  churches,  and  made  it  responsible  for 
the  care  of  things  temporal  and  spiritual ;  in  all 
which,  however,  the  congregations  took  more  or 
less  active  part.  According  to  the  old  Ueformed 
principle,  the  presbyter  exercised  his  functions  for 
life,  and  another  was  cho.sen  to  till  his  place  at 
death.  Congregationalism  in  England  and  Amer- 
ica has  developed  most  fully  the  principle  of  inde- 
pendence (see  those  articles).  See  ^I  E.i  kr  :  Leiirbueh 
dex  Kirchenrechts,  M  ed.,  Gottingen,  1809. 

2.  Roman  Catholic.  —  In  the  Roman  Church 
the  term  is  applied,  (a)  To  the  committees  of  cardi- 
nals appointed  by  the  Pope  to  expedite  the  busi- 
ness of  the  Roman  curia.  These  congregations 
are  eleven  in  number,  thus  named  :  (1)  Of  the  In- 
quisition, or  the  Holy  Office ;  (2)  Of  the  Council 
(i.e.,  of  Trent,  which  decides  ca.ses  arising  out 
of  misunderstanding  of  that  council's  decrees) ; 
(:'.)  Of  Bishops  and^Regulars :  (1)  Of  the  Index : 
(5)  Of  the  Ritual;  (G)  Of  Consistorial  Affairs;  (7) 
Of  the  Election,  Examination,  and  Residence  ot 
Bishops;  (8)  Of  the  Propaganda;  (9)  Of  Ecclesi- 
astical Immunities;  (10)  Of  Indulgences  and 
Sacred  Relics;  (11)  Of  Extraordinary  Ecclesias- 
tical Affairs.  Besides  the  .seregular  congregation.s, 
there  are  others  which  have  been  called  to  meet 
emergencies,  or  supplv  tenqiorary  sen'ice;  .is 
those"  of  Study,  of  the  Fabric  of  St.  Peter  (t<> 
keep  the  building  in  repair,  etc.),  and  of  Cererno- 
nials.  See  Cardinals;  Curia,  Roma.n-.  (t>)  To 
communities  which  are  bound  by  monastic  vows, 
yet  are  not  monkish,  for  contemplative,  ascetic, 


CONGREGATIONALISM. 


534 


CONGREGATIONALISM. 


or  practical  purposes.  (1)  Some  of  these  congre- 
gations are  removed  from  tlie  world,  others  attend 
unto  nursing  or  education.  They  are  modelled 
upon  the  pattern  of  the  monastic  orders,  and 
differ  in  the  strictness  of  their  rules.  Their 
members  are  laity  of  both  sexes.  (2)  Besides 
these,  are  communities  of  clergy,  who  may  live  in 
society,  and  do  not  assume  the  vow  of  poverty, 
although  they  all  take  the  vow  of  chastity.  Some 
of  these  congregations  have  been  very  useful  to 
the  Roman  Churcli ;  such  as  the  Congregation  of 
the  Brothers  of  Christian  Love,  the  Congregation 
of  the  Oratory,  the  Redemptorists,  etc.  (■})  The 
so-called  "congregation  orders,"  branches  of  the 
Benedictine  order,  which  have  sprung  up  under 
the  leadership  of  energetic  monks,  or  from  the 
exigencies  of  the  times,  and  have  assumed  partial 
independence  of  the  original  order.  To  tliis 
class  belong  the  Congregation  of  the  Camaldules, 
of  Clnny,  the  Cistercians,  —  all  of  the  eleventh 
century.  From  the  latter,  under  the  lead  of  the 
Abbot  Bouthillier  de  Ranee  (1GG2),  was  developed 
the  strict  and  severe  Trappist  Congregation, 
(c)  Tiie  word  "  congregation "  is  applied  mito 
the  meetings  held  separately  by  the  different 
nations  (English,  German,  French,  Italian,  and 
Spanisli)  which  were  represented  at  the  Council 
of  Constance  (1414-18).  The  Emperor  Sigis- 
mund  introduced  the  plan  of  voting  by  7mlinns, 
giving  only  one  vote  to  the  nation;  and  therefore 
it  was  necessai-y  in  such  meetings  to  find  out  the 
national  sentiment  as  expressed  by  the  represen- 
tatives ;  and  as  the  majority  would  vote  on  the 
impending  measure,  so  the  vote  was  ca.st.  {(/)  In 
France  the  congregation  of  the  regular  canons 
of  Sainte-Geuevieve  is  called  the  "  Congregation  of 

•L-  "  CO 

f ranee. 

III.  —  In  Scotland  the  title  "  Lords  of  the  Con- 
gregation "  is  given  to  the  chief  .subscribers  to  the 
Pir.st  Covenant,  which  was  signed  at  Edinburgh, 
Dec.  3,  1.557.  The  title  came  from  tlie  frequency 
with  which  the  word  "congregation"  occurs  in 
tlie  document.  See  the  text  in  IIktiierinoton's 
llUt.  nf  Ike  Cli.  of  Sent.,  chap.  ii. 

CONGREGATIONALISM,  English.  L  Thedis- 
tiiiguishing  principles  of  English  Congregation- 
alism are,  — 

1 .  That  Jesus  Christ  is  the  only  head  of  the 
Church,  and  that  the  word  of  God  is  its  only 
statute-book. 

2.  That  visible  churches  are  distinct  assem- 
blies of  godly  men  gathered  out  of  the  world  lor 
pun'ly  religious  purposes,  and  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  world. 

.■{.  That  these  separate  churclies  have  full 
power  to  choose  their  own  oflicers,  and  to  main- 
tain discipline. 

4.  That,  in  respect  of  their  internal  manage- 
ment, they  are  each  independent  of  all  other 
churches,  and  equally  independent  of  state  con- 
trol. 

Kiiglish  Congregationalism  is  not  merely  a 
development  of  English  I'uritanism.  It  is  an 
iiidi'p"ndent  systi'm  of  church  government,  as 
fundamentally  uistinct  from  Episcopacy  and 
Presbyti-rianism,  as  they  are  from  each  other. 

II.  Amongst  the  refugees  to  the  Continent 
from  the  Marian  jirrsecul.ion,  there  were  ri^jire- 
eentatives  of  both  the  hierarchical  and  I'rcsbyte- 
riaii  systems,     lieylin,  in  his  llUlory  of  the  lie/or- 


motion,  when  speaking  of  the  troubles  of  Frank- 
fort says,  "  A  new  discipline  was  devised  by 
Ashley,  a  gentleman  of  good  note  among  the 
laity  there,  and  his  party,  whereby  the  superin- 
tendency  of  pastors  and  elders  was  laid  aside,  and 
the  supreme  power  in  all  ecclesiastical  causes 
put  into  tlie  hands  of  congregations  "  (^Hist.  lief. 
Ft.  11.,  62,  3).  Thus  it  is  seen  that  Congre- 
gationalism is  co-eval  with  the  otlier  forms  of 
church  government  which  exist  in  England. 

But  those  who  embraceil  and  advocated  this 
system  were  few  and  weak,  and,  because  of  the 
opjiosition  they  encountered,  were  obliged  to 
seek  concealment.  Little  is  known  of  their 
actual  history;  but  Henry  Ainsworth  and  John 
Robinson  recognize  the  existence  of  a  separatist 
church  in  England,  in  the  early  days  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  of  which  Jlr.  Fitz  was  pastor  before 
Robert  Browne  published  the  system  with  which 
his  name  is  associated.  There  is  evidence  that 
it  was  not  a  mere  company  of  godly  men,  but  a, 
cliurch  organization,  having  a  pastor  and  deacon, 
Richard  Fitz  and  Thomas  Rowland,  both  of 
whom  died  in  the  Old  Bridewell  prison  before 
1571. 

III.  But,  though  Robert  Browne  may  not  have 
been  the  first  English  Congregationalist,  he  has 
claims  to  be  called  the  founder  of  English  Con- 
gregationalism ;  as  he  was  the  man  who  first 
clearly  developed  its  principles,  and  brought 
them  into  public  tiotoriety.  His  singular  career 
in  connection  with  these  jirinciples  commenced 
about  the  year  1571,  when,  for  disseminating 
doctrines  regarded  as  .seditious,  he  was  cited 
before  the  Ecclesiastical  Commissioners.  He  re- 
fused to  appear,  claiming  his  privilege  as  domes- 
tic chaplain  to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  His  first 
desire  appeai-s  to  have  been  to  reform  the  gross 
evils  he  found  prevailing  in  the  parochial  assem- 
blies ;  but  he  came  at  length  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  parishes  were  in  such  bondage  to  the 
bishops,  that  reformation  was  impossible.  The 
evil  was  the  natural  outcome  of  the  existing 
ecclesiastical  constitution. 

About  15S0  he  went  to  Norwich,  holding  this 
belief,  that,  if  reformation  were  impossible, 
"  every  tru(!  Christian  was  to  lea^  e  sucli  parishes, 
and  to  seek  the  church  oC  God  wheresoever." 
Here  his  principles  were  fully  developed,  and 
here  he  founded  a  Congregational  church.  He 
w.as  .at  Bury  St.  Ednunul's  in  1581,  setting  forth 
his  views,  and  influencing  the  jieople.  In  this 
town,  where  in  1583  the  first  martyrs  of  Congre- 
gationalism suffered,  and  where  its  principles 
were  baptized  in  blood,  it  was  found  that  his 
spirit  lingered  even  till  the  year  lOlG,  when  the 
Independents  attempted  to  form  a  church  under 
the  guidance  of  the  renowned  Catlierinc'  Chidley. 
This  church  adopted  a  covenant  which  breathes 
unmitigated  lirownism,  and  will  give  us  a  good 
idea  of  its  spirit. 

"Convinced  in  conscience  of  the  evil  of  the 
Church  of  England  .  .  .  fidly  sep.arated,  not 
only  from  them,  but  also  from  those  who  com- 
municate with  tlu'iii,  either  pulilicly  or  Jirivately  ; 
we  resolve  by  the  grace  of  (ioil  imt  to  return 
unto  their  vain  inventions,  tlu'ir  human  <levices, 
their  abominable  idolatrii'S  or  superstitions  high 
jilaces  wliivh  were  built  und  dedicated  to  idola- 
try, etc." 


CONGREGATIONALISM. 


635 


CONGREGATIONALISM. 


Browne  cleveloped  the  principles  of  Coiigrega- 
tioiialism  iimn!  perfectly,  miil  held  tliciii  iiior^f 
consi.tti'iitly,  than  tlmsc  who  came  after  him;  but 
he  held  them  mieharitably.  lie  not  only  denied 
that  the  parochial  assemblies  could  in  any  sense 
be  rewarded  as  Christian  churches,  but  refused 
communion  witli  any  who  were  identified  with 
them.  His  little  church  at  Norwich  was  perse- 
cuted by  puritans  as  well  as  by  hierarchists,  as 
local  records  abundantly  prove;  and  he  and  they 
concluded  "that  the  Lord  did  call  them  out  of 
p^ngland."  In  the  autumn  of  1581  they  emi- 
grated in  a  body  to  Middleberg,  where,  in  conse- 
quence of  tludr  attempting  a  too  rigorous  in- 
ternal discipline,  the  church  was  distracted  and 
divided,  as  the  result  of  which  he  relinquished 
his  office,  and  removed  to  Scotland  iu  DecemlxM', 
1583.  There  he  protested  against  "the  whole 
discipline  of  Scotland,"  and  was  cited  to  appear 
before  tlie  authorities.  At  length  he  returni'd  to 
England,  where  after  various  trials  and  suffer- 
ings, which  apparently'  unhinged  his  intellect,  he 
at  least  outwardly  conformed  to  the  EstaVilished 
Church,  about  15S(i,  and  accepted  preferment  in 
it. 

IV.  Henry  Barrowe  and  John  Greenwood 
caught  the  falling  flag,  and  held  it  aloft  for  a  sea- 
son, till  they,  in  their  turn,  were  imprisoned,  and 
at  length  executed,  .\pril  6,  1,593.  During  their 
imprisonment  they  wrote  much  and  well  in  e.xpo- 
sition  and  defence  of  their  principles;  but  it  is 
to  be  noticed  that  Barrovve's  Congregationalism 
differed  from  that  of  Browne  in  one  important 
particular.  Seeking  to  avoid  the  evil,  as  he 
thought,  of  too  much  democracy  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  church,  he  placed  that  government 
in  the  hands  of  the  eldership,  and  not  in  the 
whole  brotherhood,  —  a  modification  which  pre- 
vailed in  the  churches  for  many  years. 

V.  In  loi)2  an  Act  of  Parliament  was  passed, 
entitled  "  An  Act  for  the  Punishment  of  Per- 
sons obstinately  refusing  to  come  to  Church." 
Its  object  was  utterly  to  extinguish  the  Brown- 
ists  and  Separatists,  who  had  by  this  time  in- 
creased, if  not  to  a  very  considerable  number,  at 
least  so  much  as  to  become  a  formidable  body. 
Barrowe  and  (jreenwood  were  condemned  and 
executed  under  the  powers  of  this  Act;  but  its 
principal  effect  w.is  to  drive  the  greater  number 
of  these  Brownisfs  from  the  country,  many  of 
whom  removed  to  Holland.  There  Francis 
Johnson  became  tlie  pastor,  and  Henry  Ains- 
■worth  the  teacher,  of  a  Brownist,  or  rather  Bar- 
rowist  church  at  Amsterdam.  Barrowism,  it 
was  found,  could  be  woi-ked  in  two  ways.  Men 
of  liberal  principles  could  respect  the  feelings 
and  opinions  of  the  brotherhood ;  whilst  men  of 
autocratic  temperament  could  ignore  them. 
There  were  men  of  both  these  classes  at  Am- 
sterdam, and  after  a  while  this  church  divided; 
the  liberal  party,  under  Ainsworth,  leaving  the 
rest  under  Johnson.  But  in  lOOS,  before  this 
separation,  Smyth,  Clifton,  and  John  Robinson, 
with  the  members  of  the  Scrooby  Church,  came 
to  Amsterdam  :  they  found  the  church  here  in  an 
unsettled  state,  and  "contentions  ready  to  break 
out."  Consecpiently  they  resolved  to  remove  to 
Leyden,  that  they  migiit  not  be  involved  in  them. 
In  the  following  year  they  carried  out  their 
purpose. 


VI.  When   Robinson  arrived   in    Holland,  ho 

was  a  strict  lirownist;  but,  after  his  settlement 
at  Leyden,  he  modified  his  views  anil  practice 
respecting  fellowship.  Divine  light,  brought  to 
his  mind  through  intercourse  with  Dr.  William 
Ames  and  others,  led  him  to  admit  to  the  com- 
munion of  his  church  members  of  other  churches 
not  reformed  according  to  his  model ;  which 
churches  he  would  not  deny  to  be  true  churches, 
though  he  saw  it  necessary  to  separate  from  tliem. 
In  regard  to  the  Dutch  churches,  he  allowed  Iiis 
own  people  to  unite  with  them  in  ordinary  wor- 
ship, but  not  in  sacraments  and  discipline.  His 
jiractice  in  this  respect  has  been  genc'rally  fol- 
lowed by  churches  of  this  order  in  succeeding 
times,  and  he  has  therefore  not  improjierly  been 
called  the  Father  of  Modern  (,'ongregationalism. 
The  church  increased  in  Leyden,  and  grew  in 
grace  under  Robinson's  ministry,  and  for  ten 
years  enjoyed  rest  and  peace.  But  anxious  to 
live  in  a  country  they  could  call  their  own,  in 
which  they  could  also  enjoy  their  religious  free- 
dom, and  desirous  also  of  carrying  the  gospel  to 
the  heathen,  they  resolved  to  emigrate.  On  July 
1,  lO'iO,  one  hundred  and  one  members  of  this 
congregation  left  Leyden,  —  a  Pilgrim  band; 
and  on  the  11th  December  in  the  same  year,  the 
first  company  of  them  from  "  The  Mayflower" 
landed  in  America, on  Plymouth  Rock.  Robinson 
remained  at  Leyden,  intending  to  follow  the  pio- 
neers with  the  residue  of  tlie  church  ;  but  he  died 
at  Leyden  in  16l'o,  before  they  left.  Though 
decided  in  his  opinions,  he  was  no  bigot  in  the 
matter  of  church  government.  AVhereunto  he 
ha<l  already  attained  by  the  light  given  to  him, 
he  walked  by  that  rule,  and  then  jiatiently  waited 
till  (Jod  should  reveal  more  unto  him;  and  when 
the  first  Pilgrims  left  Leyden  he  urged  them  to 
pursue  the  same  course. 

VII.  After  the  church  was  scattered  of  -which 
Richard  Fitz  was  pastor,  we  find  brief  notices  of 
other  societies  of  the  same  character,  w  hich  ap- 
peared from  time  to  time  like  islands  in  mid 
ocean  :  but,  after  the  general  banishment  of  the 
Brownisfs  and  Separatists  in  loHJ,  scarcely  any 
of  these  little  societies  remained,  and,  if  any  ex- 
isted, they  were  compelled  to  remain  in  conceal- 
ment; and  it  was  not  till  lUKi.when  Henry  Jacob 
returned  to  England  from  Holland,  where  he  had 
been  in  communion  with  Ames  and  Robinson, 
that  a  church  was  organized  in  Southwark, 
which  has  had  a  continuous  existence  to  the 
present  time.  Jacob  continued  in  the  pastorate 
eight  years,  and  then  emigrated  to  Virginia.  He 
wiis  succeeded  by  John  Lathrop,  who,  being  sum- 
moned before  the  High  Commission  to  ansvper 
.articles  touching  the  keeping  of  conventicles.in 
order  to  avoid  tlie  consequences,  sailed  to  America 
in  1634.  Henry  Je.ssey  .apparently  succeeded  him 
in  the  pastoral  office.  A  second  church  was 
formed  by  Mr.  Hubbard  in  1(!2L  to  which  John 
Canne  afterwards  ministered:  and  for  it  a  house 
of  worship  was  opened  iu  Deadman's  Place,  South- 
wark. in  1040-41. 

VIII.  The  victims  of  Laud  and  Wren,  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.,  were  Puritans,  and  not  Sepa- 
ratists. Many  of  these  went  over  to  Holland, 
which  they  called  "  their  hiding-place,"  and 
which  proved  to  be  their  training-school ;  for 
there  they  -were  led  to  embrace  the  principles  the 


CONGREGATIONALISM. 


536 


CONGREGATIONALISM. 


maintenance  of  which  gave  them  the  distin- 
guished position  they  occupied  in  tlie  new  era 
which  presently  commenced.  Sliortly  after  the 
opening  of  the  Long  Parliament  (Nov.  o,  1640), 
several  of  those  who  had  gone  to  Holland  as 
PinitaEis  returned  as  Congregationalists.  Such 
were  Thomas  Goodwin,  Nye,  Burroughes,  Hooker, 
.Sympson,  and  Bridge.  The  cause  of  their  ex- 
ile,  the  course  they  pursued  in  Holland,  and  the 
I'urpose  they  desired  to  effect  on  their  return,  can 
best  be  presented  in  their  own  words  (Yarmouth 
C'h.  Bk.):  "The  urging  of  Popish  ceremonies 
.•ind  divers  innovated  injunctions  in  the  worship 
and  service  of  God  by  Bishop  Wren  and  his  in- 
struments, the  susjiendingand  silencing  of  divei's 
godly  ministers,  and  the  persecuting  of  godly 
men  and  women,  caused  divers  of  the  godlj'  in 
Norwich,  Yarmouth,  and  other  places,  to  remove, 
and  to  pass  over  into  Holland,  to  enjoy  the  lib- 
erty of  their  conscience  in  God's  worship,  and  to 
J'ree  Ihemsel  rex  from  liiinian  inrentinnx. 

".After  they  came  into  Holland,  divers  joined 
themselves  to  the  church  in  Rotterdam,  and 
abode  members  of  that  church  five  or  six  years  ; 
among  whom  were  Mr.  William  Bridge  and  Mr. 
.fohn  W.ard,  who  also  were  chosen  otiicers  of  the 
church  there.  But  after  the  glad  tidings  of  a 
liopeful  Parliament,  called  and  convened  in  Kng- 
land,  was  reported  to  the  church  aforesaid  in 
Kotterdam,  divers  of  the  church  (whose  hearts 
God  stirred  up  lofurllier  the  lii/ht  tltei/  now  sain,  by 
all  lawful  means,  in  their  aim  country,  —  not  trith- 
oul  hope  of  enjoying  lilierly  there.  —  after  nmch 
advising  with  the  church,  and  seeking  God  for 
direction)  returned,  with  the  assent,  approba- 
tion, and  prayers  of  the  church,  into  England, 
.•tc." 

These  men,  with  a  few  others  holding  similar 
jirinciples,  soon  found  themselves,  not  an  insig- 
nificant company  of  returned  exiles,  but  chosen 
and  honored  members  of  the  .-Assembly  of  Di- 
vines, which  was  gathered  to  give  advice  to  the 
Parliament  of  England  on  matters  concerning 
religion.  One  consequence  of  their  accejitance 
of  this  position  was,  that  they  felt  themselves 
constrained  to  advise  and  entreat  "all  ministers 
and  people  to  forbear  for  a  convenient  time  the 
joining  of  them-selves  into  church  societies  of  any 
kmd  whatsoever;"  in  the  liopi^  that  they  might  be 
comprehended  in  some  new  national  organization. 
or  at  any  rate  permitted  to  form  Congregational 
societies,  which  should  enjoy  a  full  toleration. 
The  Presbyterians  far  outnumbered  them  in  the 
y\ssembly;  and  these,  urged  on  by  Baillieand  the 
Scots  divines,  and  backed  up  by  the  Scots  army, 
were  altogether  disinclined  to  allow  a  toleration  ; 
whereupon  these  "di.ssenting  brethren"  argued 
incessantly,  vmtil,  the  power  of  Cromwell  being 
ill  the  ascendant,  more  liberal  counsels  )>revailed. 
Congregational  churches  were  now  formed  gen- 
erally in  the  kingdom;  and  during  th<^  Cominou- 
wealth  ami  Protectorate  we  find  them  of  two 
iliffereiit  types. 

dntUerrd  churches  were  .societies  formed  by  the 
voluntary  adhesion  of  Christians,  having  no  re- 
spect to  parochial  boundaries;  and  Iheir  ministers 
were  in  no  sense  (at  least  at  (irst)  ]iarisli  minis- 
ters, but  were  chosen  and  maintaine(l  by  the 
churches  themselves. 

licfo)  mat  churches,  on  the  other  hand,  were 


those  formed  in  parishes,  the  rectors  or  vicars 
of  which,  happening  to  embrace  Congregational 
principles,  selected  the  godly  inhabitants  of  tlieir 
parishes,  and  formed  them  into  Congregational 
societies.  'J'liese  societies  met  in  the  parish 
churches,  and  the  ministers  continued  to  receive 
their  maintenance  from  the  tithes.  The  greater 
number  of  both  these  types  eventually  found 
I  their  way  into  Cromwell's  comprehensive  estab- 
lishment, where  orthodox  men  of  all  tolerable 
opinions  on  church  government  labored  together 
in  considerable  harmony. 

The  doctrines  held  by  the  Congregationalists 
of  this  period,  and  the  discipline  maintained  by 
them,  are  set  forth  in  the  "  Confession  agreed  on 
at  the  meeting  of  messengers  from  the  Congrega- 
tional churches  at  the  Savoy  Palace,"  held  imme- 
diatelv  after  the  death  of  the  Protector,  .Septem- 
ber, 1658. 

It  was  necessary  that  this  Congregationalism, 
true  but  mixed,  should  be  delivered  from  secular 
entanglements,  should  lie  shaken  and  sifted,  that 
only  those  things  which  could  not  be  shaken  might 
remain.  The  restoration  of  Charles  II.  followed 
in  1660,  and  the  sifting  began. 

IX.  The  hierarchy  was  re-established,  and  the 
Episcopal  Church  re-instated  in  its  former  posi- 
tion. All  the  ministers  officiating  in  churches, 
who  had  not  been  legally  presented  by  the  patrons, 
were  removed,  if  the  old  sequestered  incumbents 
wore  living,  and  the  latter  were  at  once  restored. 
On  Bartliolomew  Day,  Aug.  24,  1662,  all  other 
ministers  who  could  not  submit  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  new  Act  of  Uniformity  were  ejected 
from  their  cures.  More  than  two  thousand  min- 
isters, many  of  them  among  the  best  and  best 
qualified  of  the  time,  were  thus  sent  forth  to 
endure  poverty,  persecution,  and  contenqit.  ]\Iost 
of  these  men  were  I'resbyterian  iu  their  ideas  of 
church  government;  but  twenty-six  years  of  stern 
repression,  often  involving  imprisonment,  drew 
them  very  much  nearer  to  their  fellow-suft'erei"s 
of  the  Congregational  order,  several  of  whose 
churches  lived  on  through  all  the  persecution,  and 
continue  to  the  present  day. 

X.  After  the  Kevolution  in  KiSS  a  new  era 
commenced.  The  Act  of  Toleration  was  pa.ssed. 
1'he  Congregational  churches  w  Inch  survived  came 
outof  theirconcealmeut.  Most  of  the  old  meeting- 
houses were  then  built  which  were  known  to  the 
last  generation.  Now  these  are  almo.st  all  re- 
moved. Tlie  new  churches  which  were  then 
formed  were  of  two  classes,  —  Congregational, 
according  to  the  .Savoy  jilatforni  of  order,  and 
Presbyterian.  The  latter  liad  no  presbyteries, 
and  thus  resenibh'd  the  Congregational,  except  in 
this  one  point,  that  tlieir  elders  had  greater  jxiwer 
than  those  of  the  Congregational  churches.  Both 
jiarties  had  become  more  tolerant  in  spirit;  and 
the  leaders  on  both  sides  thought  they  could  unite. 

In  1691  Heads  of  Agreenu'ut  were  di-awn  up; 
old  naniesof  distinction  were  discarded;  the  union 
was  declared,  and  henceforth  all  were  to  be  known 
as  The  United  Brethren.  I5ut  differences  in  j'riii- 
ciples,  and  perha|is,  too,  infirmities  of  temiier, 
I>revented  the  smooth  working  of  the  idan,  and 
it  w.as  abandoned.  The  alteiniit,  however,  was 
not  without  result.  The  more  general  rules  of  the 
Heads  of  Agreement  took  the  place  of  the  stricter 
requirements  of  the  Savoy  Confession  iu  matters 


CONGREGATIONALISM. 


537 


CONGREGATIONALISM. 


of  church  jjovernincnt,  ami  now  they  almost  uni- 
versally prevail. 

XI.  After  the  death  of  King  William  III.  at- 
tempts were  nuado  to  deprive  dissenter.s  of  the 
restricted  liberties  they  had  secured ;  but  the  death 
of  Queen  Anno,  the  last  of  the  Stuarts,  put  an 
end  to  such  endeavors;  and,  under  the  present 
reigning  family,  those  liberties  have  been  ex- 
tended, disabilities  have  been  removed,  and  the 
day  seems  not  far  distant  when  religious  equality 
shall  be  enjoyed. 

XII.  In  English  Congregationalism  since  the 
Revolution,  the  power  of  the  eldership  has  been 
but  little  recognized  :  the  cliurches  have  managed 
their  own  .affairs,  and  have  been  jealous  of  their 
independency.  So  much  has  this  jealousy  pre- 
vailed, that,  though  they  liave  never  repudiated 
associations  and  councils,  they  have  not  till  lately 
encouraged  them.  Informal  meetings  of  minis- 
ters and  fraternal  associations  have  often  had  cases 
of  doubt  or  difficulty  brought  before  them  for 
advice;  but  no  organization  existed  specially  to 
meet  such  cases.  Of  late,  however,  some  county 
unions  have  appointed  committees  of  reference, 
which  may  be  called  togetherif  any  of  the  churches 
desire  their  .assistance ;  and  some  churches  have 
resolved,  that  when  difficulties  arise,  especially  if 
they  are  of  a  threatening  kind,  they  will  at  once 
seek  the  advice  of  neighboring  churches. 

XIII.  "  Tiie  Congregational  Union  of  England 
and  Wales  "  was,  after  much  consideration  and 
amidst  many  fears,  formed  in  183.3.  It  meets  to 
deliberate,  not  to  legislate  ;  to  advise,  not  to  com- 
pel; and  its  Declaration  of  Faith  is  not  a  creed  to 
be  subscribed.  It  meets  twice  in  the  year,  —  in 
the  spring,  in  London ;  in  the  autumn,  in  one  or 
other  of  the  larger  provincial  cities  or  towns;  and 
its  influence  is  quickening  and  healthful.  Its  pro- 
fessed object  is  "  to  strengtlien  the  fraternal  rela- 
tions of  the  Congregational  churches,  and  facili- 
tate co-operation  in  every  thing  affecting  their 
common  interests;  and  also  to  maintain  corre- 
spondence with  the  Congregational  communities 
throughout  the  world."  Under  its  auspices  Mr. 
Benjamin  Ilanbury  published  his  Historical  Me- 
morials relalini/  to  Independents,  3  vols.  8vo,  1839- 
44.  Two  other  volumes  were  published,  entitled 
Tracts  and  Treatises  of  John  de  Wi/cliffe,  and  Se- 
lect Works  of  Rec.  Darid  ClarLson,  B.D. ;  and  the 
project  of  printing  The  Works  of  John  llobinson, 
3  vols.  fcp.  Svo,  1851,  was  approved,  and  after- 
wards carried  out  by  the  Rev.  R.  Ashton.  The 
Union  has  published  fifteen  courses  of  Congre- 
yational  Lectures,  delivered  1833-51,  and  six  other 
courses  of  a  more  recent  date. 

XIV.  About  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century  the  churches  felt  the  necessity  of  more 
intercourse  and  communion  with  sister-churches 
than  they  had  up  to  that  time  been  enabled  to 
maintain;  and  gradually  associations  were  formed 
in  almost  every  county,  their  objects,  in  addition 
to  the  manifestation  of  fraternal  sympathy,  being, 
generally,  to  encourage  and  sustain  liorae  mission- 
ary work,  and  to  assist  the  weaker  cliurches 
within  their  bounds.  Of  late  years  the  convic- 
tion has  been  growing,  tliat  there  were  districts 
in  the  country  which  were  not  able  to  accomplish 
these  ends  effectively  by  reason  of  the  sparseness 
of  the  population  and  the  poverty  of  the  churches; 
and  it  lias  been  resolved  to  form  a  Union  of  Un- 


ions, the  design  of  which  is,  tliat  the  stronger  and 
wealthier  districts  should  contribute  to  aid  those 
which  are  more  feeble.  The  Congregational 
Cliurch-Aid  and  Home  Missionary  Society  was 
therefore  formed  in  1878,  with  these  objects  in 
view:  (1)  To  aid  the  weaker  churches;  (L')  To 
[ilant  and  foster  new  churclies;  and  (3)  To  do 
evangelistic  work  in  spiritually  destitute  i)laces; 
and  to  do  these  things  through  tlie  existing 
county  associations,  all  of  which  contribute  to  a 
common  fund,  whicli  is  distributed  to  each  as 
tliey  severally  need,  or  as  nearly  as  possible  in 
this  proportion. 

XV.  With  reg.ard  to  the  growth  of  English 
Congregationalism,  it  may  be  stated  that  in 
1710,  less  tliaii  a  generation  after  the  Revolution, 
tlie  number  of  Congregational  and  Presbyterian 
churches  in  England  was  800 ;  in  1851  the  Con- 
gregationalists  alone  ])Ossessed  3,244  jjlaces  of 
worship  in  England  and  Wales.  The  summary 
given  ill  the  Congregational  Year-Book  for  1885 
shows  the  total  number  of  churches,  branch 
churches,  and  preaching-stations  in  England  and 
Wales,  to  be  4,347  ;  and  the  total  number  of  pas- 
tors, lay-preachers,  and  evangelists,  to  be  2.723. 
Within  tlie  same  limits,  there  are  14  Congrega- 
tional colleges,  having  44  professors,  and  415 
students  for  the  ministry  :  from  all  which  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  denomination  is  growing  in 
numbers  and  strength.  Its  periodical  literature 
is  represented  by  The  British  Quarterli/,  The 
Evanr/elical  Magazine,  The  Conr/reyalionalist,  The 
Nonconformist  and  Independent,  etc. 

Lit.  — •  C.\lamy:  Abridi/ment  of  Baxter's  "  His- 
torijofhis  Life  and  Times,"  with  Account  of  Ejected 
Ministers,  1702,  8vo;  2d  ed.,  2  vols.  8vo,  1713; 
continuation,  2  vols.  8vo,  1727 ;  the  whole  ar- 
ranged by  S.^MUEL  Palmer,  as  The  Noncon- 
formisl  Memorial,  best  ed.,  3  vols.  Svo,  1802; 
Neai,  :  Ilistorij  of  the  Puritans,  1st  ed.,  4  vols.  8vo, 
1732-38;  2d  ed.,  4to,  2  vols.  1754;  new  ed.,  the 
best,  5  vols.  Svo,  reprinted  from  Toulmin's  edi- 
tion, 1822  ;  JosHU.v  Toulmin  :  Historical  Vietv  of 
the  State  of  Protestant  Dissenters  in  England,  Svo, 
1814  ;  BoGUE  and  Bennett  :  History  of  Disscnt- 
cre,  4  vols.  Svo,  1808;  Bennett:  History  of  Dis- 
senters, continuation,  Svo,  1839 ;  'Wilson  :  His- 
tory if  Dissenliny  Churches  in  London,  4  vols.  Svo, 
1808-14  ;  BuooK :  Lices  of  Puritans,  3  vols.  Svo, 
1813;  T.  Price:  History  of  Protestant  Noncon- 
formity in  Enyland, 2  vols.  Svo,  1830;  Fletcher: 
History  of  the  Revived  and  Proijress  of  Independency 
in  Enyland,  4  vols.  fcp.  Svo,  1S49 ;  Stougutox  : 
Ecclesiastical  History  of  Enyland  from  1640-1702, 
Churches  of  the  Civil  Wars,  Churches  of  the  Com- 
monwealth, Churches  of  the  Restoration,  5  vols.  Svo, 
1800-73;  new  edition  called  History  of  Religion  in 
Enyland  from  the  Opening  of  the  Long  Parliament 
to  the  End  of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  6  vols.  fcp. 
Svo,  1881;  Spiritual  Heroes,  12mo,  1850;  Church 
and  State  200  Years  Ago,  fcp.  Svo,  1862,  etc.; 
Vaugh.\x  :  History  of  England  under  the  Stuarts, 
1840  ;  Waddington  :  Coni/ret/ationcU  History,  5 
vols.  Svo,  1873-80  (vol.  I.,  A.l).  1200-1567;  vol. 
II.,  1567-1700;  vol.  IIL,  1700-1800;  vol.  IV., 
1800-50);  H.  Skeat:  Hislori/ of  the  Free  Churches 
of  England,  Svo,  1st  ed.,  1807,"  2d  ed.,  1869;  spe-  , 
cially  Dexter:  Congregationalism,  1  vol.  largo 
Svo,  1880.  Several  county  histories  of  Congrega- 
tional Churches, — IIallky:  Lancashire  its  Puri- 


CONGREGATIONALISM. 


538 


CONGREGATIONALISM. 


lani^m  and  Noncottformitij,  2  vols.  8vo,  1869,  2d 
fd.,  1  vol.  1872;  T.  W.  Davids:  Annals  of  Evan- 
ijelical  Nonconfarmitii  in  Essex,  1  vol.  Svo,  1863 ; 
J.  Browxe  :  History  of  Congrcfjationalism  in  Nor- 
folk and  Suffolk,  1  vol.  Svo,  1877 ;  J.  Sibree  and 
M.  Caston:  Independency  in  Warwicksfiire,  1S55 ; 
Waddixgton  :  Surrey  Congregational  History, 
1866;  Miall:   Yorkshire;  etc. 

JOHX  BROWNE  (Wrentham,  Suffolk,  Eng.). 

COK4GREGATIONAL1SM  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES  denotes  a  system  of  belief  in  general 
liistorical  agreement  with  the  Reformed  Confes- 
sions, and  a  polity  comliining  the  principle  of  the 
autonomy  of  the  local  churcli  with  that  of  the  duly 
of  fellowsliip  between  sister  churches. 

I.  History.  —  "  The  Mayflower  "  bore  to 
Plymouth,  in  New  England,  an  organized  Chris- 
tian church  (1620).  Under  the  increasingly  lib- 
eral teaching  of  John  Kobinson,  its  pastor,  it 
had  already  passed  into  the  second  stage  of  inde- 
pendency, viz.,  se7ni-separatism,  and  was  thus  pre- 
pared to  influence  the  formation  of  the  earliest 
churches  of  the  Puritan  or  Nonconformist  emi- 
gration. The  members  of  these  churches  had  also 
been  providentially  trained,  by  removal  to  the 
New  AVorld,  and  the  circumstances  in  which  they 
here  found  themselves,  to  form  a  polity  in  har- 
mony with  the  Pljnnoutli  pattern.  Thus  arose 
what  was  called  the  New-England  way,  the  Middle 
toay  between  Broirnism  and  Preshyterianism,  and 
the  Congregational  way. 

The  Plymouth  Church  remained  alone  until 
1029.  In  1048  the  number  of  churches  in  New 
England  had  increased  to  fifty-one ;  viz.,  two  in 
New  llampsliire,  nine  in  Plymouth  Colony,  thirty 
I  in  the  Colony  of  Massachusetts,  five  in  Connecti- 
'  cut,  five  in  New  Haven  Colony.  There  were  also 
two  or  tliree  on  Long  Island,  and  one  in  Virgmia. 
The  jieriod  thus  indicated  (1020-18),  closing  with 
the  completion  of  the  Cambridge  Platform,  is  tiie 
creative  era  of  American  Congregationalism.  Tlie 
leading  writers  and  the  "organizing  minds"  were 
Cotton,  Hooker,  Norton,  Davenport,  and  ]\Iather. 

The  early  f'ongregationalists  held  to  the  pi'in- 
ciple  that  a  church  should  be  conijiosed  of  persons 
wlio  give  crediljle  evidence  of  regeneration  Ijy  the 
Holy  .Spirit,  though  ".severity  of  examination  is 
to  be  avoided,"  and  "  tlie  weakest  inc'asureof  faith 
is  to  be  accepted  in  those  tliat  desire  to  be  ad- 
mitted into  the  churcli,  liecause  weak  Cliristians, 
if  sincere,  have  the  substance  of  that  faith, 
repentance,  and  holiness  wliich  is  required  in 
cluirch-niembers ;  and  such  have  most  need  of 
the  ordinances  for  tlieir  confirmation  and  growth 
in  grace"  (Cainl/.  Plat.  c.  xii.).  Baptized  chil- 
<lren  were  recognized  as  members,  yet  not  as  in  full 
communion;  whicli  could  only  be  obtained  u]ion 
personal  pi'ofession  of  repentance  from  sin,  and 
of  faitli  in  Jesus  Clirist.  A  demand  soon  sprang 
up  fur  a  reliixalion  of  tliese  terms  of  admission. 
Ill  the  (,'oloiiies  of  New  Haven  and  Massachusetts 
<:hurcli-memliershi])  had  liecii  made  a  nece.ssary 
<|iialification  for  the  franchise:  in  the  other  Colo- 
nies it  was  of  unipiestioiialile  civil  and  jiolitical 
advantage.  Under  tliese  conditions  it  would  be 
strange  if  desire  for  civil  rights  and  political 
influence  had  not  moved  .some  of  the  coloni.sts  to 
seek  a  change  in  tlia  terms  of  clmrch-member- 
Bliip.  If,  however,  such  motives  operated,  no 
traces  of  them  appear  in  the  diucus.fions  of  the 


time  which  have  come  down  to  us.  Tlie  clergy, 
rather  than  the  laity,  were  foremost  in  the  move- 
ment for  relaxation ;  and  it  is  clear  that  at  least 
tiie  main  reason,  and  the  one  which  controlled 
the  course  of  events,  was  religious,  —  tlie  desire 
to  extend  the  privileges  and  blessings  of  church- 
fellowship.  The  traditional  principle,  and,  still 
more,  the  inherited  feeling,  that  persons  un- 
baptized  were  as  Pagans,  probably  had  a  great 
influence.  Still  the  principle  of  a  regenerated 
membership  was  too  strongly  held  to  be  dis- 
carded ;  and  so  a  compromise  was  made,  by  which 
baptized  persons  of  orthodox  belief  and  reputa- 
ble life,  upon  covenanting  with  the  church,  were 
allowed  to  offer  their  children  in  baptism.  The 
covenants  in  use  were  so  evangelical  and  fuU, 
that  it  is  difficult  to  understand  how  they  could 
have  been  taken  by  persons  who  were  not  ready 
and  willing  to  enter  into  full  communion.  They 
were,  however,  understood  to  imply  something 
less  than  a  full  profession  of  personal  repentance 
and  faith.  The  principle  of  membership  upon 
lower  terms  being  thus  once  admitted,  it  received 
development,  until,  in  some  churches,  the  sacra- 
ment of  the  Lord's  Supper  was  administered  to 
all  who  took  what  has  been  called  the  "  Half- 
way Covenant ; "  and  Solomon  Stoddard  advo- 
cated the  theory  that  "  the  Lord's  Supper  is 
instituted  to  be  a  means  of  regeneration."  The 
influence  of  tliis  modification  and  practical  aban- 
donment of  the  primitive  belief  of  the  Congrega- 
tional churches  deserves  more  thorough,  exact, 
and  comprehensive  investigation  than  it  has  yet 
received.  The  worst  effect,  doubtless,  was  the 
diminution,  in  the  public  mind  and  conscience,  of 
a  sense  of  the  oliligations  of  personal  religion ; 
and  this  disastrous  result  was  wide-spread. 

The  evils  thus  introduced  were  partially  arrest- 
ed by  the  "  Great  Awakening,"  —  a  religious  re- 
vival under  the  preaching  of  the  elder  Edwards, 
Whitetield,  and  others,  which  added,  it  is  claimed, 
from  twenty-five  thousand  to  thirty  thousand  com- 
mmiicants  to  tlie  churches,  and  led  to  the  aban- 
donment of  the  ]ilan  of  the  Ihdf-iray  Covenant. 
Before,  however,  this  result  was  fully  reached,  a 
large  number  of  ehurclies,  chiefly  in  Eastern 
Massachusetts,  became  Unitarian  in  failli.  Tlie 
effect  of  the  trials  through  wliieli  the  churches 
passed  in  tliis  defection  \\;is  very  important  as  to 
doctrine,  jiolity,  and  Christian  activity;  the  disci- 
pline, though  sevin-e,  proving  to  be  very  salutary. 
This  chapter,  also,  in  the  liistory  of  the  denomi- 
nation, has  not  yet  found  its  historian,  though 
^■ery  valuablt!  contributions  to  it  liave  been  made. 
[See  Gili-KTt:  Hist.  Mag.,  1871,  pp.  221-a24 ; 
Clark  :  Hist.  Sketch  of  the  Cong.  Churches  in 
Mass.;  Bi'RdESs:  Pages  from  the  Ecclcs,  Hist. 
ofN.  E.;  Ellis:  Half-Cent,  of  the  Unit.  Contro- 
versy; Punch aui)  :  Hist,  of  Cong.,  vol.  V.  pp. 
.5.57-694.] 

In  1708  a  synod,  convened  at  Saybrook  by  order 
of  the  Legislature  of  Connecticut  (which  now 
included  the?  Cok)ny  of  New  Haven),  adopted 
what  is  called  the  Sayhrook  Platform;  viz.,  the 
Saroy  Confssion  of  Faitli,  tlie  Heads  of  Agreement 
(wliich  had  iiiiileil  Presliyterians  and  Congrega- 
tionalists  in  England),  and  Articles  for  the  Admin- 
istration of  Church  Dutci/ilinc,  the  cliief  peculiarities 
of  wliich  are  tlie  union  of  ehurclies  witli  their 
pastors  in  consociations,  of  ministers  in  assoeia- 


I 


CONGREGATIONALISM. 


>39 


CONGREGATIONALISM. 


tions,  and  the  foniiatiou  of  standing  councils. 
All  the  early  Connecticut  churches  came  sooner 
or  later  into  this  scheme  ;  l>ut  it  has  been,  in  later 
times,  largely  superseded  by  the  conference  sys- 
tem.  ■ 

In  1801  a  Plan  of  Union  was  adopted  by  the 
Presbyterian  General  Assembly  and  the  General 
Association  of  Connecticut,  with  reference  to 
churches  forming  in  new  settlements.  This  was 
abrogated  by  the  Albany  Convention  of  Congre- 
gatioualists  in  1852,  experience  proving  that  it 
operated  to  their  disadvantage.  Since  then,  the 
growth  of  Congregationalism  outside  of  New  Eng- 
land, particularly  at  the  West,  has  been  rapid. 

The  following  general  sj'nods  have  been  held  : 
in  1637,  at  Newtown,  with  reference  to  the  Anti- 
nomian  teachings  of  Rev.  John  AVheelwright  and 
Mrs.  Anne  Hutcliinson;  in  1046-48,  at  Cambridge, 
where  the  Westminster  Confession  was  adopted, 
"  for  the  substance  thereof,"  and  a  Platform  of 
Church  Discipline  framed ;  in  1852,  at  Albany ; 
and  in  186.3,  at  Boston.  The  last  two  synods 
dealt  particularly  with  questions  relating  to  the 
spread  of  Congregationalism.  From  the  same 
conditions  of  progress  sprang  the  National  Coun- 
cil, which  has  met  triennially  since  1871. 

Local  synods  of  special  importance  were  held ; 
in  1662,  at  Boston,  "a  synod  of  elders  and  mes- 
sengers from  all  the  cliurches  in  the  Massachu- 
setts Colony,"  w^hich  agreed  upon  the  so-called 
Half-way  Covenant,  and  commended  in  a  qualified 
way  Consociationism ;  in  1679,  at  Boston,  the 
"  Reforming  Synod  ;  "  in  1708,  at  Saybrook. 

Congregationalists  have  from  the  beginning 
stood  in  the  front  rank  as  respects  educational, 
benevolent,  and  missionary  operations.  Schools 
were  established  in  the  Colonies  almost  from  the 
beginning.  The  endowment  of  Harvard  College 
began  as  early  as  1636.  In  1647  an  act  was  passed 
by  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts,  which 
established  a  system  of  common  schools.  Jlore 
than  twenty  important  colleges  are  now  wholly 
or  ]i;u-tially  under  the  care  of  Congi'egationalists, 
with  numerous  academies.  "A  great  hope  and 
inward  zeal"  for  missionary  labor  inspri-ed  the 
Pilgrim  Fathers.  An  order  passed  by  the  General 
Court  of  Massachusetts  (Nov.  19,  1644)  elicits 
from  Dr.  Palfrey  (Hist,  of  N.  E.,  II.  189)  the 
connnent,  that,  with  possibly  a  single  exception, 
"the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  was  thus 
the  first  missionary  society  in  the  history  of  Prot- 
estant Christendom."  Shortly  before  this,  John 
Eliot,  the  "  Apostle  of  the  Indians,"  had  liegini 
his  work  among  them.  The  American  Hoard  of 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions  was  instituted 
by  the  General  Association  of  ]\Iassachusetts  in 
1810:  in  1826  w-as  formed  the  American  Home 
Missionari/  Society,  witli  which  were  connected 
previous  organizations.  In  addition  to  these  two 
societies,  the  following  were  commended  to  the 
churches  by  the  last  (1880)  National  Council :  the 
Congregational  Publishing  Societg;  the  American 
Missionary  Association ;  the  American  Congrega- 
tional Union;  t\ie  American  College  and  Education 
Society;  the  Western  Education  Society ;  the  New 
West  Education  Commission. 

For  the  early  history  of  Congregational  churches 
in  the  Southern  States  and  in  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  see  Punciiard,  Hist,  of  Cong.,  vol.  iv. 
chaps.  12,  1.3,  17,  18,  19. 


II.  Doctrine. — Congregationalism  emphasizes 
the  principle,  that  the  Scriptures  are  the  only 
authoritative  rule  of  faith  and  practice.  Its  un- 
derstanding of  that  rule  is  expressed  in  the  creeds 
of  its  local  cliurches,  and  in  the  .symbols  which 
its  general  synods  and  other  organizations  have 
commended.  These  formulas  of  faith  are  not 
imjiosed,  either  upon  individual  members  of  the 
cliurches,  or  upon  the  local  churches  or  other 
ecclesiastical  bodies.  Each  candidate  for  inem- 
bersliip,  each  church  or  conference,  seeking  recog- 
nition, determines  freely  what  is  accepted  as  of 
faitli.  On  the  other  hand,  each  organization 
decides  for  itself  wluither  the  confession  of  an 
applicant  is  sufiicient.  As  general  standards,  or 
testimonies,  the  AVestminster  Confession  (adopted 
substantially  by  the  .synod  of  1646-48^  and  the 
Savoy  Confession  (adopted  by  the  SJ^lods  of  1680 
and  1708)  have  held  the  foremost  rank.  The  Na- 
tional Council  of  1805  declared  its  adherence  to 
the  faith  "substantially  as  embodied"  in  these 
confessions,  and  added  an  impressive  statement 
of  the  "fundamental  truths  in  wliich  all  Christians 
should  agree,"  and  on  the  basis  of  which  catholic 
fellowship  and  co-oi>eration  can  exist  in  the  work 
of  extending  the  Redeemer's  kingdom  (^Burial 
Hill  Declaration).  The  indefiniteness  of  the  word 
"substantially,"  and  the  growing  and  prevalent 
conviction  that  the  AA'estminster  and  Savoy  Con- 
fessions fail  to  represent  adequately  the  present 
beliefs,  led  the  National  Council  at  St.  Louis 
(Nov.  15,  ISSO)  to  appoint  a  committee  of  seven 
to  "  select  from  among  the  members  of  our 
churches,  in  different  parts  of  our  land,  twenty- 
five  men  of  piety  and  ability,  well  versed  in  the 
truths  of  the  Bible,  and  representing  different 
shades  of  thought  among  us,  who  may  be  willing 
to  confer  and  act  together  as  a  commission  to 
propose,  in  the  form  of  a  creed  or  catechism,  or 
both,  a  simple,  clear,  and  comprehensive  exposi- 
tion of  the  truths  of  the  glorious  gospel  of  the 
blessed  God,  for  the  instruction  and  edification  of 
our  churches."  This  commission  has  been  formed, 
and  is  expected  to  publish  the  result  of  its  labors. 

This  eii'ort  to  secure  a  new  statement  of  belief 
has  its  roots  in  the  doctrinal  discussions  origi- 
nated or  promoted  by  the  elder  Edwards.  The 
practical  problems  presented  to  the  churches  by 
the  immense  home  missionary  work  devolved 
upon  them  have  also  had  an  important  influence. 
Theology  has  been  cultivated  with  special  refer- 
ence to  preaching;  and  preaching  has  aimed  at 
conversion,  and  the  promotion  of  active  benevo- 
lence. The  chief  discussions  have  related  to 
"questions  of  anthropolog\'  and  soteriology." 
The  controversies  with  Unitarianism  and  C'ni- 
versalism  have  widened  the  range  of  inquiry. 
The  attention  given  to  theology,  especially  in  New 
England,  has  been  remarkable  in  its  extent  and 
degree  ;  and  what  is  known  as  the  "  New-England 
Theology "  has  exerted  a  powerful  influence  in 
other  comnnmions  than  the  one  m  which  it  has 
most  flourished. 

For  an  account  of  this  theology,  and  special 
references,  see  Professor  H.  B.  Sjiitii's  additions 
to  Hagexbach's  Hist,  of  Doctrines,  II.  183.  192, 
435-452,  N.Y.  ed.,  1868;  lb. :  Hist,  of  the  Church 
of  Christ  in  Chronol.  Tables:  JIcClintock  and 
Strong's  Cyclopiedia,  II.  479,  X.  327,  art.  on 
New  England  Theology,  by  President  Warren. 


CONGREGATIONALISM. 


540 


CONGREGATIONALISM. 


Among  leading  theologians  may  be  mentioned, 
John  Robinson,  John  Cotton,  Thomas  Shepard, 
Samuel  Willard,  Jonathan  Edwards,  sen.,  Joseph 
Bellamy,  Samuel  Hopkins,  Jonathan  Edwards, 
jun.,  Timothy  D-night,  John  Smalley,  Jesse  A{> 
pleton,  Asa  Bui'ton,  Xathaniel  Emmons,  Leonard 
AVoods,  ]Moses  Stuart,  Bennet  Tyler,  Lyman 
Beecher,  Xathauiel  W.  Taylor,  Horace  Bushnell, 
C.  G.  Finney,  Enoch  Pond,  Edward  Beecher, 
Edwards  A.  Park. 

III.  Polity.  —  The  Congregational  polity  is  a 
body  of  usages  as  well  as  a  system  with  princi- 
ples. These  usages  are  set  forth  in  platforms 
and  manuals,  which  are  recognized  by  courts  of 
law  and  ecclesiastical  councils,  although  their 
authority  is  declarative,  and  not  canonical.  It  is 
of  chief  importance  to  mark  the  fundamental 
principles  of  the  system,  as  it  is  by  these  that 
usages  nnist  be  tested. 

A.  Tlie  Formal  Principle.  "  The  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, and  especially  the  scrijitures  of  the  New 
Testament,  are  the  only  autlioritative  rule  for  the 
constitution  and  administration  of  church  gov- 
ernment ;  and  no  other  can  be  imposed  on  Chris- 
tians as  a  condition  of  membership  and  com- 
mmiion  in  tlie  church "  (^Boston  Plalfonn,  Pt.  I. 
chap.  i.  1).  "The  New  Testament  contains  in 
express  precept,  or  in  the  practice  of  the  apostles 
and  primitive  churches,  all  the  principles  of  church 
organization  and  government"  (Constitution  of 
the  Illinois  and  of  other  Associations). 

The  Cambridge  Platform  asserted  more  than 
this;  viz.,  that  "the  parts  of  church  government 
are  aU  of  them  exactly  described  in  the  word  of 
God  ...  so  that  it  is  not  left  in  the  power  of  men 
...  to  add,  or  diminish,  or  alter  any  thing  in  the 
lea.st  measiu-e  therein."  So  John  Robin.son  and 
the  early  Congregationalists  generally.  Tiie  best 
thought  and  aspiration  of  the  next  century  rec- 
ognized more  fully  the  light  of  nature  and  the 
province  of  human  reason.  Near  its  beginning. 
Rev.  John  "Wise  argued,  on  rational  grounds,  that 
the  best  species  of  government  is  a  democracy, 
and  that  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  Christ  has 
prescribed  such  a  form  to  his  churches.  He  also 
<iuietly  assumed  this  to  be  the  polity  derived 
from  the  Scriptures  by  the  framers  of  the  Cani- 
bridg(!  Platform.  Congregationalism,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  spirit  of  tho  age,  became  democratic, 
and  also  less  rigid  in  its  claim  to  a  complete 
prescriptive  basis  in  the  Scriptures.  The  prog- 
ress of  more  recent  times  in  exegetical  and  his- 
torical theology  has  strengthened  this  tendency. 

B.  The  Material  Principle.  —  This  is  a  combina- 
tion of  tho  two  priiu^iples  of  the  self-government  of 
local  churches  and  of  their  ohlirjation  to  jireserve 
church  communion.  The  distinctive  character  of 
Congregationalism  arises  from  its  union  in  one 
system  of  tlieso  two  princijiles.  Its  formal  prin- 
ciple has  been  admitted  by  other  bodies.  The 
autonomy  of  (lie  local  clmrch  is  also  elsewhere 
conceded.  Tho  claims  of  fellowsb.ip  also  have 
been  admitted.  Congregationalism  alone  lias 
endeavored  to  blend  local  sclf-govi'rnment  and 
church  communion,  to  unite  tlicin  in  one  organic 
constitution,  and  to  develop  whatever  agencies 
are  requisite  for  this  end.  It  lias  been  aptly 
described,  from  this  point  of  view,  as  an  ellipse, 
the  two  principles  of  autonomy  and  fellow.ship 
being  the  /oci.     The  Cambridge  Platform  makes 


this  definite,  complete,  and  fundamental  state- 
ment :  '■  Although  churches  be  distinct,  and  there- 
fore may  not  be  confounded  one  with  another ; 
and  equal,  and  therefore  have  not  dominion  one 
over  another ;  yet  all  chm'ches  ought  to  preserve 
church  communion  one  with  another,  because 
they  are  all  united  mito  Christ,  not  only  as  a 
mystical,  but  as  a  political  head,  whence  is  derived 
a  communion  suitable  thereunto." 

Besides  recognizing  the  obligation  of  fellowship, 
Congregationalism  supplies  the  needed  instrmnen- 
talities.     It  provides  organs  of  fellowship. 

One  of  these  is  an  ecclesiastical  council,  —  "  the 
agenc)'  by  which  the  churches  determine  with 
whom  they  will  be  in  fellowship  as  Christian 
churches." 

Another  such  organ  is  a  conference  or  associa- 
tion of  churches,  —  the  agency  through  which 
chm'ches  in  fellowship  co-operate  in  advancing, 
the  kingdom  of  Christ. 

These  local  or  district  bodies  now  generally  unite 
in  forming  a  state  association  or  conference,  which 
meets  annually,  and  also  the  National  Council, 
which  meets  triennially.  For  a  fuller  account  of 
these  bodies  we  must  refer  to  their  several  con- 
stitutions, which  present  minor  diversities. 

The  action  of  a  council  is  advisory,  and  not 
juridical ;  yet  it  is  the  recognized  agency  through 
which  a  decision  is  reached  of  all  questions  of 
ministerial  and  ecclesiastical  fellowship.  For  the 
constitution  and  more  special  functions  of  coun- 
cils, see  Boston  Platform  and  the  accepted  maim- 
als  by  Upham,  Punchard,  Dexter,  and  others. 
The  same,  also,  for  customs  and  usages. 

Associations  of  clergymen  for  mutual  improve- 
ment and  for  co-operation  were  early  formed. 
Under  the  system  of  consociationism  they  became 
an  integral  part  of  the  system.  In  New  England, 
and  to  some  extent  elsewhere,  they  have  for 
many  years  examined  and  approbated  candidates 
for  tlie  Christian  ministry.  Out  of  New  England 
and  districts  adjacent  they  are  passing  away,  and 
their  fiuictions  are  devolved  on  properly  ecclesi- 
astical bodies.  Where  they  still  tlourish,  the  ten- 
dency is  to  regard  them  less  as  public  and  more 
as  private  bodies;  although  bj'  common  consent 
they  render  service  in  various  ways  in  resjxjct  tO' 
questions  of  ministerial  fellowship  and  certifica- 
tion. 

Originally  tho  ministry  w-as  limited  in  theory 
to  occupants  of  the  oflice  of  pastor  or  teacher  in 
a  particular  church.  This  conception  was  soon 
outgrown,  yet,  until  comparatively  recent  times, 
was  allowed  largely  to  deteriniue  in  the  churches 
the  methods  of  ministerial  disci]iline.  The  Boston 
Platform  gave  a  broader  deliuitiun,  which  lias 
been  generally  accepted.  The  National  Council 
at  St.  l^ouis  (KSSO)  adopted  a  resolution  definitely 
recognizing  the  ii'sponsibility  of  every  ordained 
minister  to  the  cominuuiou  of  the  churches.  See 
the  MiXT'TE.s. 

A  review  of  tlu;  history  of  Congregationalism 
as  a  polity  shows  a  progressive -practical  adjust- 
ment of  tlie  two  princijiles,  autonomij  and  the  duty 
of  felloivship. 

l)uriiig  the  eighteenth  century,  in  connection 
with  the  increasing  purpase  to  secure  political 
independence,  ;ind  with  other  movements  in  the 
public  mind,  the  original  conception  of  church 
communion  was   overshadowed.     Tho   organiza- 


I 


CONGREGATIONALISM. 


341 


CONNOTATA. 


tion  of  the  Union  of  States,  tlie  outbreak  of 
Unitarianisni,  with  tlio  lessons  it  enforced,  tlie 
growtli  of  the  missionary  sjiirit,  the  ]iropagation 
of  Congregationalism  in  thi;  West,  the  necessity 
•of  a  definite  basis  of  co-operation  in  order  to  a 
national  extension  of  the  system,  liave  restored  the 
neglected  element  to  its  due  influence.  At  the 
same  time  the  principle  of  self-government  and 
the  riglits  of  individual  liberty  and  responsibility 
are  sacredly  cherished  and  guarded. 

IV.  Statistics.  These  are  printed  annually 
ill  The  Cont/ref/ational  Year  Book,  Cong.  Pub. 
Soc,  Boston,  Mass.  The  latest  statistics  (col- 
lected in  188.5)  give  as  the  number  of 

Churolies 4,170 

Members 418,.504 

In  sabbath  schools 510,.'5H9 

Ministers 4,043 

Tlie  following  theological  seminaries  are  Con- 
gregational :  — 

Andover  (Mass.),  opened         .        .        .  1808 

Bangor  (Me.),  opened       ....  1817 

Yale  (New  Haven,  Conn.),  opened         .  1822 

Hartford  (Coini.),  opened        .        .        .  1834 

Oljerlin  (O.),  opened         ....  1835 

Chicago  (III.),  opened       ....  1858 

Pacific  (Oaldand,  Cal.),  opened      .        .  1869 

Periodicals.  —  Bihliolheca  Sacra,  Andover, 
Mass.  (quarterly)  ;  Ncw-Enr/lander,  New  Haven, 
iConn.  (bi-monthly).  Religious  Newspapers. 
—  Conr/ref/ationalist  and  Boston  Recorder,  Boston, 
Mass.;  Christian  il/f'n-o;-,  Portland,  Me. ;  Vermont 
Chronicle,  Montpelicr,  Vt. ;  New  Hampshire  Jour- 
nal, Concord,  N.H. ;  Heliginus  Herald,  Hartford, 
Conn. ;  Advance,  Chicago,  111. ;  Pacijic,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal. 

V.  Lit.  —  (I.)  Original  Sources  and  Authori- 
ties. John  Robinson  :  Works  of,  with  a  Memoir, 
3  vols.,  London  and  Boston,  1851 ;  W.  Bradford  : 
History  of  Plipn.  Plantations,  printed  for  the  Mass. 
Hist.  Soc.,  1856  (ed.  by  C.  Ueane,  LL.D.)  ;  U). : 
A  Dialogue  (printed  by  Dr.  Deane),  Boston,  1870 ; 
Nathaniel  Morton  ;  New  England's  Memorial, 
reprinted  in  Boston  by  Cong.  Pub.  Soc,  1855; 
E.  \V'iNSLOw :  Briefe  Narration  (reprinted  in 
Alex.  Younk,  Chronicles  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers, 
Boston,  1844);  J.  Wintiirop:  Journal  (latest  re- 
vised ed.,  with  notes  by  J.  Savage,  2  vols., 
Boston,  1853)  ;  R.  M.\ther  :  Church  Government 
discussed  (answer  to  thirty-two  questions),  Lon- 
don, 1643  (see  Felt:  Eccles.  Hist,  of  N.E.);  Ih.: 
Answer  to  Herle,  1644;  to  Rutherford,  1647  (see 
Hanbury  :  Hist.  Memorials)  ;  J.  Cotton  :  The 
Doctrine  of  the  Church,  to  which  are  committed  the 
Keyes  of  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven,  London,  1642  ; 
III.  :  The  Keyes  of  the  Kinqdom  of  Heaven,  Lond., 
1644  (reprinted  Boston,  I'SoL') ;  lb.  :  The  Way  of 
■the  Churches  of  Christ  in  New  England,  Lond., 
1645 ;  II).  :  The  Way  of  Congregational  Churches 
Cleared,  Ijond.,  1643;  .f.  Norton:  Responsio  ad 
Totnm  QiuEstioniim  Syllogen  a  clariss.  Viro  Dom. 
Gul.  Apollonio  propositam,  Lond.,  1648;  T.  Hook- 
er: A  Survey  of  the  Summe  of  Ch.  Discipline, 
Lond.,  1648;  I.  JIatiier  :  The  First  Principles  of 
New  England,  Cambridge,  1675  (contains  John 
Cotton's  Plan  for  Conferences)  ;  Ih.  :  A  Di.^^quisi- 
lion  Concerning  Eccles.  Council.%  Boston,  1716,  ag. 
1870 ;  C.  Mather  :  Ratio  Disclplitice,  Boston,  1726  ; 
Ih.  :  Magnolia  Chrisli  Amiricana.,  Lond.,  1702, 
Hartford,  1820,  3d  ed.,  1855,  2  vols. ;  A  Platform 
s/f  Church  Discipline,  Cambridge,  1649  (and  fre- 


quently since) ;  A  Confession  of  Faith,  pAc,  with 
Jleads  of  Agreement  and  Articles  for  the  Admin, 
of  Ch.  Discipline,  New  London,  1710  (the  Say- 
brook  Platform)  ;  .T.  Wise:  The  Churchc.i'  Quarrel 
Espoused,  Boston,  1710  (reprinted  Boston,  1860); 
//;.  :  A  Vindication  of  the  Government  of  N.  E. 
Churches,  J5os(on,  1717  (copious  abstracts  or  cita- 
tions from  most  of  the  foregoing  works,  and  many 
others,  may  be  found  in  Handury  Ecclesiastical 
Memorials,  3  vols.,  London,  1844,  and  in  Felt, 
Eccles.  Hist,  of  Neiv  England,  Boston,  vol.  I., 
185.".,  vol.  n.,  1862);  T.  C.  Upham:  Ratio  Dis- 
ciplina;,  Portland,  1829 ;  Geouge  Punciiard:  A 
View  of  Congregationalism,  Salem,  1840  (Itli  ed., 
Boston,  1856);  E.  Po.\i>:  A  Manual  of  Congrega- 
tionalism, Portland,  1818,  revised  ed.,  Bangor, 
1859;  Preston  Cummings:^!  Dictionary  of  Con- 
gregational Usages  and  Principles,  Bosfon,  1852; 
IL  M.  Dexter:  Congregatlonali.wi;  What  it  is. 
Whence  it  is.  How  it  icorks,  etc.,  Boston,  1865  (5th 
ed.,  1879)  ;  lb. :  A  Handbook  of  Congregationalism, 
Boston,  1880;  AV.  Davis:  Congregational  Polity, 
U.^ages,  and  if«t', Boston,  1865;  K.  Roy:  A  Manu- 
al of  the  Principles,  Doctrines,  and  Usages  of  the 
Cong.  Churches,  Chicago,  1861)  (and  many  times 
since)  ;  Platform,  1865,  Boston,  1872  ;  A.  H.  Ross: 
Ohio  Manual  for  Cong.  Churches,  1874,  Toledo, 
1875. 

(ir.)  General  Histories,  Essays,  Reports,  etc. 
.T.  Hunter:  Collections  concerning  the  Early  His- 
tory of  the  Founders  of  New  Plymouth,  Lond.,  1849, 
again  1854;  ,T.  Fletcher:  Hist,  of  Independency, 
4  vols.,  Lond.,  1842,  again,  1862;  D.  Neal  :  Hi.tt. 
of  New  England,  2  vols.,  Lond. ,1720,  again,  1747; 
lb.  :  Hist,  of  the  Puritans,  4  vols.,  Lond.  1732-38, 
again,  1754,  1793-70,  1837;  B.  Trumbull;  Hist, 
of  Conn.,  2  vols.,  N.  Haven,  1818;  J.  S.  Clark: 
Histor.  Sketch  of  the  Congregational  Churches  in 
Mass.,  Boston,  18,58;  IL  F.  Uhden  :  The  N.E. 
Theocracy,  Boston,  1858  ;  Contributions  to  the  Eccles. 
Hist,  of  Conn.,  N.  Haven,  1861;  Contributions  to 
the  Eccles.  Hist,  of  Essex  Co.,  Mass.,  Boston,  1865; 
E.  Buck  :  Massachiwietts  Eccles.  Law,  Boston,  1866 
(revised  ed.  n.d.)  ;  J.  G.  Palfrey:  Hist,  of  New 
England,  4  vols.,  Boston,  186.5-75 ;  A.  H.  Quint  : 
Congregationalists  (in  McClintock  and  Strong's 
Cyclopcedia),  N.  York,  1868  ;  L.  Bacon:  Genesis 
of  the  N.E.  Churche.%  N.Y.,  1874;  J.  Wadding- 
ton  :  Congregational  Hist.,  4  vols.,  London,  1869- 
78;  J.  Punchard:  Coni/ref/ationalis7n  in  America, 
2  vols.,  Boston,  1880-81 '(vols,  iv.,  v.,  of  Hist,  of 
Cong.) ;  H.  M.  Dexter  :  Congregationalism  as 
seen  in  its  Literature,  N.Y.,  1880  (A  Bibliog.  Ap- 
pendix gives  7,250  titles,  with  localities  and  index, 
an  invaluable  collection)  ;  numerous  articles  in 
Cong.  Quarterly,  Boston,  20  vols.,  1859-78:  Neio- 
Englander;  liibliotheca  Sacra,  State  Minutes; 
Year  Book  of  the  Amer.  Cong.  Union,  6  vols., 
1854-59;  Proceedings  of  the  General  Convention  at 
Albani/,  18.52;  Debates  and  Proceedings  of  the  Na- 
tional'Council  {\mb),  Boston,  1866;  Minutes  of  the 
National  Council  (1871,  1874,  1877,  1880,  4  vols.), 
Bostcill.  K.  C.  SMYTH. 

CONNEXA,  in  scholastic  usage,  are  such  con- 
cepts as  must  necessarily  be  thought  of  together; 
e.g.,  creator  and  creation. 

CONNOTATA,  in  scholastic  usage,  are  con- 
cepts which  necessarily  suggest  one  another; 
e.g.,  father  suggests  the  idea  of  son,  son  that  of 
father. 


CONON. 


542 


CONSCIENCE. 


CONON,  pope  from  Oct.  21,  686,  to  Sept.  21, 
687 ;  was  a  Thracian  by  birth,  and  educated  in 
Sicily.  The  report  that  he  commissioned  St. 
Kilian  to  go  as  a  missionary  into  Eastern  Franco- 
nia  is  whoUy  unhistorical. 

CONON ITES,  the  followers  of  Conon,  Bishop 
of  Tarsus  in  Cilicia  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventh 
century ;  held  certain  tritheistic  views,  wliicli, 
through  Conon,  they  had  derived  from  Johannes 
Philoponus.  In  other  points,  as,  for  instance, 
witli  respect  to  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  Jo- 
liannes  and  Conon  disagreed  very  much.  Tlie 
sect  had  disappeared  at  the  end  of  the  seventh 
century. 

CONRAD  OF  MARBURG,  See  Konkad  of 
MAiiiiuiiu. 

CONRING,  Hermann,  b.  at  Norden  in  East 
Friesland,  Xov.  iJ.  lOiXi ;  d.  at  Hehnstadt,  Dec. 
12,  1681 ;  was  educated  at  Helmstiidt  and  Leyden, 
and  became  professor  at  Hehnstadt  in  1632,  first 
in  natural  philosophy,  then  in  medicine,  and  finally 
in  law.  He  was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of 
his  age,  and  in  the  field  of  theology  he  wrote  a 
number  of  valuable  treatises  on  the  jm'idical  posi- 
tion of  the  Protestant  Church  in  its  relation  to 
the  Roman-Catholic  Church,  the  empire,  etc., — 
De  Conslilutioiie  Episcoporum  Gcrmanke  (1647),  De 
CoHCillas  (1650),  Defensin  Ecclesice  Protestantiwn 
adversum  duo  Pontijicinrum  Aryumenta  (1654),  De 
Germanorum  Imperio  Romano,  etc.  The  edition 
of  his  works  by  Gobel,  Brunswick,  1730,  in  six 
volumes  in  folio,  does  not  contain  his  medical 
works ;  also  a  number  of  his  letters  are  omitted. 

CONSALVI,  Erode,  Marchese  di,  b.  in  Rome, 
June  8,  1757;  d.  there  Jan.  24,  1824.  The  last 
representative  of  an  old  Roman  family,  he  received 
a  careful  education,  first  in  the  College  of  Frascati, 
afterwards,  when  he  had  adopted  the  Church  as 
liis  career,  ]i\  the  Academia  Ecclesiastica  in  Rome. 
In  the  last  days  of  Pius  VI.  he  was  nunister  of 
war ;  and  this  position,  as  well  as  his  strong  aver- 
sion to  the  French  Revolution,  caused  him  to  be 
very  severely  treated  when  the  French  occupied 
Rome  in  1798.  Immediately  after  the  accession 
of  Pius  VII.,  he  was  niads;  a  cardinal,  and  secre- 
tary of  state,  Aug.  11,  1800,  and  in  this  latter 
([uality  he  concluded  the  concordat  with  France, 
July  15,  1801.  But  he  soon  became  utterly  dis- 
agrcitable  to  Napoleon  ;  and  in  1806  he  was  com- 
pelled to  resign,  and  was  banished  to  Rlieims. 
.Vfter  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  however,  he  was  re- 
turned to  his  ollice ;  and  the  restoration  of  the 
]iapal  dominions  nearly  in  their  old  extent  was 
ilue  to  his  remarkable  di])loinatical  skill.  He  also 
succeeded  in  eoncludiug  advantageous  concordats 
with  Spain,  Xaples,  .Vuslria,  Ru.ssia,  etc.  His 
internal  government  was  less  successful.  He  had 
at  last  no  other  means  of  protecting  the  country 
against  the  robbers  and  burglars  with  whom  it 
swarmed,  but  pensioning  Ihem.  See  Haktiioi.dy  : 
ZUi/e  (inn  ilcm  Lebeii  ilea  Kardiudh  Consalvi,  Stutt- 
gardt,  1824;  Mimoires  du  Cardinal  Consahi,  Paris, 
1861,  2  vols.  MEJKR. 

CONSCIENCE  (New-Testament  Greek,  amci. 
<l'/o(f).  'J'|]<;  word  conies  to  us  from  the  I/itin 
I'ongfiux,  comfii'Dtifi  ("  conscious,"  "  con.sciou.s- 
ness")  ;  but  neither  Greek  nor  Roman  used  it  in 
our  8en.se.  It  had  no  religious  bearing.  It  is 
unknown  to  tN;  Old  Testament,  never  used  by 
oui-  Lord,  aox  ijy  tlie  New-Testament  writers  ex- 


cept Paul  (and  those  inspired  directly  by  him)  and 
Peter.  But  Paul  makes  direct  appeal  to  the  con- 
science (2  Cor.  iv.  2;  Rom.  ii.  15,  xiii.  5,  6),  and 
speaks  of  "weak"  consciences  (1  Cor.  viii.  7,  x. 
25  sqq.).  Elsewhere  he  uses  it  of  the  Christian 
conscience  exclusively  (Acts  xxiii.  1 ;  2  Tun.  i.  3). 
In  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (ix.  9)  the  word  is 
a  short  expression  for  the  state  of  mind  of  those 
under  the  old  covenant.  The  pre-Christian  "  con- 
science "  is,  according  to  Paul,  the  divinely 
ordered  ground  of  obedience  (Rom.  xiii.  4  sqq.), 
or,  generally  speaking,  the  moral  sense  which 
sides  with  the  requirements  of  the  law  (ii.  14  sq.) 
because  of  a  self-judgment  testifying  to  the  inner- 
most fact  (ix.  1;  2  Cor.  i.  12),"  and  therefore  to 
be  placed  alongside  of  that  of  the  Searcher  of 
hearts  (2  Cor.  v.  11;  Rom.  ii.  15,  16),  and  which 
also  can  judge  the  actions  of  others  (2  Cor.  v.  11, 
iv.  2).  But  Paul  never  hints  at  a  conscious  au- 
tonomy through  the  conscience,  nor  at  any  differ- 
ence between  the  pre-Christian  and  Christian 
conscience.  The  New  Testament  knows  nothing 
of  a  coercive  conscience ;  rather  it  may  be  weak^ 
narrow,  erroneous  (1  Cor.  viii.  7  sqq.).  There 
can  be  "  conscience,"  or  a  consciousness  of  guUt, 
which  is  removed  by  purification  (Heb.  x.  2). 

The  discussion  of  the  "  weak  "  conscience  leads 
Paul  to  recognize  the  individuality  of  conscience. 
This  was  an  important  advance.  He  lays  down 
the  law  that  one  should  follow  his  own  conscience, 
not  another's,  even  though  his  conscience  be 
weak,  else  moral  personality  were  destroyed  (1 
Cor.  X.  29  sqq.,  cf.  viii.  10  sqq.).  — By  the  blood 
of  Christ  the  conscience  is  cleansed,  and  so  the 
Christian  has  a  "good"  conscience  (Rom.  ix.  1; 
2  Cor.  i.  12 ;  Heb.  ix.  14,  x.  22 ;  in  1  Pet.  iii.  21 
it  is  connected  with  baptism),  and  struggles  ear- 
nestly to  keep  it  (Acts  xxiv.  16;  Heb.  xiii.  18; 
1  Pet.  iii.  16).  This  Christian  "good"  con- 
science is  not  the  certainty  of  reconciliation,  but 
the  nm-ror  of  the  moral  condition  in  its  truest 
colors.  Hence  its  chief  characteristic  is  its  sin- 
cerilji  (2  Cor.  i.  12),  which  testifies  to  its  purity 
(1  Tim.  iii.  9;  2  Tim.  i.  3).  Its  opposite  is  a 
branded,  defiled  conscience  (1  Tim.  iv.  2;  Tit. 
i.  15),  the  witness  of  con.scious  wickedne.ss  (1  Tim. 
i.  19) ;  and  therefore  the  "  faith  unfeigned  '*■ 
stands  or  falls  with  the  "  good  "  or  "  pure  "  con- 
science (1  Tim.  i.  5,  19,  iii.  9,  iv.  1,  2). 

There  is  no  evidence  that  Paul  considered  con- 
science as  competent  to  give  of  itself  a  correct 
knowledge  of  God,  nor  that  from  him  the  word  — 
like  "faith,"  "love,"  "spirit"  —  passed  info  the 
early  Christian  curi'ent  speech:  on  the  contrary, 
the  word  is  .seldom  met  with  in  the  oldest  Chris- 
tian literature,  and  first  comes  \i\>  frequently 
when  exegesis  arose.  Chrysostom  gave  the  earli- 
est clear  expression  to  the  idea  of  a  "  commanding, 
authoritative"  con.science;  but  both  .Vugustine 
and  Pelagius  repeat  the  popular  idea  of  moral 
consciousness.  The  connection  between  "con- 
.science" and  "consciousness"  was  emphasized 
by  the  schoolmen  in  the  interest  of  their  sub- 
jective views  of  ethics.  The  most  jjcculiar  thing 
about  the  first  scientific  treatment  of  con.science 
by  Alexander  of  Hales  and  Thomas  Aquinas  was 
the  introduction  of  the  idea  of  rrmTr/pj/aic  (literally,  • 
clo.in  wdlchiiiij),  "  the  inner  guard  keeping  watch 
and  ward  over  the  hidden  sources  of  the  will," 
which  was  identified  with  conscience,  and  at  the- 


CONSCIENCE. 


543 


CONSECRATION, 


same  time  distinguished  from  it.  The  word 
came  from  JeroiiK? ;  but  the  solioolmen,  under 
the  influence  of  th(!  Aristotelian  psyelioli)};y, 
found  in  it  the  practical  intellect ;  i.e.,  what  th<'y 
called  the  poteiilia  or  liahiltis  of  the  moral  jiriuci- 
ple.  Coiiscienlia,  on  the  other  hand,  denot<'d  the 
application  of  this  ni/nleresis  to  the  individual. 
Jt  is  therefore,  according  to  Thonuas  Aquinas, 
only  an  actit.i.  Witli  its  application  came  in  the 
idea  of  fallibility ;  and  so  the  door  was  opened  to 
all  sorts  of  hair-splitting  judgments,  notably  by 
the  wi-iters  of  books  njion  casuistry.  The  Jesuits 
carried  tliis  direction  the  farthest ;  but  tliey 
ignore  si/ntcresi.i,  and  call  conxcientia  a  prejudice 
which  probabilism  removes.  By  (Jersdn  and 
other  mystics  the  synlcresis  defined  the  longing 
and  power  of  the  soul  to  come  into  immediate 
contact  with  God.  See  Kaiii.ku:  St'iiliarmn,  i/tias 
de  fonsc,  §  5.  For  the  scholastic  theory,  and 
especially  for  the  si/nlcresis,  the  best  work  is  W. 
Gass  :  Die' Lehre  von  Geicissen,  Berlin,  186!),  pj). 
43  sq.,  210  .sq.  The  Jesuits  to  read  are  Escob.vk  : 
♦  Lilier  Tlicnl.  Moral.,  Ludg.,  1641,  specially  chap, 
v.,  and  (iItry:  Comp.  Tlieol.  il/o;'«/.,  Brux.,  1853, 
specially  chap.  iv. 

During  the  middle  age  the  idea  of  conscience 
was  developed  far  beyond  the  New-Testament 
limits,  and  plaj'ed  a  prominent  part  in  the  Refor- 
mation. Lutlier  used  the  word  in  the  sense  of 
consciousness  of  duty,  and  appealed  to  its  tri- 
bunal for  its  ap]iroAal  of  the  doctrine  of  justifica- 
tion by  faith.  Calvin  calls  conscience  "  the  sense 
of  divine,  imperial  justice."  Home  has  since  that 
day  developed  her  casuistry ;  and  Protestantism 
has  ever  called  upon  the  religio-moral  individual 
conseiou.suess.  Conscience  is  now  recognized  as 
an  inalienable  possession,  but  the  idea  itself  has 
undergone  no  fui'ther  development. 

A  school  of  Protestant  casuistry  has  sprung 
up  for  the  settlement  of  cases  of  conscience  and 
theological  doubts,  which  indulges  too  much  in 
the  old  minute  subdivisions,  but  yet  seeks  to 
form  "  pure  and  good  "  consciences.  Theologians 
speak  of  the  "  Christian  "  conscience,  by  which 
one  is  to  govern  his  life.  The  phrase  "  innate 
ideas"  was  abandoned  for  tlie  "moral  sense." 
Rousseau  talked  about  an  instinct  which  led  to 
morality,  —  a  quite  different  thing  from  the  "  con- 
science "  of  the  Reformation.  Kant,  on  the  other 
side,  emphasized  dutji,  and  the  "  inner  court." 
His  influence  was  long  felt.  Fichte  defined  con- 
science as  "the  innnediate  con.sciousness  of  spe- 
cific duty."  But  of  late  conscience  has  been 
considered  [particularly  by  the  school  of  Herbert 
Spencer]  a  product  of  education. 

With  the  individuality  of  conscience  is  con- 
nected "liberty"  of  conscience,  which  primarily 
means  that  God,  and  not  man,  decides  rightfully 
how  a  man  shall  worship.  But  this  liberty  is 
not  license.  It  is  abu.sed,  when  in  its  luime  pre- 
tended worship  is  turned  into  an  orgy.  It  is 
denied,  when  any  one  church  undertakes  to  say 
what  worship  shall  be  rendered  in  other  churches. 

Lit.  —  Exegetical  and  Historical.  J.  T.  Beck  : 
Umrisn  (ler  hi/ilixc/ieii  Seelenlclirc,  Stuttgart,  1843, 
3d  ed.,  1S77;  Eng.  trans..  Outline  of  Biblical  Psy- 
c/iolo;/;/,  Edinburgh,  1877;  Ch.  F.  Scumid  : 
Chrisiliche  Sittenlehre,  Stuttg.,  1861,  2d  (title)  ed., 
1867.  §  22;  Jaiixel  :  De  conscicnticc  nolione,  Ber- 
lin, 1862;  H.  CuE.MER  :  Bihiisch-theologisches  Wor- 


lerhuch  iler  neutestamentlichen  GrOcitdl,  Gotlia,  1867, 
3d  ed.,  1881;  Eng.  trans.,  BiUico-Oreek  Lexicon, 
Edinburgh,  1878,  3d  ed.,  1881  (sub  ElAu) ;  Smk- 
DING :  Paulin.  Gewetennteer,  Utrecht,  1873;  M. 
Kaiii.icu:  Das  Gewissen,  1.  Halfte,  Allert/ium  u. 
Neues  Teftamenl,  Halle,  1878. 

Critical  and  Theological.  Wuttkf,  :  Handhuch 
der  clirinllichcn  SiUenlehre,  Leipzig,  1862,  2  vols., 
3d  ed.,  1875;  R.  Hokman.n  :  Die  Lehre  von  dem 
Cjewi.«<:7i,  Leipzig,  1866  ;  Quaatz:  De  con.icienlice 
apud  Kantium  nolione,  llalle,  1867  ;  W.  Gass  :  Die 
Lehre  vom  Gewissen,  Berlin,  LStjO;  A.  IIit.sciil: 
ifeher  das  Gewissen;  Ein  Vorlrar/,  Bonn,  1876 
(32  pp.);  Gust.  Sciin.ZE  :  Ue.lier  den  Widerstreil 
tier  P/licliten,  Halle,  1878  [Bp.  Sa.nderson:  Lee- 
lures  on  Conscience  and  Human  Lnw,o\\.  byBp.Clir. 
Wordsworth,  Oxford,  1877;  A.  WKiixicKK:  fXie 
lielir/ion  des  Gewissens  als  Zukunflsideal,  Berlin, 
188(i;  F.  KiiciiLEu:  Zur  Freilieil  des  Gewi.isens. 
Eine  reiigionsphilosophisch  -  kirchenpolitiiche  Uludie, 
Leipzig.  ISSl].  M.  KAHLER. 

CONSCIENTIARII,  the  followers  of  ^Litthias 
Knutsen,  a  candidate  of  theology,  b.  at  Olden- 
l)urg,  Schleswig,  who  came  to  Jena,  September, 

1674,  and  boasted  to  have  gathered  arouiul  him 
six  hundred  students  and  peasants  from  Jena  and 
Altorf.  His  opinions  were  infidel  and  atheistic  ; 
but  he  professed  to  have  derived  them  by  an  appeal 
to  conscience.  It  is  needless  to  add  tliat  his  con- 
science allowed  him  and  his  followers  to  lead 
licentious  lives.  The  Jena  University  authorities 
felt  called  upon  to  deny  all  connection  with  the 
scandalous  sect,  and  deputed  Professor  J.  iSIusaus 
to  write  for  them.  The  result  was  Ahlehnung  der 
ausgespreufjten  abscheidiclien  Verleumdung,  oh  vdre 
in  der  Universildt  Jena  eine  neue  Sekte  der  soge- 
nannten  Gewi.isener  ent.-<landen,  Jena,  1674,  2d  ed., 

1675.  After  this  we  hear  no  more  of  the  sect. 
A  letter  of  Knutsen  is  rejirinted  in  Hisloria  Atheismi 
a  Jenkino  Thomasio.  .See  Adeluxg:  Gesch.  d. 
menschlicJien  Narrlieit,  Leipzig,  1785-99,  8  vols. 

CONSECRATION.  This  term  means  to  set 
apart  for  lioly  uses,  and  is  variously  applied.  In 
the  Bible  both  per.sonsand  things — vessels  (Josh, 
vi.  19),  profits  (Mic.  iv.  13),  fields  (Lev.  xxvii. 
28),  cattle  (2  Chron.  xxix.  33),  individuals  (Num. 
vi.  9-13),  and  luitions  (Exod.  xix.  6)  — were  .sepa- 
rated to  God's  sen-ice.  In  the  ecclesiastical  sense 
it  is  limited  to  persons  and  things  distinctively 
holy.  Thus  churches,  bishops,  and  the  elements 
in  the  Lord's  Svipper,  are  consecrated.  For  the 
two  latter  u.ses  of  the  word  see  Bisiioi"  and  Lokd's 
SupPEU  respectively.  This  article  is  limited  to 
the 

Consecration  of  Churches.  1.  The  idea  of  set- 
ting a))aTt  by  solenni  and  peculiar  ceremonies  a 
building  for  the  exclusive  use  of  God's  servant.s 
and  service  would  seem  to  he  inborn.  All  na- 
tions have  sacred  places  in  whicli  esoteric  rites 
are  performed.  Accordingly  the  Jews  had  such 
places,  and  ]ire-eminently  a  temple  wliose  corise- 
cration  had  in  it  supernatural  elements.  It  may 
well  have  been  that  synagogues  were  consecrated, 
although  there  is  no  record  of  the  fact.  Christian 
churches  are  mentioned  in  the  third  century  (.see 
Architectvre,  Christian),  and  perhaps  were 
formallv  consecrated ;  so  that,  although  Eusebius 
(fourth" century)  in  iiis  Life  of  Constantine  gives 
the  first  account  of  such  consecrations,  the  form 
used  may  have  been  in  part  traditional.     Of  espe- 


CONSECRATION. 


544 


CONSILIA  EVANGELICA. 


cial  Interest  is  the  accoiint  of  Constantiue's  con- 
secration of  the  church  called  the  "  Martyrium  " 
over  the  holy  sepulchre  at  Jerusalem.  From  all 
parts  of  the  empire  bishops  assembled,  besides  an 
immense  concourse  of  clergy  and  laity.  The  ser- 
vices included  discourses  of  different  varietieg, 
and  were  held  Saturday,  Sept.  13,  335.  Tlie  dedi- 
cation of  St.  Sophia  in  Constantinople  (3G0)  was 
with  "prayers  and  votive  offermgs." 

In  later  times  it  became  customary  to  build 
chmxhes  over  the  tombs  of  martyrs;  and  then 
relics  came  to  be  regarded  as  "  absolutely  essen- 
tial to  the  sacredness  of  the  building,  and  the 
deposition  of  such  relics  in  or  below  the  altar 
henceforward  formed  the  central  portion  of  tlie 
consecration-rite."  All  the  ancient  rituals  of  con- 
secration now  extant  belong  to  this  later  period. 

These  consecrated  buildings  were  henceforth 
set  apart  exclusively  for  religion.  Xo  eating  or 
dj-mking  was  permitted  in  them,  nor  any  carrying 
of  arms.  This  latter  jirohibition  speedily  made 
them  asylums;  and  the  Theodosian  code  extended 
the  privilege  to  the  "various  surroundings  of  a 
church,  where  meals  might  be  taken,  and  sleeping- 
quarters  established,  for  any  length  of  time.  By 
anotlier  law,  however,  it  was  modified  by  exclud- 
ing public  debtors,  slaves,  and  Jews  from  benefit- 
ing  by  it  in  future ;  and  Justinian  afterwards 
excluded  malefactors." 

2.  The  modern  Church  of  Rome,  in  the  mat- 
ter of  consecration  of  churches,  retains  the  an- 
cient usage,  although  the  rite  itself  is  commonly 
designated  as  a  '•  dedication."  The  ceremony 
has  been  thus  described:  "The  relics  which 
are  to  be  deposited  in  the  altar  of  the  new 
church  are  put  into  a  clean  vessel,  together 
with  three  grains  of  incense,  to  whicli  a  piece  of 
jiarchment  is  added  containing  the  day  of  the 
month  and  year,  and  the  name  of  the  ofiiciating 
bisliop.  Three  crosses  are  painted  on  each  of  the 
church  walls,  and  over  each  cross  a  candle  is  placed. 
On  the  morning  appointed  for  the  ceremony,  the 
bishop,  arrayed  in  his  pontifical  vestments,  and  at- 
tended by  the  clergy,  goes  to  the  door  of  the  church, 
where  they  recite  the  seven  penitential  psalms, 
after  wliich  he  makes  a  tour  of  the  church-walls, 
sprinkling  them  in  the  name  of  the  Holy  Trinity. 
This  rite  being  i)erformed,  he  knocks  on  tlie 
church-door  with  his  pastoral  staff,  repeating 
from  I'salm  xxiv.,  Allollile  portas,  el  introlih  Rex 
Gloria;  ('lift  up,  O  gates,  and  the  King  of  Glory 
shall  come  in  ').  A  deacon  shut  up  in  the  church 
demands,  Quis  fsl  isle  Rex  Gloria:  ?  ('  Who  is  this 
King  of  Glory?')  To  which  the  bisliop  answers, 
Doininun  forll.i  el  poleim,  Dnminus  polcii.i  in  prw- 
lio  ('  The  Lord  strong  and  mighty,  the  Lord 
mighty  in  battle').  At  tlie  same  tiine  the  bishop 
crosses  the  door,  repeating  the  following  verse: 
Ecce  Cruris  sir/num,  fui/ianl  phaiilaxmala  euncia 
('  Behold  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  flee  every  kind 
of  evil  spirit, flee').  On  the  admission  of  the  bish- 
op and  clergy  into  the  church,  tlie  Veni  Creator 
is  sung.  Then  one  of  the  sub-deacons  takes  ashe.s, 
and  sprinkles  them  on  the  pavement  in  the  form 
of  a  cro.ss.  Next  follow  the  litanie,"  and  other 
parts  of  divine  servicii ;  after  which,  the  bishop 
with  his  pastoral  staff'  describ<^s,  as  witli  a  pen, 
two  alphabets  [the  (ireek  and  Latin]  in  the  ashes 
sprinkled  by  tne  de;icoii,  and  prori'cds  to  con- 
secrate the  altar  by  sprinkling  it  with  a  mixture 


of  water,  wine,  salt,  and  ashes,  in  the  name  of 
Jesus  Christ.  The  consecration  of  the  altar  is 
followed  by  a  solemn  procession  of  the  relics, 
which  are  deposited  under  it  with  great  ceremony. 
During  the  whole  of  this  imposing  solemnity  the 
church  is  finely  adorned,  and  tapers  are  lighted 
upon  the  altar.  Mass  is  afterwards  performed  by 
the  bishop,  or  by  some  otlier  person." 

3.  But  outside  of  Rome,  in  the  Greek  and  all 
other  Episcopal  churches,  some  form  of  consecra- 
tion has  always  been  used.  In  the  Church  of 
England  and  the  Episcopal  Church  of  this  coun- 
try there  is  no  authorized  form  of  consecration 
for  churches  ;  but  one  prepared  by  the  bishops  in 
1712  is  used  on  both  sides  of  the  ocean.  It  is 
printed  in  the  Prayer-Book.  In  the  Methodist- 
Episcopal  and  other  Protestant  denominations  the 
setting-apart  of  buildings  for  divine  service  is 
usually  called  their  '■  dedication,"  and  the  forms 
vary  greatly.  That  used  in  the  Metliodist  Church 
is  given  in  §  501  of  the  Book  of  Discipline  (ed. 
1880),  and  consists  of  Scripture  readings,  prayers, 
a  sermon,  etc.,  all  which  service  is  conducted  by 
the  minister. 

CONSENSUS  GENEVENSIS,  drawn  up  by 
Calvin  for  tlie  purpose  of  uniting  the  Swiss  Re- 
formed churches  with  regard  to  the  doctrine  of 
predestination,  appeared  at  Geneva  in  1552,  having 
received  the  signatures  of  all  the  pastors  of  that 
city.  But  beyond  Geneva  it  acquired  no  sjnnboli- 
cal  authority.  The  attempts  to  enlist  the  civil 
government  in  its  favor  created  dissatisfaction 
and  opposition  in  Berne,  Basel,  and  Zurich.  See 
NiEMEYER :  Colleclio  Confessionum,  Lips.,  1840, 
pp.  218  sqq. ;  Sch.\ff  :  Creeds  of  Christendom, 
New  York,  1877,  3  vols.,  vol.  I.  p.  474. 

CONSENSUS  TIGURINUS  was  drawn  up  by 
Calvin,  in  concert  with  BuUinger  and  the  minis- 
ters of  Ziirich,  in  1540,  for  the  purpose  of  uniting 
the  Swiss  Reformed  churches  with  regard  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  It  appeared  at 
Ziirich  and  Geneva  in  1551,  was  adopted  by  tlie 
churches  of  Zurich,  Geneva,  St.  Gall,  Scliaff- 
hausen,  tlie  Grisons,  Neuchatel,  and  Basel,  and 
favorably  received  in  France,  England,  and  parts 
of  Germany.  See  Niemeyer  :  Colleclio  Conf.  in 
Eccles.  Ref.  public.  Lips.,  1840,  pp.  191-217; 
ScHAEK  :  Creeds  of  C/iristcndom,  3  vols.,  New 
York,  1877,  vol.  1.  p.  471. 

CONSILIA  EVANGELICA.  In  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  pnecepla,  the  Roman-Catholic  Church 
calls  such  moral  rules  as  are  not  obligatory  on  all 
Christians  consilia  erant/elica.  By  ado]iting  and 
fulfilling  them,  a  Christian  ri.ses  .above  that  stage 
of  holin(!ss  and  virtue,  which,  strictly  speaking, 
can  be  demanded  from  him,  and  acquires  a,  so  to 
speak,  superlluous  merit  which  can  be  transferred 
to  others.  Already,  very  early,  people  believed 
that  traces  of  such  rules  could  be  found  in  the 
New  Testament  (see  Matt.  xxv.  21 ;  Luke  xvii. 
10;  1  Cor.  vii.  10,  25;  comp.  IIeumas:  Pastor 
Simil.,  III.  5,  3;  OitioEN  :  Ad  Rom.,  III.,  in  tom. 
IV.  p.  507,  edition  by  De  la  Rue);  and  the  doc- 
trine began  to  develop,  comprising,  at  first,  only 
the  three  vows  of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience, 
with  reference  to  M:itt.  xi.x.  11,21  ;  Luke  xiv.  20. 
With  Thomas  Aiiuinas  the  distinction  between 
pracepla  and  consilia  is  fully  developed  (.S'i/hi..1I. 
i,  (luest.  lOM);  and  in  the  mean  time  the  lunnber 
of  vows  inrreased  from  three  to  twelve,  referring 


CONSISTENTES. 


545 


CONSTANCE. 


to  such  places  as  IMatt.  v.  20,  35,  39, 42,  etc.  Tlie 
three  original  vows,  however,  contiiuied  to  be 
■considered  as  the  pracipita  et  sulislaiUialia  perfec- 
tionis  cons'dia;  and  on  tlu-ni  was  based  a  whole 
series  of  doctrines  on  nionasticisin  and  a  cont(^in- 
plative  life,  on  the  distinction  between  a  higher 
and  a  lower  virtue,  on  the  merits  of  the  saints,  on 
the  thesaurus  operum  supcrcroijalionis,  etc. 

Uefore  the  criticism  of  the  Reformation  this 
whole  illusion  vanished.  Not  only  was  the  dis- 
tinction between  prcucepta  and  consilia  completely 
disregarded,  but  tlie  whole  series  of  doctrines  de- 
veloped from  it  was  decidedly  rejected.  As  in  a 
sound  moral  system  there  can  be  no  adiaphora, 
so  in  a  sound  moral  life  there  can  be  no  opera 
supererogatoria ;  and  tliat  which,  in  the  Scripture 
passages  above  referred  to,  the  Konian-Catholic 
Church  mistook  for  peculiar  moral  rules  of  a 
higher  order,  is  nothing  but  a  necessary  regard  to 
individual  circumstances.  See  Confess.  August., 
art.  VI. ;  Apologia,  cap.  VI.  ;  Form.  Concord.,  art. 
VI. ;  and  the  first  Protestant  theologians,  as,  for 
instance.  Ciikm.nitz:  Loci  TkeoL,  par.  102.  The 
Roman-Catholic  dogmatists  felt  the  difficulty,  and 
for  a  long  time  they  used  to  settle  the  question  of 
opera  supererogationis  in  a  hasty  and  vague  way, 
until  Mohler  tried  to  take  up  anew  the  half-for- 
gotten subject  in  his  Symholik  oder  Darstellung 
der  dogmatischen  Gegensdize  der  Katholiken  unci 
Protestanten,  Mayence,  1832.  A  fresh  investiga- 
tion of  the  matter  by  Baur,  Nitzsch,  Rothe,  and 
others,  led  to  a  second  destruction  of  the  whole 
web.  See  H.  W.  J.  Thiersch  :  Vorlesungen  Uher 
Katholizmus  und  Protestantisnius,  II.  160,  2d  ed., 
Erlangen,  1848,  2  vols.  K.  SCUWARZ. 

CONSISTENTES.     See  Penitents. 

CONSISTORY  means,  in  the  Roman-Catholic 
Church,,  a  meeting  of  the  College  of  Cardinals, 
presided  over  by  the  Pope,  and,  in  the  Lutheran 
Church,  a  mixed  board  of  ecclesiastical  and  lay 
officers,  generally  appointed  by  the  sovereign  of 
the  country.  The  papal  consistories,  or  consisto- 
ries of  cardinals,  are  either  public,  when  the  Pope, 
surrounded  by  the  cardinals,  receives  the  foreign 
ambassadors,  and  public  affairs  are  decided  by  his 
allocutions ;  or  private,  when  only  the  cardinals 
are  admitted,  and  affairs  are  discussed.  In  the 
Lutheran  churches  the  consistories  often  perform 
the  functions  of  the  bishop,  administering  and 
superintending  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  in  some 
countries  exercising  jurisdiction  and  inflicting 
penalties.  In  the  Reformed  churches  the  con- 
sistory corresponds  to  the  session  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church. 

CONSTANCE,  The  Council  of,  sat  from  Nov. 
5,  1414,  to  April  22,  1418,  and  was  the  .second  of 
those  three  councils,  which,  during  the  fifteenth 
centuiy,  were  convened  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
forming the  Church,  head  and  members ;  that  of 
Pisa  being  the  first,  that  of  Basel  the  last.  It  was 
•called  by  Pope  John  XXIII.  and  the  Emperor 
Sigismund;  and  its  three  great  objects  were  to 
heal  the  papal  schism,  to  examine  the  heresy  of 
IIus  and  tlie  religious  disturbances  tliereby  caused 
in  Bohemia,  and  to  carry  through  a  general  reform 
■  of  the  Church.  It  was  attended  by  twenty-nine 
cardinals,  three  patriarchs,  thirty-three  archbish- 
ops, about  one  hundred  and  fifty  bishops,  more 
than  one  hundred  abbots,  more  than  five  hundred 
.monks  of  different  orders,  and  a  similar  number 
36-1 


of  professors  and  doctors  of  theology  and  canon 
law,  besides  princes,  noblemen,  ambassadors,  etc. 
The  I'ope  was  also  present.  He  rode  into  the  city 
on  Oct.  28,  with  great  magnificence,  sixteen  hun- 
dred hor.ses  carrying  his  retinue  and  luggage. 
The  emperor  arriviul  on  Christm;w  Eve ;  but  he 
had  only  one  thousand  horses  in  his  train.  The 
total  nundx-r  of  visitors  to  the  city  during  the 
council  is  computed,  at  the  lowest  rate,  at  fifty 
thousand ;  but  of  tlie.se,  more  than  one-third  were 
mountebanks,  money-lenders,  strolling  actors,  and 
prostitutes.  The  most  prominent  and  most  influ- 
ential members  of  the  council  were  I'ierre  d'Ailly 
and  his  ]iupil  Ger.son. 

The  Council  of  Pisa  (1409)  liad  attempted  to 
put  an  end  to  the  schism  by  deposing  botli 
Gregory  XII.  (Angelo  Corraro),  who  resided  in 
Rome,  and  Benedict  XIII.  (Petro  de  Luna),  who 
resided  at  Avignon,  and  electing  in  their  .stead 
Alexander  V.  But  the  result  was  simply,  that 
there  now  were  three  popes  instead  of  two ;  and 
the  confusion  continued  uiuibated,  when,  after  the 
death  of  Alexander  V.  (in  1410),  the  leaders  of 
the  Pisan  council  elected  John  XXIII.  (Baltha- 
sar  Co.ssa).  All  the  three  popes  were  invited  to 
Constance,  but  only  John  was  present  in  person. 
He  was  a  dissijjated  and  unprincipled  rascal,  ready 
at  any  time  for  any  crime ;  but  he  was  courageous, 
shrewd,  inexhaustible  in  .shifts  and  intrigues,  and 
equal  to  any  emergency.  He  hoped  to  lord  it 
over  the  council  by  means  of  the  very  great  num- 
ber of  Italian  prelates,  who,  mostly  dependent 
upon  him,  accompanied  him  to  Constance.  But 
in  this  he  failed.  The  order  of  business  adopted 
by  the  council  w'as  that  of  working  and  voting  by 
nations ;  and  in  the  plenary  sessions  the  Italian 
nation,  though  ever  so  heavily  represented,  had,  of 
course,  only  one  vote  beside  the  four  other  nations, 
—  the  German,  French,  English,  and  Spanish.  lie 
now  endeavored  to  urge  upon  the  assembly  the 
view  that  the  Council  of  Constance  was  nothing 
but  a  simple  continuation  of  that  of  Pisa,  which 
had  formally  condemned  his  two  rivals,  and,  in- 
directly at  least,  legitunized  his  own  election. 
But  in  this,  too,  he  failed;  and  the  party  of  Pierre 
d'Ailly  finally  succeeded  in  carrying  a  motion  that 
all  the  three  popes  should  be  compelled  to  abdi- 
cate, and  a  new  papal  election  take  place.  John 
abdicated  in  the  hope  of  being  re-elected  ;  but  he 
soon  became  aware  of  his  mistake,  fled  in  the  dis- 
guise of  a  groom,  protested,  was  caught,  and  was 
finally  brought  to  acquiesce  in  the  decisions  of 
the  council.  In  its  fifth  plenary  session  (April  6, 
1415),  the  assembly  agreed  that  an  (ecumenical 
council,  legally  convened,  and  fully  representative 
of  the  Church,  has  its  power  directly  from  Christ, 
and  its  decrees  are  consequently  obligatory  on  all, 
even  on  the  Pope.  Jlay  29,  1415,'John  XXIII. 
was  deposed;  July  4,  1415,  Gregory  XII.  volun- 
tarily abdicated ;  July  20,  1417,  Benedict  XIII. 
was  deposed;  and  Nov.  11,  1417,  Cardinal  Odo 
Colonna  was  elected  Pope,  and  assumed  the  name 
of  Martin  V.,  who  closed  the  council  April  22, 
1418,  at  its  forty-fifth  session. 

The  Bohemian  affairs  were  treated  with  great 
thoroughness;  for  Hus  was  burnt  July  6,  1415, 
and  Jerome  of  Prague,  May  30,  1416.  But  a 
final  settlement  was  not  arrived  at,  still  less  a 
satisfactory  one.  It  was  the  school-wisdom  of 
the  university  which  here  overwhehued  and  tried 


CONSTANTINE. 


546 


CONSTANTINE. 


to  crush  the  free  evangelical  movement  of  popu- 
lar life.  Still  more  conspicuously  the  council 
failed  in  its  reform  plans.  A  collegium  refurinu'- 
torium  was  formed  in  August,  1-115 ;  but  charac- 
teristically enough  for  the  whole  situation,  when 
Cardinal  Zabarella  read  aloud  to  the  assembly 
the  decree  of  April  16,  lilo,  he  wilfully  left  out 
the  passage  it  contained  on  the  power  of  the 
council  to  undertake  reforms  in  the  Church.  It 
was  the  lower  clergj',  the  monks,  the  doctors,  and 
professors,  led  by  Pierre  d'^Villy  and  Gerson,  and 
supported  by  the  emperor,  who  denumded  re- 
forms. But  the  abuses  in  which  reforms  were 
necessary  —  such  as  the  appeals  to  the  Pope  and 
the  papal  procedure,  the  administration  of  vacant 
benefices,  and  the  giving  in  commendam,  simony, 
dispensations,  indulgences,  etc.  — were  the  very 
sources  from  which  the  Pope,  the  cardinals, 
and  the  huge  swarm  of  ecclesiastical  officials  in 
Rome,  drew  then-  princijial  revenues.  In  fighting 
against  reforms,  the  cardinals  fought  pro  aris  el 
focis,  and  they  proved  unconquerable.  The  em- 
peror wished  the  question  of  reform  discussed 
and  decided  before  the  election  of  a  new  Pope ; 
but  the  cardinals  declared  that  the  worst  ailing 
of  the  Church  was  its  lack  of  a  head :  and,  when 
Martin  V.  was  elected,  he  understood  how  to 
bury  away  the  whole  affair  quietly  and  smootlily, 
by  grave  hesitations  and  cautious  procrastinations. 

Lit.  —  H.  v.  d.  H.^rdt:  Maijn.  _CE<um.  Con- 
slant.  Concil.,  Leipzig,  1700,  6  vols.;  Bourgeois 
DU  Chastenet  :  Nouv.  Hi.tl.  du  Cone,  tie  Con- 
stance,  Paris,  1718  ;  Lenf.\nt  :  Nisi.  <lu  Cone,  rle 
Const.,  Paris,  1714-27  ;  RovKo  :  (Jesehichte  d.  Con- 
zil  zu  C,1748;  WESSE.MiEHf; :  Kirclunversamml. 
d.  15  und  16th  Jahr.,  1840;  M.\NSi,  vol.  XXVI. 
and  XXVll.;  Hefele,  vol.  VIII. ;  Uolrich 
KiCHEND.\L  :  Concilium  ze  _  Coslenz  (photolith. 
facsimile),  Karlsruhe,  1881.  '  G.  VOIGT. 

CONSTANTINE  is  the  name  of  two  popes.  — 
Constantine,  .Marcli  2.'),  "OS-April  8,  715,  w'as  a 
Syrian  by  birtli,  but  fully  adopted  the  policy  of 
the  Roman  see,  and  pursued  it  with  success. 
Though  he  was  summoned  to  Constantinople  by 
Justinian  II.,  and  compelled  to  stay  there  for 
two  years  (709-711),  he  returned  to  his  see  with- 
out loss  of  prestige,  and  in  the  monothelistic  in- 
trigues which  were  started  after  the  assassination 
of  Justinian  II.  and  the  elevation  of  Philippikus 
Bardanes,  he  ooposed  the  emperor  with  great 
vigor,  and  was  jacked  by  the  Roman  people. 
See  Lib. pnnlif.,  Ii.  1 ;  J.\i-i-E:  He(i.  I'onlif.  Roman., 
p.  17;!.  —  A  second  Constantine  occupied  the 
papal  chair  from  707  to  70S.  lb.  was  a  brother 
to  Toto,  duke  of  Xepi,  a  violent  adventurer,  and 
with  him  he  rose  and  fell.  After  Toto's  death 
he  was  depo.sed,  and  confined  in  the  Jlonastery 
of  Cella  Nova,  wiiere  he  was  tiv'atcd  with  great 
cruelty.  The  dale  of  his  death  is  not  known. 
See  Lib.  ponl.,  II.  l:)!!,  in  the;  Vila  Slejthan.,  IV; 
.r..\ri--K  :    /'('/.  f'oiitlf.  Hi, infill. ,  ]>.  19-S.       II.mtck. 

CONSTANTINE  THE  GREAT  AND  HIS 
SONS.  1.  Constantine,  KoMian  ICniperor  from 
aOO  to  li'■^~  ;  was  liorn  in  274,  at  Xaissus  in  Upper 
Jloesia,  a  son  of  Constantius  Chlorus  and  Helena, 
and  was,  after  the  deatli  of  his  father  at  York 
(July  '25,  yOO),  ])roclaimed  eniiieror  by  the  legions 
of  (laul.  lie  inniicdiately  took  possession  of 
■Britain,  Oaul,  and  Spain  ;  and  after  a  series  of 
biilliant  victories  over  Alaxentius,   ending  with 


the  bloody  battle  at  the  Milvian  Bridge,  just 
under  the  walls  of  Rome,  he  also  became  master 
of  Italy  (312).  He  now  ruled  over  the  Western 
Empire,  as  Licinius  over  the  Eastern  :  but  war 
broke  out  between  them  in  314  ;  and  in  323,  after 
the  battle  of  Chalcedon,  in  which  Licinius  was 
killed,  Constantine  became  sole  lord  of  the  whole 
Koman  world.     lie  died  in  337,  at  Xicomedia. 

Tradition  tells  us  that  he  was  converted  to 
Christianity  suddenly,  and  by  a  miracle.  One 
evening  during  the  contest  with  jNlaxentius,  he 
saw  a  radiant  cross  appearing  in  tlie  heavens,  with 
the  inscription,  "By  this  thou  shalt  conquer." 
The  tradition  is  first  mentioned  by  Eusebius,  in 
his  De  Vila  Conslanlini,  written  after  the  em- 
peror's death.  This  miracle  has  been  defended 
with  ingenious  sophistry  by  Roman-Catholic  his- 
torians and  by  Card.  Dr.  Xe^\•man  (Two  Essays 
on  Biblical  and  on  Ecclesiastical  JMiracles,  3d  ed.. 
Loud.,  1873,  pp.  271  sqq.),  but  cannot  stand  the 
test  of  critical  examination.  Constantine  may 
have  seen  some  phenomenon  in  the  skies ;  he 
was  no  doubt  convinced  of  the  superior  claims 
of  Christianity  as  the  rising  religion ;  but  his 
conversion  was  a  change  of  policy,  rather  than  of 
moral  character.  Long  after  that  event  he  killed 
his  son,  his  second  wife,  several  others  of  his  rela- 
tives, and  some  of  his  most  intimate  friends,  in 
passionate  resentment  of  some  fancied  infringe- 
ment of  his  rights.  In  his  relation  to  Christian- 
ity he  was  cool,  calciilating,  always  bent  upon 
the  practically  useful,  always  regarding  the  prac- 
tically possible.  He  retained  the  office  and  title 
of  Pontifex  Maxiinus  to  the  last,  and  did  not  re- 
ceive Christian  baptism  until  he  felt  death  close 
upon  him.  He  kept  Pagans  in  the  highest  posi- 
tions in  his  innnediate  surroundings,  and  forbade 
every  thing  which  might  look  like  an  encroach- 
ment of  Christianity  upon  Paganism.  Such  a 
faith  in  such  a  character  is  not  the  i-esult  of  a 
sudden  conversion  by  a  miracle :  if  it  were,  the 
effect  would  be  more  miraculous  than  the  cause. 
Judging  from  the  cluiracter  both  of  his  father  and 
mother,  it  is  jirobable  that  ho  grew  up  in  quiet 
but  steady  contact  with  Christianity.  Christianity 
had,  indeed,  become  .something  in  tlie  air  which 
no  one  oixupying  a  prominent  posit i(m  in  the 
Roman  worhl  coidd  remain  entirely  foreign  to. 
But  the  singular  mixture  of  political  carefulness 
and  personal  indiiference  witli  which  he  treated 
it  jiresupposes  a  relation  of  observation  I'ather 
than  impression.  He  knew  (.'hristianity  well,  but 
only  as  a  power  in  the  Roman  Eui|iire ;  and  he 
protected  it  as  a  wise  and  far-seeing  statesman. 
As  a  jiower  not  of  this  woi'ld,  he  hardly  ever  came 
to  und(H'stand  it. 

His  first  edict  concerning  (lie  Christians  (Rome, 
312)  is  lost.  By  the  second  (iMilaii,  31:i)  he  granted 
them,  not  only  free  religious  woi'ship  and  the  rec- 
ognition of  the  State,  but  also  n']iaratiou  of  ]ire- 
viously  incurred  lo.s.ses.  Banished  men  who  worked 
on  the  galleys  or  in  the  mines  W'ere  recalled,  con- 
fiscated estates  were  restored,  etc.  A  series  of 
edicts  of  315,  310,  319,  321,  and  323,  conijileted 
the  revolution.  Christians  were  admitted  to  tlie 
offices  of  the  State,  both  military  and  civil ;  the 
(Un-istian  clergy  was  exemjited  from  all  municipal 
burdens,  as  were  the  Pagan  priests;  the  enuinei- 
pation  of  Christian  slaves  was  facilitated;  tiews 
were  forbidden  to  keep  Cliristian  slaves,  etc.      .\n 


CONSTANTINE. 


547 


CONSTANTIMOPLE. 


edict  of  321  ordprcd  Sunday  to  be  celebrated  by 
cessation  of  all  work  in  pulilic.  When  Constan- 
tine  became  master  of  the  whole  empire,  all  these 
edicts  were  (ixtended  to  the  whole  realm,  and  the 
Roman  world  nioi'e  and  more  assumed  the  aspect 
of  a  Christian  state.  One  thing,  however,  puz- 
zled and  annoyed  the  emperor  very  much, — the 
dissensions  of  the  Christians,  their  perpetual  sciuab- 
bles  about  doctrines,  and  the  fanatical  hatred 
thereby  engendered.  In  the  Roman  Knipire  the 
most  different  religions  lived  peacefully  beside 
each  other,  a!id  her(!  was  a  religion  which  could 
not  live  in  peace  with  itself.  For  political  rea- 
sons, however,  unity  and  harmony  were  necessary ; 
and  in  325  the  Emperor  convened  the  first  great 
ceciimenical  council  at  Nica^a  to  settle  the  Arian 
controversy.  It  was  the  first  time  the  Chri.stian 
ChiU'ch  and  the  Roman  State  met  each  other  fac(> 
to  face  ;  and  tlie  impression  was  very  deep  on  both 
sides.  When  the  emperor  stood  there,  among  th(! 
three  hundred  and  eighteen  bishops,  tall,  clad  in 
purple  and  jewels,  with  his  peculiarly  haughty  and 
sombre  mien,  he  felt  disgusted  at  those  coarse  and 
cringing  creatures  who  one  moment  scrambled 
sportively  around  him  to  snatch  up  a  bit  of  his 
munificence,  and  the  next  flew  madly  into  each 
other's  faces  for  some  incomprehensible  mystery. 
Nevertheless,  he  learnt  something  from  those  peo- 
ple. He  saw  that  with  Christianity  was  born  a 
new  sentiment  in  the  human  .heart  hitherto  un- 
known to  mankind,  and  that  on  this  sentiment 
the  throne  could  be  rested  more  safely  tlian  on 
the  success  of  a  court-intrigue,  or  the  victory  of 
a  hired  army.  The  only  rational  legitinuition 
which  the  antique  world  had  known  of  the  king- 
ship was  descent  from  the  gods ;  but  this  au- 
thority had  now  become  a  barefaced  lie,  and  was 
diflicult  to  use  even  in  the  form  of  a  flattery. 
At  -Nicsea,  however,  the  idea  of  a  kingship  of  God's 
grace  began  to  dawn  upon  mankind.  Constantine 
also  met  there  with  men  who  must  have  charmed 
and  awed  him  by  their  grand  simplicity,  bunhnied, 
■  and  almost  curbed,  as  he  was  by  the  enormous 
complexity  of  Roman  life.  After  the  Council  of 
Nica;a,  he  conversed  more  and  more  frequently 
and  intimately  with  the  bishops.  His  interest  in 
Christianity  grew  with  the  years ;  but,  as  was  to 
have  been  foreseen,  he  was  sin'e  to  be  led  astray, 
for  the  needle  lacked  in  the  compass.  He  was 
more  and  more  drawn  over  to  tlie  side  of  the  Arians, 
and  it  was  an  Arian  bishop  who  baptized  him. 

2.  Of  Constantine's  three  sons  (I)  Constantine 
II.  died  early;  (2)  Constans  belonged  to  the 
Nicffian  party,  and  enforced  (in  349)  the  re-in- 
statement  of  Athanasius  in  Alexandria;  while 
(3)  Constantius  was  at  one  time  almost  the  leader 
of  the  anti-Nic;"ean  party,  and  interfered  in  the 
affairs  of  the  Church  in  a  very  high-handed  man- 
ner. He  fell  out,  however,  with  the  rigorous 
Arians;  and  his  success  in  propagating  semi- 
Arianism  was  probably  small,  just  as  his  violent 
measures  against  Paganism  (lie  forbaile  sacrifice 
under  penalty  of  death)  proved  almost  futile. 

Lit.  —  Sources  to  the  life  of  Constantine  are 
given  by  I.  \'ogt,  ///.<?.  Litt.  Constmit.  Magni, 
Hamburg,  1720.  The  principal  one  is  that  of 
the  contemporary  bishop,  Euserius,  his  friend 
and  admirer,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1845.  See, 
also,  Manso  :  Leben  Konstuntins,  Breslau,  1817 ; 
BuBCKHARDT :  Die  Zeit  Konsiantin  des  Grossen, 


Rasel,  185.'! ;  A.  dk  Broglik  :  I'l^f/lM  el  l' Empire 
(in  (jualrihiin  sii'cle,  I'aris,  18.57,  4  vols.;  Kki.m: 
Ueherlrill  Konslmilins  zum  Christenthum,  Ziiricli, 
1802;  Dhmktkiadks  :  Die.  clirisllichc  li(-<jie-ruuii 
a.  Orthniliixie  Kaiser  Consianliii  des  Grosxeii,  Miin- 
chen,  1878;  E.  IlKVDENRicicn:  fncerti  nuelnris 
de  ConKlnntiiio  mar/no  eiusque  maire  Helena  libellus. 
/•'  codlcllms  primus  edidit,  Leipzig,  1879  (pp.  30)  ; 
BitiKOKH:  Constaidln  der  Grosse  als  Rellglnns- 
j>ollll/cer,  Gotha,  1880  (pp.  48)  ;  E.  L.  Cr'rTs:  Con- 
stantlne  tlie  Great,  London  and  New  York,  1881  ; 
cf.  SciiaI'F:  Illst.  of  the  Christ.  Church,  vol.  ii. 
pp.   10  sq(l.  CI.H.MKNS   rKTEUSEN'. 

CONSTANTINOPLE  was  built  between  328 
ami  ■V-}(K  by  Conslantine  the  (ireat,  and  named 
alter  him.  The  old  Byzantium,  which,  according 
to  tradition,  had  occujiied  the  site  for  nearly  one 
thousaiul  years,  was  not  altogether  without  com- 
mercial and  political  consequence  ;  but  the  impor- 
tance of  tlie  place  was,  of  course,  manifold 
increa.sed  when  it  bi^came  the  imperial  residence. 
It  had  long  been  felt  that  the  natural  centre  of 
the  Roman  Empire  was  not  Rome  any  more,  that 
it  lay  farther  to  the  oa.st,  that  it  was  impossible 
to  defend  and  develop  the  eastern  part  of  the  em- 
pire from  Rome,  etc.  Probably  there  were  also, 
in  Rome,  traditions  which  ConstantiiK?,  as  the 
first  Christian  emperor,  wished  to  escape  from, 
since  he  had  not  power  to  break  them.  He  chose 
Byzantium  for  his  new  capital,  and  spent  immense 
sums  of  money  in  relmilding  and  adorning  it. 
Strong  walls  and  commodious  harbors  were  con- 
structed ;  gorgeous  palaces,  baths,  and  theatres 
were  erected;  numerous  magnificent  churches 
were  built,  —  that  of  the  Apostles,  that  of  St. 
Sophia,  afterwards  reliuilt  by  Justinian,  etc. 
After  a  short  time  the  city  numbered  a  hundred 
thousand  inhabitants. 

The  character  of  this  new  capital  during  the 
first  centuries  of  its  life  is  weU  known  from  the 
writings  of  St.  Chrysostom.  It  was  elegant  but 
prodigal,  feverish  in  its  aspirations,  over-refined 
in  its  enjoyment,  and  lax  in  its  morals.  AVhat 
it  produced  was  brilliant  and  gorgeous,  but  there 
was  often  poison  in  it.  A  striking  feature  was 
the  prominent  part  which  women  played  in  its 
life.  They  cultivated  the  artistic  forms,  until,  in 
Byzantine  literature  and  art,  the  ideal  contents 
were  completely  suffocated ;  and  they  introduced 
the  same  formalism  into  actual  life.  They  nursed 
the  court-intrigues  until  Byzantine  government 
became  a  mere  scuffle  between  the  eunuchs  of 
the  antechamber ;  and  they  transferred  this  trick- 
ery to  the  affairs  of  the  Church.  Xevertheless, 
as  a  mere  rival  to  Rome,  Constantinople  has  been 
of  invaluable  service  to  the  Christian  Chiu-ch, 
howsoever  her  direct  influence  may  be  considered. 

The  Bishop  of  Constantinople  belonged  origi- 
nally to  the  metropolitan  diocese  of  Heraclea. 
But  just  as  the  political  prestige  of  Rome  formed 
the  most  powerful  impulse  in  the  development  of 
the  papacy,  exactly  in  the  same  manner  the  po- 
litical prominence  of  Constantinople  forced  the 
Constantinopolitan  epi.scopacy  out  of  the  shadow. 
The  Council  of  Constantinople  (381)  decreed  in 
its  can.  3  that  the  Bishop  of  Constantinople  should 
have  the  title  of  Patriarch  (like  the  bi.shops  of 
Alexandria,  Antioch,  .lerusalem,  and  Rome), 
and  should  rank  next  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  no 
other  reason  being  alleged,  but  that  Constant!- 


CONSTANTINOPLE. 


548 


CONSTANTINOPLE. 


iiople  was  the  new  Rome,  the  second  capital  of 
the  empke.  The  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451) 
went  still  farther.  Its  can.  28  gave  the  Bishop 
of  Constantinople  equal  rank  with  tlie  Bishop  of 
Rome,  and  the  right  of  superintendence,  ordina- 
tion, and  convocation  of  STOods  for  Pontus,  Thra- 
cia,  and  Asia.  The  Concilium  Quinisexlum  (692) 
repeated,  confirmed,  and  even  enlarged  all  these 
privileges.  Of  course,  the  bishops  of  Rome  pro- 
tested. Leo  I.  rejected  con.  28  of  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon  rather  uiconsistently,  as  he  accepted 
all  its  other  decrees ;  and  Gregory  I.  almost  for- 
got liiraself  when  John  Ignatius  in  587  assumed 
the  title  of  Qicumenical  Patriarch.  These  pro- 
tests, and  the  shrewd  manner  in  which  the  Roman 
bishops  played  upon  tlie  ever-recurring  difficulties 
between  the  Constantinopolitan  patriarchs  and  the 
Constantinopolitan  emperors,  contributed  much 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  a  Constantinopolitan 
papacy,  but  could  not  prevent  a  split  between  the 
Roman  and  the  Greek  Church ;  which  latter 
article  see. 

The  succession  of  the  Constantinopolitan  bish- 
ops is  almost  completely  known  (see  F.\bri- 
Cius :  Bibl.  Gnec,  VI.  p.  707):  and  in  many 
cases  a  mere  glance  over  the  list  gives  an  insight 
into  the  turbulent  events  of  this  history ;  as,  for 
instance,  when  Ignatius,  Callistus,  and  Pliilotheus 
are  found  to  have  been  deposed  and  re-instated, 
etc.  Four  periods  may  be  conveniently  distin- 
guished :  the  first,  to  the  controversy  with  Photius 
(861),  or  the  complete  separation  from  the  AVest 
(1054) ;  the  second,  to  the  establisliment  of  the 
Latin  dynasty,  during  which  (1204—61),  tlie  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  removed  to  Xice ;  the 
third,  to  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  by  the 
Turks  (1453) ;  and  the  fourtli,  to  our  times. 
During  the  first  centuries  of  the  Turkish  rule 
the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  charged  not 
only  with  the  ecclesiastical,  but  also,  to  some  ex- 
tent, with  the  civil  jurisdiction  over  their  flock, 
presented  a  sad  picture  of  weakness,  injustice, 
simony,  fraud,  and  violence.  (See  Heineccius  : 
Abbitdum/  tl.  all.  und  neutn  f/riech.  KircJie,  I.  p. 
46,  and  "III.  p.  49;  Thomas  S.mith  :  De  Eccl. 
Grccc.  Statu  Hodicrno,  in  his  Opuscula,  Rotterdam, 
1716 ;  Geii)  :  Darstellung  d.  RechtzuMandcs  in 
Griechenlnnd  wcirend  d.  turk.  Herr-schaft,  Heidel- 
berg, 1835.)  By  the  consolidation  of  the  Russian 
Churcli  their  power  lost  in  compass,  b>it  their 
misuse  of  it  can  hardly  be  said  to  liave  lost  any 
thing  in  intensity.  See  the  articles  on  Greek 
Church,  Bul/;aria,  etc.  H.^MMEit-PiiiCSTAi. :  Coti- 
slanlinopel  und  der  Bosphoru.<,  Vienna,  1822,  gives 
in  the  first  volume  a  complete  list  of  the  sources 
to  the  older  history  of  Constantinojile.  [A. 
Mai!i: AST  ;  [ai  cic  hi/:(tuline  uu  sixihne  siecle,  Paris, 
18&1.]  GAS8. 

CONSTANTINOPLE,  Modern.  Since  1453 
Constantinople  has  been  a  Mohannnedan  city, 
the  I'esidence  of  the  calipli,  and  tiie  nietrojjolis 
of  the  Moslem  world.  It  has  gradually  become, 
also,  the  principal  .seat  of  Moliammedan  learning. 
It  is  said  tliat  there  are  not  less  tliaii  forty  tliou- 
sand  students  (or  softas)  in  tin-  religious  schools  of 
the  city,  coming  from  all  parts  of  the  empire  ;  and 
the  rdeina  (or  hjarned  doctors  of  tlir  law)  are  tlie 
most  influential  body  of  men  in  tlie  city.  In 
these  scliriols  they  t^-ach  the  Arabic  and  Persian 
languages,  tlie  Koran,  the  commentaries  u]»in  it, 


and  the  Sheraat,  or  sacred  law ;  but  the  majority 
of  the  students  enroll  themselves  simply  to  escape 
the  conscription,  and  comparatively  few  become 
ulema.  There  are  also  secular  schools,  including 
a  Lycee  founded  under  French  influence ;  but  they 
are  not  well  managed,  and  exert  but  little  influ- 
ence. The  military,  naval,  and  medical  schools, 
supported  by  the  government,  are  more  important, 
but  of  inferior  quality.  Outside  the  palace  and 
the  ranks  of  tlie  idtma  and  the  sqfta.-<,  there  is  now 
but  little  fanaticism  among  tlie  Mohammedans  of 
Constantuiople,  and  the  othcial  classes  are  sup- 
posed to  be  generally  atheistical.  The  decay  of 
the  temporal  power  of  the  Sultan  has  weakened 
his  influence  as  caliph,  so  far  that  his  authority 
over  the  ^Mohammedan  world  is  now  only  nomi- 
nal. Sultan  Ilamid  has  made  great  efforts  to 
revive  it,  but  without  much  success.  It  seems 
probable  that  the  calij-ihate  will  ultimately  be 
transferred  to  Mecca,  and  become  a  purely  spirit- 
ual office.  Constantinople  will  then  cease  to  be  a 
Mohammedan  city. 

The  non-Mohammedan  population  of  Constan- 
tinople occupies  a  peculiar  position.  There  are 
some  sixty  thousand  foreignei'S,  who  are  under  the 
exclusive  jurisdiction  of  the  diplomatic  and  consu- 
lar authorities  of  their  respective  countries.  There 
are  some  forty  thousand  Jews  of  Spanish  descent, 
who  are  Turkish  subjects,  but  under  the  authority 
of  their  own  Haham  Bashi.  There  are  also  seven 
Cliristian  communities  —  the  Greeks,  Armenians, 
Bulgarians,  Latins,  Armeno-Catholics,  Protes- 
tants, and  SjTians —  which  liave  separate  organi- 
zations, and  "  enjoy  special  immunities,"  or,  more 
justly,  aa-e  under  special  disabilities.  The  Mo- 
hammedan conquerors  of  the  Byzantine  Empire 
adopted  the  plan  of  dealing  with  all  non-Moliam- 
medans  whom  they  found  in  the  country  en  masse 
as  communities  and  not  as  individuals.  These 
communities  were  regarded  by  the  Turks  as  reli- 
gious rather  than  national,  and  their  religious 
chiefs  were  recognized  as  their  official  representa- 
tives at  the  Sublime  Porte.  They  were  nomi-' 
nated  by  the  conimunities,  and  appointed  by  the 
Sultan,  their  rights  and  duties  being  carefully  spe- 
cified in  the  impeiial  iradc  which  confirmed  the 
apjioiiitment.  Tlie  results  of  this  system  have 
been  both  good  and  bad.  It  has  consolidated 
and  preserved  the  churches,  but  it  has  secular- 
ized tlieni.  It  has  protected  the  Christians  from 
persecution  to  a  certain  extent,  but  has  left  them 
witliout  any  interest  in  the  government,  and 
helpless  in  the  hands  of  their  own  ecclesiastics. 
Viewed  from  a  Turkish  stand-point,  it  lias  pre- 
served the  purely  Mohammedan  character  of  the 
government;  but  it  has  insured  its  ultimate  de- 
struction. Since  the  Crimean  war  the  Turks  liave 
seen  what  was  coming,  and  have  made  some  half- 
hearted attempts  to  escape  this  result.  Tiiey  have 
souglit  to  divide  \\\i  the  Christian  communities, 
to  modify  their  charters,  and  to  create  an  Utto- 
man  nationality  to  include  Mohammedans  and 
Christians,  "with  equal  rights  .and  duties;"  hut 
these  attenqits  have  failed  thus  far  because  the 
Sultan  and  the  ulema  are  unwilling  to  modify  the 
essentially  Moliammedan  character  of  the  govern- 
ment. 

Thi^  autliority  of  the  religious  cliiefs  of  the 
Christian  (■(immunities  has  lieeii  very  much  weak- 
ened; but,  so  far  as  the  Turkish  Government   is 


\ 


CONSTANTINOPLE. 


549 


CONTARINI. 


conceniecl,  this  has  been  more  than  counterbal- 
aiicetl  by  the  rapid  growth  of  national  feeling, 
the  increasing  influence  of  the  laity,  and  the  gen- 
eral progress  of  enlightenment  in  these  conniiuni- 
ties.  They  are  more  oj)posed  to  jSIohannnedan 
rule  than  ever  before.  They  would  submit  to 
the  Sultan  as  a  civil  ruler  under  proper  European 
guaranties ;  but  they  think  that  the  time  has  come 
when  Constantinople  must  soon  cease  to  be  a 
Mohannnedan  city. 

Some  important  religious  changes  deserve  to  be 
mentioned  here.  The  Greek  Patriarch,  since  the 
beginning  of  the  century,  has  lost  most  of  his  im- 
portance. He  no  longer  has  any  authority  over 
Greece,  Servia,  Montenegro,  or  Roumania ;  and 
by  the  Bulgarian  schism  he  lost  four  million  of 
his  flock.  His  church  numbers  about  two  million 
at  the  present  time.  The  Iloman-Catholic  Church 
has  made  but  little  progress  in  Turkey  during 
this  century ;  but  it  has  made  great  efforts  to 
Latinize  its  Oriental  branches,  and,  in  spite  of 
an  important  schism  in  the  Armeno-Catholic 
Church,  it  has  been  generally  successful.  It  has 
many  schools  in  Constantinople,  but  they  are  gen- 
erally of  a  low  order,  and  devoted  to  propagan- 
dism. 

The  Armenian  Chirrch  has  made  important 
progress  in  enlightenment.  It  has  adopted  a  lib- 
eral constitution,  which  limits  the  power  of  the 
ecclesiastics,  and  increases  that  of  the  laity.  It 
encourages  education  and  reform,  and  has  ceased 
to  persecute  those  who.  adopt  evangelical  views. 
An  independent  Bulgarian  exarch  has  been  rec- 
ognized by  the  Porte,  and  a  new  church  organized, 
which  is  in  doctrinal  agreement  with  the  other 
orthodox  Oriental  churches,  but  liberal,  and  in- 
clined to  reform.  Tliere  are  but  few  Bulgarians 
in  Constantinople,  but  this  is  the  seat  of  the  exar- 
chate. 

Protestantism  has  also  been  officially  recognized 
as  one  of  the  authorized  religions  of  the  empire. 
It  has  its  official  vek'd  at  Constantinople ;  but  most 
of  its  adherents  are  in  Asia  Minor,  Armenia,  and 
Syria.  Its  establishment  resulted  from  the  labors 
of  American  missionaries,  whose  influence  for 
good  has  extended  far  beyond  the  circle  of  their 
converts. 

Among  the  most  interesting  institutions  in  mod- 
ern Constantinople  are  Robert  College  and  the 
American  School  for  Girls  at  Scutari.  Robert 
College  was  foimded  in  18G3,  by  the  munificence 
of  Mr.  C.  R.  Robert  of  Xew  York,  and  under  the 
direction  of  Rev.  Cyi'us  Hamlin,  D.D.,  formerly  a 
missionary  of  the  American  Board.  It  was  de- 
signed to  give  to  the  people  of  the  East,  without 
distinction  of  race  or  religion,  an  educational  in- 
stitution in  all  respects  equal  to  the  best  Ameri- 
can colleges ;  and  it  has  won  the  respect  and 
confidence  of  all  the  nationalities  of  the  empire. 
It  has  now  fifteen  professors  and  two  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  students.  While  not  in  any 
sense  sectarian,  it  is  a  Christian  college ;  and  it 
has  already  exerted  an  influence  for  good  which 
can  hardly  be  over-estimated. 

The  .school  at  Scutariwas  established  later;  but 
it  is  doing  for  girls  essentially  the  same  work 
which  Robert  College  is  doing  for  yonng  men. 

Jlodern  Constantinople  is  no  longer  what  it  was 
even  fifty  years  ago.  The  material  civilization  of 
Europe  has  invaded  it  and  transformed  it.    Steam- 


ships, railways  and  tramways,  telegraphs,  and 
news]iapers  have  forced  their  way  into  it.  'I'he 
streets  aie  lighted  with  gas.  Ready-made  cloth- 
ing and  Manch('ster  cottons  have  transformed  the 
peo]i|c.  (ireat  fires  have  desolated  the  city,  and 
made  way  for  stiff  European  hou.ses  built  of  brick 
and  stone.  The  janizaries  have  disajipeared.  - 
The  European  amlia.ssad6r.s,  wlio  used  to  submit 
quietly  to  every  indignity,  now  dine  with  their 
wives  at  the  Sultan's  table,  and  dictate  his  poli- 
cy. Tlie  Christian  riii/nh  no  longci-  trembles  in 
presence  of  a  Turk,  nor  gets  down  from  his  hor.se 
when  he  pas.ses  the  palace,  'i'he  Mohammedan 
smokes  his  pipe  in  Ramazan  if  he  pleases ;  and 
the  Christian  eats  meat  in  Lent  without  fear  of 
the  Patriarch.  The  vices  ami  follies  of  Europe 
have  been  added  to  those  of  the  East;  and,  while 
there  have  been  many  changes  for  tlie  lietter,  it 
may  be  doubted  whether,  on  the  whole,  there  is  as 
much  genuine  religious  faith  in  the  city  as  there 
was  fifty  years  ago.  geouge  \VASHBUR^f 

(Preftident  of  Robert  Colk-[;i-,  Constantinople). 

CONSTANTINOPOLITAN  CREED.  See  Ni- 
CENE  Creed. 

CONSUBSTANTIATION,  a  technical  term 
denoting  the  Lutheran  view  of  the  elements  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  in  contradistinction  from  the 
Roman-Catholic  view,  —  transubstantiation.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Roman  doctrine,  the  bread  and  the 
wine  are  by  the  consecration  transformed  into 
the  flesh  and  blood  of  Christ :  while,  according  to 
the  Lutheran  doctrine,  the  bread  and  wine  remain 
bread  and  wine ;  though,  after  the  consecration, 
the  real  flesh  and  blood  of  Christ  co-exist  in  and 
with  tlie  natural  elements,  just  as  a  heated  iron 
bar  still  remains  an  iron  bar,  though  a  new  ele- 
ment, heat,  has  come  to  co-exist  in  and  with  it, 
—  an  illustration  which  Luther  himself  has  used 
in  his  letter  to  Henry  VIII.  It  is  but  proper  to 
state  that  the  Lutheran  divines  repudiate  the 
popular  term  "  consubstantiation,"  in  the  sense  of 
a.  permanent  connection  of  the  elements  with  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ.  They  confine  this 
connection  to  the  act  of  the  conmiunion. 

CONTARINI,  Gasparo,  b.  in  Venice,  Oct.  16, 
1483;  d.  at  Bologna,  Aug.  24,  1542;  descended 
from  a  noble  Venetian  family,  and  received  a  very 
careful  but  entirely  secular  education.  He  w'rote 
De  Immorlalilate  Animi  adi-ersus  Pomponatium,  but 
from  a  purely  rational  point  of  view.  In  1.521 
he  was  sent  to  Ciermany  as  ambassador  of  the 
republic  to  Charles  V. ;  and  he  accompanied  the 
emperor  back  to  Spain.  After  the  conquest  of 
Rome  he  contributed  much  to  bring  about  a 
reconciliation  between  the  Pope  and  the  emperor, 
and  between  the  emperor  and  the  i-epublic.  The 
depth  of  his  interest,  and  the  compass  of  his  ca- 
pacity as  a  statesman  and  diplomatist,  he  proved 
by  his  work  Dc  Magislralihu^  el  Repuhliru  Venc- 
lorum.  From  early  youth,  however,  he  had  been 
open  to  strong  religious  impressions.  In  the  days 
of  Leo  X.  he  had  joined  the  Omlor'mm  Sti  Ainoris; 
and  in  Venice  he  stood  at  the  head  of  the  move- 
ment which  wished  a  reform  of  the  Churcli,  and 
was  willing  to  work  for  it.  Thus,  when  Paul 
HI.  in  1535  suddenly  and  imexpectedly  niade 
him  a  cardinal,  he  accepted  tlie  position  without 
hesitation.  In  1537  he  was  made  a  member  of 
the  connuittee  formed  for  the  purpose  of  examin- 
ing the  state  of  the  Church,  and  making  proposi- 


CONVENT. 


550 


CONVERSION. 


tions  to  its  reform ;  and  when  Paul  III.  received 
his  Consilium  de  Emendanda  Ecclesia  without  of- 
fence, if  -not  with  favor,  he  was  full  of  hope  and 
confidence.  But  nothing  came  of  the  matter. 
Under  Paul  IX.  the  ti-eatise,  which  had  been 
published  without  the  knowledge  of  Contarini, 
and  circulated  hi  Germany  with  Luther's  annota- 
tions, was  put  on  the  Index.  As  imsuccessful 
was  his  mission  as  papal  legate  to  the  Diet  of 
Ratisbou  (1541).  He  was  fully  convinced  of 
the  necessity  of  reform ;  but  Luther,  whom  he 
had  met  at  Worms,  he  disliked,  and  the  German 
reform  in  its  popular  shape  he  utterly  distrusted. 
He  wanted  a  reform  from  the  liead.  The  evan- 
geUcal  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  he  had 
accepted,  but  only  in  its  positive  form,  not  so  as 
to  exclude  the  whole  false  practice  of  the  Roman 
Churcli.  In  Ratisbon  he  did  not  win  the  Protes- 
tants, and  he  roused  the  suspicion  of  the  Roman- 
ists. After  his  return  he  was  made  papal  legate 
at  Bologna ;  but  he  lived  to  see  the  re-action  set 
in,  and  his  friends  fleeing  to  foreign  countries  to 
escape  the  Inquisition.  His  works  were  pub- 
lished in  Paris  (1571)  and  in  Venice  (1589).  In 
the  latter  edition,  however,  the  text  of  the  trea- 
tise on  justification  is  mutilated  and  altered.  See 
Brieger:  Th.  Gasparo  Contarini  und  das  Regens- 
hurger  Concordienwerk;  187U ;  Die  Rechtfertigungs- 
lehre  der  Card.  Contarini,  by  the  same,  in  Studien 
und  Kritiken,  1872,  I. ;  Christoffel  :  Card. 
Contarinix  Lehen  und  Schrif/en,  in  Zeitschrift  f.  his- 
torisr/ip  Thi'ologie,  1875,  II.         C.  WEIZSACKER. 

CONVENT  means  both  the  whole  establish- 
ment in  which  a  society  of  monks  or  nuns  are 
settled,  its  buildings,  rules,  purpose,  etc.,  and  the 
meeting  of  those  members  of  the  institution  who 
are  entitled  to  give  their  advice  on  certain  points 
of  adininistratiou  or  government. 

CONVENTICLE  (Latin,  conveulicidum)  meant 
in  the  primitive  church  any  meeting  for  the  sake 
of  religious  \vor.ship,  but  is,  since  the  time  of 
Charles  II.,  applied  in  English  only  to  the  meet- 
ings of  the  dissenters  from  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. 

CONVENTICLE  ACT,  the  first  passed  1664, 
the  second  April  11,  1070;  repealed  by  the  Tolera- 
tion Act,  May  24,  1689.  According  to  the  first, 
"  If  any  person  alxjve  the  age  of  sixteen,  after 
the  1st  of  July,  1664,  shall  be  present  at  any 
meeting,  under  color  or  pretence  of  any  exercise 
of  religion,  in  other  manner  than  is  allowed  by 
the  liturgy  or  practice  of  the  Church  of  I^ngland, 
where  shall  be  five  or  more  persons  than  the 
household,  shall  for  the  first  offence  suffer  three 
months'  iniprisoMinent,  \ipon  record  made  upon 
oath  under  the  hand  and  seal  of  a  justice  of  the 
peace,  or  pay  a  sum  not  exceeding  five  pounds ; 
tor  the  .second  offence,  .six  montlis'  imprisonment, 
or  ten  pounds ;  and,  for  the  tliird  offence,  the 
offender  to  lie  lianislied  to  .some  of  tlie  American 
plantations  for  seven  years,  excejiting  New  Eng- 
land and  Virginia,  or  pay  one  hundred  pounds; 
and  in  case  they  return "  [i.e.,  ere  the  seven 
years],  "or  make  tlieir  escape,  such  persons  are  to 
lie  adjudged  felons,  and  sutler  death  without 
benefit  of  (Hergy.  Sheriffs  or  justices  of  the; 
peac(!,  or  otliers  commissioned  by  (liem,  are  eni- 
powereil  to  dissolve,  dissipate,  and  break  up  idl 
unlawful  conventicles,  and  to  tak('  into  custody 
auch   of  their   number  as  thi'V  think  lit.     'I'lu'y 


who  suffer  sucli  conventicles  in  their  houses  or 
barns  are  liable  to  the  same  forfeitures  as  other 
offenders.  The  prosecution  is  to  be  within  three 
months.  Married  women  taken  at  conventicles 
are  to  be  imprisoned  for  twelve  months,  unless 
theu-  husbands  pay  forty  shillings  for  their  i-e- 
demption.  This  act  to  continue  in  force  for 
three  years  after  the  next  session  of  Parliament." 
In  1670  the  act  was  renewed  in  a  modified  form ; 
the  fines  were  lowered,  and  the  risk  of  exile  was 
removed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  chance  of 
escape  was  made  nmch  less ;  for  any  justice  of 
the  peace  who  refused  to  execute  the  act  was 
fined  five  pounds,  and  the  greatest  encourage- 
ment given  to  informers. 

The  Conventicle  Act  is  a  blot  on  English  his- 
toi-y.  It  caused  much  suffering  to  innocent 
worthy  people.  It  was  not  even  administered 
impartially ;  for,  as  Neal  testifies,  the  Roman 
Catholics  were  not  molested.  See  Neal  :  History 
of  the  Puritans,  part  iv.,  chaps.  7,  8  (Harper's  ed., 
vol.  ii.  pp.  251,  206). 

CONVERSION  (Hebrew  naitv,  "return,"  "re- 
pentance" [only  once,  Isa.  xxx.  15],  from  JIU',  "to 
turn  ;  "  Greek  /itruvoia,  "  a  change  of  mind  ;  "  ima- 
Tpo(pi/  [once.  Acts  xv.  3],  "  a  turning  towards  or 
about;"  Latin,  convei-sio)  denotes  tlie  act  in  which 
the  soul  estranged  from  God  turns  back  to  him  in 
order  that  it  may  sliare  afresh  in  his  grace.  It  is 
a  return,  because  man  re-enters  his  former  posi- 
tion towards  God,  which  he  had  lost  by  the  fall. 
It  is  also  a  turning-froju,.hecause  former  sins  are 
abandoned  (Acts  xiv.  15),  and,  again,  a  change 
of  mind  (Acts  xxvi.  20).  By  nature  the  "slave 
of  sin,"  and  therefore  a  "child  of  wrath"  (Eph. 
ii.  3),  and  "dead"  (Eph.  ii.  1;  Col.  ii.  13),  he 
is  renewed  in  the  spirit  of  his  miiul,  and  puts 
on  "  the  new  man,  which  after  God  hath  been 
created  in  righteousness  and  holiness  of  truth  " 
(Eph.  iv.  24).  But  how  can  this  radical  change 
be  made?  Not  by  his  own  unaided  will  (John 
XV.  5),  nor  any  more  without  his  will  (Acts  iii.  19 ; 
2  Pet.  iii.  9).  The  condition,  therefore,  is  the 
divine  aid ;  and  so  repentance  is  a  gi/l  of  God 
(Acts  xi.  18 ;  Phil.  ii.  13),  and  therefore  some- 
thing to  be  thankful  for.  Yet  every  Christian 
knows  that  he  has  not  hccu  forced  to  re]ient ;  rather 
he  has  earnestly  desired  the  altered  lite.  In  this 
work  of  God,  therefore,  the  hunum  and  the  divine 
acts  stand  side  by  side,  and  Ooth  nmst  be  equally 
recognized,  not  the  one  at  the  expense  of  the 
other. 

It  is  a  i>roblem  to  find  exactly  where  the  human 
meets  the  divine.  Pelagians,  Semipelagians,  Syn- 
ergists, h.ave  in  vain  tried  to  solve  it.  The  Lu- 
tlieran  doctrine  on  the  means  of  grace  (the  AVord 
and  sacraments)  .solves  it.  This  is,  that  these 
"  means  "  are  divine  gift.s,  which  convey  llie  Spirit 
to  their  recijiient,  and  thus  lie  is  strengthened,  and 
awakened  into  new  energy.  But  the  grace  is  not 
irresistil>le,  on  the  contrary,  can  be  etl'ectually 
and  utterly  resisted.  The  will  formed  by  this 
grace  is  no  longer  bound  liy  sin,  luit  inclined 
towards  (Jod.  Weak  Ihongh  it  may  be,  it  is 
capable  of  upward  growth.  God  is  in  it,  and  he 
will  see  to  its  <l(>velo])m(Mit. 

No  one  can  lay  down  laws  for  the  process  of 
conver.sion.  One  man  is  quickly  turned  about: 
to  another  a  long  .struggle  is  requisite.  In  the 
foiiuer  case  there  will   bo  found  a  preparation 


CONVERSION. 


551 


CONVULSIONISTS. 


unconscious  though  the  subject  be  of  it.  Talte 
the  crucial  case  of  Paul  (Acts  ix.  1-22).  His 
was  a  sudden  conversion  :  yet  the  three  days  l.ie- 
tween  the  appearance  of  Christ  to  him  upon  his 
journey  from  Jerusalem  to  Damascus,  and  the 
visit  of  Ananias,  nmst  not  be  overlooked ;  for, 
diu'ing  those  hours  of  enforced  cessation  from 
work,  the  truth  of  that  new  faith  for  which  Jews 
like  himself  so  gladly  died,  may  have  been  borne  in 
vipon  his  soul.  Even  so  in  the  cases  of  the  jailer  a( 
Philippi,  there  was  an  acquaintance  with  Paul's 
preaching  (Acts  xvi.)  ;  yea,  the  malefactor  on  the 
cross  (Luke  xxiii.  40  sqq.)  showed  that  alreadj'  he 
liad  been  impressed  by  Christ. 

When  we  speak  of  the  baptized,  we  must  bear 
in  mind  that  such,  by  the  very  fact  of  their  bap- 
tism, stand  upon  quite  a  different  plane  from  the 
vinbaptized.  They  are  no  longer  "  natural "  men 
in  the  above  sense  of  the  word.  Each  of  them 
has  been  accepted  by  God,  called  bj'  his  name,  and 
had  the  seeds  of  the  new  life  sown  in  his  heart ; 
for  baptism  is  the  "  laver  of  regeneration  "  (Tit. 
iii.  5).  Regeneration  is  not,  however,  the  same 
thing  as  conversion.  It  is  ratlier  that  act  of  divine 
grace  whereby  God  sets  the  new  manhood  in  a 
num,  not  as  the  ultimate  fruit,  but  as  a  seed.  It  is 
therefore  conceivable,  and  indeed  actually,  though 
rarely,  the  case,  that  this  "  seed  "  steadily  grows 
imto  its  perfection.  For  such  there  is  no  "con- 
version "  necessary.  But  for  the  great  majority 
the  seed  sown  in  baptism  is  partially  killed ;  yet 
not  entirely.  The  grace  of  baptism  affords  a 
basis  for  the  divine  operation.  By  other  means 
of  grace  the  process  of  growth  is  effected,  particu- 
larly by  the  word  of  God,  in  the  form  of  preach- 
ing (Rom.  X.  17)  in  its  two  forms  of  law  and 
gospel.  They  work  together,  —  the  law,  repent- 
ance; the  gospel,  faith.  It  is  indeed  true  that 
preaching  has  a  similar  effect  upon  baptized  and 
unbaptized  ;  but,  in  the  former,  conversion  is  only 
necessary  when  the  grace  of  baptism  is  lost,  wiiile 
in  the  latter  it  is  indispensable  to  salvation. 

Conversion  must  not  be  confounded  with  sanc- 
tification.  The  former  has  its  end  and  conclusion 
in  justifying  faith.  It  is  a  continuous  process 
which  can  be  hastened  or  retarded.  Sanctification 
begins  when  conversion  has  done  its  work.  It  is 
the  fulfilment  of  the  divine  call  to  perpetual 
struggle  against  besetting  sin,  through  daily  re- 
newing of  repentance  and  faith,  until,  in  the  day 
of  Jesus  Christ,  the  flesh  and  all  its  works  are  for- 
ever removed.  Again :  conversion  and  justifica- 
tion must  be  distingirished.  Conversion  is  the 
reaching-out  after  union  with  God :  justification 
effects  this  union.  It  declares  that  the  fall  is 
healed,  the  separation  from  God  ended,  the  rela- 
tion between  man  and  God  (begun  in  baptism) 
finally  established.  See  the  Lutheran  Confessions 
and  their  adherents,  especially  Frank  :  Tlieolotjie 
der  Konkordienformel,  Erlangen,  1858.     BURGER. 

The  above  expresses  the  evangelical  Lutheran 
view  of  conversion.  Calvinists  emphasize  the 
divine  factor,  and  generally  maintain  that  grace 
works  iri-esislibli/  in  the  elect.  Arminians,  on  the 
other  hand,  emphasize  the  liiiman  factor,  deny  irre- 
sistible grace,  yet  affirm  that  grace  is  the  "  be- 
ginning, continuance,  and  accomplishment  of  all 
good."  The  two  terms,  conversion  and  regeneration 
are  often  confounded,  but  should  be  carefully  dis- 
liinguislied     Conversion  (^lio-dvoia)  is  a  human  act 


of  turning  from  sin,  and  turning  to  God,  and  may 
be  repeated:  regeneration  (^TTaMyycveaia ,  Tit.  iii. 
5,  and  the  verb  "  to  be  born  again,"  of  the  Spirit, 
"from  God,"  uvaycvviwitai,  1  Pet.  1.  3,  2-3,  and 
yemUofiac  livuOtv,  or  in  Otoi,  or  in-  nvcv/iaTor,  John  i. 
13  ;  iii.  5,  0,  8)  is  a  divine  act,  the  work  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  and,  like  the  natural  birth,  incapable 
of  repetition.  Baptismal  regeneration  is  rejected 
by  both  Calvinists  and  Arminians.  It  is,  how- 
ever, taught  by  the  High  Anglican  theologians 
(see  Bujx'r  :  Diclionar;/  of  Doclrinal  and  Jlislurical 
Tlicolorjy,  art.  Baptism).  Tiie  Calvinistic  view  of 
conversion  is  given  in  Hodgk  :  Systematic  The- 
oUmjij,  vol.  iii.  chap,  xv.,  "Regeneration;"  the 
Arminian,  in  Watson  :  Institutes  (29th  ed.  N.Y.), 
vol.  ii.  cliaii.  -^xiv.     See  Rf.gkneration. 

CONVOCATION,  in  the  Church  of  England, 
an  asseml)ly  of  the  bishops  and  clergy  by  their 
respective  metropolitans,  in  pursuance  of  royal 
order,  within  the  provinces  of  Canterbury  and  of 
York.  Its  sessions  are  contemporaneous  with 
those  of  Parliament,  and  concern  ecclesiastical 
affairs.  Each  convocation  has  two  hou.ses,  • —  the 
Upper,  which  consists  of  the  bishops ;  and  the 
Lower,  of  the  deans,  archdeacons,  proctors  for 
the  chapters,  and  proctors  for  the  i>arochial 
clergy.  Their  actions  were  foi'merly  of  gi'eal 
importance;  but  since  Ilem-y  VIII.'s  tune  they 
have  been  shorn  of  their  power.  In  consequence 
of  the  Bangorian  Controversy  (see  Bishop  IIoai>- 
ley),  the  Convocation  of  Canterbury,  which  has 
always  been  by  far  the  more  important  body, 
was  prorogued  in  1717  ;  and  no  license  from  the 
Crown  for  the  transaction  of  business  was  ob- 
tained until  1861.  In  this  body  originated  the 
Anglo-American  Bible-revision  movement,  Feb- 
ruary, 1870  (see  Canteruky).  See  the  article 
Convocation  in  Encyl.  Brit.,  9th  ed.,  vol.  VI. 
pp.  325-330.  In  the  Episcojjal  Church  in  America 
there  is  no  body  exactly  corresponding  to  Convo- 
cation. See  Episcop.\l  Church.  T.  Lath- 
bury:  History  of  the  Convocation  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  of  the  Anglican  Ecclesiastical  Coun- 
cils, from  the  Earliest  Period,  London,  1842. 

CONVULSIONISTS  is  the  name  of  a  fanatical 
section  of  the  Jansenists.  In  1727  the  Dean 
Frangois  of  Paris  died,  and  was  bm-ied  in  the 
Cemetery  of  St.  Medard.  A  "Jansenist  every 
inch,"  he  had  belonged  to  the  Appellants,  and 
died  with  the  appeal  in  his  hand.  His  saintly 
life,  the  ascetic  practices  which  caused  his  death, 
and  the  extraordinary  charity  which  made  him 
divide  his  great  revenues  among  the  poor,  had 
made  a  most  effective  propaganda  for  Jansenisni 
and  the  Appellants  among  the  lower  classes  in 
Paris.  In  1729,  when  the  intrig-ues  of  Abbe 
Dubois,  the  violence  of  Cardinal  Fleury,  and, 
more  than  any  thing  else,  the  retractation  of  M. 
de  Xoailles,  "Archbishop  of  Paris,  had  brought 
the  victory  into  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits,  it  was 
suddenly  reported  that  miracles  were  wrought  on 
the  grave  of  Francois,  God  himself  thus  bearing 
witness  against  the  Pope  and  his  hated  bull  U>n- 
genitus.  People  crowded  in  great  numbers  to  the 
cemetery,  and  when  they  reached  the  grave  they 
were  often  overtaken  by  violent  fits  'of  convul- 
sions :  hence  the  name.  In  this  state  they  prophe- 
sied, and  testified  against  the  Indl ;  and  a  guaranty 
of  the  truth  of  their  prophecies  and  testimonies 
was  given  by  the  instantaneous  cures  from  dis- 


CONYBEAKE. 


552 


COOKE. 


eases  which  they  experienced.  In  1732  the  com- 
motion became  so  gi'eat,  that  the  king  ordered 
the  cemetery  shut  up,  and  the  grave  watched  by 
military;  but  the  miracles  continued, now  wrought 
by  earth  from  the  grave,  or  by  water  from  a 
neighboring  spring.  Large  books  were  written, 
containing  testimonies  to  the  miracles  by  eye- 
witnesses, and  illustrations  representing  tlie  most 
remarkable  convulsions.  Fifst  the  I5ishop  of 
Montpellier,  then  other  bishops,  and  finally  a 
number  of  prominent  persons  from  the  court  and 
the  aristocratic  circles,  were  caught  by  the  move- 
ment. The  Jesuits  were  in  despair.  They  de- 
clared that  the  miracles,  which  they  could  not  or 
dared  not  deny,  were  wrought  by  the  Devil.  But 
none  would  believe  them.  It  took  nearly  twenty 
years  before  the  roused  energy  had  fully  spent 
itself,  and  the  party  disappeared,  broken  up  by 
internal  dissensions.  See  Pieure  Boyer  :  V'ie 
(ie  M.  Franfoi.i  de  Paris,  Paris,  1731  ;  h.\  Toste  : 
Leitres  thc'ologiques  sur  les  cnnvulsiunnaires,  Paris, 
1733;  MoNTGEROx:  La  verile  des  miraclfs  operes 
a  I'inlercession  de  Fraiu/ois  de  Paris,  Paris,  1737  ; 
and  the  article  Jansexism. 

CONYBEARE,  William  Daniel,  b.  at  Bishops- 
gate,  Eug.,  June  7,  17S7;  d.  near  Portsmouth, 
Aug.  12,  1857.  In  1839  delivered  the  Bampton 
Lecture  on  the  Christian  Fathers  during  the  Ante- 
\icene  Period.  He  was  made  Dean  of  Llandaff 
in  1845.  The  majority  of  liis  writings  were  upon 
geological  topics ;  and  of  the  Geological  Society 
he  was  an  early  and  stanch  friend. 

CONYBEARE,  William  John,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, d.  18.")7.  He  was  a  fellow  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  and  a  frequent  contributor 
to  the  Edinburf/h  Review,  upon  ecclesiastical  and 
social  topics,  of  which  essays  the  most  famous 
was  on  Church  Parties,  i.e.,  the  parties  within  the 
Anglican  Church.  He  also  wrote  a  novel.  Perver- 
sion, or  the  Causes  and  Consequences  of  Infidelity, 
London,  18.50.  But  liis  title  to  fame  rests  upon  his 
labor,  in  conjunction  with  the  Rev.  J.  S.  Ilowson 
(now  Dean  of  Chester),  upon  the  Life  and  Letters 
of  St.  Paid,  London,  18.50-,52,  2  vols.,  .since  often 
reprinted  in  Knglaud  and  the  United  States.  Of 
the  twenty-eight  chapters  of  this  work  Mr.  Cony- 
beare  contributed  nine;  but  these  include  the 
speeclies  and  letters  of  Paul,  all  of  which  he 
translated  and  annotated.  His  translations  are 
spirited  and  faithful.  A  volume  of  his  Sermons 
preached  in  the  Chapel  lioi/al,  Whitehall,  London, 
appeared  London,  181 1 ;  and  liis  E.i.iai/s,  Ecclesias- 
tical and  Social,  have  been  collected  and  pub- 
lished. 

COOK,  Charles,  the  fatlier  of  IMethodism  in 
France  :itiiI  Switzerland;  ii.  in  London,  May  31, 
1787;  d.  at  Lausanne,  Feb.  21,  18.58.  Merle 
d'AubigncS  said  of  him,  "  'J'lu!  work  which  John 
Wesley  did  in  the  Britisli  Kingdom,  Charles 
Clook  did  upon  the  Continent,  except  that  it,  was 
not  so  extensive."  He  went  to  France  in  181G, 
was  indefatigable  in  labor,  and  largely  through 
his  agency  was  tliere  a  revival  of  religion  among 
French  I'rotestants  under  tiie  Restoration.  Ho 
organized  numerous  little  soc"ieties,  wliich  eithcn- 
joined  the  Reforme<l  Churcli,  or  continued  ind(v 
pendent.  One  of  the  most  important  controver- 
.sie.s  he  carried  on  —  for  he  must  needs  fight  his 
way  —  was  with  Cdsar  Malan,  upon  tlie  doctrine 
of  Predestination,  which  led  to  his  laiblication  of 


his  valuable  work,  L' Amour  de  Dieu  pour  tous  les 
honuncs.     See  his  Life  by  J.  P.  Cook,  Paris,  1862. 

COOK,  Emile  F.,  son  of  the  preceding;  b.  in 
Xiort  (Devix-Sevres),  1830;  d.  at  Hyeres,  in  the 
south  of  France,  Jan.  29, 1871.  He  was  educated 
in  Lausanne  and  the  A\'esleyan  institutions  in 
England;  ordained  in  1854;  and  in  1866  came 
to  Paris  to  be  pastor  of  the  Wesleyan  Congrega- 
tion there.  He  came  to  America  as  delegate  to 
the  General  Conference  of  the  Evangelical  Alli- 
ance held  in  New  York  Oct.  2-12, 1873,  and  escap- 
ed shipwreck  in  the  ill-fated  Ville  du  Havre  (Xo\'. 
22,  1873),  only  to  die  on  land.  See  Mrs.  Hough- 
ton :  Stori/  of  Emile  Cook's  Life,  Phila.,  1881. 

COOKE,  Henry,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  the  champion  of 
Orthodoxy  agauist  Arianism  in  the  Irish  Church  ; 
b.  at  Grillagh,  County  Londonderry,  Ireland, 
May  11,  1788;  d.  in  Belfast,  Sunday,  Dec.  13, 
1868.  After  graduation  at  the  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity, he  was  ordained  (1808)  pastor  of  Dun- 
eane  in  County  Antrim,  but  remained  only  two 
years.  He  then  held  successively  charges  at 
Donegore,  near  Templepatrick,  in  County  Antrim 
(1811-15),  at  Killyleagh,  County  Down  (1818- 
29),  in  Belfast  (1829)  till  his  death.  He  was 
elected  in  1817  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric,  and 
president  of  the  faculty  in  the  Assembly's  Col- 
lege at  Belfast ;  but,  yielding  to  the  urgent  request 
of  his  congregation,  he  renniined  their  preacher. 
He  was  a  man  of  eloquence,  tact,  and  influence. 
He  was  raised  up  to  destroy  Arianism  in  Ireland, 
and  he  did  the  work  appointed  him.  From  the 
first  year  of  his  preaching  mito  the  last,  he  strove 
earnestly  for  the  Orthodox  views  on  the  person  of 
Christ,  and  for  the  consequent  gTowth  of  piety. 
The  opposition  to  him  at  the  start  was  very  gi'eat. 
It  is  striking  proof  of  the  intensity  of  his  devo- 
tion, that  not  finding  himself  able  to  cope  success- 
fully with  the  Arian  leaders,  who  were  men  of 
nuich  culture  and  learning,  he  studied  for  three 
years  in  Glasgow  University  and  Trinity  College 
(1815-18),  and  resumed  his  ministry  with  much 
increased  mental  stores.  The  fight  he  waged  reads' 
like  a  romance.  He  defeated  liis  opponents  again 
and  again.  He  stennned  the  tide  of  popular  .sym- 
pathy, and  tui-ned  it  strongly  and  jiermanently  to 
Orthodoxy.  He  drove  Arianism  out  of  the  col- 
leges, synods,  and  congregations  of  the  Irish  Pres- 
bjierian  Church;  so  that  in  1829,  after  a  crushing 
defeat  in  the  synod  of  Ulster,  at  Lurgan,  the 
RemoiLStrant  .synod  of  Ulster  was  formed  by  the 
Arians.  But  it  has  not  flourished  in  Ireland;  for 
to-day  there  are  not  four  thousand  adherents, 
while  in  England  Presbyterian  ism  became  almost 
entirely  Arian.  (The  present  I'rosbyterian  Church 
in  that  country  is  an  exotic,  being  inqiorted  from 
Scotland.)  Tliis  victory  may  jiroperly  be  put, 
under  God,  f-o  the  credit  of  Henry  Cooke ;  for  his 
W'as  the  indomitable  energy,  tlie  facile  learning, 
the  jiolished  tact,  and  the  worldly  itrudence,  w  hicli 
coinbined  to  make  him  triumphant.  He  won 
golden  opinions:  his  brethren  rejoieed  to  honor 
him.  He  was  made  in  1829  D.l).  by  Jefferson 
College,  Pennsylvania,  and  LL.D.  by  'I'rinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin.  Three  times  he  was  elected  mod- 
erator of  the  General  Assembly.  He  was  made 
ju'ofessor  in  the  Assembly's  College,  and  through- 
out his  long  settlemc'iit  hi  Belfast  he  was  their 
most  admired  and  tlironged  preacher.  In  privata 
life  he  was  simple,  dignified,  and   gentle.     For 


COOKMAN. 


COPTS. 


him  to  live  was  Christ.  See  J.  L.  Pokteu  :  Ufv 
and  Times  of  Henry  Cooke,  D.D.  LL.D.,  London, 
1871,  new  edition,  Belfast,  1S75. 

COOKMAN,  George  Grimston,  b.  in  Kingston- 
upon-Hull,  Yorkshire,  Eng.,  Oct.  21,  1800;  lost 
at  sea  in  the  steamship  President,  March,  1841. 
He  became  a  Methodist  preacher  in  1823,  and  in 
1825  settled  in  America,  first  in  Philadelphia, 
and  became  an  itinerant  preacher,  although  liis 
purpose  in  leaving  England  was  to  convert  the 
negroes.  From  the  first  year  of  his  ministry  he 
took  a  commanding  position.  His  speech  at  a 
meeting  of  the  Young  Men's  Bible  Society  in 
New  Brunswick,  N.J.,  in  the  j-ear  1828,  was  one 
of  his  earliest  platform  addresses,  but  innnedi- 
ately  established  his  reputation  as  a  first-class 
orator.  He  served  upon  various  circuits.  In  the 
spring  of  1838  was  sent  to  Washington,  and  in 
the  winter  was  elected  chaplain  of  the  United- 
States  Congress.  Here  he  won  fresh  laurels,  and 
not  only  human  plaudits,  but  the  approval  of  his 
conscience ;  for  he  did  not  shun  to  declare  the 
whole  counsel  of  God.  In  the  spring  of  1811  the 
expiration  of  that  Congress  terminated  his  chap- 
laincy. He  then  determined  to  revisit  England. 
He  was  made  a  fraternal  delegate  to  represent 
the  American  Bible  Society  at  the  anniversary 
of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  and 
bearer  of  tlie  first  despatches  to  the  British  Gov- 
ernment from  the  incoming  administration  of 
Gen.  Harrison.  He  preached  a  farewell  sermon 
in  the  Capitol,  —  one  of  the  greatest  oratorical 
triumphs  of  his  life.  He  sailed  from  New  York 
March  11,  and  was  never  heard  of  more.  He 
wrote  no  books ;  and  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  sermons  and  a  volume  of  Speeches  (N.Y., 
1841),  there  are  no  pulilished  products  of  his 
genius.  —  Gookman,  Alfred,  son  of  the  preceding, 
b.  at  Columbia,  I'enn.,  Jan.  4,  1828;  d.  in  New- 
ark, N.J.,  Nov.  13,  1871.  He  was  licensed  as  an 
exhorter  in  the  Jlethodist-Episcopal  Church  in 
Baltimore,  Nov.  1,  1845.  He  held  various  ap- 
pointments in  connection  with  different  confer- 
ences, and  lived  the  life  of  a  popular  and  beloved 
Methodist  minister,  carrying  on  his  work  in 
church  and  chapel,  camp-meeting  and  private, 
going  from  place  to  place,  and  everyw'here  doing 
that  blessed  work  whose  record  is  on  high.  He 
left  no  publications  of  importance.  See  H.  B. 
RiDGAWAY :  The  Life  of  the  Rer.  Alfred  Cook- 
man,  with  some  Account  of  his  Father,  the  Ilev. 
George  Grimston  Cooknmn,  N.Y.,  1873. 

COPE  (Latin  capa),  a  long  cloak  reaching  from 
the  neck  to  the  heels,  open  in  front,  but  fastened 
at  the  top  by  a  clasp;  was  known  in  antiquity  as 
one  of  the  most  common  fashions  of  overcoat, 
then  adopted  as  an  ecclesiastical  vestment,  and 
worn,  until  quite  recently,  in  the  English  Church, 
by  bishops  in  Parliament,  by  canons  at  corona- 
tions, and  on  other  simihir  occasions. 

COPLESTON,  Edward,  an  English  prelate;  b. 
at  Offwell,  Devonshire,  Feb.  2, 1770;  d.  near  Chep- 
stow, Oct.  14,  184!).  He  was  elected  a  fellow  of 
Oriel  College,  Oxford  (1795),  and  in  1802  appomt- 
ed  professor  of  poetry.  In  1813  he  published 
the  substance  of  his  famous  lectures  under  title 
Prelectiones  Academicce.  In  1814  Provost  of  Oriel 
College,  he  became  in  1826  Dean  of  Cliester,  and 
took  the  degTee  of  D.D.  by  diploma,  and  in  1828 
Bishop  of  Llandaff,  and  I)ean  of  St.  I'aul's.    He 


published,  besides  articles,  several  important  theo- 
logical works,  of  which  the  best  is  Emjuiry  into 
the  Doctrines  of  Necessity  and  Predestination,  Lon- 
don, 1821.  Dr.  AVhateley  edited  his  Jiemains  with 
Reminiscences  of  las  Life.  See,  also,  W.  J.  Coi'Lks- 
To.\  :  Memoirs  of  E.  Coj/leston,  with  Selections  from 
his  Diary  and  Correspomlence,  J^omlon,  1851. 

COPPING  (Coppin,  Copyn),  John,  a  martyr  of 
Congregationalism,  a  layman  of  liury  Saint  Ed- 
nniiuls,  who  was  hanged  on  Friday,  .June  5,  1;".83, 
for  "dispersing  of  Brovvnes  (Robert)  bookes  and 
Harrisons  bookes."  In  1570  he  was  eonjmitted 
at  Bury  by  IIk;  connnissary  of  the  bishop  for  dis- 
obedience to  the  ecclesiastical  laws,  and  was  im- 
prisoned in  all  seven  years,  although  not  very 
strictly.  In  August,  1578,  a  cliild  was  born  to  him  ; 
and,  because  there  was  no  minister  in  the  place 
who  "could  make  a  sermon,"  he  refused  it  baptism 
for  four  months.  This  action  aggravated  his 
case.  During  his  long  imprisonment  he  and  his 
fellow-prisoner,  I'luicker.  found  means  of  circulat- 
ing Browne's  books  against  the  (.'hurch  of  Eng- 
land ;  and  for  this  offence  they  were  both  hanged. 
See  DexteU  :  Coin/reqalionalism,  us  seen  in  its 
Literature,  N.Y.,  1880  (pii.  208-210). 

COPTS  AND  THE  COPTIC  CHURCH.  Egjpt 
Projier,  that  is  the  Valley  of  the  Nile  from  tlie 
sea  up  to  Assuan,  contains  at  present  a  jiopula- 
tion  of  about  five  millions  and  a  qiuirter,  of 
which  the  five  millions  are  Mohammedans,  and 
the  rest  Christians.  Of  the  Christians,  by  far  the 
greatest  and  most  interesting  portion  belongs  to 
the  Coptic  Cliurch,  a  native  institution  of  the 
country  ;  while  a  minor  portion  belongs  to  various 
foreign  churches. 

Ethnographically  speaking,  the  Copts  have  de- 
scended directly  from  the  old  Egyptian  population, 
so  far  as  this  was  a  juire  and  unmixed  race  at  the 
time  when  Christianity  was  introduced  in  the 
country,  during  the  Koman  and  Byzantine  rule. 
While  the  mass  of  the  people,  after  embracing 
Islam,  suffered  a  considerable  influx  of  Arabian 
blood,  the  Copts  kept  pure  their  blood  as  well  as 
their  creed.  Their  very  name  pi'oves  their  direct 
connection  with  antiquity.  The  word  "  Copt "  is 
not  derived  from  Coptos,  a  city  in  L'jiper  Egj-pt, 
whither  the  Egyptian  Christians  are  said  to  have 
sought  refuge  during  a  persecution,  nor  from 
Jacobites,  the  sectarian  name  of  the  comnmnity, 
but  from  'Aijin-Tiof,  of  which  it  is  an  ablireviation 
or  corruption.  When  the  Arabs  conquered  Eg^^^pt, 
Greek  was  the  language  spoken  in  the  country ; 
and  "Ghubt"  or  "Ghibt"is  still  the  name  by 
which  the  Arabian  tongue  designates  those  among 
the  natives  who  kept  aloof  from  the  conquerors, 
and  strove  to  preserve  intact  their  religion  and 
their  nationality.  A  still  stronger  evidence  of 
this  connection  is  the  Coptic  language,  essentially 
the  same  as  the  old  Egyptian  tong-ue,  and,  for  this 
very  reason,  of  the  greatest  philological  and  liis- 
torical  interest.  It  is  not  spoken  any  more.  In 
popular  life,  private  as  well  as  public,  it  has  been 
completely  superseded  by  the  .\rabic  tongue  ;  but 
it  is  still" used  in  divine  service,  studied  bj^  the 
priests,  and  taught  in  the  schools.  It  is  written 
with  Greek  letters;  and  only  in  a  few  cases,  i:i 
which  the  Greek  aljihabet  liad  no  sign  for  tl.a 
Egyptian  articulation,  the  old  Demotic  characters 
have  been  retained.  The  tj-pical  character,  finally, 
and  certain   usages  and  customs,  point  directly 


COPTS. 


554 


COPTS. 


towards  old  Egj"pt.  Circumcision,  for  instance, 
performed  together  with  baptism,  and  total  absti- 
nence from  pork,  are  peculiarities  which  the  Copts 
hardly  have  adopted  from  the  hated  Moslems. 

With  respect  to  religious  and  ecclesiastical  rela- 
tions, the  present  Coptic  Church  is  a  continuation 
of  the  old  Monophysitic  Church  of  Egji^t.  By 
the  zeal  of  the  Syrian  monk  Jacob-el-Baradai 
(whence  the  sect  name,  Jacobites),  Monophysitism 
spread  to  such  an  extent  in  Egypt  that  nearly 
the  whole  population  adopted  it ;  and  neither  the 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451),  con- 
demning its  doctrines,  nor  the  edicts  of  the  em- 
peror, were  able  to  eradicate  it.  The  party  of 
the  Orthodox  Church  were  called  "  Melechites ; " 
that  is,  royalists,  because  they  were  supported  by 
the  state,  by  the  emperor.  The  party  was  very 
small ;  but  it  comprised  the  officials,  it  commanded 
the  troops,  it  had  the  power.  Between  the  two 
parties,  bloody  contests  arose,  in  which  not  only 
the  populace  partook,  but  also  the  swarms  of 
fanatical  and  pugnacious  monks  and  hermits 
which  covered  the  neighborhood  of  Alexandria 
and  the  deserts  on  both  sides  of  the  Nile  Valley. 
The  steadily  repeated  attempts  of  suppression 
from  the  side  of  the  Byzantine  Government  pro- 
duced a  steadily  increased  exasperation  among 
the  Egpytian  Christians ;  and  the  result  was,  that 
the  latter  actually  hailed  the  Arabs  (in  638)  as 
liberators.  Xot  only  they  made  no  resistance 
against  the  invaders,  but  they  actually  aided  them 
ia  driving  out  the  Imperialists,  and  in  taking 
Ijossession  of  the  country.  In  recognition  of  their 
services,  they  w-ere  at  first  treated  with  mildness 
and  regard  by  the  conqueroi'S,  and  many  privi- 
leges were  granted  to  them.  But  by  degrees,  as 
the  proselytizing  zeal  of  the  ISIosIems  came  into 
active  play,  and  large  portions  of  the  Christians 
proved  willing  to  abandon  their  faith,  persecu- 
tions were  instituted  against  the  stubborn  ones, 
and  tiie  Coptic  Church  has  suffered  much  from 
the  intolerance  and  fanaticism  of  Islam. 

The  Copts  form  at  present  nowhere  in  Egypt  a 
compact  population.  They  are  scattered  all  over 
the  country,  mostly  in  small  communities.  They 
are  most  strongly  rejiresented  in  Fayflm  (the 
famous  oasis  in  Middle  Egypt)  and  in  Cairo, 
where  the  connnunity  numbers  about  ten  thou- 
sand souls.  Their  total  number  is  about  two 
huiulred  thousand.  But,  in  spite  of  its  circum- 
.scribed  dimensions,  the  Coptic  Church  lias  a  very 
elaborately  articulated  hierarchy  and  a  numerous 
clergy.  At  tiie  head  stands  the  I'atriarch,  who, 
like  all  the  higher  dignitaries,  is  taken  from 
among  the  monks.  He  resides  in  C'aii'o,  but  is 
still  styled  "  Mutran-el-Iscanderijeh  "  (Metropo- 
lite  of  Alexandria),  and  regarded  as  tlie  successor 
of  St.  iSIark.  Next  to  the;  I'atriarch  ranks  the 
ubunn  of  the  .Vbyssinian  Church,  residing  at  C!on- 
dar;  then  follow  the  liishops,  of  whom  there  are 
no  less  than  twelve;  then  the  lower  clergy,  arch- 
priests,  priests,  and  deacons;  and  finally  the  in- 
mates ot  tlio  monasteries,  monks  and  nuns,  whose 
rules  are  said  to  be  very  strict.  There  are  quite 
a  number  of  monasteries,  and  some  of  them 
date  back  to  the  first  Christian  centuries.  One  of 
the  most  prominent  among  them  is  that  of  St. 
.Vnthony,  aituate<l  in  the  Eastern  JJesert.  The 
I'atriarch  is  always  tak<;n  from  among  its  nioidis. 
Celibacy  ia  common   among   the   clergy,  though 


not  universal.  In  the  Coptic,  as  in  other  Oriental 
churches,  marriage  is  forbidden  only  to  the  regular 
clergy  and  to  the  higher  grades  of  the  secular 
clergy.  GeneraUy  the  clergy  is  much  revered  by 
the  people ;  though  the  stand-point  it  actually 
occupies,  spiritually  and  niorall}',  does  not  com- 
mand respect.  Of  theological  education  very  little 
is  found,  even  among  tlie  highest  dignitaries. 
The  priests  know  generally  uotiung  of  the  Bible 
but  the  Ctospels  and  a  few  Psalms :  they  can  read 
Coptic,  but  they  cannot  understand  it.  Unfortu- 
nately their  morals  are  not  better  than  their 
theology.  They  are  avaricious,  and  full  of  swin- 
dling and  lying.  As  they  are  poor,  and  without 
any  fixed  pay  of  any  kind,  the  most  make  their 
living  by  begging,  and  shifts  of  all  kinds.  But 
the  worst  of  all  is,  they  drink.  Drunkenness  is 
the  besetting  sin  of  the  Coptic  Church  :  head  and 
members  drink  raki  together,  and  even  the  church 
festivals  are  often  disgraced  by  frightful  out- 
bursts of  this  vice. 

The  church-buildings  are  generally  miserable, 
dirty,  and  out  of  repair.  Only  in  Cairo  and 
Alexandria  are  there  large  and  comely  churches : 
that  of  Alexandria  was  built  in  1871.  The 
Church  of  jSIary,  however,  at  Old  Cairo,  is  no- 
ticeable; as  it  dates  from  the  sixth  century,  and 
is  the  oldest  Christian  church  in  Eg\-j:it.  It  is 
built  over  a  grotto,  in  which  JIary  is  said  to  have 
lived  wdth  the  infant  Jesus  dm-ing  her  stay  in 
Egypt.  The  interior  of  the  churches  is  generally 
divided  uito  several  parts.  The  Holiest  of  the 
Holy  contains  the  altar,  but  is  entirely  concealed 
from  the  eyes  of  the  congi-egation.  In  the  Holy 
the  priests  otficiate.  In  the  room  occupied  by  the 
congregation  a  place  is  set  apart  for  the  women. 
As  the  building  is,  so  is  the  service,  —  mean,  mo- 
notonous, unimpressive,  and  without  dignity.  It 
consists  mostly  of  recitation  of  passages  from  the 
Bible  or  the  Liturgy,  in  the  Coptic  or  in  the  Arab 
language ;  no  preaching,  or,  at  all  events,  very 
seldom.  Still  the  service  is  very  long,  beginning 
at  daybreak,  and  ending  with  a  kind  of  agape 
[and,  as  the  custom  is  to  stand,  all  are  supplied 
with  crutches  of  the  proper  height  to  lean  upon]. 
Again :  as  the  service  in  the  church,  so  the  life  in 
the  congregation,  —  dull,  dead,  a  mere  routme. 
Fasting,  and  prayers  to  the  virgin  and  the  saints, 
are  considered  essential  features  of  piety.  Of 
late,  however,  European  and  .\mericau  missiona- 
ries have  brought  some  life  into  this  inert  mass. 
The  first  attempt  was  made  by  the  English  Church 
Missionary  Society  (1825),  and  with  marked  suc- 
cess. In  1855  the  L'nited  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Nortli  .\nierica  entered  the  field;  and  in  1875 
it  founded  at  Sint  a  pi'oniising'  seminary  for  the 
education  of  young  Co]>tic  preachers.  The  St. 
Chrischona  Society  at  Basel  began  in  1861  the 
foundation  of  several  missionary  stations  in  con- 
nection with  their  mission  in  Abyssinia;  but  the 
uiulertaking  was  abandoned  in  1872.  For  the 
Coptic  Version,  see  Bini.K  Vkusions. 

Lit.  —  Makhizivs:  Jlisloria  Coptorum,  trans- 
lated from  the  Arab  into  Latin,  by  II.  I.  Wetzer, 
1828;  Ei>.  AV.  Lamc:  T/ie  Modern  Ju/i/plians, 
London,  1800;  M.  LUttkb:  yEr/i/plciis  Neue  Zeil, 
Leipzig,  2  vols. ;  [C.  Abki,  :  Koplische  Utitersueh- 
uitijen,  Berlin,  1870-77;  H.  Bnuiiscn-BKY :  Der 
Baudes  Tinnpeh  Stilomc's  nach  der  koptinchen  Bibel- 
versiov,  Leipzig,  1870  (-55  pp.);  E.  Uevillout  : 


COQUERBL. 


555 


CORDOVA. 


Aporrijphes  copies  ilu  Nouveau  Tealament,  Paris, 
187G ;  P.  DF.  Lagarde  :  Bruchslilcle  der  koptis- 
che.n  Uehersetzung  cles  Allen  Texlatnenls,  in  his 
Orienlalia,  Gottingen,  1870;  E.  IIkvii.lout  :  Le 
concile  de  Nicee  d'aprls  tcs  texles  copies  et  les  di- 
verses  collections  canoniques,  Paris,  1881;  A.  J. 
Butlek:  Ancient  Coptic  Churches  of  Ju/ypt,  Lon- 
don, 1884,  2  vols.  M.   LllTTKE. 

COQUEREL.Athanase  Laurent  Charles,Fr(Mich 

Protestant  lilioral  theologian  ;  li.  at  Paris,  Aug.  25, 
1795  ;  d.  there  .fan.  'J,  1S(J8.  Tie  studicil  theology 
at  the  Protestant  seminary  of  Montanlian,  and 
was  ordained  1816,  an<l  from  1817  to  1832  was 
pastor  of  the  French  church  at  Amsterdam.  In 
1832,  on  the  invitation  of  Baron  C'uvier,  he  came 
to  I'aris  to  be  colleague  to  Marron.  He  was  very 
outspoken  on  behalf  of  Protestant  liberalism,  and 
founded  successively  tlie  journals,  Le  Prolcstant 
(1831),  Le  Libre  Examen  (183-1),  and  Le  Lien 
(1841),  for  the  atlvooacy  of  his  opinions.  By 
the  latter  he  labored  to  unite  the  factions  of 
Frencli  Protestantism.  He  was  also  a  member  of 
the  Consistory  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  (in  reward 
for  his  vigorous  defence  of  the  Laiiversity  of 
Paris),  and  of  the  National  Assembly  of  1848,  and 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly;  but  after  the  coup 
d'etat  of  Dec.  2,  1851,  he  confined  himself  exclu- 
sively to  professional  duties.  "  His  last  days  were 
saddened  by  the  predoiiunance  of  Orthodoxy  in 
the  French  Protestant  Church."  He  was  an  elo- 
quent preacher,  a  prolific  writer,  and  a  popular 
speaker.  Eight  volumes  of  his  .sermons  were 
published  between  1819  and  1852.  He  wrote,  be- 
sides. Biographic  sacree  (1825-26),  Hisloirc  sainte 
et  analyse  de  la  Bible  (1839),  Orthodoxie  moderne 
(1842),  Christologie  (1858).  These  and  other  of 
his  works  have  been  widely  circulated  at  home, 
and  translated  into  English,  Dutch,  and  German. 

COQUEREL,  Athanase  Josue',  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding; b.  at  Amsterdam,  June  10,  1820;  d.  at 
Fismes  (Marne),  July  24,  1875.  He  was  an  even 
more  pronounced  liberal  than  his  father,  whom 
he  succeeded  as  editor  of  Le  Lien  in  1849,  and 
kept  the  position  until  1870.  In  1852  he  joined 
in  founding  the  Historical  Socieli/  of  French  Prot- 
estantism ;  in  1858  published,  beside  others,  his 
remarkable  Jean  Calas  et  sa  famille ;  Libres  etudes ; 
and  La  conscience  et  la  foi  (1867).  Among  his 
translated  works  is  Fii-st  Historical  Transforma- 
tions of  Christianity,  Boston,  1867. 

CORAM.     See  Mohammed. 

CORBAN  (Old  Testament  t31.p,  "offering," 
iupov,  oblalio ;  in  New  Testament,  KopfJuv;  Vulgate 
explains  by  donum).  The  word  occurs  very  fre- 
quently in  the  Hebrew  text  of  Leviticus  and  Num- 
bers, but  only  in  those  books  in  the  Old  Testament, 
and  once  in  the  New  Testament  (Mark  vii.  11). 
It  means  "  an  offering  to  God,  of  any  sort,  bloody 
or  bloodless,  but  particularly  in  fulfilment  of  a 
vow."  The  teaching  of  the  scribes,  which  our 
Lord  so  vigorously  repudiated,  was,  that  a  son 
might  say  to  his  parents,  in  respect  to  any  thing 
they  might  require,  "  It  is  corban  [i.e.,  devoted] 
that  whatever  of  mine  thou  mightst  have  been 
profited  by  me,"  and  henceforth  be  free  from  all 
claim  upon  him  for  their  sujiport.  Or,  according 
to  Luther's  paraphrastic  note,  "  Corban  means  an 
offering;  and  it  was  as  much  as  to  say,  'Dear 
father,  I  would  willingly  give  it  to  thee ;  but  it  is 
corban :  I  count  it  better  to  give  it  to  God  than 


to  thee,  and  it  will  help  thee  better.'"  Josephu.s 
relates  that  Pilate  spent  the  money  which  was 
corban,  and  as  such  dejKjsited  in  the  temple,  upon 
aipmducts  {War,  If.  9,  4).  Matthew  u.ses  the  word 
KopjSavai  (Matt,  xxvii.  (>)  to  indicate  the  trea-sur}'. 
It  was  in  the  court  of  the  women,  where  stood 
thirteen  clicsts,  called  "  trumpets "  from  their 
form,  to  receive  the  money  offered  in  tlie  t<'mple. 

CORBINIAN,  whosf!  true  name  was  Waldekiso, 
was  licirn  al  Charlrettes,  near  Mehm,  in  France, 
towards  the  close  of  the  seventh  century,  and  died 
as  Bisho])  of  Freising,  in  Upyier  Bavaria,  Sept.  8, 
730.  II(!  was  one  ot  those  Franks  wlio  labored 
in  the  service  of  the  Prankish  major  ilomus  for  the 
establishment  among  the  Germans  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal order  and  authority,  and  may  bo  considered 
as  precursors  of  St.  Boldface.  They  generally 
labored  under  the  sanction  of  the  Pope,  and  must 
be  distinguished  from  the  Iro-Scottish  missiona- 
ries; but  the  result  of  their  labor  was  so  insig- 
nificant, that  St.  Boniface  and  the  popes  completely 
disregarded  them.  The  life  ot  Corbinian  has 
been  written  by  Aribo,  his  fourth  successor  in  the 
Episcopal  see  of  Freising,  and  is  found  in  Act. 
Sand.  (BollantI)  Sept.,  III.  p.  281  ;  Butler  :  Lives 
of  the  Saints,  II.  p.  434. 

CORDELIERS,  anamegenerallygiven  in  France 
to  the  Franciscan  monks,  because  they  wear  a  rope 
tied  aroimd  the  waist.  According  to  tradition,  it 
originated  during  the  wars  between  Louis  IX. 
and  the  Saracens,  in  the  following  manner :  the 
king,  seeing  the  monks  pursuing  the  enemy,  asked 
who  they  were,  and  was  answered  that  they  were 
the  men  corde  lie's. 

CORDOVA,  the  Corduba  of  the  ancients,  appears 
twice  in  the  history  of  the  Chm-ch  as  the  source 
of  a  remarkable  influence,  —  first,  in  the  middle 
of  the  ninth  century,  when  it  was  the  meeting- 
place  of  one  of  the  most  fanious  synods  ever  held 
ill  Spain,  and  next,  during  the  period  between 
the  tenth  and  the  thirteenth  centuries,  when  it 
was  the  seat  of  one  of  the  most  celebrated  schools 
in  Europe. 

The  Synod  of  Cordova  was  convened  in  852, 
on  the  instance  of  the  Caliph  Abderrhaman  II. 
Many  Christians,  especially  monks,  impelled  by 
fanaticism,  and  a  mistaken  idea  of  the  merit  of 
martyrdom,  studiously  provoked  the  !Mohanime- 
dans  among  whom  they  lived,  simply  in  order  to 
stir  up  persecution,  and  win  the  martyr's  crown. 
A  majority  of  the  synod,  among  which  were 
Bishop  Hostegis  of  Malaga,  and  Bishop  Recafrid 
of  Sevilla,  carried  a  decree  forbidding  this  kind 
of  voluntary  martyrdom  ;  but  a  minority  —  among 
which  were  the  presbyter  Samson,  author  of  an 
Apologeticus  contra  Hostegisum,  the  monk  Alvarus, 
author  of  a  Vita  S.  Eulogii,  and  Eulogius  himself 
—  protested  ;  and  practically  the  minority  retained 
the  field.  The  synod  was  styled  the  impium  con- 
ciiiabalum,  its  acts  were  destroyed,  and  we  know 
its  proceedings  only  from  the  works  of  Eulogius. 
See  Aguirre  :  Collectio  Conciliorum  Omnium  His- 
paniee,  Rome,  1693,  III.  149  j_  W.  Baudissix: 
Eidogius  nnd  Alvar,  Leipzig,  1872. 

The  School  of  Cordova  was  founded  in  980  by 
the  Caliph  Ilakem  II.  Before  that  tune,  both 
theology  and  jurisprudence  had  been  cultivated  in 
Cordova  by  tamous  teachers;  but,  by  Hakeni's 
energy  and  support,  chairs  were  erected  also  for 
other  branches  of  learning,  teachers  were  invited, 


CORINTH. 


556 


CORPUS  CHRISTI. 


and  a  complete  university  began  to  flourish.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  centurj-  this  institu- 
tion had  a  library  of  about  six  hundred  thousand 
books,  and  the  best  astronomical  observatory  in 
the  world ;  and  it  was  renowned  as  the  centre  of 
the  study  of  astronomy,  mathematics,  medicine, 
and  philosophy.  A  little  later  it  became  the  prin- 
cipal seat  of  the  Arabian  study  of  Ai-Lstotle ; 
and  thus  it  became  a  mediator  between  the  an- 
tique philosophy  and  the  medireval  speculation. 
Its  most  famous  teacher  was  Averroes,  and  his 
most  famous  pupil  was  Maimonides.  See  Jour- 
dain:  Reckerches  critiques  sur  .  .  .  traductions 
lateinsd'Arislote,7a.r\?.,\8Vi;'E.  Rex.\x  :  Ai-crrocs 
et  I' Averroisme,  2d  ed.,  Paris,  1861;  Lasinio  : 
Studii  soprn  Aicrro'e,  Florence,  187-5;  and  in  gen- 
eral II.  JIiDDF.LDORPi" :  De  Inslitutis  Literariis  in 
Hispnhia,  Gottingen,  1870.  ZOCKLER. 

COR'INTH,  tlie  "Star  of  IleUas,"  and  the  capi- 
tal of  Achaia,  stood  on  the  isthnms,  which, 
stretching  between  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  and  the 
Gulf  of  ^Egina,  connects  the  Peninsula  of  Jlorea 
with  the  Greek  mainland.  It  was  defended  by  a 
citadel  built  on  a  lofty  rock,  Acro-Corinth,  which 
rose  just  in  the  rear  of  the  city.  It  had  two 
harbors,  —  Cenchrea?  on  the  Gulf  of  ^Egina,  and 
Lechieum  on  the  Gulf  of  Corinth ;  and  it  com- 
manded two  very  important  commercial  routes : 
one  east  to  west,  between  Asia  IMinor  and  Italy ; 
and  one  north  to  south,  through  Macedonia  and 
Greece. 

The  old  Greek  city  —  rich,  beautiful,  the  capital 
of  the  Achaian  League,  the  arena  of  the  Isthmian 
games  —  was  totally  destroyed  by  Lucius  Mum- 
mius  (146  B.C.)  ;  and  for  a  whole  century  its  site 
lay  bare  and  desolate.  But  in  4i  B.C.,  Caesar 
settled  a  colony  of  Roman  freedmen  there,  and 
the  colony  prospered  prodigiously.  The  new  city 
■was  made  the  capital  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Acliaia.  Gallio,  the  brother  of  Seneca,  was  pro- 
consul during  Paul's  first  visit  there.  It  soon 
became  one  of  the  most  important  commercial 
places  on  the  Mediterranean  ;  but  its  character 
was  somewhat  peculiar.  It  was  not  a  Greek  city, 
nor  a  Roman  one.  Its  population  was  extremely 
heterogeneous.  A  nunierous  colony  of  Jews 
settled  there  wlien  driven  away  from  Rome  by 
Claudius,  and  among  them  were  Aquila  and 
Priscilla.  Everybody  went  to  Corintli  to  make 
money,  or  to  spend  it.  All  nations  were  repre- 
sented there ;  but  nearly  the  only  bonds  which 
held  the  inhabitants  together  were  their  connnon 
enter)>rises  and  their  common  debaucheries. 

Paul  visited  the  city  three  times,  —  first  in  53 
(Acts  xviii.  11),  theu  between  51  and  iJ7  (accord- 
ing to  1  Cor.  xvi.  7;  2  Cor.  xii.  1.3,  14,  xiii.  1), 
and  finally  in  57-58  (.Vets  xx.  2).  From  Corinth 
he  wrote  hi,s  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (Acts  xx.  2, 
3;  com]).  1  Cor.  xvi.  0;  Rom.  xvi.  1);  and  to 
the  Christians  of  Coriutli  he  wrote  two  epistles. 

CORINTHIANS,  Epistles  to  the.  See  Paul, 
Episti.is  of. 

CORNELIUS,  Bisliop  of  Rome  from  June,  2.51, 
to  Se|)t.  14,  2.52,  adopteil  a  mildiM-  view  of  the 
case  of  those  who  liad  fallen  olT  from  Die  Cliurch 
during  the  persecution  of  Dccius,  and  corre- 
sponded about  the  matter  with  Cyprian  ;  of  w-hich 
correspondfrnce  several  letters  from  each  si<le  are 
Still  extant,  and  given  among  Cyjirian's  works. 
In  Rome  itself  there  was  a  minority  which  favored 


the  severer  views  of  the  Bishop  of  Carthage ;  and 
the  head  of  this  party,  Ndvatianus,  became  the 
first  autipope. 

CORNELIUS  A  LAPIDE  (van  der  Steen),h.  at 
Boehaff,  in  the  diocese  of  Lifege,  in  1568 ;  d.  in 
Rome,  March  12,  1637  ;  was  professor  of  exegesis, 
first  at  Louvaiu,  and  afterwards  in  Rome,  and 
wrote  commentaries  on  nearly  all  the  books  of 
the  Bible.  On  account  of  the  ample  quotations 
from  the  fathers  which  they  contain,  these  com- 
mentaries enjoyed  great  favor  in  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Church,  and  are  still  used.  Collected 
editions  appeared  at  Antwerp,  Paris,  Lyons,  and 
Venice.  An  edition  in  20  vols.  4to  appeared  at 
Lyons  in  1872.  See  T.  W.  Mo.ssm.\n  :  The  Great 
Commentani  of  Cornelius  a  Lapide,  London,  1S81. 

CORONAtl  QUATUOR,  "the  Four  Crowned 
Brotliers,"  is  the  common  name  of  four  martyrs 
—  Severus,  Severianus,  Caipophorus,  and  ^'icto- 
rinus  —  who  suffered  martyrdom  in  Rome  during 
the  persecution  of  Diocletian.  Their  festival 
falls  on  Xov.  8.  The  old  chm-ch  built  in  their 
honor  is  mentioned  by  Gregory  the  Great.  It 
was  repaired  in  841  by  Leo  IV.,  and  rebuilt, 
after  a  conflagration,  by  Paschalis  II.,  and  again 
by  Paul  V.  One  of  the  cardinal-prie.sts  takes  his 
title  from  it.  See  Butler  :  Liccs  of  the  Saints,  11. 
300. 

CORPORAL,  or  CORPORALE,  is  the  white 
linen  cloth  with  which  the  remnants  of  the  con- 
secrated elements  are  covered ;  also,  and  usually, 
the  linen  cloth,  never  decorated  in  the  Roman 
Church,  upon  which  the  Eucharist  is  laid.  The 
name  and  texture  are  derived  from  the  story  of 
the  wrapping  of  our  Lord's  dead  body  (Luke 
xxiii.  53).  Originally  it  was  large  enough  to 
cover  tlie  altar. 

CORPUS  CATHOLICORUM  denotes  the  Ro- 
man-Catliolic  states  uf  (IrruKiny  so  far  as  they 
were  united  into  one  body,  and  acted  as  such  in 
their  relations  with  the  Protestant  states,  —  the 
Corpus  Eranr/elicorum.  The  thing  existed  long 
before  the  name.  As  early  as  the  Diet  of  Spires 
(1529)  and  the  Peace  of  Nuremberg  (1532),  traces 
of  such  a  union  are  apparent  from  the  unanimity 
witli  which  the  members  act ;  and  at  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  Peace  of  AVe.stphalia  (1648),  the  unity 
is  completely  constituted :  it  has  its  representa- 
tives and  its  organs.  The  name  was  still  avoided, 
however.  Tlie  Roman-Catholic  Ch\n'cli  could  not 
and  would  not  otlicially  recognize  a  body  whose 
rights  and  liberties  might  prove  so  niatiy  limits  to 
her  own  authority;  and  with  respect  to  the  Peace  of 
Westphalia,  whicli  arranged  the  relations  between 
the  Roman-Catholic  and  the  Protestant  states  of 
the  empire  as  between  two  bodies,  the  Pope  never 
gave  his  sanction.  Nevertheless,  towards  the  cipse 
of  the  seventeenth  century  the  name  came  into 
general  >ise,  and  was  employed  otliciiilly  by  the 
union  itself.  With  the  dissolution  of  the  Ger- 
man iMnjiiri'  in  1806  the  union  disajipeared.  See 
Colti'ts    l',\  ANi;l  IK  OHl'M.  SKfllEf  KKK. 

CORPUS  CHRISTI  (the  Body  of  Christ),  the 
name  of  a  festival  of  tlie  Poman-Catholic  Church 
ill  honor  of  the  transubstantiation.  It  was  in- 
stituted in  1264  bv  I'rban  IV.;  and,  after  the 
times  of  Clement  V^.,  it  became  one  of  the  most 
imposing  pageantries  of  the  Honian  Church,  the 
consecrated  host  being  carried  about  in  a  mag- 
nificent procession,  and  exhibitetl  for  adoration. 


CORPUS  DOCTRINE. 


557 


CORVEY. 


The  origin  of  this  fiwtival  was  the  vision  of  Juli- 
ana, prioress  of  the  Nunnery  of  St.  Corneli,  near 
Liege,  recorded  in  lier  Life,  in  Act.  Sand.,  April 
5.  Slie  saw  the  moon  fully  illuminated,  with 
the  exception  of  one  dark  spot,  and  was  told  that 
this  dark  spot  referred  to  the  lack  in  the  C'hui'ch 
of  a  festival  in  honor  of  the  transnlistantiation. 
See  J.  C.  Danniiaukk  :  De  festo  Corporis  Christi, 
Strassliurg,  KiO'J. 

CORPUS  DOCTRIN/E  is  the  common  name, 
wliich,  iu  llie  sixteenth  century,  tlie  Protestants 
applied  to  certain  colUnitions  of  doctrinal  treatises 
made  for  the  purj)ose  of  forming  an  authorized 
and  normative  representation  of  a  certain  ty]ie  of 
faith,  or  of  a  certain  individual  church.  The  first 
oi  these  collections  —  the  so-called  Corpus  Doclrirue 
Philippicum,  or  Misnicion,  afterwai'ds  Corpus  Doc- 
trinm  Chrisliance — was  pulilished  at  Leipzig  in 
1560,  and  consisted  of  all  the  principal  doctrinal 
and  confessional  writings  of  Melanchthon,  —  the 
Confi'.isio  Auf/u.^lnna,  Apologia,  Confessio  Saxonice, 
Loci  Theolofjici,  Examcn  Ordinandorum,  Kesponsio 
ad  Articulos  Baoaricm  Inquisitionis,  together  with 
the  Refutatio  Serrcli.  It  was  issued  first  in  a 
German  edition,  and  shortly  after  also  in  a  Latin, 
and  was  accepted  by  Saxony  and  other  evangeli- 
cal countries ;  not  witliout  opposition,  though.  It 
represented  exclusively  the  influence  of  Melanch- 
thon ;  and  since  the  adiaphoristic  controversy  a 
sharp  distinction  had  been  drawn  between  his 
stand-point  and  orthodox  Lutherdom.  In  tlie 
very  same  year  tlie  Corpus  Doctrince  Christiana: 
was  publislied,  appeared  the  Corpus  Doctrince  of 
the  City  of  Hamburg,  consisting  of  five  confes- 
sional declarations,  issued  since  1548  liy  the  clergy 
of  Hamburg.  It  was  strongly  Lutheran  in  its 
character ;  and  still  more  strongly  so  was  the  Cor- 
pus Doctrince  of  the  City  of  Brunswick,  which 
appeared  in  1563,  and  consisted  of  the  Ecclesias- 
tical Ordinance  of  the  City  of  Brunswick  by  I. 
Bugenhagen,  the  Confessio  Aur/ustana,  the  Apolo- 
gy, the  Articles  of  Smalcald,  and  the  Articles  of 
Liineburg.  A  remarkable  specimen  of  these  col- 
lections is  the  Corpus  Pomeranicum,  made  in  1561. 
Up  to  that  date,  the  Corpus  Doctrince  Chrisliance 
had  been  accepted  as  the  authorized  representa- 
tion of  the  Pomeranian  Church;  but  an  addi- 
tion was  now  made  of  the  Greater  and  Lesser 
Catechisms  of  Luther,  the  Articles  of  Smalcald, 
and  some  minor  treatises  of  Luther,  by  which 
addition  the  exclusively  Melanchthonian  tendency 
of  the  Corpus  was  thought  to  be  duly  counterbal- 
anced. All  these  Corpora  Doctrince  —  and  many 
more  might  be  mentioned,  as,  for  instance,  the 
Corpus  Pratenicum,  Corpus  Thurinr/icum,  Corpus 
Brandenburijicum,  etc.  —  lost  tlieir  importance 
when  the  Formula  Concordia:  was  ]iroduced,  and 
accepted  as  the  common  Corpus  Doctrince  of  the 
whole  Lutheran  Church. 

Lit.  —  Fenerlinus  :  Bibliotheca  Symholica 
Evangetica Lutherana,  Baumgarten:  Erlduterun- 
gen  der  im  christlichen  Concordienbuch  enthaltenen 
symbol ischen  Schriften ;  IIeppe  :  Die  Entstehung 
und  Fortbildunq  d'cs  Lutherthums.  HEPPE. 

CORPUS  EVANGELICORUM,  also  called  Cor- 
pus Sociorum  Augustance  Confessionis,  denotes  the 
imion  into  one  body  of  all  the  Protestant  states  of 
Germany.  From  the  earliest  days  of  the  Refor- 
mation, various  Protestant  princes  had  tried  to 
unite  all  the  Protestant  states  into  a  permanent 


confederacy,  or,  at  least,  to  establish  a  regular 
"correspondence"  between  them.  In  the  diets  it 
often  proved  necessary  to  treat  the  interests  ot 
an  individual  state  as  a  common  Protestant  inter- 
est; and,  as  the  Koman-Catholic  states  from  the 
very  first  appeared  and  acted  as  a  unit,  both 
parties  gradually  came  into  the  habit  to  treat  with 
each  other  dc  corpore  ad  corpwi.  Its  coinj)lete  con- 
stitution, however,  the  Corpus  Eiangclicoruiu  did 
not  obtain  until  July  22,  Hio-i,  when  it  was  organ- 
ized under  the  leadership  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony. 
All  Protestant  interests,  general  and  special,  were 
placed  under  its  authority,  and  it  corresponded 
indejieiulently  w  ilh  the  emperor  and  with  the  .sepa- 
rate states,  and  even  with  foreign  powers.  When, 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the 
electoral  house  of  Saxony  was  converted  to  Ko- 
manism,  the  Corjnis  Ecnngelirurum  came  unMer  the 
leader.ship  of  a  Pionuin-Catholic  prince ;  but  the 
danger  of  throwing  the  country  out  of  the  alli- 
ance, together  witli  its  ruler,  determined  the 
union  to  bear  witli  this  singular  anomaly.  With 
the  dissolution  of  the  German  Eniiiire  tfie  Corpus 
Ecangelicorum  also  dissolved.  See  11.  W.  v. 
BuLOW  :  i'eber  Gcschiclilc  und  Verfassuitq  des 
C.  E.,  Regensburg,  1795 ;  [A.  Frantz  :  Das  Katho- 
lischen  Directorium  des  Corpus  Evangclicorum,  Mar- 
burg, 1880.]  HEPPE. 
CORRESPONDENCES.     .See   Swede.nhorgi- 

ANISM. 

CORRODI,  Heinrich.b.  at  Zurich,  July -SI,  1752, 

d.  there  Sept.  14,  1793  ;  studied  theolog\-  in  Ilalle, 
under  Sender,  and  was  in  1786  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  morals  and  natural  law  in  the  gj-mna- 
sium  of  his  native  city.  He  was  considered  one 
of  the  great  lights  of  the  rationalism  of  his  age; 
but  his  works,  Geschichte  des  Chiliasmus  (1781), 
Geschichte  des  jiidischcn  vnd  christlichen  Bibelka- 
nons  (1792),  Beitrdge  zur  Beforderung  des  verniinf- 
ligen  Denkens  in  der  Religion  (1780-93),  have  had 
no  influence,  and  are  now  of  no  interest. 

CORVEY,  the  famous  AVestphalian  abbey,  the 
centre  of  the  Saxon  and  Scandinavian  mission, 
and  for  a  long  period  the  principal  seat  of  learn- 
ing among  the  Germans,  was  a  colony  from  the 
Monastery  of  Corbie,  in  the  diocese  of  Amiens. 
The  subjugation  of  the  Saxons  by  Charlemagne, 
the  slow  progress  of  Christianity  among  them, 
and,  more  especially,  the  education  of  a  number 
of  young  Saxons  in  Corbie,  finally  rijiened  the 
idea  with  Abbot  Adalhard  of  sending  out  some 
of  his  older  monks  to  make  a  permanent  settle- 
ment in  Saxony.  The  first  attempt  was  made 
in  815 ;  and  the  place  chosen  was  Sollinge,  near 
the  present  city  of  Uslar.  But  the  locality  was 
too  unfavorable ;  and,  after  seven  years  of  hard 
labor  and  vain  exertions,  the  settlement  had  to 
be  moved  to  the  imperial  villa  of  Hyxori,  the 
present  Hbxter,  on  the  bank  of  the  Weser.  Here 
it  thrived  prodigiously  under  the  name  of  Corbeja 
Nova,  or  New  Cors'ey,  in  contradistinction  from 
Corbeja  Aurea,  or  'Vetus,  the  mother-convent. 
During  the  lifetime  of  Adalhard  it  remained 
united  to  Corbie  under  the  same  abbot ;  but  after 
his  death  it  obtained  its  own  abbot,  Varinus, 
and,  after  the  lapse  of  a  short  time,  it  completely 
outshone  the  old  place.  Louis  the  Pious  endowed 
it  with  Iloxter,  Eresburg,  and  Meppen,  and  gave 
it  the  right  of  coining  money,  besides  many  other 
privileges.     Count  Gerolt  bequeathed  to  it  all  his 


CORVINUS. 


558 


COSSIT. 


estates  in  851.  The  transference  of  the  rentains 
of  the  martjT  Vitus  from  the  Abbey  of  St.  Denis, 
in  836,  contributed  still  more  to  tlie  material 
prosperity  of  the  young  institution,  as  the  Saxons 
believed  that  the  possession  of  these  relics  woidd 
secure  them  good  luck  and  the  ascendency  over 
the  Franks.  But  the  real  reason  for  the  success 
was,  of  course,  the  energy'  and  talent  of  the  first 
settlers  and  their  immediate  pupils,  —  Ansgar, 
Rimbert,  Autbert,  Gautbert,  Nithard,  Unni,  etc., 
the  great  Scandinavian  missionaries,  and  Bruno 
of  Cologne,  Thiagrin  of  Halberstadt,  Bruno  of 
Verden,  Wegbert  of  Hildesheira,  Folkmar  of  Pa- 
derborn,  etc.,  celebrated  as  leaders  in  the  German 
Church.  As  its  missionary  activity  came  to  a 
close,  Corvey  gradually  developed  as  a  seat  of 
learning  and  an  educational  institution  of  the 
greatest  importance.  It  possessed  an  excellent 
library.  It  kept  at  one  time  twenty-four  profess- 
ors. In  its  schools  were  taught  not  only  theology 
and  languages  (Latin  and  Greek),  but  also  the 
sciences.  History  was  cultivated  with  great  suc- 
cess. The  work  of  Bovo  I.  is  lost;  but  Widu- 
kind's  history  of  Saxony  is  still  extant  (Acs  Geslce 
Saxonicce  in  Pertz  :  Mon.  iii.  pp.  -lOS-467).  But 
during  the  Thirtj'- Years'  War  it  suffered  severely. 
Its  library  and  archives  were  destroyed  or  lost ; 
its  estates  and  privileges  were  taken  away  from 
it,  and  very  little  was  restored  after  the  Peace  of 
Westphalia. 

Lit. — JoH.  Letzxer  :  Corveyische  Chromic, 
Hamb.,  1593;  C.F.  Paullixi:  Thealrum  lUusl.  Vi- 
rorum  Corbejcc  Saxonicce,  Jena,  1686  ;  JoH.  Fried. 
Falckex  :  Enlwurf  einer  Ili^lorite  Corbejensis  di- 
plomaliccE,  Brunswick,  1738 ;  and  Codex  Traditio- 
nutn  Corhejensium,  Leipzig,  17.")2  ;  P.\rL  Wigan'D  : 
Geschichte  Corceys,  IliJxter,  1819,  imfinished,  end- 
ing at  1146.  G.  H.  KLIPPEL. 

CORVINUS,  Antonius.b.  Feb.27, 1501,  at  AVar- 
burg,  near  Paderborn ;  d.  at  Hanover,  April  5, 
1553;  was  educated  in  the  Monastery  of  Loccum, 
from  which  he  was  expelled  on  account  of  his 
liolding  Lutheran  views;  studied  theology  at 
Wittenl>erg,  from  1523  to  1526 ;  was  a  preacher 
at  Goslar  from  1528  to  1531,  and  at  Witzenhausen 
from  1531  to  1511,  and  labored  during  the  last 
part  of  his  life  for  the  introduction  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  the  Duchy  of  Kalenberg-Gbttingen. 
In  1546,  however,  Duke  Erich  II.  was  converted 
to  Romanism  ;  and  on  Nov.  1,  1549,  Corvinus  was 
.seized  at  Patt<>,nsen  by  Spanish  soldiers,  and  car- 
ried to  Kalenberg,  where  he  was  imprisoned  for 
three  years.  Without  very  great  creative  power, 
he  had  a  considerable  talent  fo  rorgani/.ation  ;  aiul 
He  labored  with  faithfulness  and  patience  in  the 
cause  of  the  Reformation.  See  Bauint.  :  Lehen 
Corcinus,  Hanover,  1749;  L'uluoun  :  Ein  Scnd- 
hriefvon  Antonins  Corvinus  mil  einer hiographischen 
Einhitunfi,  Gottingen,  1853. 

COSIN,  John,  isi.sliop  of  Durham,  and  a  leader 
of  till'  AiiglD-Caiholics;  1).  at  Norwich,  Nov.  30, 
1594;  d.  in  London,. Ian.  l.'j,  l(i72.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  and  after 
ser^'ice  its  dome.stic  chaplain  to  the  Bishop  of 
Durliain,  jirebendary  of  Durham,  and  archdeacon 
of  the  East  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  was  elected 
master  of  Peterliouse,  Ciimbridge,  in  1()34.  In 
1639  he  was  made  vice-ehiiiuellor,  and  Dean  of 
Peterborougli,  lii40,  but  in  tlie  next  year  was  se- 
questered from  all  his  benefice.?,  an<i  imiwached 


for  popish  practices  by  the  House  of  Commons, 
but  dismissed  on  bail,  and  not  again  called  for. 
In  1642  he  was  concerned  in  sending  the  plate  of 
the  University  of  Cambridge  to  the  king,  and  in 
consequence  was  ejected  from  his  mastersliip.  He 
went  to  France ;  but  at  the  Restoration  he  was 
restored,  and  in  December,  1660,  raised  to  the  see 
of  Durham.  He  wa,s  distinguished  for  learning 
and  controversial  ability,  and  wrote  several  note- 
worthy books :  A  Collection  of  Private  Devotions 
in  the  Practice  of  the  Ancient  Church,  called  the 
Hours  of  Prayer,  taken  out  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
the  Ancient  Fathers,  and  the  Divine  Service  of  our 
own  Church,  London,  1627,  9th  ed.,  1693  (a  manual 
prepared  by  royal  command  for  the  use  of  the 
Queen's  maids  of  lienor)  ;  Historia  Transuhstantia- 
tionis  Papalis  (Eng.  trans..  History  of  Popish  Tran- 
substantiation,  London,  1676,  new  ed.  with  memoir 
by  J.  S.  Brewer,  1840)  ;  A  Scholastical  History  of 
the  Canon  of  Holy  Scripture,  or  the  certaine  and  iti- 
dubitale  books  thereof,  as  they  are  received  in  the 
Church  of  Enyland,  London,  1657.  These  and 
his  other  writings  are  published  in  the  Library 
of  Anylo-Catholic  Theology,  Oxford,  1843-55,  5 
vols. 

COSMAS  and  DAMIANUS,  two  brethren  from 
Arabia;  lived  in  Cilicia,  wliere  they  practised 
medicine  without  taking  any  fees,  and  were  mar- 
tyred during  the  persecution  of  Diocletian,  hav- 
ing refused  to  oifer  sacrifice  on  the  Pagan  altars. 
They  are  commemorated  by  the  Roman  Church 
on  Sept.  27,  and  were  reverenced  during  the 
middle  ages  as  the  patron  saints  of  physicians 
and  druggists.  An  order  of  spiritual  knights, 
devoting  themselves  to  take  care  of  pilgrims,  was 
instituted  in  the  eleventh  century,  and  named 
after  them,  but  met  with  no  success.  See  Act. 
Sanctor.,  .Sept.  27 ;  Butler  :  Lives  of  the  Saints, 
II.  p.  526. 

COSMAS  INDICOPLEUSTES,  an  Egyptian 
merchant,  who,  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth  ceiitur)', 
navigated  the  ^Mediterranean,  the  Red  Sea,  tlie 
Persian  Gulf,  and  even  visited  India,  whence  his 
surname.  Tired  of  the  business  of  the  world, 
he  became  a  monk,  and  wrote,  among  other  works, 
which  are  lost,  A  Christian  Topography  of  the 
World,  in  Greek  and  in  twelve  books,  which  has 
come  down  to  us,  and  is  found  in  Monte.\u^'ON  : 
Colt.  Nov.  Patr.  Orcrc,  Paris,  ]70(),  ^ol.  II.  pp. 
113-346,  and  G.vm.andi  :  liibl.  Vcterum  Patrum, 
vol.  xi.,  Venice,  1770.  The  general  idea  which 
the  author  entertains  of  the  earth,  as  a  jiarallelo- 
gram,  flat,  and  coxered  with  a  vault,  is  absurd ; 
but  his  remarks  on  details  are  often  acute  and 
striking,  and  his  book  is  by  no  means  without 
interest. 

COSSIT,  Franceway  Ranna,  b.  in  Claremont, 
N.IL,  April  24,  1790;  d.  at  Lebanon,  'J'enn.,  July 
3,  1863.  He  was  graduated  at  Mi<ldlebury  Col- 
lege, 1813,  and  received  tlicre  the  degree  of  D.D. 
in  1839.  His  parents  were  Episcopalians,  and 
after  a  nwnber  of  years  of  teaching  he  was  or- 
dained as  a  minister  of  that  denomination.  Cir- 
cumstances led  him  to  go  to  Tennessee,  and  there 
he  mi^t  Cmnberland  Presbyt«u-ians.  Their  meth- 
ods and  success  greatly  interested  him;  and,  after 
a  careful  consideration  of  the  matter,  he  decided 
to  become  one  of  them  (1822).  He  rose  to 
eminence  in  Ids  ni^w  relations.  He  was  elected 
successively  the  first   President  of   Cumberland 


COSTUME. 


559 


COUNCIL. 


College,  at  Princeton,  Ky.,  and  of  Cumberland 
University  at  Lebanon,  Tenn.  lie  was  also  Presi- 
dent of  tlie  IJoard  of  Foreij^n  and  Domestic  Mis- 
sions of  tlu;  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church, 
cstablisher  and  editor  of  a  religious  weekly,  The 
Jianner  of  I'dice,  and  in  other  ways  a  power.  He 
published  'J'lie  Life  and  Times  of  Finis  Eivintj, 
Nashville,  1S."):5. 

COSTUME,  See  Clothing  ajiono  tiik  He- 
brews, Dkess  amono  the  Early  Christians, 
Vestments  ok  the  Clergy. 

COTELERIUS  (Cotelier),  Jean  Baptiste,  b.  at 
Nismos,  in  December,  I'JLi?;  d.  in  Paris,  Auc;-.  lt(, 
1(580;  studied  theology  and  ])Iiilosophy  in  J'aris; 
W'as  in  KiOT  counnissioned  by  Colbert  to  investi- 
gate and  catalogue  the  (jreek  nuinuscrijits  of  the 
Koyal  Library,  and  became  professor  in  (ireek  at 
the  Koyal  College  in  lOTO.  His  principal  work  is 
his  edition  of  the  Apostolical  Fathers,  —  Barna- 
bas, Clement,  Hernias,  Ignatius,  and  Polycarpus, 
—  Paris,  1072,  in  two  volumes.  Most  of  the  copies 
of  the  original  edition  were  consumed  by  a  confla- 
gration ;  but  there  are  later  editions  by  Clericns, 
of  1098  and  1724.  Cotelier  also  published  Ecdes. 
GrcEC.  Mnnumcnta,  Paris,  1077-88,  3  vols.,  and 
Ilomilice  IV.  in  Psalmos,  Paris,  1001,  which  he 
ascribed  to  Chrysostom.  See  A.ncillgn  :  Me'- 
moires,  p.  379  ;  Niceron  :  Menioires,  IV.  p.  243 ; 
and  Baluze's  Letter  to  Bigot,  after  the  preface  to 
vol.  II.  of  Patr.  Apost.  IIAGEN-BACH. 

COTTON,  George  Edward  Lynch,  Bishop  of 
Calcutta;  b.  at  Chester,  Oct.  29,  1832;  accidents 
ally  drowned  at  Kooshtea,  on  the  Ganges,  Oct.  6, 
1866.  He  was  graduated  at  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  appointed  head  master  of  Marlbor- 
ough College  in  1852,  and  in  1858  Bishop  of  Cal- 
cutta, and  metropolitan  in  India  and  Ceylon, 
and  "  by  his  piety,  courtesy,  catholicity  of  senti- 
ment, and  high  accomplishments,  obtained  the 
esteem  of  all  parties."  He  wrote  Doctrine  and 
Practice  of  Christianily,  3d  ed.,  London,  1853;  two 
volumes  of  Sermons,  18.55  and  1858;  and  since 
his  death.  Sermons  preached  to  Enr/lish  Congrega- 
tions in  India,  London,  1867,  and  his  Memoir,  with 
Selections  front  his  Journals  and  Correspondence,  by 
his  widow,  London,  1870,  have  been  published. 

COTTON,  John,  b.  at  Derby,  Eng.,  Dec.  4, 
1585;  d.  at  Boston,  U.S.A.,  Dec.  23,  1652.  He 
was  graduated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
but  was  a  fellow  of  Emmanuel  College.  For 
twenty  years  he  was  vicar  of  St.  Botolph's,  Bos- 
ton, Lincolnshire,  and  a  noted  Puritan ;  but,  on 
being  cited  by  Laud  for  not  kneeling  at  the  sacra- 
ment, he  fled  to  London,  and  thence  to  America, 
landing  in  Boston  Sept.  4,  1033.  He  took,  in 
the  New  World,  even  a  more  prominent  position 
than  he  had  taken  in  the  Old.  On  the  17th  of 
October  he  was  ordained  teacher  of  the  First 
Church  in  Boston  (see  Dexter  :  Congregational- 
ism, as  seen  in  its  Literature,  p.  422),  and  colleague 
of  Mr.  John  Wilson.  In  1042  he  was  invited, 
along  with  Thomas  Hooker  of  Hartford  and 
John  Davenport  of  New  Haven,  to  sit  in  the 
Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines ;  but  no  one  of 
them  went  (see  Dexter,  p.  6.53).  He  died  of 
lung-fever  in  consequence  of  exposure  in  crossing 
the  ferry  to  Cambridge.  Cotton  Mather,  his 
grandson,  says  of  him,  "  If  Boston  be  the  chief 
seat  of  New  England,  it  was  Cotton  that  was  the 
father   and  glory  of   Boston "    (Magnalia,  third 


book,* chap,  i.,  ed.  Hartford,  185.5,  p.  2.52).  Ex- 
travagant prai.se,  yet  indicative  of  Cotton's  ]iosi- 
tion  and  character,  which  are  thus  set  forth  by 
Palfrey  :  he  was  "  far  from  being  the  ruling  sjiirit 
of  the  Colony,"  yet  "  acting  with  others,  and 
advised  and  instructed  and  checked  by  them,  he 
rendered  it  memorable  service.  .  .  .  t'here  was 
no  mistake  in  the  opinion  which  his  neighbors 
universally  entertained  of  his  devoted  piety.  .  .  . 
He  had  acuteness  and  learning  for  controversv,  a 
moving  eloquence  foi-  the  pulpit,  and  an  affection- 
ate and  winning  address,  and  a  knowledge  of 
connnon  business,  which,  in  the  less  imlilic  duties 
of  the  saered  office,  secured  to  him  great  power" 
(Ilistori/  of  New  ICngland,  vol.  11.  p.  410). 

He  was  a  voluminous  writer:  Dexter  mentions 
thirty-six  of  his  jniblications.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  these  are.  Questions  and  Answers  upon 
Church  Government  (written,  not  printed,  1034); 
'The  Wttij  of  Life  (1041)  ;  A  Brief  Exjiosition  of 
the  Whole  liook' of  Canticles  (1642);  The  Churches 
I'esurrerlion  and  The  Powring  ort  of  the  Secen 
Vials  [his  famous  Lectures  on  the  Revelation] 
(1042) ;  The  Kei/cs  of  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven,  and 
Power  thereof,  according  to  the  M'ord  of  God  (1644), 
reprinted  Boston,  18.52;  The  Way  of  the  Churches 
of  Christ  in  New  England  (1045) ;  'The  Grocnds 
and  Endes  of  the  Bapti.wie  of  the  Children  of  the 
Faithfull  (1047) ;  'The  Wag  of  Congregational 
Churches  cleared  (1048)  ;  A  Briefe  Exposition  of 
Ecclesiastes  (1654) ;  The  Neir  Covenant  (16.54) ; 
Exposition  of  the  'Thirteenth  Chapter  of  the  Revela- 
tion (1055).  See  Cottox  Mather:  Magnalia 
Chrisli  Americana,  ed.  Hartford,  1855,  vol.  I.  jip. 
252-280. 

COUNCIL  (concilium).  In  the  history  of  the 
Christian  Church,  the  councils  form  centres  of 
development  with  respect  to  doctrine  and  liturgy 
and  constitution.  They  grew  up  from  the  veiy 
needs  of  the  Church ;  and  in  the  Apostolic  Coun- 
cil at  Jerusalem  (reported  in  Acts  xv.)  they 
found  their  model  and  their  legitimation.  1"lie 
first  councils  or  synods  of  which  we  have  a  reliable 
account  were  held  in  Asia  Minor,  against  the 
Montanists,  and  not  earlier  than  the  middle  of 
the  second  century  (Eusebius  :  Hist.  EccL,  V. 
10).  One,  said  to  have  been  held  in  Sicily,  in 
125,  against  the  Cnostic  Heracleon,  and  another, 
said  to  have  been  held  in  Home  by  Bishop  Teles- 
phorus  (d.  139),  are  entirely  unhistorical.  A  little 
later,  towards  the  close  of  the  second  century, 
a  number  of  councils  were  held  —  at  Ephesus, 
under  the  leadership  of  Polycrates ;  in  Palestine ; 
at  Osrhoene  in  Mesopotamia  ;  in  Pontus ;  and  in 
Gaul,  under  the  leadership  of  Irenseus  —  concern- 
ing the  Easter  question ;  and  from  the  same  time 
dates  a  pas.sage  in  Tertullian  (De  Jejutnis,  13), 
showing  that"  this  custom,  which  had  originated 
in  the  Eastern  countries,  among  the  Greeks,  now 
began  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  Latins  in 
the  Western  countries.  The  first  Latin  s\-nods 
were  held  in  the  beginning  of  the  third  century, 
in  North  Africa,  where,  under  Cyprian,  they  be- 
came very  frequent.  Meanwhile  they  lost  in  the 
East  the  "aspect  of  being  something  extraordinary. 
According  to  a  letter  from  Firmilian.  Bishop  of 
Ciesarea  m  Cappadocia,  to  C\-prian  {Ep.  75),  coun- 
cils were  held  regularly  twice  a  year  in  Asia 
Minor  in  the  beginning  of  the  third  century ;  that 
is,  they  had  become  a  fixed  institution,  part  of  the 


COUNCIL. 


560 


COUNCIL. 


constitution  of  the  Church.  Gradually  they  also 
grew  in  dimensions,  especially  after  the  middle 
of  the  third  century.  Thus  the  synod  of  Iconium 
in  Phrygia  C-ioG)  was  frequented  by  bishops  both 
from  Galatia  and  Cilicia ;  and  the  synod  of  Aries 
(314),  not  only  by  bishops  from  {iaul,  but  also 
by  bishops  from  "Brittany,  Germany,  Spain,  and 
North  Africa.  In  course  of  time  the  diocesan 
synod  developed  into  the  metropolitan  synod,  and 
tills, again. into  the  patriarchal  council,  until  finally 
the  great  cecumenical  council,  authoritative  to  the 
■whole  Chm-ch,  could  be  convened. 

The  first  eight  cecumenical  councils  (325-869) 
form  a  group  by  themselves.  They  were  convened 
by  the  emperors  (Roman  and  Byzantine);  they 
received  their  impulses  from  the  Greek  C'hiu'ch ; 
and  they  are  principally  of  doctrinal  interest. 
They  form,  so  to  sjieak,  the  mental  process  by 
which  the  Christian  Church  became  conscious  of 
the  full  meaning  and  proper  bearing  of  its  own 
fundamental  doctrines  ;  and,  though  the  later  logi- 
cal systematization  and  philosophical  argmnenta- 
tion  have  modified  the  outlines  of  the  definitions, 
none  of  the  dogmas  then  settled  has  ever  afterwards 
essentially  been  changed.  The  Council  of  Nica;a 
(325),  convened  by  Constantine  the  Great,  fre- 
quented by  three  hundred  and  eighteen  bishops, 
and  led  by  Hosius  of  Cordova,  and  Athanasius  of 
Alexandria,-  and  the  Council  of  Constantinople 
(381),  convened  by  Theodosius  the  Great,  fre- 
quented by  a  hundred  and  fifty  bishops,  among 
them  the  two  celebrated  Cappadocian  bishops, 
Gregory  of  Nazianzen  and  (Jregory  of  Nyssa,  set- 
tled tlie  dogma  of  tlie  Holy  Trinity  so  far  as  re- 
gards the  constituents  whicli  necessarily  go  into  the 
definition ;  and  only  the  dialectical  relations  be- 
tween these  constituents  were  left  to  be  elaborated 
by  the  aftertirae.  See  Arianism.  The  Council 
of  Ephesus  (431),  convened  by  Theodosius  II.  and 
Valentinian  III.,  frequented  by  about  two  huiulred 
bishops,  among  them  Cyrillus  of  Alexandria,  and 
the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451),  convened  by 
Marian,  freipiented  by  five  or  six  hundred  bishops, 
and  led  by  the  representatives  of  Bishop  Leo  of 
Rome,  laid  the  foundation  upon  which  the  ortho- 
dox christology  of  our  days  is  still  resting.  See 
Nestokius,  Elityciiks,  and  Monophvsitks.  It 
is  noticeable,  with  respect  to  these  two  councihs, 
first,  that  the  invitations  were  not  issued  to  the 
bishops,  but  only  to  the  metropolitans,  to  whom 
it  was  left  to  select  sucli  of  their  bishops  as  they 
wanted  to  be  present  at  the  councils ;  next,  that 
Bishoji  Coelestine  of  Rome  instructed  his  repre- 
sentatives at  the  Council  of  E])hesns  not  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  discussion,  but  simply  to  give  the 
decision,  —  an  attitude  which  was  assumed  still 
more  pronouncedly  by  the  representatives  of  Bish- 
op Leo  of  Rome  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon.  The 
fifth  necutnenical  council  did  not  meet  until  a  cen- 
tury later  (553).  It  .sat  in  Constantinople,  but 
was  frequented  by  only  a  hundred  and  fifty  liish- 
ops,  mostly  belonging  to  the  Eastern  Church,  and 
it  is  generally  considered  as  a  mere  epilogue  to 
the  Coimcil  of  Clialcedon  ;  vvhilir  the  sixth  O'cu- 
inetiical  council,  also  sitting  in  Constantinople 
(080).  and  convened  by  Constanline  I'ngonatos, 
actually  carried  the  christological  discussion  a 
stf!p  farth(-r.  See  Monotiiki.itkh.  The  ]>art 
which  the  bishops  of  Rome  |ilayed  at  these  two 
lost  councils  wa.s  not  so  a<lvantageou8  as  that  they 


had  played  at  tlie  two  preceding  ones.  Pope  Vi- 
gilius  was  present  in  person  in  Constantinople 
(553),  and  subscribed  the  decrees  of  the  council ; 
but  those  decrees  met  with  an  obstinate  resistance 
in  the  Western  Church  and  among  the  Monothe- 
lites,  who  were  excommunicated  and  anathema- 
tized as  heretics  in  680,  as  was  also  Pope  Honorius, 

—  a  fact  rather  embarrassing  for  the  dogma  of  pa- 
pal infallibility.  The  seventh  cecumenical  coun- 
cil, convened  at  Nicaea  (787)  by  the  Empress  Irene, 
was  chiefly  concerned  with  the  question  of  image- 
worship;  the  eighth,  convened  in  Constantinople 
(869)  by  Basilius  Maredo.  with  the  affairs  of  Plio- 
tins  :  but  the  authority  of  both,  especially  that  of 
the  latter,  was  nearly  confined  to  the  Greek  world. 
The  schism  between  the  Eastern  and  \Vestern 
Church  had  now  become  complete,  and  it  has 
lasted  until  the  present  day. 

The  second  group  of  cecumenical  councils  (869- 
1311)  belongs  exclusively  to  the  Western  Church, 
and  gives  a  very  vivid  picture  of  the  growth  and 
culmination  of  the  papal  monarchy.  For  two 
centuries  and  a  half  after  the  Council  of  Constan- 
tinople (869),  there  were  held  in  the  Western 
Church  only  provincial  and  national  synods,  in 
Spain,  France,  England,  and  Germany.  Though 
several  of  these  synods,  especially  those  held  in 
France,  exercised  great  influence  on  the  history 
of  the  Church,  none  of  them  obtained  authority 
throughout  the  whole  Church.  The  series  of  oecu- 
menical councils  is  opened  again  with  the  Lateran 
synods,  thus  called  from  their  place  of  meeting,  — 
the  Church  of  St.  John  Lateran  in  Rome.  There 
are  four  belonging  to  this  period,  —  the  Jirst,  con- 
vened by  Calixtus  II.  (1123),  and  frequented  by 
about  three  hundred  ecclesiastics,  for  the  solemn 
establishment  of  the  concordat  of  Worms,  by 
which  the  emperor  renounced  the  riglit  of  investi- 
ture with  ring  and  staff;  the  second,  convened  by 
Innocent  II.  (1139),  and  frequented  by  about  a 
thousand  ecclesiastics,  for  the  purpose  of  cancelling 
all  the  decrees  issued  by  the  antipope  Anaclet ;  the 
third,  convened  by  Alexander  III.  (1179),  of  merely 
disciplinary  interest;  and  the  fourth,  convened  by 
Innocent  III.  (1215),  and  frequented  by  four  hun- 
dred and  twelve  bishops,  and  eight  hundred  abbots 
and  priors,  besides  by  ambass.adors  from  the  By- 
zantine court,  and  a  great  number  of  jirinces  and 
noblemen,  —  one  of  the  most  brilliant  ecclesiastical 
assemblies  which  ever  met.  Its  debates  encom- 
passed the  whole  field  of  ecclesiastical  legislation, 

—  doctrine,  liturgy,  discipline,  etc. ;  and  both 
the  results  and  the  form  of  these  debates  give 
evidence  of  the  towering  height  to  which  the 
Papacy  h.ad  reached.  The  dogma  of  transubstan- 
tiation  was  promulgated,  the  decree  of  auricular 
confession  was  issued,  the  Intpiisition  and  other 
courts  of  heresy  w'ere  established,  etc.  But  these 
and  other  measures  did  not  originate  in  the  as- 
sembly itself :  they  were,  so  to  speak,  dictated  to 
it  by  the  curia,  as  ap]>ears  from  the  new  formula 
under  which  they  were  adopted,  —  sarra  uiiircrsidi 
si/nodo  (i/iproliantfi  sancunus.  To  this  grouj)  also 
belong  the  two  councils  of  Lyons,  of  which  the 
first  was  convened  by  Innocent  IV.  (1245),  for 
the  ]iurpose  of  excommiiiiicating  and  deposing 
the  ]Om|ieror  Frederic  II.  ;  the  second  by  (iregory 
X.  (1274),  to  accomplish  the  union  between  the 
Greek  and  the  Latin  Church;  and,  finally,  the 
Council  of  Vienne,  convened  in  1311  by  Clement 


COURAYER. 


661 


COURT. 


"V.,  by  which   the   order   of  the   Templars   was 

■dissolved. 

AVith  the  "  Bahyloniaii  captivity  "  the  Papacy 
begins  to  decline,  and  by  the  great  schism  it  ac- 
tually .seems  to  be  brought  very  near  ruin.  To 
heal  the  schism  was  also  one  of  the  jirincipal  ob- 
jects of  the  Councils  of  I'isa  (1400)  and  of  Con- 
stance (1414-bS).  At  the  .same  time  there  aro.se 
within  the  Church  itself  a  strong  re-action  against 
the  prevailing  corruption ;  and  the  demands  of 
reform  were  loud,  not  only  in  the  (Council  of  Con- 
stance, but  still  more  in  the  Council  of  Basel 
(1431-43),  and  even  in  the  fifth  Lateran  synod 
(1512-17).  The  proceedings  of  these  councils, — 
the  great  reformatory  councils  of  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries,  — in  which,  liowever,  all 
€ndeavors  of  reform  were  bafHed  by  the  curia,  are 
described  in  separate  articles,  as  are  those  of  the 
Council  of  Trent  (1.345-03),  who.se  principal  busi- 
ness tran.saction  was  tlie  condemnation  of  the  (ier- 
inan  Reformation.  After  the  Council  of  Trent, 
no  oecumenical  council  was  held  until  that  of  the 
Vatican  (1869-70),  by  which  the  dogma  of  the 
infallibility  of  the  pope  was  declared. 

Lit. — -Mansi:  Sacrorum  Conciliorum  nova  el 
mnplissima  CoUectio,  Florence,  1759  sqq.,  31  vols, 
fob;  Harduin:  Colleclio  maxima  Conciliorum  (jen- 
tral.  el  provinc,  Paris,  1715  sqq.,  12  vols,  fob  ; 
Hefele  :  Conciliengeschichle,  Freiburg,  1855-74, 
7  vols.  [2d  ed.,  1873  sqq.,  Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh, 
vol.  I.,  1871,  vol.  II.,  187t;.]         G.   V.   LECULER. 

COURAYER,  Pierre  Franqois  Le,  b.  at  Rouen, 
Nov.  17,  1681  ;  d.  at  London,  Oct.  16,  1776 ;  was 
canon  regular  of  the  Abbey  of  Ste.  Geuevifeve 
in  Paris,  taught  theology  and  philosophy  in  its 
schools,  and  had  charge  of  its  library.  In  1723 
he  published  at  Brussels  a  treatise  on  the  validity 
of  English  ordinations,  in  which  he  declared,  that, 
in  the  episcopacy  of  the  Anglican  Church,  there 
had  occurred  no  breach  of  succession  since  the 
days  of  the  apostles;  and  this  assertion  roused 
such  a  storm  among  his  Roman-Catholic  co-reli- 
gionists, that  he  felt  compelled  to  leave  France. 
He  sought  refuge  in  England,  where  he  was  well 
received,  and  obtained  a  pension.  He  published 
at  London,  1737,  a  French  translation  of  Paolo 
Sarpi's  history  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

COURCELLES,  Etienne  de  (Curcellaeus),b.  at 
Geneva,  May  2,  1586 ;  d.  in  Amsterdam,  ^lay  22, 
1659 ;  studied  theology  under  Calvin  and  Beza, 
and  afterwards  in  Heidelberg,  and  was  appointed 
pastor  at  Boi.s-le-Roi,  near  Fontainebleau,  in  1614. 
In  1621  he  became  pa.stor  at  Amiens;  but,  having 
refused  to  subscribe  the  decrees  of  the  synod  of 
Dort,  he  was  deposed.  He  afterwards  gave  in  a 
qualified  assent,  and  was  appointed  pastor  at 
Vitry,  but  gave  up  this  position  in  1634,  went  to 
Amsterdam,  and  became  (in  1637)  Episcopius's 
successor  as  professor  of  theology  in  the  Remon- 
strants' College.  Besides  his  edition  of  the  Greek 
text  of  the  New  Testament,  he  wrote  Vindicia 
Anninii  (1645),  Defensio  BInmlelli  (1657),  Di.iserla- 
tinnes  (16.59),  etc.,  which  appeared  in  a  collected 
edition,  Amsterdam,  1675. 

COURT  AND  LEGAL  PROCEEDING  AMONG 
THE  HEBREWS.  In  the  oldest  times  the  heads 
of  tribes,  or  of  chief  hou.ses  in  a  tribe,  were  the 
judges.  In  the  times  of  Moses,  the  latter,  who 
combined  in  his  person  all  theocratical  offices,  was 
Ihe  judge  ;  but,  as  the  burden  became  heavier,  he 

37  —  1 


appointed,  by  the  advice  of  Jethro,  heads  over 
thousands,  over  hundreds,  over  fifties,  and  over 
ten.s,  to  arrange  smaller  nuitters,  whilst  in  more 
imixirtant  cases  his  counsel  was  to  be  sought.  In 
ajijiointing  judges,  moral  and  inttdlectual  qualifi- 
cations were  considei'ed  ;  but  it  is  jjrobalili;  that 
Moses  regarded  the  trilial  constitution  ;  and  this 
supposition  .seems  to  follow  from  Dent.  i.  15:  "I 
took  the  chief  of  your  tribes."  When  the  people 
settled  in  Canaan,  the  elders  of  thi;  city  and  the 
heads  of  the  tribes  adjusted  all  legal  matters. 
During  the  period  of  the  judges,  in  bo  far  as  they 
stood  at  the  hea<l  of  the  people  or  of  single  tribes, 
the  judgment  was  exercised  by  them;  and  of 
Samuel  we  know  that  he  judged  in  several  cities 
of  the  country,  and  appointed  his  sons  judges  at 
Beersheba  (1  Sam.  viii.  2).  Afterwards  the  kings 
acted  as  judges;  and  from  2  Chron.  xix.  8-11  we 
know  that  Jehosha]>hat  appointed  a  high  tribunal 
at  Jerusalem,  to  which  the  Levites,  priests,  and 
chiefs  of  the  fathers,  belonged.  The  prophets 
al.so  exercised  judicial  functions.  After  the  re- 
turn from  Babylon,  the  Sanhedrin  adjusted  all 
legal  matters. 

The  legal  proceeding  was  very  simple.  The 
complaint  was  made  either  by  the  parties  them- 
selves (Deut.  xxi.  20,  xxii.  16),  or  by  others. 
Both  parties  had  to  appear  before  the  judge, 
who  had  to  hear  and  to  investigate  verj'  carefully 
the  matter  (xxv.  1).  Two  or  three  witnesses  were 
necessary,  especially  in  penal  cases;  and,  when 
capital  punishment  was  decreed,  the  witnesses 
were  the  first  to  exercise  it.  Whoever  committed 
perjury  was  subjected  to  the  same  punishment 
which  had  otherwise  threatened  the  accused. 
When  parents  brought  their  disobedient  sons 
before  tlie  judge,  no  witne.ss  was  required.  Some- 
times the  lot  was  used  in  exercising  judgment 
(cf.  Josh.  vii.  14;  1  Sam.  xiv.  40  sq.,  etc.).  An 
immediate  divine  judgment  is  mentioned  in  the 
case  of  a  woman  suspected  of  adultery.  The  sen- 
tence was  given  orally,  but  in  later  times  also  in 
writing  (Job  xiii.26;  Isa.  x.  1).  All  documents 
and  contracts  were  legal  when  signed  before  wit- 
nesses. That  oppression,  bribery,  partiality,  and  ' 
false  witnesses  often  perverted  the  right  and  the 
law,  we  see  from  the  many  censures  which  the 
prophets  pronounced.  [P.  B.  Benxy:  The  Crimi- 
nal Code  of  the  Jews,  accordinci  to  ihe  Talmud  Masse- 
chclh  Sipdiedrin,  London,  1880.]         DELITZSCU. 

COURT,  Antoine,  the  organizer  of  the  "Church 
of  the  Desert,"  the  restorer  of  the  Reformed 
Church  in  France;  was  born  at  Villeneuve  de 
Berg,  in  the  department  of  Ardfeche,  May  17, 
1696,  and  died  at  Lausanne,  June  15,  1760.  He 
lost  his  father  when  he  was  four  years  old,  and 
grew  up  in  poverty  under  the  shadow  of  the 
martyrdom  of  Brous.son  and  Ilomel,  and  among 
the  wonders  and  miseries  of  the  wars  in  the  Ce- 
vennes.  Reports  of  people'  who  were  burnt  alive, 
put  on  the  rack,  sent  to  the  galleys,  or  hunted 
down  like  wild  beasts,  for  the  sake  of  their  faith, 
made  his  daily  bread;  but  these  poor  and  dismal 
circumstances  proved  to  be  the  right  tutor  for  his 
character.  When  Louis  XIV.  is.sued  the  edict  of 
March  8,  1715,  declaring  that  there  was  no  Prot- 
estantism in  France,  the  young  man  stood  ready 
to  give  the  lie  to  the  royal  bravado. 

The  situation  was  exceedingly  difficult.  A 
circle  of  edicts  closed  around  Protestantism,  and 


COURT. 


562 


COVENANT. 


kept  it  walled  up  as  in  a  tomb.  Marriages  con- 
secrated by  a  Reformed  minister  were  considered 
by  the  civil  law  as  mere  concubinage,  and  chil- 
dren of  such  a  marriage  were  treated  as  bastards. 
To  preach  Protestant  ideas  was  death  on  the  gal- 
lows. To  participate  in  Protestant  worship  was 
imprisonment,  or  labor  in  the  galleys.  And  in 
these  circumstances  no  change  took  place  at  the 
death  of  Louis  XIV.  The  regent  continued  the 
persecutions.  From  1715  to  1723  seven  Protes- 
tant meetings  were  surprised,  and  the  men  were 
sent  to  the  galleys,  the  women  to  the  Aigues- 
Mortes.  In  1718  Etienne  Arnaud  was  hanged  as 
a  "preacher  of  the  desert."  Houses  and  villages 
w-ere  razed  to  the  ground  :  whole  counties  were 
fired.  Nor  was  the  internal  state  of  the  Protes- 
tant congregation  without  its  dangers.  While  one 
part,  the  "  newly-converted  "  as  they  were  called, 
gradually  relapsed  into  Romanism,  another,  in- 
fluenced by  the  prophets  of  the  C'amisards,  was 
led  astray  by  a  spiritualism  which  rejected  the 
Bible  as  norma  ei  rer/ula  Jidei,  and  produced  secta- 
rianism. Nevertheless,  in  1711-15  Court  made 
his  first  journey  as  a  travelling  preacher  through 
the  Cevennes,  Languedoc,  Dauphine,  to  Marseilles; 
and  on  Aug.  21,  1715,  the  first  synod  met  at  sun- 
rise in  a  place  where  two  roads  cross  each  other, 
near  Nimes.  Only  a  few  persons  were  present; 
but  a  church  ordinance  was  agreed  upon,  with 
regular  services,  with  synods,  and  with  a  church 
discipline;  and  thus  the  "  Church  of  the  Desert" 
was  founded. 

In  1720  Court  visited  Geneva,  and  established 
a  connection  and  intercommunication  between  the 
Reformed  Church  of  Switzerland  and  that  of 
France.  For  a  similar  purpose  he  also  began  a 
correspondence  with  William  Wake,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury.  In  1722  he  returned  to  France, 
and  continued  his  work  under  innumerable  dan- 
gers, but  with  very  great  success.  Congregations 
were  formed  in  Poitou,  Bretagne,  Agenois,  Fois, 
Provence,  and  Picardie.  After  an  inteiTuption 
of  sixty-si.x  years,  the  first  national  synod  met  on 
May  16,  1726.  In  1728  the  evangelical  num- 
■  bered  about  two  hundred  thousand  in  Languedoc 
and  Dauphine.  In  Languedoc  (with  liouergue 
and  Vivarais)  there  were  a  hundred  and  twenty 
pari-shfis  with  tliree  synods  and  four  ministers 
(Corteis,  Court,  Durand,  Roger).  In  1729  Court 
retired,  and  settled  at  i^ansanne,  where,  some 
years  earlier,  lie  had  established  a  school  for  the 
education  of  ministers  for  the  Reformed  Church 
of  France.  Only  once  more  (in  1711)  he  again 
visited  his  native  country;  but,  lie  continued  to  the 
last  to  labor  for  the  "Church  of  the  Desert,"  and 
his  work  prospered  in  spite  of  cruel  persecution. 
In  1711  the  church  had  thirty-three  ministers, 
and  sixty-two  in  176:J.  In  the  former  year  Nor- 
mandie  numbered  seventc^eii  parishes,  Poitoii 
thirty,  Dauphine  sixty.  Nimes  alone  contained 
twenty  thousand  Protestants ;  and  it  began  to 
dawn  upon  the  French  Ooveriiment  that  a  change 
of  [lolicy  with  respect  to  its  evangelical  subjects 
was  absolutely  necessary. 

Lit.  —  The  principal  work  on  Court  is  Ed- 
MONI)  IIu(iiiKs  :  Aut.  Court,  Hint,  rle  lareslaurnlinn 
(lu  I'rolestanlhme  en  France,  2d  ed.,  Paris,  1872. 
See,  also,  Pkykat  :  Hist,  ihx  I'nstfum  du  Ik'serl, 
Paris,  1812;  Couiiikkk:  llist.de  Vegtise  reformde 
<U  Monlpellitr,  P.«.ri«,   IbGl;  J.  G.   Bau.m  :  Mc- 


moires  de  Pierre  Carriere,  dil  Corteis,  Strassburg, 
1861;  D.  Benoit:  Un  martyr  du  desert,  Jacques 
Rofjer  restaurateur  du  protestanisme  dans  le  Dau- 
phine. Toulouse,  1875.  VON'  polexz. 

COUSIN,  Victor,  b.  in  Paris,  Nov.  28,  1792: 
d.  at  Cannes,  Jan.  11,  18G7;  was  educated  in 
Lycee  Charlemagne  and  Ecole  Normale,  and  be- 
gan to  lecture  on  philosophy  in  1815  in  the 
Sorbonne,  where  he  soon  gathered  a  great  num- 
ber of  enthusiastic  students  around  his  chair. 
In  1821,  when  the  re-action  thought  itself  strong 
enough  to  indulge  its  passions.  Cousin  was  dis- 
charged;  but  lie  was  re-instated  in  1828,  and, 
after  the  revolution  of  1830,  he  was  made  coun- 
cillor of  state,  director  of  Ecole  Normale,  peer 
of  France,  and  for  a  short  time  (1840-41)  minis- 
ter of  public  instruction  in  the  cabinet  of  Thiers. 
After  the  coup  d'etat  of  Dec.  2,  18.51,  he  retired 
into  private  life.  His  principal  works  are,  Cours 
de  I'fdsloire  de  la  philosoplde,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1840; 
Cours  de  Vhistoire  de  la  pldlosopliie  moderne, 
Paris,  1841  (translated  into  English  by  AVight, 
New  York,  1852) ;  Du  rrai,  du  beau,  et  du  hien, 
Paris,  1849  (translated  into  English  by  Wight, 
New  York,  1854).  The  direct  influence  which 
Cousin  exercised  on  Christian  theology  was  not 
great,  and  may  be  limited  to  his  edition  of  Abe- 
lard's  works  (1836-46).  But  indirectly  his  ac- 
tivity was  of  great  consequence.  He  changed 
the  whole  character  of  the  French  philosophy. 
He  led  the  students  of  philosophy  among  his 
countrymen  from  the  materialism  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  in  France  to  the  idealism  of  the 
Scotch  school;  and,  again,  he  dissolved  the  dog- 
matic method  of  the  French  and  Scotch  philoso- 
phy, and  introduced  the  dialectic  method  of 
German  philosophy.  A  complete  system  he  did 
not  produce,  lie  was  an  eclectic,  l>ut  his  eclec- 
ticism was  not  a  mere  mosaic.  The  vigorous 
understanding  and  vivid  representation  of  the 
various  philosophical  systems  which  he  gives, 
are  everywhere  permeated  by  a  spirit  of  idealism, 
which,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  drew  him  and 
his  pupils  nearer  and  nearer  to  Christianity. 

COVENANT,  an  agreement  or  mutual  obliga- 
tion, contracted  deliberately  and  with  solemnity. 
1.  Theological  Use.  God's  convenant  with  men 
signifies  his  solemn  promise  or  engagement  (Gen. 
xvii.  14;  Exod.  xxxiv.  10;  Dent.  iv.  13;  Isa. 
lix.  21).  The  Hebrew  word  for  covenant  is  from 
n^2  ("to  cut"),  and  has  reference  to  the  practice 
of  cutting  animals  in  two,  and  passing  between  the 
])arts,  ill  ratifying  a  covenant  ((Jen.  xvii.  14;  Jer. 
xxxiv.  18).  The  term  "the  covenants,"  in  Roni.ix. 
4,  refers  to  the  various  promises  made  to  Abraham 
and  t he  otlier  patriarchs.  The  most  important  use 
of  tlie  word  is,  however,  in  relation  to  the  two  great 
dispensations  which  are  distinguished  as  the  Old 
and  New,  or  as  the  Covenant  of  the  Law  and 
the  Covenant  of  the  (Jospel.  Tlie  former  was 
made  with  the  children  of  Israel,  through  Moses, 
and  rested  much  in  the  outward  ceremonies  and 
observances  which  the  law  enjoined  (meats  and 
drinks,  and  divers  washings,  and  carnal  ordi- 
nances). The  new  covenant  was  made  through 
Christ,  sealed  by  his  own  lilood,  and  secures  to 
every  believer  tlie  blessings  of  salvation  and 
eternal  life  (comp.  Exod.  xx.  24;  (Jal.  iii.  15, 
17;  Heb.  viii.  6  sqq.).  The  titles  "Old  and 
New   Testaments"   arose   from    the    inaccurate 


COVENANTERS. 


663 


COVENANTERS. 


rendering  in  the  Latin  Vulgate  of  tlie  word 
"covenant"  (iiaOr/Krj)  by  Icxiaineiiluin.  It  woulil 
be  a  decided  gain  if  the  correct  titles  could  be 
used.  In  the  revised  version  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, the  word  "covenant"  is  everywhere  the 
translation  of  (UaOf/Ktj  in  the  text,  with  "testa- 
ment" in  the  margin  (e.g.,  Malt.  xxvi.  28).  Hut 
the  American  revisers  (Classes  of  I'asswjes,  X.) 
prefer  that  "  the  word  '  testament '  be  every wliere 
changed  to  'covenant'  without  an  alternate  in 
the  margin,  except  in  Ileb.  ix.  1.5-17." 

2.  Ecclesiastical  Use.  The  Congregational- 
ists  and  Baptists  apply  the  term  "covenant"  to 
the  agreement  between  tlie  members  which  i.s 
appended  to  the  confe.ssion  of  faith  drawn  up  by 
each  church  independently.  It  is  either  original, 
or  derived  from  some  authoritative  symbol.  On 
the  "  National  Covenants  "  of  Scotland,  see  Cove- 
nanters. 

3.  Covenant  of  Salt  is  a  covenant  in  whose 
sealing  or  ratification  a  seal  was  used,  imparting 
to  it  an  inviolable  character  (Lev.  ii.  13 ;  Num. 
xviii.  19;  2  Chr.  xiii.  .5). 

COVENANTERS.  The  name  given  to  the 
Scottish  Presbyterians,  or  a  portion  of  them,  of 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  derived 
from  a  form  of  agreement  called  a  "Covenant," 
by  which  they  bound  themselves  for  religious  and 
patriotic  ends.  The  first  document  of  the  kind 
was  drawn  up  in  1580,  at  the  request  of  King 
James  VI.,  by  his  chaplain,  John  Craig,  and  was 
firstcalled  "The king's  Confession."  Afterwards 
it  was  called  "The  National  Covenant;  or,  the 
Confession  of  Faith."  It  was  subscribed  in  1580 
by  the  king,  and  by  persons  of  all  ranks  in  1581 ; 
and  its  object  was  to  maintain  the  reformed  reli- 
gion and  the  king's  majesty,  in  opposition  to  the 
machinations  of  Romanism.  In  1.596,  on  occasion 
of  a  memorable  revival  of  earnest  religion,  it  was 
proposed  that  the  Covenants  be  renewed ;  and  the 
proposal  was  very  cordially  carried  out  by  the 
General  Assembly  in  the  Little  Church  of  Edin- 
burgh, March  30,  1596.  In  1638,  when  prelacy 
was  overthrown,  the  Covenant  was  again  renewed, 
with  a  bond  binding  the  subscribers  "to  adhere 
to  and  defend  the  true  religion,  and  forbear  the 
practice  of  all  innovations  already  introduced  into 
the  worship  of  God ;  and  to  labor  by  all  means 
lawful  to  recover  the  purity  and  liberty  of  the  gos- 
pel as  it  was  professed  and  established  before  the 
aforesaid  innovations."  It  was  subscribed  by 
barons,  nobles,  gentlemen,  burgesses,  ministers, 
and  commons,  a  memorable  scene  occurring  at 
its  subscription  in  Greyfriars'  churchyard,  Edin- 
burgh, where  it  was  first  publicly  read  and  signed. 
It  was  approved  by  the  General  Assembly  1638 
and  1639,  and  ratified  by  the  Parliament  of  Scot- 
land in  1640 ;  and,  besides  the  people,  it  was  sub- 
scribed by  Charles  II.  at  Spey  in  1650,  and  at 
Scoon  in  1651. 

Another  document,  drawn  up  by  commissioners 
of  the  English  Parliament  and  the  Westminster 
Assembly,  and  by  committees  of  the  Scottish 
Estates  and  the  General  Assembly,  was  called 
"  The  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  for  Refor- 
mation and  Defence  of  Religion,  the  Honor  and 
Happiness  of  the  King,  and  the  Peace  and  Safety 
of  the  Three  Kingdoms  of  Scotland,  England, 
and  Ireland."  This  Covenant,  besides  binding 
the  subscribers  to  maintain  the  Reformed  Church 


in  its  integrity,  according  to  the  word  of  God, 
pledged  them  "to  endeavor  the  extirpation  of 
jiopery,  prelacy  (i.e.,  chureli  government  by  arch- 
bishops, bishop.s,  their  chancellors  and  commi.s- 
sai'ies,  deans,  deans  and  chapters,  archdeacons, 
and  other  ecclesiastical  officers  depending  on  that 
hierarchy),  superstition,  heresy,  schism,  jirofane- 
ness,  and  whatsoever  shall  be  found  contrary  to 
sound  doctrine  and  power  of  godliness,  lest  we 
partake  in  other  men's  sins,  aiid  thereliy  be  in 
danger  to  receive  of  their  plagues ;  and  that  the 
Lord  may  be  one,  and  his  name  one,  in  the  three 
kingdoms."  The  Covenant  contained,  among  other 
clauses,  a  very  explicit  declaration  of  loyalty  to  the 
king.  It  was  ajijiroved  by  the  (ieneral  A.sseinbly 
of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  by  both  Houses  of 
Parliament,  and  the  assembly  of  Hivines  in  Eng- 
land, and  taken  and  sub.scribed  by  them  in  the 
year  1643.  it  was  thereafter,  by  the  same  author- 
ity, taken  aiul  subscribed  by  all  ranks  in  Scotland 
and  England  the  same  year;  ratified  by  the  Scot- 
tish Parliament  in  1644;  again  renewed,  and  taken, 
with  an  acknowledgment  of  sins  and  engagement 
to  duties,  by  all  ranks  in  1648,  ami  by  Parliament 
in  1049  ;  and  (with  the  older  Covenant)  subscribed 
by  Charles  II.  at  Spey  in  1650,  and  at  Scoon  in 
1651.  The  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  Sol- 
emn League  and  Covenant  as  compared  with  the 
National  Covenant  was  the  repudiation  of  prelacy. 

King  Charles  I.  was  so  exasperated  at  the  pro- 
ceedings of  1038,  that  he  gathered  an  army,  and 
advanced  towards  Scotland,  to  compel  submission. 
The  Covenanters  prepared  to  meet  him,  and  in- 
trusted the  command  of  their  troops  to  Gen.  Leslie ; 
and  it  was  on  this  occasion  that  tlie  banner  was 
displayed  "for  Christ's  crown  and  covenant." 
The  Scotch  obtaining  some  successes,  a  peace  was 
concluded,  but  broken  by  the  king  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  and  once  more  renewed. 

After  the  Westminster  Assembly  and  the  sign- 
ing of  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  war 
broke  out  again.  The  Marquis  of  Montrose  made 
a  great  stand  in  Scotland  for  the  royal  cause,  but 
in  vain.  Then  came  the  flight  of  Charles  I.  to 
Scotland,  his  surrender  into  the  hands  of  the 
English,  and  finally  his  execution.  This  event 
filled  the  Scots  with  consternation,  and  immedi- 
ately Charles  II.  was  proclaimed  king.  Coming 
to  Scotland,  he  took  the  Covenants,  though  this 
turned  out  to  be  an  act  of  pure  hypocrisy.  Their 
intense  loyalty  to  the  king  threw  the  Covenanters 
into  antagonism  to  Cromwell  and  those  with  whom 
they  were  really  at  one.  But  when  King  Charles 
was  restored  in  1660,  instead  of  having  the  Cov- 
enants respected,  and  the  Presbyterian  Church 
purified  from  abuses,  a  bitter  persecution  followed 
that  lasted  for  twenty-eight  years. 

The  "  Act  rescissory  "  rescinded  all  acts  passed 
between  1638  and  16.50.  In  1062  it  was  declared 
by  the  obsequious  Scottish  Parliament,  that  the 
ordering  and  disposal  of  the  external  government 
and  policy  of  the  Church  doth  properly  belong 
unto  his  Majesty  as  an  inherent  right  of  the  crown, 
by  virtue  of  his  royal  prerogative  and  supremacy 
in  causes  ecclesiastical."  In  the  exercise  of  this 
prerogative,  so  utterly  opposed  to  the  principles 
of  the  Covenanters,  episcopal  government  was 
restored.  The  Covenants  were  denounced,  and 
all  who  supported  them  proclaimed  traitors.  In 
1661  the  Marquis  of  Argyle  was  beheaded,  and 


COVENANTERS. 


564 


COVERDALE. 


James  Guthrie  also  died  on  the  gallows.  Diocesan 
courts  were  instituted,  and  no  minister  was  allowed 
to  remain  in  a  parochial  charge  without  satisfying 
them.  A  commission  headed  by  the  Earl  of  Lau- 
derdale was  sent  over  the  west  country  to  enforce 
this  law,  when,  to  the  great  surprise  of  the  com- 
missioners, four  hundred  ministers  resigned  their 
charges  rather  than  submit  to  the  unlawful  con- 
ditions. The  ejected  ministers  were  prohibited 
from  holding  meetings  for  worship  under  pain  of 
death.  Fines  and  imprisonment  were  inflicted 
on  those  who  attended  such  services,  and  were 
found  to  have  abetted  the  Covenanters.  Detach- 
ments of  troops  headed  by  such  men  as  Sir  James 
Turner,  and  Graham  of  Claverhouse,  scoured  the 
country,  persecuting  all  who  were  suspected  of 
being  friendly  to  them.  Sometimes  resistance  was 
offered  to  the  soldiers.  A  rising  took  place  in 
Galloway  in  1666,  which  terminated  in  the  defeat 
of  the  insurgents  at  Rullion  Green  among  the 
Pentland  Hills  near  Edinburgh.  Another  battle 
took  place  at  Drumcloy,  where  the  Covenanters 
defeated  Claverhouse;  but  at  Bothwell  Bridge 
they  were  vanquished.  At  Sanquhar,  in  1680,  a 
declaration  was  drawn  up,  disowning  Charles  11. 
as  king,  in  consequence  of  his  having  acted  as  a 
tyrant,  and  violated  the  constitution  of  the  coun- 
try. Conspicuous  among  the  authors  of  this 
declaration  was  Richanl  Cameron,  who  gave  his 
name  to  the  body  called  in  common  parlance 
Cameronians,  but  more  strictly  Reformed  Presby- 
terians. At  Airdmoss,  in  1680,  Cameron  and  his 
friends  gave  battle  to  the  royal  troops;  but  they 
were  defeated,  and  Cameron  himself  was  killed. 
The  year  before  (in  1679)  James  Sharp,  Arch- 
bishop of  St.  Andrews,  formerly  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  who  was  accused  by  his  brethren  of  be- 
traying the  Presbyterian  cause,  was  attacked  by 
some  Covenanters  on  Magus  Moor,  near  St.  An- 
drews, and  put  to  death. 

The  state  of  things  underwent  little  alteration 
until  the  Revolution  occurred  in  1688;  James 
II.  being  dethroned,  and  William  and  Mary 
coming  to  the  tlirone.  During  the  reigns  of 
Charles  II.  and  James  II.  tlie  cases  of  persecu- 
tion were  very  numerous,  and  in  many  cases  most 
harrowing.  It  was  reckoned,  that,  in  twenty- 
eight  years,  eighteen  thousand  persons  were  either 
banished  or  put  to  death.  At  the.  Revolution 
the  Covenanters  ceased  to  be  distinguished  by 
that  title,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  body  who 
had  been  followers  of  Cameron,  and  who  stood 
out  against  the  Revolution  settlement  as  not 
being  a  sufficient  recognition  of  great  Bible  prin- 
ciples in  the  constitution  both  of  the  Churcli 
and  of  the  State.     See  Camkuonian.s. 

Very  different  estimates  have  been  formed  of 
the  Covenanters,  acconling  to  the  ecclesiastical 
and  religious  proclivities  of  their  judges.  By 
high-churchmen  they  have  been  denounced  as 
coarse,  fanatical,  intolerant,  cruel,  and  unscrupu- 
lous ;  by  high  Presbyterians  tliey  have  been  ex- 
tolled as  men  of  the  highest  godliness,  cliampiona 
of  liberty,  lioly  martyrs  and  confi'ssors.  the  saviors 
of  their  country.  It  is  very  certain  that  between 
1580  and  1688  the  friends  and  ujiholders  of 
the  Covenants  embraced  nearly  all  of  the  mo.st 
learned,  devout,  and  earnest  ministers  of  the 
church,  and  many  laymen  in  high  position.  The 
real  lovers  of  the  gospel  were  Covenanters,  and 


the  revivals  of  earnest  religion  were  associated 
witli  them.  The  rugged  character  of  the  times, 
the  general  want  of  a  tolerant  spirit,  and  the  ab- 
sence of  suitable  leaders,  may  have  led  to  ex- 
cesses, and  caused  some  degeneracy  in  the  move- 
ment in  its  later  stages.  But  the  stand  for 
freedom,  civil  and  religious,  made  by  the  Cove- 
nanters, was  of  the  noblest  character,  and  con- 
ferred incalculable  benefit  on  both  Church  and 
State.  Had  they  been  crushed,  ecclesiastical 
liberty  would  have  almost  perished  within  the 
Reformed  churches  of  Europe. 

Among  some  of  the  friends  of  the  Covenants 
an  opinion  has  sometimes  prevailed  that  they 
bound  all  the  succeeding  generations  of  Scotsmen, 
inasmuch  as  they  were  entered  into  by  a  corporate 
body,  —  the  nation,  which  never  dies.  This  opin- 
ion has  but  few  supporters,  and  is  manifestly 
extreme  and  untenable.  Those  who  made  the 
Covenants  bound  themselves  very  firmly ;  but 
they  could  not  bind  those  who  came  after  them; 
nor  could  these  come  under  the  obligation  of  the 
Covenants,  except  in  so  far  as  they  were  person- 
ally willing  to  do  so. 

See  the  various  Histories  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  Presbyterian  and  Episcopalian  ;  his- 
torical writings  of  Dr.  M'Crie,  and  his  Vinilka- 
tion  of  the  Scottish  Covenanters;  The  Fifty-Years' 
Strurji/le  of  the  Scottish  Cocenanlers,  by  James 
Dodds;  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Tales  of  My  Landlord ; 
Cunningham's  and  Flint's  St.  Giles  Lectures  on 
the  Covenanters,  etc.  [John  T.wi.or:  The  Scot- 
tish Covenanters,  London  and  N.Y.,  1881 ;  Schaff: 
Creeds,  vol.  1,  i>p.  G8.j-6!)6.]        W.  G.  BLAIKIE. 

COVERDALE,  Miles,  b.  at  Coverham,  in  the 
north  riding  of  Yorkshire,  and  probably  in  the 
district  that  gave  him  his  name,  Coverdale,  which 
lay  in  what  was  called  Richmondshire,  about 
1488;  d.  in  London,  and  buried,  Feb.  19,  1569,  in 
the  chancel  of  St.  Bartholomew.  (AVhen  this 
church  was  taken  down,  in  1840,  his  remains  were 
removed  to  St.  Magnus.)  He  studied  philos- 
ophy and  theology  at  Cambridge,  became  priest 
at  Norwich,  1514;  entered  the  Augustine  friars, 
Cambridge  convent,  whose  prior  in  1533  was 
Robert  Barnes  (martyr),  by  whom,  probably, 
Coverdale  was  converted  to  Protestantism  ;  for 
about  this  time  he  appeared  as  the  champion  of 
the  new  faith,  and  would  have  been  persecuted 
but  for  the  known  fact  that  Crnmwell  was  his 
patron.  As  it  was,  in  1.528  he  went  to  the  Conti- 
nent. Nothing  certain  is  known  of  Coverdale's 
whereabouts  until  the  appearance  of  his  Bible  in 
London,  in  lo.'io.  See  E.sci.isii  Bini.K  Vehsions. 
In  L>!8  he  went  to  Paris,  and  wliile  there  super- 
intended a  new  edition  of  a  diglott,  the  Latin 
and  the  Englisli  side  by  side.  The  first  edition 
was  ]irinted  and  |inlilishi'd  in  that  year  by  James 
Nycolson,  but  was  unauthorized  liy  Coverdale, 
and  full  of  errors.  This  second  edition  was  printed 
by  Fraunces  Regnault  in  Paris,  and  ]niblished  by 
Richanl  Grafton  and  Ivlward  Whitei-luirch,  Lon- 
don. In  Paris,  Coverdale  made  the  revision  of 
Matthi'w's  nil)le,  known  as  the  "Great  Bible," 
because  of  its  size.  Tlui  printing  was  begun  in 
Paris,  inhibited  Dec.  17,  15)J8,  and  finished  in 
London,  .\pril,  1539,  probably  under  the  personal 
superintendence  of  Coverdale.  At  Cruinwell's 
execution  (July  28,  1540)  Coverdale  went  to  Ger- 
many, and  was  pastor  of  a  church  at  Bergzabern, 


COWL. 


565 


COWPER. 


near  Strassbura;  On  his  rotiini,  in  1548,  he  was 
made  one  of  Edward  Vl.'schajiUiins,  and  almoner 
to  the  Queen-dowager,  Catliarine  I'arr.  In  1550 
he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  commission 
against  the  Anabaptists,  and  on  Aug.  14,  1551, 
Bishop  of  Exeter ;  and  so  extreme  was  his  poverty, 
that  the  usual  payment  of  "  first-fruits  "  was  re- 
mitted in  his  case.  On  the  accession  of  Mary 
(1553)  he  was  deposed,  imprisoned,  and  banished. 
He  owed  his  escape  from  death  to  the  intercession 
of  the  king  of  Denmark,  whose  chaplain  was 
Macalpine,  Coverdale's  brother-in-law.  Again  an 
exile,  he  lived  for  a  while  at  We.sel  in  Friesland, 
as  pastor  of  an  English  congregation,  then  at 
Bergzabern,  and  finally  at  Geneva,  where,  with 
characteristic  zeal  and  self-forgetfulness,  he 
shared  in  tlie  production  of  the  Genevan  Bible. 
In  1559  he  returned  to  England,  —  Mary  being 
dead,  —  but  was  not  re-instated  in  his  bishopric. 
From  15G4  to  1500  lie  was  rector  of  St.  Magnus 
the  Martyr,  London  Bridge,  but  resigned  the  po- 
sition l)ecause  of  infirmity,  or  because  of  his 
Puritanical  views  in  the  matter  of  vestments, 
which  had  prevented  his  re-iiistatement  in  his 
bishopric.  No  more  guileless  man  is  reckoned 
among  the  heroes  who  gave  the  Anglo-Saxon  race 
its  precious  versions  of  the  word  of  God.  But  he 
did  more  than  translate  the  Bible.  He  busied 
himself  in  making  his  countrymen  acquainted 
with  the  Reformers  by  translations  from  II.  Bul- 
linger,  Lutlier,  Calvin,  and  others,  by  publishing 
(1504)  a  collection  of  the  letters  of  'the  martyrs 
(Cranmer,  Ridley,  Hooper,  etc.).  He  also  wrote 
original  pieces  of  a  religious  character.  See  his 
Writings  and  Translations,  and  Remains  (edited 
for  the  Parker  Society,  Camb.,  1844,  1846),  and 
Letters  nf  the  Martyrs  (edited  by  the  Rev.  E. 
Bickersteth,  London,  1837).  Darling's  Cijclo- 
pcedia  Bihlio(jrapliia  gives  a  list  of  Coverdale's 
writings. 

COWL,  corresjionding  to  the  Latin  ciicuUa, 
means  primarily  tlie  hood  which  the  monk  draws 
over  the  head  to  prevent  the  eyes  from  glancing 
right  or  left.  But,  as  this  hood  was  the  most 
characteristic  part  of  a  monk's  dress,  —  and  in- 
deed it  was  the  only  article  specially  mentioned 
in  the  Rules  of  St.  Benedict  (c.  55), —  cowl  grad- 
ually came  to  be  applied  to  the  whole  monastic 
garment,  corresponding  to  the  Latin  casula. 

COWLES,  Henry,  D.D.,  a  commentator;  b.  in 
Norfolk,  Conn.,  April  24,  1803;  d.  at  Janesville, 
AVis.,  Sept.  0,  1881.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale 
College,  1820;  studied  theology;  was  from  1828 
to  1835  a  pioneer  missionary  on  the  Western  Re- 
serve in  Ohio;  from  1835  to  1843,  professor,  first 
of  Greek  and  Latin,  and  then  of  Hebrew,  in  Ober- 
lin  University;  from  1843  to  1803  he  was  editor 
of  The  Olierlin  Evangelist.  In  1803  he  began  his 
Conunentari/,  which  eventually  extended  to  sixteen 
volumes,  covering  the  entire  Bible,  and  completed 
it  in  1881.  It  was  published  by  D.  Appleton  & 
Co.,  New  York,  and  intended  for  the  educated 
laity.  He  was  a  man  of  strong  practical  sense, 
and  of  excellent  judgment. 

COWPER,  William,  poet  and  hymnologist,  b. 
at  Great  Berkhanipstead,  Hertfordshire,  Nov.  15, 
1731 ;  d.  at  East  Dereham,  Norfolk,  April  25, 
1800.  He  came  of  gentle  blood.  His  father  was 
one  of  George  II. 's  chaplains ;  and  his  grandfather 
was  a  judge,  and  brother  of  the  first  Earl  Cow- 


per,  the  Lord  Chancellor.  He  was  a  delicate 
cliild;  and  his  "fagging"  experiences  in  theWest- 
niinstor  public  school  told  sadly  upon  him,  and 
may  have,  in  part,  induced  his  subsequent  mad- 
ness. At  eighteen  he  began  the  study  of  law, 
an<l  at  thirty-two  was  nominally  engaged  in  its 
jiracticp,  but  really  given  up  to  literature.  When 
las  income  began  to  be  insufficient,  he  was  nomi- 
nated by  influential  friends  clerk  of  the  journals 
of  the  House  of  Lords;  but,  the  right  of  nomina- 
tion being  disputed,  he  was  required  to  submit  to 
an  examination,  and  nervous  dread  of  the  ordeal 
unsettled  his  reason  (already  affected  by  grief 
over  Ills  uncle's  refusal  to  allow  him  to  marry  his 
daughter),  and  he  had  to  be  put  under  medical 
care,  in  the  private  madhouse  of  Dr.  Cotton,  who 
was  a  pious  man.  While  there  he  was  converted 
by  reading  a  Bible  which  had  been  purposely  put 
in  his  way.  In  1705  he  went  to  Huntingdon,  and 
there  formed  acquaintance  with  the  Unwins,  and 
made  his  home  with  them.  In  1767  Mr.  Unwiii 
was  killed  by  a  fall  from  his  horse ;  and  Mrs. 
Unwin  and  Cowper  moved  to  Olney,  on  the  invi- 
tation of  the  famous  Rev.  John  Newton,  one  of 
the  great  lights  of  the  Evangelical  party,  to  which 
the  pair  belonged.  But  this  new  relation  was 
fraught  with  danger  to  tlie  hypochondriacal  Cow- 
per; for  the  life  they  now  led  was  one  continuous 
round  of  religious  exercises.  The  only  redemp- 
tive feature  is  the  contact  Cowper  had  with  the 
poor,  by  which  he  enlarged  his  knowledge  of  life, 
and  at  the  same  time  drove  away  melancholy. 
But  again  Cowper  went  mad  ;  and  it  was  not  until 
after  sixteen  months,  during  which  Mrs.  Unwin 
assumed  entire  charge  of  him,  that  he  recovered 
his  reason  under  Dr.  Cotton's  skilful  treatment. 
The  departure  of  Newton  was  a  favoring  provi- 
dence for  him.  Another  was  Mrs.  Unwin's  sug- 
gestion that  he  should  write  poetry.  He  had 
already  joined  Newton  in  writing  the  Olnei/  Hijinns 
(1779),  and  contributed  sixty-eight  to  Newton's 
two  hundred  and  eighty;  but  he  now  took  a 
broader  field,  and  produced  Tlie  Moral  Satires 
(1782).  It  was  then  he  met  Lady  Austen,  who 
by  her  vivacity,  her  tact,  and  knowledge  of  the 
world,  exerted  the  most  beneficent  influence  upon 
him.  It  was  she  who  told  him  the  story  of  John 
Gilpin,  which  he  has  immortalized,  and  set  him 
The  7\isk-,  by  which  he  achieved  fame.  Soon 
Lady  Austen  left,  and  Lady  Ilesketh,  his  cousin, 
—  another  woman  of  the  world,  —  came,  and  like- 
wise favorably  affected  the  poet.  He  then  gave 
English  literature  a  number  of  minor  poems,  and 
notable  translations  from  Homer  (1791)  and  Hor- 
ace. In  1794  he  obtained  a  pension  of  three 
hundred  pounds.  The  last  four  years  of  his  life 
were  passed  under  a  cloud.  His  reason  was  well- 
nigh  destroyed,  and  the  only  original  poetry  he 
wrote  was  The  Castaicag.  After  his  death  his 
charming  letters  were  collected  and  published. 

Cowper's  hymns  are  among  the  most  popular ; 
such  as,  God  moves  in  a  m;/sterions  iray ;  Oh  for 
a  closer  walk  with  God ;  'There  is  a  fountain  filled 
with  blood.  There  is  no  gentler,  purer,  more 
winning  character  among  English  poets  than 
William  Cowper;  and  there  is  no  better  letter- 
writer  among  English  authors. 

Lit.  —  The  best  Life  is  by  Southey,  published, 
in  connection  with  his  works,  London,  183.3-37, 15 
vols.;  reprinted,  with  additional  letters,  by  Boh\ 


cox. 


566 


CRAMER. 


1853-54.  A  good  sketch  is  given  by  Goldwix 
Smith,  in  the  English  Men  of  tellers  series,  N.Y., 
18S0. 

COX,  Samuel  Hanson,  one  of  the  gifted  ora- 
tors of  his  day ;  b.,  of  Quaker  parentage,  at  Rah- 
way,  N.J.,  Aug.  25, 179:3;  d.  at  Bronxville,  N.Y., 
on  Saturday  night,  Oct.  2,  1880.  Abandoning 
law,  he  studied  theology,  and  was  pastor  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Mendham,  N.J.,  from 
1817  to  1821,  when  he  settled  in  New- York  City, 
first  as  pastor  of  the  Spring-street,  and  in  1825 
of  the  Leight-street,  Presbyterian  Church.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  University  of  the 
City  of  New  York.  In  1833  he  went  to  Europe. 
In  London  he  attended  the  anniversary  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  as  delegate 
from  the  American  Bible  Society,  and  delivered 
a  memorable  address.  He  had  entered  Exeter 
Hall  after  the  meeting  was  begun,  and  during  an 
address  which  scathed  the  Americans  for  their 
"  institution  "  of  slavery.  He  was  announced  the 
next  speaker,  and  secured  for  himself  a  hearty 
welcome  by  the  following  exordium  :  — 

"  My  lord,  twenty  clays  ago  I  was  taken  by  the  tug 
'  Hercules '  from  the  quay  in  New  York  to  the  good 
ship  '  Samson,'  lying  in  the  stream.  Thus,  my  lord, 
^  going  from  strength  to  strength,  from  mythology  to 
Scripture,  —  by  the  good  hand  of  the  Lord  I  w.is 
brought  to  your  shores  just  in  time  to  reach  this 
house,  and  to  enter,  in  the  midst  of  the  burning  de- 
nunciations of  my  beloved  country  that  have  fallen 
from  the  lips  of  tlie  gentleman  who  just  sat  down. 
He  has  reproiiehed  that  country  for  the  existence  of 
slavery,  which  I  abhor  as  much  as  he.  But  he  did 
not  tell  you,  my  lord,  tliat,  when  we  revolted  from 
your  government,  one  of  the  reasons  alleged  was  the 
tact  that  your  king  had  forced  that  odious  institution 
upon  us  in  spite  of  our  remonstrances,  and  that  the 
original  sin  rests  with  you  and  your  fathers."  [Hav- 
ing adduced  from  memory  the  well-known  facts  of 
history  to  prove  this  position,  he  continued],  "And 
now,  my  lord,  instead  of  indulging  in  mutual  re- 
proaches, I  propose  that  the  gentleman  shall  be 
Shem,  and  I  will  be  Japheth,  and,  taking  the  mantle 
of  charity,  we  will  walk  backward  and  cover  the 
nakedness  of  our  common  ancestor." 

Theeffect  was  instantaneous  and  overwhelming. 

He  was  professor  of  p.astoral  theology  at  Au- 
burn, 1834  to  1837,  but  in  the  latter  year  a»cept- 
ed  a  call  to  the  Finst  Presbyterian  Cliurch  of 
Brooklyn,  and  there  remained  until  18.54,  when 
his  voice  failed,  and  ho  resigned,  and  moved  to 
Oswego,  N.Y.  During  tlie  last  twelve  years  of 
his  life  he  lived  in  retirement.  He  left  no  works 
of  any  consequence  behind  him;  but  his  genera- 
tion remembers  his  remarkable  s.ayings,  such  as 
the  opening  of  liis  pr.ayer  as  moderator  of  the 
General  Assembly  (New  School)  in  Philadelphia, 
1846  :  "  O  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  thou  art  the  ne  plus 
ultra  of  our  desire,  the  sine  qua  mm  of  our  faith, 
and  the  ullima  Thute  of  our  hope  ;  "  and  his  chai'- 
acterization  of  the  letters  D.l).  after  a  name  as 
"setui-Iunar  fardels." 

CRABBE,  George,  poet;  b.  AUleburgh,  Suf- 
folk, Dec.  24,  1751;  d.  at  Trowbridge,  Feb.  3, 
1832.  His  career  was  somewhat  checkered.  Edu- 
cated .OS  a  surgeon,  he  abandoned  his  ])rofession 
in  1780,  and  for  a  time  was  a  literary  adventurer 
in  London,  where  he  endured  much  suffering 
until  he  won  the  patron.age  of  Edmund  Iturke, 
and  was  enabled  to  publish  The  Lihrarii  (\~^\). 
By  the  help  of  Thurlow  he  entered  the  Church  ; 
and,  although  ho  never  rose  to  fame  or  position 


as  a  preacher,  he  enjoyed  the  esteem  of  his  pa- 
rishioners. In  1783  he  issued  The  Village,  his  first 
great  success.  His  poems  are  still  read.  Though 
religious  in  their  tone,  few  of  them  are  suited  for 
singing  as  hymns.  See  his  Complete  Works,  with 
Memoirs  bij  his  Son,  London,  1834,  8  vols.,  reprint 
in  1  vol.,  1867. 

CRADOCK,  Samuel,  a  nonconformist  divine; 
b.  1020;  d.  at  Bishop's  Stortford,  in  Hertfordshire, 
Oct.  7,  1706.  He  was  educated  at  Emmanuel 
College,  Cambridge;  became  a  fellow  ;  was  eject- 
ed in  1662  from  his  living  at  North  Cadbury  in 
Somersetshire.  He  wrote  Knowledge  and  Practice, 
London,  1659,  4th  ed.  with  eight  new  chapters, 
1702;  The  Apostolical  History,  1672;  The  History 
of  the  Old  7'eslament  methodised,  1683,  in  Latin, 
at  Leyden,  1685;  Harmony  of  the  Four  Evangel- 
ists, 1668;  Exposition  of  the  Revelation,  1690. 

CRAIG,  John,  one  of  the  Scotch  reformers;  b. 
1513;  d.  in  Edinburgh,  Dee.  12,  1600.  He  was  a 
Dominican  monk,  but,  converted  by  Calvin's  In- 
stitutes, condemned  by  the  Inquisition  in  Rome  to 
be  burnt  for  heresy.  The  execution  was  stayed  by 
the  death  of  Pope  P.aul  IV. ;  and  the  mob  opened 
his  prison,  and  he  escaped.  He  returned  to  Scot- 
land, became  the  colleague  of  John  Knox,  wrote 
the  National  Corenant  in  1580,  and  compiled  part 
of  the  Second  Book  of  Disciplitie. 

CRAIG,  John,  d.  in  Loudon,  Oct.  11,  1731; 
author  of  the  extraordinary  TheologioB  ChrU- 
tianm  Principia  ^Fathematini,  London,  1699, 
reprinted,  with  a  learned  preface,  at  Leipzig,  1755, 
in  which  he  endeavors  "  to  calculate  the  duration 
of  moral  evidence,  and  the  authority  of  histori- 
cal facts.  By  this  mode  the  author  attempts  to 
show  that  the  proofs  of  the  Christian  religion 
will  cease  in  a  certain  number  of  years  in  propor- 
tion as  the  force  of  the  testimony  decays."  Ac- 
cording to  his  reasoning,  Christianity  will  last 
until  3144,  and  then  disappear,  "  unless  the  sec- 
ond coming  of  Christ  prevent  its  extinction." 

CRAKENTHORPE,  Richard,  b.  at  Strickland, 
in  Westmoreland,  1507;  fellow  of  Queen's  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  1598 ;  d.  at  his  rectory  of  Black 
Notley,  in  Essex,  1624.  His  fame  rests  on  his 
controversial  writings:  Popish  Falsifications,  Lon- 
don, 1607;  A  Defence  of  Justinian,  1616;  The  De- 
fence of  Constantine,  u'ith  a  Treatise  on  the  Pope's 
Temporal  Monarchic,  1621 ;  Defensio  Ecclesias  An- 
(/licantr,  1625,  republished  in  the  Library  ofAnglo- 
'Cathnlic  Theology,  Oxford,  1847. 

CRAMER,  Johann  Andreas,  b.  <at  Jtihstiidt,  Sax- 
ony, Jan.  -27,  1723;  d.  at  Kiel,  June  12,  1788; 
studied  theology  at  Leipzig,  and  took  his  degree 
of  magisler  in  1745;  became  p.astor  of  Crellwitz 
in  174X,  and  of  Quedlinburg  in  1750;  was  in  17.54 
invited  to  Copenhagen  as  court-preacher  to  the 
Danish  king;  removed  in  1771  to  Liibeck  as 
superintendent;  and  was  in  1774  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  Kiel,  and  in  17>>4  ch.ancellor 
of  the  university.  His  character  as  a  theologian 
is  that  of  a  jiopularizer  of  rationalism,  and  the 
means  ho  employed  were  those  ot  a  mistaken 
poet.  But  the  almost  incomprehensible!  pathos 
with  which  ho  jireaehed  about  virtue  .as  the  safest 
ste]iping-stono  to  happiness,  and  the  almost  nau- 
seous sentimentality  with  which  he  expounded 
the  beauties  of  the  liible  as  the  noblest  a'sthetical 
and  literary  enjoyments,  corresponded  exactly  to 
the  taste  ot  the  time ;  and  he  exercised  a  consid- 


CRANMBR. 


567 


CRATO  VON  CRAFFTHEIM. 


erable  influence,  both  in  Germany  and  Denmark, 
though  his  writings  —  Sermons  (22  vols.,  1755-71), 
Poems  (4  vols.,  1782-91),  Translations  of  Chrys- 
ostom  (10  vols.,  1748-51),  Bossuet  (7  vols.,  1757- 
86),  the  Psalms  in  verse  (4  vols.,  1702-03)  —  have 
fallen  into  oblivion.  Clemens  Petersen. 

CRANMER,  Thomas,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bery;  b.  at  Aslacton,  Nottinghamshire,  July  2, 
1489;  burnt  at  the  stake  in  OxforJ,  iVlarcli  21, 
1556.  He  was  appointed  fellow  of  Jesus  College, 
Cambridge,  1510  or  1511;  married,  and  lost  wife 
and  child  in  a  year,  before  152.'J ;  ordained  priest 
1523;  made  D.D.  1523;  met  Henry  VIII.  1529, 
and  by  him  commissioned  to  prepare  a  work 
upon  divorce,  which  should  show,  that,  inasnmch 
as  Henry's  marriage  with  Catharine  of  Ai-agon 
was  with  his  brother's  widow,  it  was  illegal  and 
therefore  void,  and  hence  the  king  was  released 
from  it,  and  might  marry  whom  he  pleased,  the  pa- 
pal bull  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding.  In  Jan- 
\iary,1530,  he  accompanied  the  embassy  to  Bologna, 
and  in  Rome  offered  to  dispute  in  the  king's  favor 
upon  this  point  before  the  Pope.  For  his  services 
he  henceforth  stood  high  in  the  king's  favor,  and 
was  consecrated  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  ISIarcli 
30,  1533.  In  this  spiritual  capacity  he  pronounced 
the  king's  marriage  with  Catharine  of  Aragon 
null  and  void,  and  crowned  Anne  Boleyn,  whom 
the  king  had  secretly  married,  queen  in  her  stead  ; 
but  in  1536  he  pronounced  this  latter  marriage 
null  and  void,  and  went  again  through  the  farce 
of  marrying  the  king  to  Anne  of  Cleves,  and  then 
dissolving  tlie  bonds,  July,  1540.  In  1541  he 
disclosed  to  the  king  the  infidelity  of  Queen 
Catharine  Howard.  He  was  regent  for  Edward 
VI.,  under  whom  he  hastened  the  Reformation 
in  the  Church.  He  supported  the  claims  of  Lady 
Jane  Grey,  although  Mary  was  the  rightful  heir. 
For  this  conduct  5lary  hated  him,  and  his  doom 
was  determined  upon.  He  was  tried  upon  the 
counts  of  treason  and  heresy.  But  the  first  was 
abandoned,  and  he  was  condemned  to  death  on 
the  second.  In  his  cell  he  was  visited  by  emissa- 
ries who  promised  him  life  and  liberty  if  he  would 
recant.  He  consented,  and  six  times  humiliated 
himself,  each  time  more  than  before.  At  length, 
on  Saturday,  March  21,  1556,  Cranmer,  no  longer 
archbishop,  a  prisoner  condenmed,  stood  in  St. 
Mary's  Church,  Oxford,  in  order  to  make  the 
public  recantation  which  he  had  promised.  But, 
to  the  amazement  of  all,  he  declared  that  he 
repented  more  of  his  recantations  than  of  all  the 
acts  of  his  life,  and  so,  as  his  riglit  hand  had 
offended,  that  should  first  be  burnt.  He  held 
the  hand  in  the  flames,  ciying  out,  "  This  liand 
hath  offended,  this  unworthy  hand." 

Cranmer  is  not  a  hero,  but  does  not  deserve  the 
severe  censure  of  IMacaulay.  He  was  the  man 
for  his  times,  and  by  his  pliancy  preserved  the 
cause  of  the  Reformation,  through  a  reign  of  ter- 
ror, for  better  times.  Yet  he  did  not  make  a 
very  thorough  work  of  reform  when  he  had  op- 
portunity, although  he  introduced  the  important 
novelty  of  an  English  Liturgy  in  1544.  During 
Edward's  reign  he  circulated  the  Bible,  sanctioned 
the  marriage  of  priests,  and  reduced  the  mass  to 
the  Protestant  communion. 

His  writings  relate  exclusively  to  Reformation 
questions,  evince  wide  reading,  but  no  profound 
thought.     Yet,  by  his  mastery  of  the  thoughts  of 


others,  Cranmer  made  a  very  skilful  and  influen- 
tial advocate  of  tlie  truth.  He  is  the  principal 
author  of  the  Thirty-nine  (at  first  forty-two) 
Articles  of  Religion,  and  of  the  Anglican  Prayer- 
Book  (in  its  Englisii  dress),  which  are  the  noblest 
and  most  enduring  monuments  of  his  labors. 

Lit.  —  Remains  of  Archbishop  Cranmer,  CoUecied 
and  Arranged  by  Rev.  II.  Jenkyns,  Oxford,  1834, 
4  vols.  ;  Sthypk  :  Memorials  of  Cranmer,  Oxford, 
1840,  2  vols.,  and  hy  Eccl.Hisl.  Soc,  Oxford,  1847- 
!54,  4  vols.;  'Todd  :  Life  of  Cranmer,  London,  1831, 
2  vols. ;  Le  Bas  :  Life  of  Cranmer,  London,  1833,  2 
vols.,  reprint  N.Y.,  1  vol.  The  Parker  Society 
has  republished  Cranmer's  Writings  and  Disputa- 
•lions  relative  to  the  Sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
Cambridge,  1844,  and  Miscellaneous  Writings  and 
Letters,  1840,  together,  2  vols.  8vo. 

CRASHAW,  Richard,  b.  in  London,  1613;  d. 
at  Loretto,  Italy,  1050.  The  son  of-  a  fiery  anti- 
Romanist,  and  educated  at  Cambridge,  he  was 
ejected  from  his  fellowship  in  Peterhouse  College, 
1044,  fled  to  France,  embraced  the  Roman-Catho- 
lic religion,  in  1046  became  secretary  to  Cardinal 
Palotta,  and  in  1650  a  canon  of  the  Holy  House 
of  Loretto.  There  is  no  religious  poetry  in 
English  so  full  at  once  of  gross  and  awkward 
images  and  imaginative  touches  of  the  most  ethe- 
real beauty.  The  faults  and  beauties  of  his  very 
peculiar  style  can  be  stuilied  best  in  the  Hymn  to 
St.  Theresa.  His  poems,  in  Latin  and  English, 
were  first  collected  in  one  volume  by  W.  B.  Turn- 
bull,  London,  1858 :  a  private  edition,  in  two 
volumes,  was  published  in  1872,  edited  by  the 
Rev.  A.  B.  Grosavt. 

CRATO  VON  CRAFFTHEIM  (Johannes  Krafft), 
b.  at  Breslau,  Xov.  22,  1519;  d.  there  Oct.  19, 
1585;  entered  in  1534  the  University  of  AVitten- 
berg  to  study  theology,  and  lived  for  six  years  in 
the  house  of  Luther,  where  he  also  formed  an  in- 
timate friendship  with  Melanclithon.  His  feeble 
healtli,  which  made  it  difficult  for  him  to  preach, 
induced  him  to  give  up  the  tlieological  career, 
and  from  1543  to  1549  he  studied  medicine  at 
Leipzig  and  Padua.  In'  1560  he  was  appointed 
city-physician  in  Breslau ;  aiul  his  ciu'es  and  writ- 
ings rapidly  made  such  a  fame  for  him,  that  in 
1560  he  was  called  to  Vienna  as  body-physician 
to  the  emperor.  He  was  made  an  Imperial  Coun- 
cillor, ennobled,  etc.,  and,  both  under  Ferdinand 
I.  and  JIaximilian  II.,  he  exercised  great  influ- 
ence. Under  Rudolph  II.  he  was  for  a  short  time 
dismissed ;  but  he  was  speedily  recalled  and  re- 
mained till  1581,  when  he  retired  into  private 
life.  His  stay  at  the  court  of  Vienna  was  of  tho 
greatest  importance  for  the  cause  of  the  Reforma- 
tion in  Austria.  All  the  intrigues  of  Bishop 
Hoseus  and  the  Jesuits  he  baffled,  and  it  was  not 
until  after  the  death  of  Maximilian  II.,  and  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Rudolph  II., 
that  the  Jesuits  really  gained  the  ascendency. 
He  exercised,  also,  considerable  influence  on  the 
development  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany. 
He  belonged  originally  to  the  JMelanchthonian 
school,  and  fouglit  with  gi-eat  zeal  against  the  Fla, 
cians ;  but  gradually  he  was  won  completely  oyei 
by  the  Reformed  Church ;  and  the  troubles  which 
disturbed  liis  last  days  arose,  not  from  his  being 
a  Protestant,  but  from  his  being  a  Calvinist.  See 
Henschel  :  Crato  von  Crafftheim's  Leben  und 
drztliches  Wirlen,  Breslau,  1853 ;   Gillet  :  Crato 


CRAWFORD. 


568 


CREATION. 


von  Craffiheim  und  seine  Freunde,  Francfort,  1860, 
2  vols.  GILLET. 

CRAWFORD,  Thomas  Jackson,  D.D.,  b.  at 
St.  Andrews,  Scotland,  in  1812,  where  his  father 
was  professor  of  moral  philosophy,  having  been 
the  immediate  predecessor  of  Dr.  Thomas  Chal- 
mers. As  a  minister  of  the  Established  Church, 
he  filled  successively  the  charges  of  Cults  in  Fife, 
Glamis  in  Perthshire,  and  St.  Andrews  in  Edin- 
burgh. On  the  death  of  Dr.  John  Lee,  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Divinity  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh.  His  principal  works  were  on  the 
Atonement,  and  on  the  Fatherhood  of  God. 
On  the  former  subject  he  maintains  the  old 
Calvinistic  doctrine,  and  criticises  the  modern 
theories  of  Bushnell,  Robertson  of  Brighton, 
Young,  and  others.  On  the  subject  of  the 
Fatherhood  he  controverts  certain  views  main- 
tained by  Dr.  Candlish  in  his  Cunningham  Lec- 
tures on  that  subject.  He  died  in  (ienoa,  Oct. 
11,  1875.  [His  books  are  :  The  Fatherhood  of 
God,  considered  in  its  General  and  Special  Aspects, 
and  particularly  in  Relation  to  the  Atonement,  with 
a  Review  of  Recent  Speculations  on  the  Subject, 
(with  reply  to  Dr.  Candlish),  Edinburgh,  1806, 
2d  ed.,  1868;  The  Doctrine  of  Holy  Scripture 
respecting  (he  Atonement,  Edinburgh,  1871,  3d  ed., 
1880  ;  The  Mysteries  of  Clirislianity  (being  the 
Baird  Lecture  for  1874),  Edinburgh,  1874  ;  The 
Preaching  of  the  Cross,  and  other  Sermons,  Edin- 
burgh, 1876.]  W.  G.  BLAIKIE. 

CREATION.  One  of  the  points  in  which  Juda- 
ism differs  most  conspicuously  from  the  Pagan- 
ism of  antiquity  is  its  cosmogony,  —  its  doctrine 
of  a  creation  out  of  nothing,  and  progressing 
through  six  days.  The  Paganism  of  antiquity 
has  nothing  which  shows  even  a  distant  resem- 
blance with  such  an  idea.  Stoicism  is  the  true 
precursor  of  modern  monism.  God  and  the 
world,  force  and  matter,  are  absolutely  one,  and 
every  trace  of  dualism  is  anxiously  avoided.  Pla- 
tonism  is  dualistic;  but  its  dualism  has  something 
of  the  vagueness  of  a  dream.  God  is  not  wholly 
immerged  in  the  world,  the  idea  in  matter.  Yet 
the  world  is  eternal,  like  God :  matter  is  eternal, 
like  the  idea.  Creation  is  only  an  informing  pro- 
cess of  the  idea  in  matter,  a  formative  activity 
of  God  in  the  world. 

Adopted  by  Christianity,  the  Hebrew  doctrine 
of  creation  became  the  very  basis  of  the  Christian 
view  of  nature.  But  Christianity  is  a  living 
growth,  and  not,  like  Judaism  or  Islaniism,  a  mere 
crystallization.  The  Christian  view  of  nature 
receives  perpetually  new  impulses  from  the  sci- 
ence of  nature,  and  thus  it  came  to  pass,  that,  in 
course  of  time,  the  doctrine  of  creation  under- 
went numerous  modification.s,  though  modifica- 
tions of  interpn'tution  only.  The  keynote  was 
retained,  though  the  harmonies  into  which  it  was 
developed  were  very  various.  Indeed,  the  history 
of  the  doctrine  of  creation  is  for  many  centuries 
the  history  of  natural  science. 

Down  to  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century  the 
Christian  view  of  nature  was  more  or  less  influ- 
enced by  I'liilo  and  the  Alexandrian  school.  In 
the  two  first  centuries  the  Christian  apologists 
and  polemists  were  occupied  with  refuting  the 
theories  of  emanation,  and  the  vague  dualism 
held  by  the  I'agans  and  the  Gnostical  sects ;  but 
most  of  their  writings  are  lost.     TertuUiau's  Ad. 


versus  Hermogenem,  however,  gives  a  good  in- 
stance. Hermogenes  denied  the  creation  out  of 
nothing,  because,  in  that  case,  God  would  also 
have  been  the  creator  of  evil.  Tertullian  refuted 
him.  •  With  Origen  the  influence  of  Philo  became 
visible.  His  great  commentary  on  Genesis  is 
lost,  with  the  exception  of  some  fragments ;  but 
a  homily  by  hiin  on  the  Creation  is  still  extant  in 
a  Latin  translation ;  and  this  work,  together  with 
various  passages  in  his  De  Principiis  and  Adversus 
Celsum,  give  a  complete  representation  of  his 
views.  The  principle  of  the  biblical  narrative 
he  retains;  but  the  details  he  transforms  from 
facts  into  symbols.  The  act  of  the  creation  was 
the  work  of  one  moment,  and  the  progressive 
succession  of  the  biblical  representation  is  an 
accommodation  to  the  wants  of  the  human  under- 
standing. The  separation  between  the  dry  earth 
and  the  sea  on  the  third  daj'  means  the  separa- 
tion between  the  good  works  a  man  does  and  the 
wild  waves  of  his  passions,  etc.  From  Origen 
this  method  of  allegorization  spread  widely  in  the 
Eastern  Church.  In  the  Western  Church,  Au- 
gustine occupies  the  principal  place  among  the 
writers  on  Christian  cosmogony.  In  his  earlier 
commentary.  De  Genesi  contra  Manichaos,  as  well 
as  in  books  XI. -XIII.  of  his  Confessiones,  and  book 
XX.  of  his  De  Cicitate  Dei,  where  he  also  treats 
the  subject,  a  method  of  allegorization  is  applied 
not  essentially  different  from  that  of  Origen 
and  the  Eastern  Church ;  but  in  his  great  com- 
mentary De  Genesi  ad  Literam  the  allegory  often 
assumes  the  character  of  casuistry.  Like  Lactan- 
tius  and  Ambrose,  Augustine  was  well  versed  in 
natural  science.  He  knew  what  was  known  in  his 
time,  and  he  applies  his  knowledge  with  great 
boldness.  Doubts  and  objections  are  heaped  up 
in  the  form  of  questions.  Were  the  venomous 
animals  and  the  beasts  of  prey  created  before  the 
fall  of  man,  or  after?  Why  were  only  terrestrial 
animals,  and  no  fishes  or  marine  animals,  present 
in  Paradise  when  Adam  named  the  animals?  etc. 
The  questions  are  often  more  subtle  than  the  an- 
swers are  satisfactory.  In  the  track  of  Augustine 
followed  all  the  commentators  down  to  the  time 
of  Beda. 

During  the  middle  ages,  from  the  eighth  cen- 
tury to  the  period  of  the  Reformation,  the  whole 
range  of  theology,  its  exegesis  as  well  as  its  dog- 
matics, was  under  the  sway  of  the  Aristotelian 
philosophy  ;  and  the  influence  is  conspicuous  also 
in  the  manner  in  whicli  the  doctrine  of  creation 
was  treated,  both  by  the  mystics  and  the  scholas- 
tics. Of  Hugo  of  St.  Victor,  the  father  and 
representative  of  French  mysticism,  two  exposi- 
tions of  the  dogma  of  creation  are  still  extant, — 
one  in  his  Annolationes  Elucidatorinio  the  Penta- 
teuch, and  one  in  tlie  opening  chapters  of  his  De 
Sacr<tnii:ntis  Fidei.  The  idea  of  an  instantaneous 
creation,  introduced  by  Origen,  and  retained  by 
Augustine,  ho  abandons,  and  follows  strictly  the 
biblical  narrative  in  its  progression  from  one  day 
to  another,  introducing  at  each  stage  a  chapter 
of  natural  history,  forme<l  after  the  Ari-stotelian 
method  of  classification  and  description,  but  modi- 
fied by  an  addition  of  a  peculiar  moral  mysti- 
cism. Curious  is  his  exposition  of  the  creation, 
on  the  first  day,  of  the  primitive  light  as  a  radi- 
ant cloud  rising  above  the  earth,  and  throwing 
a  dim  light  over  chaos;  and,  on  the  fourth  day. 


CREATION. 


569 


CREATIONISM. 


of  the  sun  whicli  is  made  out  of  tht'  radiant 
cloud  by  a  kind  of  traiisforitiation  similar  to  that 
which  took  place  at  Cana  when  Jesus  made  wine 
out  of  watnr.  Quite  another  character,  and  yet 
not  without  a  certain  air  de  Jhmillc,  show  the  Li- 
bri  Sentenliarum  by  Petrus  Louibardus,  the  true 
representative  of  mediaeval  scholasticism.  P^very 
trace  of  subjective  mysticism,  or  of  merely  indi- 
vidual conviction,  has  disapi)eared  :  the  founda- 
tion of  the  whole  buildinc;  is  the  tradition  of 
the  Church;  and  the  great  problem  is,  by  means 
of  the  huge  engine  of  the  Aristotelian  logic,  to 
bring  all  the  various  elements  of  the  tradition 
into  harmony  with  each  other.  It  is  principally 
Augustine,  Heda,  Alcuin,  and  Hugo  of  .St.  Victor, 
from  whom  Petrus  Lombardus  draws  in  his  expo- 
sition of  the  dogma  of  creation.  Augustine's 
view  of  a  simultaneous  creation  of  the  whole 
world  in  one  instant  he  mentions,  praises,  and 
then  cautiously  drops  as  not  conformable  to  the 
tradition  of  the  Church.  The  works  of  the  later 
schoolmen  consist,  with  regard  to  the  dogma  of 
creation,  to  a  great  extent,  simply  in  comtuenting 
upon  the  sentences  of  Petrus  Lomliardus. 

Contemporary  with  the  Reformation,  there 
opens  a  new  era  also  in  the  history  of  natural 
science.  The  Spanish  and  Portuguese  discov- 
eries in  the  latter  piart  of  the  fifteenth  and  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  centuries  completely 
changed  the  ruling  view  of  the  form  of  the  earth  : 
there  were  antipodes.  As  completely,  Coperni- 
cus changed  the  ruling  view  of  the  position  of 
the  earth  in  the  universe :  the  system  was  helio- 
centric. The  old  idea  of  the  earth  as  a  flat  disk 
covered  with  a  semicircular  expanse  of  crystal, 
on  which  the  sun  and  the  moon  and  the  stars 
were  moving,  had  to  give  way;  and  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  it  began  to  provoke  a  smile.  But 
however  great  the  change  was,  it  seems  not  to 
have  affected  the  truly  religious  people  in  any 
great  degree.  Luther,  though  utterly  averse  to 
the  Copernican  system,  wrote  his  great  commen- 
tary on  Genesis,  and  Calvin  wrote  his,  without 
coming  into  any  conflict  witli  natural  science. 
Indeed,  the  enemy  which  the  new  science  of  na- 
ture had  to  encounter  was  not  the  Church  as 
such,  still  less  the  Church  in  the  nobler  and 
truer  sense  of  the  word,  but  the  old  science  of 
nature,  the  Aristotelian  influence,  the  scholasti- 
cism which  had  made  itself  a  part  of  the  Church, 
and  thereby  had  come  into  iiossession  of  a  great 
power.  In  all  the  bitter  attacks  which  were  made 
upon  the  new  science  of  nature,  it  was  not  the 
Church  which  struck  the  blows,  but  the  old  sci- 
ence of  nature;  and  it  could  strike  with  so  much 
the  more  effect  as  it  had  succeeded  in  making 
people  believe  that  its  case  was  also  the  case  of 
the  Church.  This  was  a  mistake,  however.  There 
was  no  real  antagonism  between  the  tendencies 
and  results  of  the  new  science  and  the  true  doc- 
trines of  the  Church.  On  the  contrary,  the  only 
influence  which  thi^  revival  of  the  study  of  nature 
in  the  period  of  the  Reformation  can  be  said  to 
have  had  on  the  expositions  of  the  dogma  of 
creation  is,  that  the  commentators  began  to  keep 
more  closely  to  the  w'ords  of  the  biblical  narra- 
tive, and  to  avoid  more  carefully  any  trace  of  alle- 
gorization.  But  there  came  a  time  when  natural 
science  felt  called  upon  to  construct  a  doctrine 
of  creation ;  and  from  that  moment  the  middle  of 


tile  eighteenth  ccntur}',  until  our  time,  a  more  or 
le.ss  noisy  controversy  has  gone  on  bftween  the 
orthodox  Jiarty  of  the  Church  and  the  radical 
students  of  natural  philosophy. 

It  was,  in  the  beginning,  chiefly  from  the  sci- 
ence of  geology  that  the  arguments  against  the 
biblical  representation  were  drawn.  Evidences 
dei-ived  from  the  most  authentic  document  (the 
earth  itself),  and  by  the  most  infallible  method 
(scientific  observation),  were  marched  up  to  show, 
that,  instead,  of  a  creation  in  .six  days,  there  was, 
indeed,  a  progressive  development  through  huge 
periods.  The  scriptural  narrative  was  ridiculed 
as  childish;  and  captious  questions  were  put  to 
those  w  ho  still  adhered  to  its  very  letters.  These 
attacks  from  the  geologists  were  met  on  one  side 
with  great  coolness.  "  When  God  made  the 
rocks,"  there  was  answered,  "he  also  made  the  fos- 
sils embedded  in  them."  Especially  the  English 
literature  is  rich  in  instances  of  people  obstinate- 
ly refusing  to  acknowledge  that  geological  evi- 
dences have  or  can  have  any  bearing  on  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  biblical  representation  of  creation. 
See  Henry  Cole  :  Popular  Gcoloyi/  suhrcrsii-e 
of  Divine  Revelation:  Geohge  Youxg  :  Geolotpj  of 
Scripture;  Petei!  Macfarlane:  Exposure  of 
the  Principles  of  lilodern  Geoloipj,  etc.,  —  all  from 
the  third  decade  of  the  present  century.  On  the 
other  side  it  was  urged  that  the  geological  evi- 
dences contradicted  only  the  exterior  form  of  the 
biblical  view,  its  a'sthctieal  costume,  not  its  inner 
religious  idea ;  and,  on  the  basis  of  this  vague 
and  yielding  proposition,  the  biblical  narrative 
was  represented  and  treated  as  a  kind  of  poetry, 
as  a  myth.  Variously  developed  instances  of 
this  method  are  frequent  in  German  literature : 
Schleiermacher,  Paulu.s,  Strauss,  ;\Iarheinecke, 
Bretschneider,  etc.  Meanwhile  attempts  were 
also  made  to  reconcile  the  two  antagonists,  and 
that  in  a  double  way,  —  first  by  tlie  theory  of  resti- 
tution, then  by  direct  harmonizing.  The  former 
method,  the  theory  of  restitution,  tries  to  accom- 
plish the  reconciliation  by  placing  the  geological 
periods  as  a  development  of  chaos  independent  of, 
though  sometimes  co-ordinate  with,  the  creation, 
and  was  adopted  both  by  the  rationalists,  Rosen- 
miiller,  Michaelis,  etc.,  and  the  theosophists  of 
.Schelling's  school,  Martin,  Baader,  etc.  The  di- 
rect harmonization  was  first  tried  by  Cuvier,  but 
further  developed  by  Buckland  and  Lyell,  and 
found  its  completion  in  Hugh  Miller;  Foot- 
prints of  the  Creator  (1852).  But,  shortly  after, 
the  whole  question  received  a  new  point  by  the 
.appearance  of  Da  u win's  Ori/jin  of  Species,  and 
the  rise  of  the  theory  of  evolution,  —  a  phase  of 
the  question  which  is  still  under  treatment.  See 
Evolution. 

Lit.  —  ZiicKLER:  Theologie  und  Naturwissen- 
sckafl,  GUtersloh,  1877-79,  2  vols.,  a  very  elabor- 
ate representation  of  the  historical  development 
of  the  whole  question,  from  wliicli  the  above  arti- 
cle is  derived. 

CREATIONISM  denotes  one  of  the  three  theo- 
ries of  the  origin  of  the  human  spirit :  traducian- 
ism  and  pre-existenceare  the  two  others.  In  his 
commentary  on  the  Canticles,  Origen  describes 
these  theories  thus :  "  The  question  is,  first, 
whether  the  human  spirit  is  created,  or  has  ex- 
isted from  the  beginning  (pre-existence)  ;  next, 
if  created,  whether  it  was  created  once  for  all. 


CREATIONISM. 


570 


CREED. 


and  connected  in  such  a  way  with  the  body  as  to 
be  propagated,  along  with  it,  by  natural  genera- 
tion (traducianism),  or  whether  it  is  created  suc- 
cessively, and,  in  each  individual  case,  added 
from  without,  in  order  to  vivify  the  body  forming 
in  the  womb  (creationism)." 

The  first  of  these  theories  (pre-existence)  origi- 
nated with  Plato.  lie  taught  that  all  human 
souls  had  existed  from  the  very  beginning, 
though  only  in  the  realm  of  potentiality.  Still 
and  silent  they  sleep  there,  until  they,  one  by 
one,  through  the  birth  of  a  child,  enter  into  the 
realm  of  actuality.  Origen  adopted  this  theory, 
and  introduced  it  into  Christian  theology.  It 
was  widely  accepted  throughout  the  Eastern 
Church.  The  christological  development,  how- 
ever, after  the  Council  of  Xicaja,  made  the  view 
almost  untenable;  for  when  two  natures  are  as- 
sumed in  Christ,  a  divine  and  a  human,  what 
can  be  the  relation  in  the  pre-existence  between 
his  divine  and  his  human  spirit  V  The  final 
condemnation  of  Origen,  under  Justinian,  threw 
a  still  deeper  shadow  over  Ids  ideas.  Yet  the 
theory  of  the  pre-existence  of  the  soul  was  still 
held  by  the  last  of  the  father.s,  Maximus,  and  by 
tlie  first  of  the  schoolmen,  John  Scotus  Erigena; 
and  it  has  recently  been  revived  within  the  new- 
rationalistic  school  of  theology  in  Sweden.  Its 
able  and  eloquent  champion,  Viktor  Ilydberg, 
protests  that  it  forms  the  basis  of  the  whole 
psychology,  morals,  and  eschatology  of  the  New 
Testament.  Julius  Jliiller,  in  his  great  work  on 
the  Doctrine  of  Sin,  defends  the  pre-existence  in 
order  to  explain  the  problem  of  hereditary  guilt. 
Dr.  Edward  Beechei',  in  his  Conflict  of  Aj/cs, 
advocated  the  same  view  in  America.  But  the 
origin  of  sin  is  thus  only  put  back  to  prehistoric 
times,  not  explained. 

In  the  AVesterii  Churcli  traducianism  was  for 
some  time  the  pre\ailing  view.  It  was  first 
taught  by  Tertullian,  who,  from  the  palpable 
unity  of  the  human  race,  and  the  easily  observed 
propagation  per  traducem  of  qualities  and  pro- 
]iensities,  not  to  say  of  virtues  and  vices,  from 
parents  to  children,  inferred  that  the  human 
soul,  once  created  ip.  Adam,  naturally  propagated 
itself  along  with  the  body  by  generation.  But 
this  tlieory,  whicli  corresponds  so  well  with  the 
jieculiar  materialism  of  Tertullian,  —  he  protests 
that  every  thing  real  nmst  have  a  body,  and  he 
consequently  ascribes  materiality,  not  only  to  the 
soul,  but  also  to  God  {iJi,  Aniinii,  chai'.  9),  —  was 
unable  to  satisfy  the  deepest  religious  instincts 
of  mankind;  and,  as,  the  theoiy  of  the  pre-ex- 
istence of  tlie  soul  iiad  become  untenable,  on 
account  of  the  above-mentioned  christological 
difficulties,  creationism  grailually  developed,  aiul 
came,  though  without  any  formal  or  official 
declaration,  to  be  considered  the  orlhoilox  view, 
both  in  the  Eastern  and  in  the  AVestern  Church. 
])uring  the  Pelagian  controversy  the  question 
was  nnich  debateil ;  but  Augustine  i-efrained 
from  giving  any  definite  answer.  He  accepted 
the  premi.ses  of  traducianism,  the  unity  of  the 
liuuu'in  race,  and  tiie  transmission  of  qualities 
and  [iropen.sities  l)y  inheritance  ;  but  he  rejected 
the  conclusion,  the  materiality  of  the  soul,  and 
led  the  way  to  tlie  new  theory,  which  confined  the 
jTopagation  l)y  generation  to  the  material  sphere 
(to  the  body^,  and  assumed  a  cuncursus  divittuf, 


a  new  creation,  at  the  origin  of  each  new  indi- 
vidual. With  Jerome  and  Leo  the  Great  the 
theory  is  almost  complete ;  and  with  the  school- 
men, Anselm,  Peter  Lombard,  Thomas  Aquinas, 
and  others,  it  forms  a  conspicuous  part  of  the 
whole  theological  system.  Dr.  Charles  Hodge 
thus  states  the  arguments  for  it:  L  It  is  more 
consistent  with  the  prevailing  representations  of 
the  Scriptures,  which  is  that  the  spirit  comes 
directly  from  God;  2.  It  is  also  most  consistent 
with  the  nature  of  the  soul,  which  is  indivisible; 
3.  It  explains  the  freedom  of  Christ's  soul  from 
sin,  although  he  was  conceived  and  born  of  a 
wonuui.  T/ieoloi/i/,  ii.  pp.  70-72.  On  the  other 
hand,  traducianism  most  easily  explains  the 
problem  of  hereditary  sin,  and  has  been  adopted 
by  all  the  orthodox  Lutheran  divines.  See 
LuTHARDT:   Kompendiiim  lUr  Doriniatik,  p.  107. 

Each  of  the  three  tiieories  represents  an  ele- 
ment of  truth,  —  the  theory  of  pre-existence,  the 
ideal  pre-existence  of  man  in  the  divine  mind ; 
creationism,  God's  agency  in  the  origin  of  each 
human  soul  ;  traducianism,  the  parental  agen- 
cy. But  it  is  well  to  remember  the  woi'd  of 
Augustine  on  this  difficult  subject:  ^' Non  sum 
aiisiis  ali</iiiil  dc/inire,  quia  Jhleor  me  nescire"  ("I 
do  not  venture  to  define  a  matter  of  which  I  must 
confess  mvself  to  be  ignorant"). 

CREDENCE  TABLE,  a  table  or  shelf  on  whicli 
the  sacramental  bread  and  wine  were  put  before 
their  consecration. 

CREDNER,  Karl  August,  b.  at  Waltershausen, 
near  (Jotha,  Jan.  1(1,  17!i7 :  studied  at  Jena, 
Breslau,  and  (Jottingen  ;  lived  for  several  years 
as  a  tutor  (1821-27),  and  was  appointed  professor 
of  exegesis  at  Jena  (in  1828)  and  (in  1832)  at 
Giessen,  where  he  died  in  the  summer  of  1857. 
He  belonged  to  the  rationalistic  school  of  the- 
ology, and  his  rationalism  became  more  and 
more  conspicuous  in  his  works  as  he  grew  older. 
Nevertheless,  his  labors  as  a  biblical  critic,  espe- 
cially his  investigations  of  tlie  origin  of  the 
books  of  the  New-  Testament  and  of  the  history 
of  its  canon,  are  valuable,  not  only  on  account  of 
their  richness  of  information,  but  also  on  account 
of  the  clearness  and  objectivity  of  the  represen- 
tation. His  principal  works  are,  Beilriige  zur 
Kinlcilnnfi  in  ilie  hiliii.trlicn  Schriflen  (I.  1832,  II. 
1838),  JCinlriliiiii/  in'.t  Nctie  Trsloniml  (1830,  gen- 
erally considered  his  chief  work,  but  unfinished), 
yiur  Ges(-hlrhlc  des  Kimons  (Ilalle,  1817),  and  Ge- 
schiclile  des  nciiteslamenlliclifn  Kanon,  edited  after 
his  death  by  Volkmar,  Berlin,  ISfiO.     ZOCKLER. 

CREED.  A  creed  is  a  confession  of  faith  for 
]>ublic  use.  It  may  be  of  any  length,  and  in  any 
form.  It  may  merely  state  the  essentials  of  be- 
lief, or  the  entire  body  of  doctrine.  It  may  be 
written  or  oral,  secret  or  published.  It  nuist, 
however,  be  authoritative,  —  the  recognized  tenets 
of  the  body  from  which  it  i.ssues.  It  may  be 
professedly  limited  in  its  constituency,  or  lay 
down  the  law  for  th(!  world. 

Creeds  n<!ver  prece<lo  faith,  but  presuppose  it. 
They  emanate  from  the  inner  life  of  the  Church, 
inilcpendeutly  of  external  occasion.  They  would 
h.ave  existed,  even  if  there  had  been  no  doctrinal 
controversies.  They  are  tin;  pulses  of  tlut  spir- 
itual life.  They  are,  indeed,  not  the  foundations 
of  the.  Church;  but  they  are,  in  a  sense,  the 
cement  which  unites  the  stones  of  the  building. 


CREED. 


571 


CRISPINUS. 


Tlin  Chuicli  lias  only  one  foundation,  wliicli  is 
Christ,  lint  many  Ijuilder.s:  hence  hei'  creeds  are 
many  and  different.  The  lack  of  agreement  is 
rather  in  detail  than  in  cardinal  truth :  so,  if 
there  is  a  dissensus,  there  is  also  a  consensus ; 
and  by  both  the  Church  nnuiifcsts  her  corporate 
and  individual  life. 

A  creed  may  proceed  from  the  n;(Mu'ral  life  of 
the  Church  in  a  particular  age  witliout  any  indi- 
vidual authorship  (as  the  Ajiostles'  Creed),  or 
from  an  (.ecumenical  council  (the  Nicene  Creed), 
or  from  the  synod  of  a  particular  church  (the 
Decrees  of  the  Synod  of  Dort),  or  from  a  number 
of  divines  commissioned  for  tlic  purpose  by 
ecclesiastical  authority  (the  Thirty-Nine  Articles 
of  the  Church  of  England),  or  from  one  indi- 
vidual, who  acts  in  this  case  as  the  organ  of  his 
church  or  sect  (the  Augsburg  Confession  and 
Apology,  composed  by  Melanchthon),  the  creeds 
of  Congregational  and  Baptist  churches,  drawn 
up  by  the  pastor.  What  gives  it  binding  force 
is  the  formal  sanction  or  tacit  acquiescence  of  the 
body  it  represents.  In  the  Protestant  system 
the  creed  is  not  co-ordinate  with,  but  alicai/s 
subordinate  to,  the  Bible ;  for  in  the  best  case 
it  is  oidy  an  approximate  and  relatively  correct 
(■xposition  of  revealed  truth.  Tt  follows,  there- 
fore, that  the  creed  not  only  may  be,  but  should 
be,  improved  when  the  Church's  increased  knowl- 
edge from  the  Bible  and  Christian  experience 
<lemands  it.  The  creed  is  the  answer  of  man 
to  the  w^ord  of  God.  lie  should  be  willing  to 
give  a  better  answer  if  he  can.  The  creed  and 
till!  Bible  are  related  as  stream  and  fountain, 
'i'he  authority  of  the  latter  is  divine  and  abso- 
lute :  that  of  the  former  is  human  and  relative. 
The  Bible  regulates  the  general  religious  belief 
and  practice  of  the  laity  as  well  as  the  clergy : 
the  creed  regulates  tlie  public  teaching  of  the 
officers  of  the  Church,  just  as  constitutions  and 
tauons  regulate  her  government ;  liturgies  and 
hymn-books,  her  worship.  Any  higher  view  of 
the  authority  of  symbols  is  unprotestant  and 
essentially  Ronumizing;  for  the  Greek  and  Ro- 
man churches  regard  the  Bible  and  tradition 
;is  two  co-ordinate  sources  of  truth  and  rules  of 
faith,  and  claim  absolute  and  infallible  authority 
for  their  confessions  of  faith. 

To  the  question.  Of  what  use  are  creeds  ?  the 
answer  may  be  made,  that,  when  they  are  jiut  in 
due  subordination  to  the  Bible,  they  are  of  great 
use  as  summaries  of  the  Bible  doctrines,  aids  to 
their  sound  understanding,  bonds  of  union  among 
their  jirofessors,  public  standards,  and  guards 
against  false  doctrine  and  practice.  In  the  form 
of  catechisms  they  are  of  especial  use  in  the  in- 
.struction  of  children  and  in  the  systematic  up- 
building of  the  believer  in  the  faith.  —  Numerous 
and  by  no  means  contemptible  are  the  objections 
to  creeds.  They  are  said  to  impede  the  study  of 
the  Bible,  to  interfere  with  the  liberty  of  con- 
.science  and  the  right  of  private  judgment,  to 
produce  hypocrisy,  intolerance,  bigotry,  and  so. 
by  way  of  re-action,  dissent,  dogmatic  indiffer- 
ence, and  infidelity.  But  these  objections  apply 
particularly  to  the  creeds  of  state  churches,  and 
also,  in  a  modified  degree,  to  those  of  denomina- 
tions, if  they  are  supposed  to  have  been  written 
under  any  special  divine  guidance.  But  because 
ereeds  are  objected  to  is  no  good  reason  for  re- 


jecting them.  The  benefits  claimed  for  them 
can  be  obtained  in  no  other  way;  and  it  is  hard 
to  see  any  valid  objection  to  a  plain  and  full 
statement  of  belief,  provided  it  is  a  real  belief. 
What  luis  done  most  to  bring  creeds  into  disre- 
pute has  been  the  notorious  discreiiaucy  between 
the  actual  belief  of  a  particular  church  and  the 
creed  printed  in  its  standards.  A  church  whose 
clergy  do  not  believe  the  creed  they  profe.ss  to 
believe  has  a  plain  duty  before  it,  —  to  nuike  a 
creed  which  shall  express  their  belief. 

The  creeds  of  Christendom  may  be  divided 
into  four  classes,. —  the  tpcumenical,  and  those  of 
the  three  nuiiu  divisions  of  the  Church,  the 
Greek,  Latin,  atul  Evangelical.  The  _/ii:st  are 
concerned  chiefly  with  theology  proper  and  chris- 
tology :  they  are  the  Apostles',  Nicene,  Chalce- 
don,  and  Athanasian.  The  second  class  embrace 
those  setting  forth  the  distinctive  faith  of  the 
Greek  Church,  particularly  in  distinction  to 
Rome,  which  so  long  and  so  cunningly  tried  to 
subjugate  her:  hence  their  distinguishing  ele- 
ments concern  the  doctrine  of  the  Procession  of 
the  Holy  Sprit  and  the  Papacy.  The  third  class 
are  the  Roman  creeds,  from  the  Council  of  Trent 
(1543-63)  to  the  Council  of  the  Vatican  (1S70). 
The  foiirlli  class,  the  Evangelical,  are  the  most 
numerous,  and  are  subdivided  into  Lutheran  and 
Reformed.  These  agree  almost  entirely  in  their 
jM'incipal  tenets,  but  differ  in  their  doctrines  of 
divine  decrees  and  of  the  nature  and  efficacy  of 
the  sacraments,  especially  the  mode  of  Christ's 
presence  in  the  Lord's  Supper.  They  date  mainly 
from  befoi'e  1650.  — See  Sciiaff,  Creeds  of  C/iris- 
/eiidniii  (3  vols.),  for  further  information  and 
abundant  literature. 

CRESPIN,  Jean,  b.  at  Arras;  studied  law  at 
Louvain,  and  began  to  practise  as  an  advocate  in 
Paris,  but  embraced  Protestantism,  and  fled  in 
1.54:8  to  Geneva,  where  he  established  a  pj-inting- 
house ;  was  made  a  citizen  in  1555;  and  d.  1572. 
Like  many  other  celebrated  printers  he  was  him- 
self an  author,  and  wrote,  besides  other  books, 
L'Esliil  dc  I'Eylise  (Geneva,  1562)  and  Ilislotre 
des  Marli/rs  (Geneva,  1554),  giving  the  history  of 
the  martyrs  of  the  sixteentli  century.  The  latter 
became  a  very  famous  book,  was  translated  into 
Latin  by  Claude  Baduel,  and  repeatedly  reiirinted 
with  additions,  1570,  1619,  etc.  The  first-men- 
tioned was  translated  into  English,  T/kj  KsUile  of 
the  Church,  London,  lGt)2. 

CRIIVIINAL,  Hebrew.     .See  CouitT  and  Lkgal 

PuOIKEni-NOS    .VMONG    THE    IIebKEVVS. 

CRISP,  Tobias,  b.  in  London,  1600;  d.  there 
Feb.  27,  1643.  He  took  his  doctor's  degree  at 
Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He  was  the  leader  of 
the  Antinomi'ans,  although  personally  an  amiable 
and  benevolent  Christian.  His  closing  years 
were  ruffled  by  controversy.  After  his  death 
fourteen  of  his  sermons  were  published  under  the 
title,  Christ  Alone  Exalted,  London,  1043,  4th  ed., 
with  Memoirs  and  Notes.  1701 ;  Christ  made  Sin, 
16111  ;  new  ed.  by  Dr.  Gill,  1832.  2  vols.  Svo. 

CRISPINUS  and  CRISPINIANUS,  two  brothers 
of  a  distinguished  Roman  family;  left  Rome  in 
I  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Diocletian,  and 
\  went  to  Gaul  to  labor  for  the  conversion  of  the 
!  Pagans.  They  settled  at  Soissons,  and  main- 
i  tained  themselves,  after  the  example  of  Paul,  by 
,  the  works  of  their  hands  :  tliey  were  shoemakers. 


CRITIC!  SACRI. 


Of. 


CROMWELL. 


In  their  missionary  labor  they  seem  to  have  been 
very  successful  until  tliey  were  martyred  by  the 
Emperor  Maximiliaiius.  They  are  commemo- 
rated by  the  Uonian  Church  on  Oct.  25,  and 
venerated  as  the  jiatron  saints  of  the  shoemakers. 
See  BuTLKU  :  Llrc<  of  t lie  S(iiiil.<,  II.  pp.  21()-212. 

CRITICI  SACRI,  a  thesaurus  of  Bible  antiqui- 
ties and  exeg-esis  produced  by  combinina;  the 
labors  of  many  of  the  best  English  and  Continen- 
tal scholars  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries.  It  was  undertaken  and  published  by 
Cornelius  Bee  (London,  1C0(J,  9  vols,  folio),  a 
London  bookseller,  as  an  appendage  to  ^Valton's 
Polyglot,  under  the  direction  of  Bishop  Pearson, 
John  Pearson,  Anthony  Scattergood,  and  Francis 
Gouldman.  It  was  reprinted  at  Frankfort,  under 
the  care  of  Gurtler,  in  IGSo,  7  vols.  Best  edition. 
Crilici  Sacri,  sii-e  aiutolala  doclissimunau  riroruni 
in  Veins  uc  Nuvtnn  Teslamctiluni,  q'jiJnuf  acreilunt 
Iraclatus  varii  tlieulnyico-pliilohxjici  (9  vols.),  Et 
Thesaurus  theoltKjico-phUolotjlcns,  et  Tliesaurus Xovus 
(4  vols.),  in  all  13  vols.,  Amsterdam,  1U98-1732. 
See  Daklixg's  Cyclop.  Blhliiji).  for  table  of 
contents. 

CRITICISM,  Textual.  See  Bible  Tkxt,  New 
Testament. 

CROCIUS,  Joliann,  b.  at  Laasphe,  in  Hesse, 
July  23,  1.590  ;  d.  at  Marburg,  July  1,  10.59  ;  stood 
for  many  years  at  the  head  of  the  Church  of 
Hesse-Cassel,  which  occupied  a  distinct  position 
between  the  Conjessin  Amjustana  and  Calvinism. 
After  studying  at  Ilerborn  and  ilarburg,  he  be- 
came court-preacher  at  Cassel  in  ltJ12,  and  in 
1017  first  professor  of  theology  at  ilarburg.  But 
in  1G21  the  Duke  of  Ilesse-Darmstadt,  by  the  aid 
of  Tilly's  soldiers,  expelled  the  Reformed,  or,  as 
they  called  themselves,  Evangelical,  professors, 
from  Marburg;  and  Crocius  retired  to  Cassel, 
where  he  resided  till  after  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia. Those  of  his  writings  in  which  his 
religious  stand-point  is  best  defined  are  C'onimen- 
tiirius  tie  A  uijust.  (Confess.  (Cassel,  1017),  Illustrritio 
Dtsserlatioiiis  Osnahriii/ensls  (Cassel,  1G47),  IM  Ec- 
i-le.ii(e  Unihite  el  Scliismate  (Cassel,  10-50).  The 
most  remarkable  of  his  polemical  writings  are 
.-Inti-Ileciuius  (104:!)  and  Aiiti-Weii/eliiis  (1051). 

CROMWELL,  Oliver,  Lord-Protector  of  the 
Comni'mwi'altli  of  ICngland,  b.  at  Huntingdon, 
Ajiril  2-0,  1599;  d.  at 'Whitehall.  Sept.  :j,  "l058. 
He  studied  for  a  year  at  Cambridge  University 
(10I(i-17^,  but  left  it  on  the  di-atirof  his  father, 
and  applied  Idmself  to  law.  In  1020  he  married, 
and  settled  down  on  Ids  jiatrimonial  estate.  In 
1028  he  represented  lluntijigdon  in  Parliament, 
and  in  104O  Candoidge  in  the  famous  Long  Par- 
liament. His  sturdy  independence  was  shown  by 
his  vigorous  opposition  to  t\u-  rcjyal  interference  in 
the  drainage  of  Die.  Beclford  fens,  whicli  won  him 
the  sohrlijuet  ••  Lord  of  the  Fens."  Wlien  in  1012 
war  between  King  and  Parliament  broke  out, 
Cromw(!ll  raised  a  company  of  volunteers  to  help 
the  people's  side.  He  perceived  that  the  strengtii 
of  his  cause  lay  rather  in  its  righteousness  than 
in  the  ndlitary  skill  and  training  of  his  troops; 
and  the  more  generally  the  latter  believed  in  this 
fact,  the  more  invincible  would  they  be.  Accord- 
ingly lie  gathered  around  him  a  thou.sand  men, 
selected  on  this  jirinciple;  and  his  n^giment,  the 
famous  "  Ironsides,"  who  went  into  batth;  sing- 
ing psuhns,  justified  hia  wisdom,  for  it  was  never 


I 


beaten.  During  the  memorable  struggle  between 
the  Cavaliers  and  Roundhead.s.  Cromwell  w.as  the 
most  prominent  figure  :  and  altliough,  at  the  be- 
ginning, he  knew  nothing  of  tactics,  he  developed 
so  much  skill  that  he  defeated  the  royalists  on 
the  hard-fought  fields  of  Marston  Moor  (July  2, 
1044),  Xa.-ieby  (June  14.  1045),  and  Preston  (.\ug. 
17,  1048).  He  was  a  member  of  the  High  Court 
of  Justice  which  tried  Charles  I.,  and  as  such 
signed  the  warrant  for  his  execution,  Jan.  29, 
1049.  In  August,  1049,  he  was  nominated  lord- 
lieutenant  and  commander-in-chief  in  Ireland, 
and  by  a  strong  hand  put  down  opposition.  The 
.Scotch  Presbyterian  advocacy  of  the  royalist  side 
—  for  Prince  Charles  had  signed  the  "Co\enant, 
and  captivated  the  national  heart  —  led  to  his 
recall.  Being  made  captain-general  of  all  the 
forces  of  the  Commonwealth.  June  20.  10.50.  he 
marched  into  Scotland,  and  was  completely  suc- 
cessful, by  trusting  in  Cod,  and  keeping  his  pow- 
der dry.  The  victories  of  Dunbar  (Sept.  3,  10.50), 
of  Kd'inburgh  (Dec.  19,  10.50),  of  Perth  (Aug.  2, 
1051).  put  the  country  under  him.  The  battle  of 
Worcester,  Eiig.  (.Sept.  3,  1G51),  ended  the  wai'. 
Cromwell  returned  to  London,  and  took  up  his. 
residence  at  Hampton  Court,  Oct.  12,  10.51  ;  dis- 
solved Parliament  (which  had  become  a  mere 
"Rump,"  and  so  it  was  appropriately  called) 
April  20,  1053 ;  formed  a  Council  of  State  .Vpril 
30;  summoned  the  Little  (Barebone's)  Parlia- 
ment, which  lasted  from  Julj'  4  to  Dec.  12 ;  be- 
came Lord-Protector  Dec.  l(i ;  and  was  solemnly 
installed  in  AVestminster  Hall.  "  He  showed 
himself  equal  to  the  hard  task  he  had  undertaken, 
by  sharp,  decisive  means  keeping  down  plotting 
royalists,  jealous  Presbyterians,  and  intractabli; 
levellers,  and  by  a  bold  and  magnanimous  for- 
eign policy  making  England  greater  and  more 
honored  than  ever.  He  interfered  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  Vandois  Protestants,  cruelly  perse- 
cuted by  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  and  had  a  large 
sum  (£37,097)  raised  for  their  relief."  He  also 
informed  the  Pope  that  he  would  take  tlie  first 
opportunity  to  send  a  fleet  into  the  Mediterranean 
to  visit  Civita  \'ecchia.  and  .so  the  sound  of  his 
cannon  should  be  heard  in  Rome  itself.  He  had 
to  rule  mostly  without  parliaments,  since  they 
gave  him  so  much  trouble.  The  one  before  the 
last  offered  him  the  title  of  "king;"  and  he  was 
disposed  at  first  to  accept  it,  but  finally  declined 
it  (May  S,  1057),  and  was- again  installed  iu  the 
Protectorate  with  greater  solemnities  and  added 
power. 

.^t  length  th(!  weight  of  cares  and  domestic 
afflictions  broke  down  even  his  strength  ;  and 
Friday,  Se]it.  3,  1058,  tlie  anniversary  of  so  many 
triumphs,  lie  won  his  greatest  victory,  that  over 
death  and  l\u-  grave.  He  was  interr<'d  in  Henry 
VH.  Chapel,  at  Westminster,  with  uniieard-of 
funeral  pomp,  Nov.  23,  1()58;  but  on  Jan.  30, 
16(11,  by  order  of  Charles  11.,  his  remains  were 
hanged,  beheaded,  and  buried  at  Tyburn. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  reversals  of  his- 
torical jiidgmeuts  iu  modern  times  is  in  relation 
to  Cromwell.  Hy  the  simple  presentation  of 
Cromwell's  letters  and  sjieeches  iu  elironological 
order,  w  ith  sutlicient  explanatory  matter  to  render 
them  intelligible,  Tlioinas  Carlyle  produced  this 
ehangi'  in  jiopular  sentiment.  From  being  ca- 
luinniati'd,  Cromwell  was  praised.     Tlie  old  epi- 


CROSIER. 


573 


CROSS. 


thets  "regicide,"  "usurper,"  "tyrant,"  "fanatic," 
"bigot,"  "hypocrite,"  were  exciianged  for  those 
■of  "statesman,"  "  patriot,"  "wise,  just,  and  reli- 
gious ruler."  The  latter  epithets  express  the 
truth  about  this  man,  who  was  not  only  the 
greatest  Englislunan,  but  tlie  greatest  nuin,  of 
his  age,  and  who  deserves  the  reverence  of  all 
time.  Possessed  for  a  long  period  of  absolute 
authority,  he  used  it  moderately.  J.,iving  with 
luirrow-minded,  ]>ersecuting  Puritans,  he  cher- 
ished lenient  sentiments,  and  promoted  religious 
liberty.  lielonging  to  the  Puritan  party,  he 
spoke  in  Bible  language,  as  they  did,  and  lield 
as  tenaciously  to  their  sombre  but  iirofound  the- 
ology ;  but  in  many  respects  he  was  uidike  tliem, 
and  was  far  too  great  to  be  .sectarian.  His  pre- 
diction has  been  fulfilled  :  "  1  know  God  has  been 
above  all  ill  reports,  and  will  in  his  own  time 
vindicate  me." 

Lit.  —  C'l.'VRENDOX:  History  of  the  Rebellion 
(a  contemporary  history),  best  ed.,  Oxford,  18:59, 
7  vols.  ;  John  Fokstku  :  Li/'a  of  Cromwell,  in  his 
Slatesiiien  of  the  Coiiintonweulth  of  Encjland,  Loudon, 
1840,  7  vols,  (adverse)  ;  TiioiMAs  Caulyle  :  Olirer 
Cromwell's  Letters  and  Speeches,  with  Elucidations 
<ind  a  Connecting  Nurratice,  London,  1845,  5  vols, 
(an  epocli-making  book) ;  J.  H.  ilEiu.E  d'Au- 
BiGNii:  The  Protector,  a  Vindication,  N.  Y.,  1848; 
P.  W.  CoKMSH  :  Life  of  Olirer  Cromwell.  Lond., 
1881 ;  and  the  histories  of  England  by  Hume, 
Hallam,  and  Macaui.ay.  s.  m.  jacksox. 

CROSIER,  or  CROZIER,  the  pastoral  staff  of 
tlie  bishop,  the  emblem  of  liis  office  as  shepherd 
of  the  flock  of  God,  the  symbol  of  his  right  to 
ride  the  flock,  and  his  duty  to  support  it.  It  is 
borne  before  him  when  lie  appears  officially, 
though  not  outside  the  territory  over  which  he 
exercises  jurisdiction.  Th(S  crosier  of  the  bishop 
terminates  in  a  hook,  that  of  the  archbishop  in 
a  floriated  cross,  that  of  a  patriarch  in  a  cross 
with  two,  and  that  of  the  Pope  in  a  cross  with 
three,  transverse  bars.  The  emblem,  however, 
does  not  seem  to  be  of  Christian  origin.  The 
staff  lias  always  been  the  emblem  of  the  office  of 
the  king,  the  judge,  and  the  priest;  and  on  old 
bas-reliefs  the  Roman  augur  is  represented  with 
a  hooked  staff  in  his  hand,  very  similar  to  the 
bisliop's  crosier. 

CROSS,  The  Cross  as  a  Sif/n  and  a  Si/mhol.  — 
The  cross  has  been  used  ererywhere  and  through 
all  times  as  a  means  of  marking  and  adorning. 
Among  Pagan  tribes,  both  in  the  Old  and  in  tlie 
New  World,  it  occurs  under  every  possible  form, 
as  representative  of  natural  forces,  or  accessory  to 
idols;  and  after  the  crucifixion  of  Christ  it  be- 
came the  true  symbol  of  Christianity.  The  cus- 
tom of  making  the  sign  of  the  cross  with  the 
liand  or  the  finger,  as  a  means  of  conferring 
blessing,  or  preserving  from  evil,  is  very  old. 
liasil  the  Great  refers  it  back  to  the  apostles. 
Cyin-ian  (De  Unit.  Eccl.)  and  the  Apostolical 
Constitutions  (III.  17)  mention  the  sii/num  Christi 
as  a  part  of  the  baptismal  rite ;  and  Lactantius 
(Inst.  Die,  IV.  27)  speaks  of  it  as  especially  fear- 
ful to  t]ie  demons  by  tlie  baptismal  exorcism. 
Prudentins  (llipnn.  G)  advises  to  apply  it  every 
night,  before  sleeping,  to  the  foreheail  ami  the 
breast,  as  a  preservative  against  lemptations  and 
bad  dreams.  In  the  Western  Church  it  was  made 
with  the  tlmnil),   in  the  Eastern  with  the  first 


finger,  among  the  Arnienians  and  the  Raskolnik 
witli  the  iiulex  and  the  niichlle  finger.  In  the 
fifth  century  it  became  customary  to  apply  the 
sign  at  the  beginning  of  treaties,  diploniatical 
notes,  etc.,  instead  of  an  invocation  of  the  name 
of  God,  and  at  the  end,  beside  the  name  of  the 
signer,  as  a  token  of  trustworthiness.  Ecclesias- 
tics always  used  it  in  this  way.  The  Greek 
emperor  used  to  ]nit  a  red  cross  before  his  name 
when  signing ;  the  IJyzantine  princes,  a  green ; 
the  English  kings,  a  golden.  In  the  Lutheran 
Church  the  custom  of  making  the  sign  of  the 
cross  was  continued :  in  the  French  Reformed 
and  most  Calvinistic  churches  it  was  abandoned 
as  not  warranted  by  Scripture,  and  as  supersti- 
tions. 

The  sign  made  with  the  hand  or  the  finger  was 
the  crux  iisualis :  the  cross  actually  executed  in 
some  kind  of  material  was  the  crux  exemplata. 
According  to  a  passage  in  Teutullia.v  {Apolnget. 
l(i),  cruces  exemplatce,  made  of  woo<l,  and  painted, 
must  have  occurred  even  at  his  time ;  and  Chrys- 
osto)n,  in  his  homily  on  the  divinity  of  Christ, 
speaks  of  them  as  found  everywhere,  —  in  the 
houses,  market-places,  deserts,  along  the  roads, 
on  the  hills,  on  bedsteads,  arms,  utensils,  etc.  In 
the  fifth  century  they  first  appear  on  the  toraijs. 


The  anchor 


bol 


+ 


Jt' 


the  Buddhist  Soastika  sym- 


and  the  monogram   of   Christ. 


■^ 


which  can  be  traced  back  to  the  third  or  even  to 
the  second  century,  were  not  cruces  dissitntilatce,  but 
independent  symbols  occurring  along  with  the 
crosses.  The  first  actual  representation  of  the 
cross  dates  from  the  second  half  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. When  Constantine  adopted  the  cross  in  the 
lahariim,  and  afterwards  had  liimself  represented 
as  the  victor,  with  the  cross  over  his  forehead,  the 
start  was  made ;  and  soon  crosses  were  seen  on 
helmets,  bucklers,  and  standards,  on  crowns  and 
sceptres,  on  coins  and  seals,  etc.  Their  principal 
application,  however,  they  found  in  the  cliurch- 
buildings,  and  in  certain  parts  of  the  worship.  In 
the  jirocession  the  cross  was  the  chief  object;  and 
the  most  important  feature  in  the  consecration  of 
a  church-building  was  the  planting  of  the  cross. 
At  the  time  of  the  crusades  the  cross  became  tlie 
ground-plan  of  the  whole  church-construction, 
and  at  the  same  time  it  rose  prodigiously  in  popu- 
lar reverence  and  enthusiasm  by  being  the  Chris- 
tian banner  over  against  the  crescent. 

Thus  variously  employed,  the  cross  assumed 
various  forms ;  and  the  staurologia,  from  avavpog, 
"  a  cross,"  became  a  special  part  of  heraldry.  Of 
these  forms  the  principal  are  :    I.   The  crux  de- 


cussata, 


V 


N 


,  afterwards  called  the  Burgundina 


cross,  or  the  cross  of   St.  Andrew,  because  the 
apostle  Andrew  is  said  to  have  suffered  death 


on  it;  11.  The 


crux  conimi 


s.sa,  , 


in  the  form 


of  the  Greek  letter  Tan,  was  the  cross  on  which 
the  apostle  Philip  died,  and  is  also  called  the 
Egyptian  cross,  or  the  cross  of  St.  Anthony,  be- 
cause by  that  St.  Anthony  is  said  to  have  stayed 


i 


CROSS. 


574 


CROSS. 


the  plague,  and  destroyed  the  idols  of  Egypt; 

III.   The  crux  immissa  or  crux  onUnaria,    ~T~,  the 

Latin  cross,  on  wliich,  according  to  general  ac- 
ceptation, Christ  suffered;  IV.  The  Greek  cross. 


+■ 


consisting  of  four  equally  long  arms  ;  V. 


The  cross  of  St.  Peter,  or  the  inverted  Latin  cross, 
on  which  the  apostle  Peter  suffered,  he  holding 
himself  unworthy  to  suffer  in  exactly  the  same 


manner  as  Christ:  VI.    Tlie  double  cross 


■+• 


\vhose   ujiper  bar  refers   to   the   inscription    by 
Pilate  on  the  cross  of  Christ;   VII.  The  triple 


^*- 


of  which  the  first  form  is  used 


by  the  Pope,  the  second  by  the  Raskolniks.  The 
lowest  bar  in  the  first  form  has  no  particular 
meaning;  in  the  second  it  refers  to  the  lir/nuiu 
.-iuppedantum. 

The  Cross  as  an  Instrwneyjt  of  Death  ;  Crucifix- 
ion; the  Cross  of  Christ.  —  The  cross  which  ^vas 
used  as  an  instrument  of  death,  arowpof,  nKuXctji, 
aavii  (crux,  stijirs),  occurs  under  a  double  form :  as 
a  plain  vertical  stake  tu  which  the  convict  was 
tied  or  nailed,  with  the  hands  above  the  head;  or 
as  a  vertical  stake  provided  with  a  cross-bar  Qmli- 
Imlum),  to  which  the  convict  was  fastened  in  the 
same  way,  but  with  the  arms  outstretched.  The 
cross  of  St.  .Vndrew  is  an  invention  of  niediajval 
legends.  The  New  Testament  gives  no  decisive 
indications  with  respect  to  the  form  of  the  cross 
on  which  Christ  suffered  ;  but  it  is  impossible  that 
a  correct  tradition  should  not  have  been  formed 
on  this  point,  and  it  is  the  Latin  cross,  the  crux 
immissa  or  ordinaria,  which  is  spoken  of  by  Jus- 
tin :  Dial.  c.  l^ryph.,  91,  and  ApoL,  1,  55;  Iue- 
N^US:  Ado.  Ilcer.,  II.  24, -1 ;  Tektuli.ian  :  Adc. 
JiuL,  10;  FiKMicus  Maticknus:  De  Errore  Pro- 
fan.  Relig.,  2L  The  vertical  stake  was  a  little 
above  tlie  ordinary  height  of  a  man  (Appui.n.nTS  : 
De  Asino  Aur.,  III.  17;  Catul.  :  Ej>i(jr.,  107). 
Sometimes,  however,  it  was  considerably  higher 
(Suetonius,  didha,  9),  and  it  was  so  in  the  case 
of  Christ  (John  xix.  29).  To  the  stake  was  fa.s- 
tened  a  kind  of  saddle  {scdile)  for  the  support  of 
the  body;  and  Justin,  lri,>na'us,  and  Ti'rtullian 
speak  of  such  a  <levice  in  connection  with  the 
cross  of  Christ.  'Vht'.  hi/j/o/iudiuin,  on  the  contrary, 
or  suiipedantnin,  which  formed  a  .similar  support 
for  tiie  feet,  and  which  is  well  known  from  all 
mediiPval  representations  of  the  crucifixion,  is 
first  mentioned  by  (JitEiiouY  <ji'  Touus,  De  Gln- 
ria  Marti/r.,  1,  0,  and  is  liistorically  ]iot  well  war- 
ranted. 

Crucifixion  as  a  punishment  of  death  was  com- 
mon among  the  old  Indians,  .Vs.syrians,  I'crsians, 
Scythiajis,  Kgyptians,  Plnenicians,  Carthaginians, 
and  even  among  the  Greeks  and  .Maceilonians. 
After  the  conquest  of  Tyrus,  .Mexander  the  (Jreat 
ordered  two  thousand  Tyrians  to  be  crucified  as 
a  ])unishnient  for  tlie  resistance  which  the  city 
had  made.  The  Israelites  used  to  cruciiy  those 
who  liad  been  dccapitati'il  or  stoned,  as  a  further 
aggravation  of  the  iiunishnient.  The  Homans 
learned  crucifixion  from  tlie  Carthaginians;  but 


among  them  it  always  rerrfained  asup/dicium  ser- 
vile (itou.:  Sat.,  I.  3,  80-83;  Cic. :  In  Vcrrem.  V. 
66),  applied  only  to  slaves  or  to  the  meanest  crimi- 
nals, such  as  highw.ay  robbers,  assassins,  and  reb- 
els. Tiberius  oi'dered  tlie  priests  at  the  Temple  of 
Isis  to  be  crucified,  because  by  fraud  they  had  in- 
duced a  distinguished  Roman  lady,  Paulina,  to 
surrender  herself  to  the  lust  of  a  certain  ]Menedas 
(JosKPiius:  Arch.  18;  3,4).  After  the  conquest 
of  Jerusalem,  Titus  could  not  find  place  enough 
for  the  crosses,  and  not  crosses  enough  for  the 
Jews  he  wanted  to  punish  (JoSEPHUs:  Bell.  Juil., 
V.  11,  1).  In  the  oldest  times  the  execution  was 
performed  by  soldiers,  commanded  by  a  centurion 
or  tribune  on  horseback  (Tacitus:  Ann.,  3,  14; 
Sexec.\  ;  De  Ira,  1,  16),  afterwards  by  specially 
appointed  persons,  appuritores,  belonging  to  tlie 
retinue  of  the  procurator  prorinciie. 

The  execution  generally  took  place  just  out- 
side the  city,  beside  the  most  frequented  road 
(Quixtili.\n  :  DecL,  274;  Cicero:  In  Verrem, 
V.  60;  Tacitus:  Ann.,  1.5,  44;  Livius  VIII., 
15),  and  was  preceded  by  a  scourging,  performed 
either  in  the  ]>r(ctorium,  or  on  the  w-ay  to  the  place 
of  execution  (Josephus:  Belt.  Jud.,  5,  11;  Liv- 
lus,  33,  36;  Curtius,  7,  11,  28).  The  victim 
carried  the  cross  himself,  that  is,  the  cross-bar 
{patihulam') ;  and,  when  the  soldiers  compelled 
.Simon  of  Cyrene  to  carry  tlie  cross  of  Chi'ist,  it 
was  simply  a  coarse  joke.  Having  arrived  at  the 
place  of  execution,  the  victim  was  stripped  naked, 
and  nailed,  with  the  arms  outstretched,  to  the 
cross-bar,  which  then  w  as  hauled  up.  and  fastened 
to  the  stake.  At  the  same  time  the  body  w;is 
brought  in  position  on  the  sedile,  and  finally  the 
feet  were  nailed  to  tlie  stake.  The  scarf  around 
the  loins,  and  the  crown  of  thorns,  found  in  all 
Christian  representations  of  Christ  crucified,  are 
additions  of  the  imagination;  and  the  representa- 
tions of  the  medireval  German  painters  —  Christ 
being  nailed  to  the  cross  while  the  cross  is  still 
lying  on  the  ground  —  are  wrong,  .\ccording  to- 
Cyprian,  Gregory  of  Tours,  and  old  Christian  art, 
a  nail  was  driven  through  each  foot :  according  to 
(iregory  Nazianzen,  Nonnus,  and  modern  Chris- 
tian art,  the  feet  are  placed  crosswise,  and  one 
nail  driven  through  them  both.  The  administr.a- 
tion  of  a  somniferous  potion  was  a  Jewish  custom. 
The  punishment  of  crucifixion  was  abolished  by 
Con.stantine  the  (Jreat. 

The  Inrention  ami  the  liaisinr/  of  the  Cross.  — 
In  326  the  Kniperor  Coiistantine  determined  to 
build  a  church  on  (iolgotha;  and  his  mother  Hele- 
na, who  was  staying  at  that  time  in  Jerusalem, 
tried,  together  with  Bishop  Macarius,  to  make 
out  tlu!  exact  spot  on  wliieh  the  cross  of  Christ 
had  stood.  Two  centuries  before,  however,  the 
Emperor  .Vdrian  h;id  made  the  place  of  the  cru- 
cifixion completely  unrecognizable  :  the  sacred 
tomb  had  been  filled  uji,  and  a  temple  in  honor 
of  Jupiter  and  Venus  erected  over  it.  Neverthe- 
less, by  extensive  excaviitions  tlie  rock-tomb  wa.s 
found ;  and  close  by  were  discovered  tlie  threo 
crosses,  together  with  the  nails  which  hail  lieeii 
u.sed  at  the  execution,  and  the  tablet  with  I'ilate's 
inscription.  The  (luestion  now  arose,  w  hich  of 
th(;  three  crosses  was  that  of  Christ.  There  was 
one  of  them  to  wliicli  the  talilel  filt.ed  liest  ;  Init 
more  ilecisive  testimony  was  necessary,  and  Maca- 
rius  knew  Jiow  to  produce  it.     A  distinguished 


CROSS. 


CRUCIGER. 


lady  of  Ji'nisalcm  wsts  sick  unto  death.  Slie  was 
lirouglit  to  till'  jilaco,  and  iiiado  to  toueli  tlio  tlirce 
Drosses.  The  empress  and  a  great  i>uiii)>er  of 
spectators  were  pi'esent.  She  touched  the  two 
first  crosses  witliout  any  effect  at  all,  Imt  hanlly 
had  she  laid  lier  hand  on  the  third  before  she  rose 
from  her  coucli  perfectly  cured,  healthy  and 
strong.  Eusebius,  who  was  contemporary  with 
these  events,  does  not  seem  to  have  known  them  ; 
but  lialf  a  century  later  tliey  were  generally 
known  and  accepted.  The  miracles,  however, 
did  not  end  with  the  "  invention  "  of  the  cross. 
One  part  of  it,  together  with  the  nails,  the  em- 
press sent  to  her  son;  but  the  larger  part  was 
framed  in  silver,  and  intrusted  to  ^lacarins  to  be 
preserved  in  the  jirincipal  chnrch  of  Jerusalem. 
Chips  of  this  cross  w'ere  presented  to  distin- 
guished persons;  after  a  while  they  were  sold, 
and  very  soon  an  enormous  trade  in  chips  of  the 
genuine  cross  sprang  up.  Everybody  -wanted 
them.  They  were  incased  in  silver  and  gold. 
and  worn  as  amulets  around  the  neck.  But  the 
great  marvel  was,  that,  though  cartloads  of  such 
chips  were  shaved  from  the  cross,  the  bulk  of 
the  cross  itself  was  not  thereby  diminished. 

In  615  Jerusalem  was  taken  and  burnt  by  the 
Persian  King,  C'hosroes  II.,  and  thousands  of  its 
inhabitants  were  killed,  or  carried  away  in  cap- 
tivity. Before  the  catastrophe,  the  Patriarch 
Zacharias  had  hidden  the  holy  cross  in  a  .sealed 
box;  but  the  box  was  discovered,  and  carried 
away  among  the  other  spoil.  But  in  tJ2y  a  re- 
verse of  fortune  took  place.  Siroes,  the  son  of 
Chosroes  11.,  was  defeated  by  the  Emperor  Herac- 
lius ;  and  one  of  the  conditions  of  peace  was  the 
return  of  the  holy  cross.  The  box  was  restored 
with  the  seal  unbroken  ;  and  in  031  the  cross  was 
brought  back  to  Jerusalem  by  the  emperor  him- 
self. He  carried  it  on  his  back  up  the  (iolgotha, 
and  there  it  was  again  "  raised  "  in  its  old  place 
in  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  In  com- 
memmoration  of  this  event  a  festum  exallationis 
<vuc/.s- was  instituted,  just  as  a  fistiim  irirenlintiis 
i-7-ucis  had  been  instituted  in  commemoration  of 
the  discovery  of  the  cross.  The  former  of  these 
festivals  is  celebrated  on  Sept.  14,  and  enjoys 
great  reputation  in  the  Eastern  Church.  In  the 
Western  Church  it  was  introduced  by  Honorius  I. 

The  Cruciji.r,(i)iil  Pirlhriiit  llcpresenlalions  of  the 
Crucifixion.  An  artistic  representation  of  Christ 
crucified  was  something  utterly  foreign  to  the 
primitive  church  :  it  sufficed  to  have  him  repre- 
sented to  the  mind's  eye  through  the  apostolic 
word.  And  when,  in  course  of  time,  the  artistic 
instinct  began  to  api:)roach  the  subjects  of  sacred 
history,  it  preferred  the  idea  of  Christ  as  the 
good  shepherd  who  gives  his  life  for  the  rescue 
of  his  flock,  to  that  of  Christ  as  the  high  priest  of 
the  human  race,  sacrificing  liimself  for  the  sins 
of  the  world.  It  did  so,  led  on  by  the  peculiar 
gay  and  cheerful  traditions  of  all  antique  art, 
and  naturally  repelled  by  the  horrors  of  the 
actual  crucifixion ;  and  in  doing  so  it  was  un- 
doubtedly in  harmony  with  the  spiritual  char- 
acter of  an  age  whose  rest  auil  joy  and  comfort 
was  Christ  resurrected,  not  Christ  crucified.  The 
first  representation  of  the  crucifixion  consisted 
of  the  cross  plain  and  simple  and  alone ;  then 
followed  a  symbolical  expansion,  —  the  cross  and 
the  lamb,  the  cross  leaning  against  the  shoulder 


of  the  lamb,  or  the  land)  fastened  uiion  the  cross; 
then  the  figure  of  Christ  brought  in  some  exter- 
nal coiniection  with  thi^ cross,  —  Clirist  as  teacher, 
holding  the  cross  in  his  right  hand  on  tlie  sar- 
cophagus of  Probus  (d.  395),  or  Christ  as  teacher, 
with  the  cross  in  the  background  in  the  Church  of 
St.  I'udentiana,  built  in  308:  but  Christ  nailed 
to  the  cross  is  not  represented  until  about  thu 
middle  of  the  fifth  century.  Tlie  bronze  relief 
in  the  Church  of  St.  Sabina  in  Home,  founded  in 
430,  seems  to  be  the  very  earliest  representation 
of  the  kind  :  the  ivory  relief  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum dates,  prolial)ly,  froin  the  same  time.  In 
Olio  the  ]\Ioid<  Anastasius  Sinaita  painted  in  his 
'0(!;?;(if  a  picture  of  Christ  crucified,  with  the 
liead  surrounded  by  a  glory,  and  heavily  inclin- 
ing to  the  one  side,  with  the  hair  parted  in  the 
middle;  of  the  forehead,  and  the  beard  forked, 
with  the  blood  drijiping  from  the  wounds  of  the 
hands,  w  itli  the  feet  nailed  separately  to  the  hij- 
popodium,  with  the  whole  body  wiung  by  agony, 
etc.;  and  that  picture  became  the  typical  repre- 
sentation from  wliich  the  painters  of  the  Eastern 
Church  never  deviated.  In  the  Western  Church 
the  representations  were  much  more  various,  and 
of  an  opposite  type:  not  the  suffering  Son  of 
God,  but  the  lord  of  life  defeating  death,  was 
the  idea.  The  expression  of  pain  was  idealized 
or  abandoned  altogether  :  Christ  appieared  with 
a  crown  on  his  head,  and  clad  in  a  purple  robe. 
During  the  controversies  between  the  Eastern 
and  Western  churches.  Cardinal  Humbert  re- 
proac^hed  the  Eastern  paintei's  that  they  repre- 
sented Christ  as  a  dying  man ;  while  the  Patriarch 
Ciirularius  reproached  the  ^Vestern  painters  that 
they  represented  him  as  a  fancy  king.  In  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  however,  the 
Byzantine  type  began  to  exercise  influence  on 
Western  Europe;  and,  after  Giotto,  a  more  healthy 
realism  gained  ascendency.  In  the  crucifix,  too,  a 
similar  difference  of  type  was  recognizable;  but 
in  the  Eastern  Church  the  crucifix  disappeared 
during  the  iconoclastic  controversies.  In  the 
Western  Church  the  crucifix  was  very  frequently 
met  with,  not  only  in  the  churches,  as  an  object  of 
puljlic  devotion,  but  also  and  especially  in  the 
houses,  as  an  object  of  private  devotion. 

Lit. — Justus  Lii'.sius  :  De  (.'nice  Lihri  III., 
Antwerp,  1.595;  I.  Stoukbaueu:  Kun.il))e.-:chichle 
d.  Kniizes,  SchaffhausiMi,  1870;  O.  Zockler: 
Das  Knu::  Chri.'<li,  Gutersloli,  1875  \_The  cross  of 
Christ  (translated),  London,  1878;  E.  v.  Bux- 
SKX  :  JJas  Symbol  dcs  Kreuzes  hei  alien  Nationen  u. 
die  Entstc'hung  des  Kreiizsi/mhol  der  christ.  Kirche, 
Berlin,  187G;  W.  C.  Prime:  Holy  Cross,  A  Hisf- 
torij  of  the  Incention,  Presercation,  and  Disappear- 
ance of  tlie  Wood  knoii-n  as  the  True  Cross,  N.  Y., 
1877];  II.  FuLDA  :  Das  Kreuz  nnd  i/ie  Kreuzigung, 
Breslau,  1878;  DoniiEirr  :  Zur  Jwdstehungsge- 
schichte  des  Kreuzes.  1880.  H.  MERZ. 

CRUCIGER,  Kaspar,  the  trusty  but  modest 
and  ciuiet  collaborator  of  Luther;  was  born  at 
Leipzig,  Jan.  1,  1504,  and  died  at  Wittenberg, 
Nov.  1(3,  1548.  In  15J1  he  removed  with  his 
parents  to  Wittenberg,  where  he  studied  theology 
under  Luther  and  Melauchthon,  also  medicine, 
natural  history,  and  the  Hebrew  language.  From 
1524  till  15-28  he  was  rector  of  the  Johannes 
School  in  Magdeburg,  but  returned  in  the  latter 
year  to  Wittenberg   as  preacher  and  professor; 


CSUDEN. 


576 


CRUSADES. 


aided  Luther  iu  the  tiauslation  of  the  Bible,  aud 
partook,  mostly  as  secretary,  iu  the  numerous 
disputatious  of  the  day.  lie  was  an  expert  iu 
short-hand  writiug,  and  thus  preserved  many  of 
Luther's  sermons  and  lectures.  Some  of  his 
letters  aud  orations  are  found  in  Carpus  Rej'urma- 
torum  XL,  XII. 

CRUDEN,  Alexander,  the  author  of  the  Con- 
cordance;  li.  at  .Vberdeeu,  May  31,  1701;  d.  in 
London,  Xov.  1.  1770.  He  was  graduated  at 
IMarischal  College,  Aberdeen :  took  the  degree  of 
M.A.,  aud  was  about  to  be  licensed,  when  sud- 
denly he  first  revealed  that  lunacy  from  which 
he  suffered  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  all  his  life. 
From  1722  to  17-J2  he  taught;  but  at  the  latter 
date  he  settled  in  Loudon  as  bookseller,  and  cor- 
rector of  the  press,  and  eventually  became  book- 
seller to  the  queen.  In  1737  he  issued  his  im- 
mortal work,  A  Comjdete  Concordance  of  the  lloli/ 
Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  Ncu-  Testctnents  (ito), 
dedicated  to  Queen  Caroline.  His  means  liaving 
been  exliausted  by  the  printing  of  his  book,  he 
was  obliged  to  sell  his  stock  in  trade.  This  step 
naturally  produced  a  return  of  his  malady.  He 
was  confined  in  a  private  asylum,  but  escaped. 
He  then  issued  (^March.  1739)  The  London  Citizen 
Exceeding  Injured ;  f/icinf/  an  account  of  his  secere 
and  long  canipiaiyn  at  Bethnal  Green  for  nine  tceeks 
and  six  dai/s ;  the  Citizen  being  sent  there  in  Marcli, 
1738,  hg  lloherl  Wlghtman,  a  tioloriouslg  conceited, 
whlmslcid  man  ;  irhere  he  icas  chained,  handcujjhl, 
stralt-walstcoaled,  and  hnprisoneil ;  with  a  history 
of  Wlghtman  s  Blind  Bench,  a  sort  of  court  that 
met  at  Wlghtman's  room,  and  unaccountably  j/ro- 
ceeded  to  pass  decrees  in  relation  to  the  London 
Citizen,  etc.,  and  iustituted  legal  proceedings 
against  AVightman,  the  proprietor  of  the  asylum, 
and  Dr.  Munro  the  physician.  He  pleaded  his 
own  cause,  it  is  needle.ss  to  add,  unsuccessfully, 
yet  had  a  report  of  the  trial  printed,  and  dedicat- 
ed to  tlie  king,  George  II.  He  resumed  his  occu- 
I>ation  of  corrector  of  the  press ;  and,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  days  iu  17o3,  he  was  not  again 
iu  confinement.  His  unbalanced  mind  led  him  to 
do  very  odd  things.  He  thouglit  himself  called  to 
be  the  public  censor;  assumed  the  title  "Alex- 
ander tlie  Corrector,"  and  tried  to  reform  public 
manners,  esjiecially  in  regard  to  keeping  Sunday. 
He  akso  habitually  carried  a  sponge,  with  which 
he  effaced  all  inscriptions  tluit  were  of  an  im- 
moral tendency,  according  to  his  notions.  He 
appeared  as  parliamentary  candidate  of  the  city 
of  London,  applied  for  knighthood,  sought  to 
marry  a  daughter  of  a  loid-mayor  of  London ; 
and,  to  further  these  and  other  wild  schemes,  he 
jiublished  extraordinary  ]iampldets.  in  1701  he 
issued  a  new  edition  of  his  concordance,  again  in 
quarto;  and  the  labor  it  cost  liim,  iu  connection 
with  his  i)rofessional  jiroof-reading  for  the  Public 
Advertiser  (a  dailv  paper),  hud  a  most  beneficent 
effect  ui>on  liis  health ;  so  that  llienceforth  he 
was  little  troubled.  In  170!(  the  third  edition 
(Ito)  appeared.  It  is  satisfactory  to  record,  that, 
for  the  second,  he  rec<-ived  live  hundred  ]iounds, 
and  for  the  third  three  liundred  ])ounds  more,  be- 
side twenty  copies  on  fine  iiajter.  He  was  thus 
reimbursed  for  hi.s  early  expenditure,  and  ac- 
quired a  comforlal)le  jiroperty.  His  (.'oncordance 
wiis  not  a  monetary  .speculation,  but  originated 
aud  was  carried  on  in  a  sincere  luvu  for  tiic  liiblu, 


and  desire  to  promote  its  study.     He   prepared 

also  an  Account  of  the  History  and  Excellency  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  a  Scripture  Dictionary  (pub- 
lished posthumously  at  Aberdeen),  the  very 
elaborate  verbal  Index  affixed  to  Bishop  New- 
ton's edition  of  Jliltou's  Poetical  Works,  and  an 
autobiography,  under  the  title,  Adreutures  of 
Alexander  the  Corrector. 

Cruden  was  a  most  excellent  man,  kind-hearted, 
benevolent,  fearless  in  the  discharge  of  duty,  a 
public-spirited  citizen,  and  a  humlde,  devout 
Christian.  The  definitions  in  his  concordance, 
which  are  unha])pily  omitted  in  so  many  editiou.s, 
are  strongly  Calvinistic ;  but  he  was  no  bigot. 
He  was  a  memlier  of  Dr.  Guyse's  Church  (Inde- 
pendent), aud  proved  by  a  blameless  life  of  enthu- 
siastic, albeit  eccentric  philanthropy,  how  deeply 
interested  he  was  in  the  cause  of  humanity, 
which  is  the  cause  of  God.  He  was  found  dead 
upon  his  knees  in  the  act  of  prayer. 

See  the  well-written  and  copious  Memoir  of 
Mr.  Alccander  Cruden,  by  S.\muel  Bl.\ckburn, 
prefaced  to  the  10th  London  edition,  1824,  re- 
printed by  Dodd  and  Jlead,  New  York. 

CRUSADES,  The  conquest  of  Jerusalem  by 
the  Mohammedans,  and  the  insults  offered  to  the 
most  sacred  memories  of  tlie  Christian  world, 
roused  such  a  feeling  of  shame  and  indignation 
throughout  Christendom,  but  especially  iu  West- 
ern Europe,  that  a  series  of  wars,  called  crusades, 
from  the  cross  which  was  worn  by  all  partici- 
pants as  a  badge,  was  undertaken  for  tlie  purpose 
of  reconquering  Palestine.  The  chief  motive 
power  in  this  movenie;H  was  at  first  pure'  reli- 
gious enthusiasm,  helped  on,  it  m.ay  be,  by  the 
ample  ecclesiastical  indulgences  .and  great  social 
exemptions  which  were  granted  to  all  wlio  took 
the  cross  ;  and  the  idea  which  precipitated  whole 
nations  like  a  rushing  stream  towards  the  Holy 
Laud,  no  doubt  continued  to  be  the  principal 
impulse  in  many  a  noble  heart.  But  gradually 
the  restless  and  adventurous  spirit  of  the  age. 
which,  in  this  fight  for  the  gloiy  of  (iod,  found 
satisfaction  for  its  coarsest  cravings  without  any 
disturbance  of  its  gross  superstition,  transformed 
the  religious  contest  about  the  Holy  Land  into 
a  riimantic  tournament  between  tlie  Christian 
knight  and  tlie  Moslem  w'arrior ;  aud  finally  po- 
litical ambition  and  commercial  greed  degrailed 
till'  whole  undertaking  into  a  mere  means  of 
iutrigue,  speculation,  and  fraud.  The  number 
of  these  wars  is  seven  ;  but  there  were  several 
minor  expeditions,  such  as  the  ]nem.ature  rushiug- 
owards  under  I'eter  the  Hermit,  the  Children's 
Crusade,  etc.,  whicli  art'  not  counted,  because 
they  miscarried  at  the  very  outset. 

i; —  The  first  crusade  (lOiXi-i)!))  was  led  by 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  Duke  of  Lorraine;  Hugh  of 
Vermandois,  a  brother  of  the  king  of  I'rance; 
Robert,  Duke  of  Xormandy,  a  son  of  William 
the  CoiKpu'i-or;  Bolieinnnd  of  Tarent;  and  Tan- 
creil  of  ilauteville,  the  son  and  the  nepliew  of 
Uobei-t  Guiscard,  etc.  The  ]iowerfiil  address 
of  Urban  II.,  delivered  to  .an  enormous  audienci; 
at  Clermont  in  Xoveudier,  100."),  and  answered 
with  an  unanimous  "God  will  it!"  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  real  starting-point  of  the  first 
crusade.  The  organization  of  so  huge  an  enter- 
prise was,  of  course,  slow  and  difficult.  Aug.  1,'5, 
1090,  was  fi.xcd  as  the  day  on  which  tli(!  armies 


CRUSADES. 


i>(  i 


CRUSADS£ 


should  begin  to  move.  IJiit  peo^ilo  could  not 
wait.  One  swarm  start'd  in  Mardi  under  Peter 
the  Hermit,  another  a  little  later  tinder  AValter 
the  Penniless,  a  tliird  under  (iottschalek  ;  but 
all  these  swarms,  after  coniniittinj,'  horrilile  ex- 
cesses and  crimes,  melted  away  under  the  resist- 
ance and  punishment  of  the  Maj;yars,  the  Slavs, 
and  the  Greeks.  The  regular  armies,  moving  liy 
sea  and  by  land,  united  in  C'onstantinoiile  ii]  the 
last  days  of  l()!»fl;  and  June  21,  l()f)7,  Nicava 
was  captured;  but  Antioch  wa.?  not  taken  until 
June  3,  1098;  and  Jerusalem  not  until  July  l.'j, 
1099.  All  the  Jews  in  the  city  were  burnt  alive 
in  the  synagogue:  all  the  infidels  —  some  say 
seventy  thousand  —  were  massacred.  Through 
the  desolate  streets  the  victors  went  in  a  ]iroces- 
sion  to  the  Church  of  the  Resurrection,  singing 
their  hymns,  and  wading  in  blood.  Shortly  after, 
the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  was  established,  and 
Godfrey  was  made  king.  The  sources  to  the 
history  of  the  first  crusade,  reports  by  eyewit- 
nesses and  contemjioraries  (among  whicli  the 
llistoria  de  Ilierofoli/Jiia,  by  William  of  Tyre,  is 
the  most  important),  are  collected  in  Bongau- 
sius  :  Gesia  Diiper  Fraiicos,  Hanover,  IGll.  See, 
also,  Matthew  of  Edessa  :  Itecil  dc  la  premiere 
croixade,  trans,  from  the  Armenian  by  Edouard 
Delauiier,  Paris,  1850;  II.  Syuel:  Gesrhiclde  d. 
erften  Kreuzzuejcs,  Leipzig,  1841,  2d  ed.,  1881  ; 
II.  II.\genjieyer:  Peter  der  Eremite,  Leipzig, 
1S79. 

II.  —  The  second  crusade  (1147)  was  caused 
by  the  conquest  of  Edessa  by  the  Mohammedans, 
and  their  advance  against  Jerusalem.  The  reli- 
gious enthusiasm  of  the  West  was  rekindled. 
Eugene  III.  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
movement;  and  Bernard  of  Clairveaux  2>reaclied 
the  crusade  in  France  and  Germany,  promising 
certain  victory,  promising  even  tliat  God  would 
smite  the  hosts  of  the  infidels  by  a  miraculous 
interferer.ee.  Two  brilliant  aruiii>s,  led  by  Con- 
rad HI.  of  Germany  and  Lewis  VII.  of  France, 
moved  toward  the  East.  But  the  Byzantine 
emperor  was  more  afraid  of  the  crusaders  than 
of  the  Turks.  lie  made  peace  secretly  with 
them;  and  chiefly  by  his  treacliery  the  (German 
army  was  wasted  in  tlii;  defiles  oi"  Asia  Minor. 
Tlie  French  army  also  suffered  severely ;  and, 
when  the  remnants  of  the  magnificent  army 
joined  King  Baldwin  III.  before  the  walls  of 
Damascus,  famine,  disease,  dissensions,  and  the 
treachery  of  the  Pallanes  (the  Christian  inhaliit- 
auts  of  the  besieged  city,  descendants  of  the  first 
crusaders),  soon  brought  the  whole  undertaking 
to  a  sorry  end.  Consternation,  anger,  and  de- 
spair filled  the  whole  of  Germany  and  France ; 
and  Bernard  added  what  he  could  to  the  misery. 
lie  saved  his  fame  as  an  inspired  prophet  by 
declaring  the  crusading  armies  unworthy  of  vic- 
tory, and  the  defeat  a  divine  punishment  of  their 
sins.  See  Kugleu  :  GeschiclUe  des  ziceiten  Kreuz- 
zuges,  Stuttgart,  ISGG. 

III.  —  Oct.  3,  1187,  Jerusalem  was  taken  by 
Saladin,  and  Gregory  VIII.  preached  a  new  cru- 
sade. Frederic  Barbarossaof  Germany,  Phillippe 
Auguste  of  France,  and  Richard  I.  (Cceur-de- 
Leon)  of  England,  followed  the  summons;  and 
all  Christendom  paid  tlie  Saladin  tithe  to  support 
the  undertaking.  Frederic  Barbarossa  forced 
his  way  through  Asia  Minor,  but  was  drowned 

38—1 


in  the  Kalykadniis  (July  10,  1190);  ami  Ids 
army  was  much  reduced  when  it  reached  Acre 
li'.d  by  his  .son,  Frederic  of  Snabia.  The  Freneli 
and  I'.nglish  kings  arrived  by  sea,  splendidly 
e(piipped,  and  in  full  vigor;  but  the  siege  of  the 
city  was  long,  and  cost,  it  is  said,  about  three 
huiuli-ed  thousand  lives;  and,  immediately  after 
its  captnre,  Phillijipe  Auguste  returned  to  France. 
Richard  continued  tiie  contest,  but  rather  as  if 
it  were  oidy  a  chivalre.sque  toninament  between 
himself  and  Saladin;  and  the  result  was  very 
meagre,  — permission  for  tlie  Christian  jiilgrinis 
to  visit  Jerusalem.  He  left  the  Holy  Land  in 
1192;  but  on  his  journey  Viack  to  England  he  was 
captured  by  Duke  Leopold  of  Austria,  and  sold 
to  the  emperor,  Henry  VI.,  who,  to  the  great 
scandal  of  the  whole  Christian  world,  made  a 
good  bargain  by  exacting  an  immense  ransom. 
See  Chronicles  and  Alemorials  of  Richard  1.,  edited 
by  W.  Stubbs,  1864;  Thaye.no  :  De  Expedi- 
liotie  Asiatica  Frederici  I.,  in  Fuebek  :  Script. 
Rcrum  German.,  I.,  append.;  Spalding:  Ge- 
schiclUe des  Konlf/reichs  Jerusalem,  Berlin,  1803; 
Veubot  :  Ilistoire  drs  Chevaliers  de  Si.  Jean  de 
Jerusalem,  Amsterdam,  1732;  W.  F.  Wii.cke: 
Geschichte  des  Tempelherrenordens,  Berlin,  182G- 
3o. 

IV.  —  How  the  spirit  from  which  the  crusades 
originated  liad  changed  in  the  course  of  little 
over  a  century,  became  sadly  apparent  when 
Innocent  III.  preached  the  fourth  crusade  (1203). 
A  immber  of  the  most  distinguished  noblemen  — 
Thibaut  of  Champagne,  Simon  of  Montfort, 
Baldwin  of  Flanders,  etc. — assembled  at  Venice 
with  about  twenty  thousand  combatants.  But 
Venice  demanded  eighty-five  thousand  marks 
silver  for  the  transfer  of  the  crusaders  to  the 
Holy  Land;  and,  as  they  were  unable  to  pay  this 
sum  in  cash,  they  went  first  to  Dalmatia,  where 
they  conquered  Zare  for  Venice,  and  then  to 
Constantinople,  which  they  also  conquered  (April 
12,  1204),  and  where  they  established  a  Latin 
Empire  under  Baldwin  of  Flanders.  To  the 
Holy  Land  they  never  went.  The  Pope  felt 
shocked,  and  summoned  a  new  crusade.  He  was 
answered  by  the  children.  In  France  arose  a 
movement  in  1212  which  even  the  government 
W'as  not  able  to  suppress.  Thousands  of  chil- 
dren, boys  and  girls,  often  of  the  teuderest  age, 
took  the  cross,  and  rushed  in  feverish  enthusiasm 
towards  the  Holy  Land.  Some  sw'arms  reached 
Italy ;  and  there  they  melted  away,  by  hunger 
and  disease,  in  the  waves,  and  in  the  slave-mar- 
kets. Two  regular  armies  were  organized  in 
1217  by  Andrew  II.  of  Hungary,  and  Count  Wil- 
liam of  Holland.  But,  Andrew  having  left  the 
enterprise  with  the  best  part  of  his  troops,  the 
rest  of  the  armies  went,  not  to  the  Holy  Land, 
but  on  a  roblier-expedition  to  Egyj)t,  where  most 
of  them  perished  in  the  Xile  floods.  See  Geoe- 
FKOi  de  Vili.e-IIauuouin  :  Hisloire  de  la  con- 
fjucsle  de  Constantinople,  Paris,  1C5G;  G.  Z.  Gray  : 
The  Children's  Crusade,  New  York,  1872;  L. 
Stueit  :  Deilrdi/e  zur  Gcschichle  des  vierlen  Kreuz- 
zu(/es,  Anklam,  1877. 

v.,  VI.,  VII.  —  The  complete  failure  of  the 
undertaking  of  Andrew  II.  and  Count  William 
was  generally  ascribed  to  the  Emperor  Frederic 
II.,  who  had  taken  the  cross  in  1215,  but  steadily 
refused  to  fulfil  the  promise  given.     Compelled 


CRUSIUS. 


578 


CRYPTO-CALVINISM. 


by  the  Pope,  Gregory  IX.,  he  finally  embarked 
(Aug.  1.5,  1227)  at  Briiudu.sium,  but  returned  a 
few  days  afterwards,  protesting  that  he  was  , 
sick.  Utterly  proyoked,  the  Pope  put  him  under  [ 
the  ban;  and' the  next  year  he  actually  went  on 
the  expedition.  He  was  yery  successful.  Pales-  ] 
tine  was  reconquered ;  and  in  1229  lie  crowned 
him.self  King  of  Jerusalem,  and  returned  to 
Europe,  defying  the  Pope  and  the  exconininniea- 
tion.  Jerusalem,  lioweyer,  was  not  long  in  the 
possession  of  the  Christians.  The  uproar  which 
the  Mongolian  ayalanche  caused  in  Southern  and 
Western  Asia  reached  also  the  llo\y  Land. 
The  Chawaresmians.  a  Turkish  tribe,  overran 
the  whole  country,  and  (1247)  Jerusalem  was 
taken  and  pillaged.  In  the  following  year 
Louis  IX.  of  France  took  the  cross  for  the  rescue 
of  the  city,  and  landed  with  a  great  armament 
in  Cyprus.  After  spending  tlie  winter  on  that 
island,  and  making  still  further  preparations, 
he  went  (in  1219)  to  Egypt,  and  conquered 
Damiette  and  JIansura.  But,  wlien  he  attempted 
to  ])enetrate  farther  into  the  country,  he  suffered 
yery  severe  losses,  and  was  finally  compelled  to 
surrender  with  his  whole  array.  In  1251  it  cost 
France  most  of  its  wealth  to  ransom  its  King  and 
its  warriors.  Xotwithstanding  this  great  mis- 
fortune. Louis  IX.  did  not  give  up  the  idea  of 
delivering  the  Holy  Land  from  the  sway  of  the 
infidels.  In  12G9  lie  began  a  new  crusade,  the 
last ;  and  the  whole  French  nobility  followed 
him.  Political  reasons  led  liim  to  open  the  cam- 
paign with  an  invasion  of  Tunis ;  and  there  lie 
died  (Aug.  2-1,  1270).  His  son  and  successor, 
Phillippe  III.,  made  peace  with  Tunis,  and  re- 
turned to  France.  See  Joixville:  Hisloire  de 
Si.  Louig,  edited  by  Charl.  du  Fresne,  Paris, 
1GG8. 

Lit.  —  Friedrich  Wilkex  :  Gcscliichle  d. 
Kreuzziige,  Leipzig,  1807-26,  7  vols.;  Micn.wn: 
Histoire  des  Croisadex,  Paris,  1S25,  translated  by 
liobson,  London,  1S51,  reprinted  New  York, 
1S80,  :J  vols.;  Mills:  Ifislnn/  of  the  Crusades, 
London,  1828;  Keiohtlky:  The  Crusades,  Imii- 
don,  1817;  Puoctoij  :  Ilislori/  of  tlie  Crusades, 
Philadelphia,  reprint,  Ib'A;  G.  "W.  Cox:  The 
C'rusn(/c,<,  London,  1871 ;  11.  lliiiiiUfiiT:  BiitrCuje 
cur  6'e.s'e/i /(•///(' (/<;'/•  AV(«cchV/c,  Berlin,  187  4-7S,  2  vols.; 
AV.  E.  DuTlo.N  :  .1  JJistori/  of  the  Crusai!es,  Lon- 
don, 1877;  B.  Ki'(iLEu:  O'rscliichle  der  Kreuzziii/e, 
Berlin,  1880;  A.  de  Lapokte  :  Les  croisades  el 
le  pai/s  hitin  de  Jerusalem,  Paris,  1881.  See,  also, 
till'  wnrks  nii'iitioiii'd  in  the  course  of  this  article. 

CRUSIUS,  Christian  August,  b.  at  I^eima,  near 
Merseburg,  Jan.  10,  1715;  studied  theology  and 
philosophy  at  Li^ijizig;  wa.s  appointed  professor 
there,  first  in  ])hilosophy  (1741),  and  then  in  the- 
ology (17.)0),  and  died  there  Oct.  18,  177,").  In 
philosopliy  h(!  wa.s  a  stanch  adversary  of  H'olff. 
He  wrote  a  .series  of  treatises  on  logic,  p.syehology, 
metaphysics,  and  morals,  in  din-ct  opposition  to 
the  Woiflian  system.  In  mor:ils  he  basiMl  the 
idea  of  duty  on  tiiat  of  divine  authority,  while 
Wolff  derived  it  from  the  idea  of  perfection 
(Jiei/rill'  der  clirisltichen  Mnndllieoliigie,  Leipzig, 
1772,  2  vol.s.).  In  theology  lie  defended  the  tradi- 
tion of  the  Church,  as  an  element  in  true  exegesis, 
against  Ernest!,  whose  exegetieal  princii)le  ad- 
mitted only  u  purely  grammatical  interpretation 
{^Ili/ponmemuta    ad    Thail.    I'rcjjhelicum,    Leipzig, 


17G4.  three  parts,  of  which  the  last  has  appeared 
independently,  under  the  title  Commentarivs  in 
Jesakun,  1779).  During  the  last  part  of  liis  life 
the  students  of  the  university  were  divided  into 
two  camps,  the  Crusiaus  and  the  Ernestiaiis;  but 
the  noble  rejiose  of  his  mind  was  not  disturbed 
by  the  contest.  E.  SCHWARTZ. 

CRYPT  (Latin  cn/pla;  Greek  Kpiirrti,  "a  hidden 
place  ")  meant  in  its  classical  use  any  subterra- 
nean room  or  passage,  and  was  applied  both  to 
the  sewer  and  the  fruit-cellar.  By  an  easy  transi- 
tion it  afterwards  came  to  denote  the  subterra- 
nean cemeteries  of  the  Christians,  the  so-called 
catacombs,  or,  more  piroperly,  such  single  passages 
and  galleries  of  them  in  which  martyrs  or  saiiit.% 
were  buried.  As  it  became  customary  to  erect 
chapels,  or  even  churches,  on  the  surface  of  the 
catacombs,  just  over  the  grave  of  a  martyr,  and 
with  an  opening  under  the  altar  which  allowed 
to  look  down  into  the  grave,  into  the  crypt,  it  was 
natural  that  afterwards  —  though  the  cathedrals 
were  not  built  over  the  graves  of  the  martyrs, 
but  the  graves  of  the  martyrs  were  dug  under 
the  altar  of  the  cathedral  —  the  name  "crypt" 
was  transferred  also  to  these  excavations  under 
the  choir  of  the  basilicas  and  churches  of  the 
Uomanesque  st3ie,  which  sometimes  were  so  ex- 
tensive as  to  form  whole  subterranean  churches, 
and  often  were  used  as  places  of  interment  for 
bishops  and  archbisliops.  With  the  Romanesque 
style  the  crypts  disappeared. 

CRYPTO-CALVINISM  is  the  term  properly 
api>lied  to  those  Germans  who  secretly  held  the 
Calvinistic  doctrine  on  the  eucharist  (i.e.,  the 
spiritual  presence  of  Christ),  while  tliey  rejected 
that  on  predestination.  Luther's  view  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  implied  the  ubiquity  of  Christ's 
body.  Melanchthon's  later  view  agreed  essen- 
tially with  Calvin's  ;  and  for  a  number  of  years  it 
w.as  that  entertained  by  the  majority  of  Lutheran 
divines,  even  at  AVittenbeig  and  Leipzig,  and  at 
the  court  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony  :  it  was  also 
in  various  ways  oflicially  recognized  with  the 
Augsburg  Confession  of  lolO.  But  as  soon  as 
the  two  views  were  labelled  "Luther's,"  "Cal- 
vin's," there  was  no  doubt  in  tlie  juiblic  mind 
wliich  should  be  accepted.  Tlie  first  to  call 
attention  to  the  true  authorship  of  Melanchthon's 
view  was  Joachim  AVestphal,  a  rigid  Lutheran 
minister  at  Hamburg,  who  in  1.552  opened  war 
upon  those  who  denied  the  corporeal  presence, 
and  the  literal  eating  of  Christ's  body  even  by 
unbelievers.  Calvin  took  part  in  the  contro- 
versy, and  appealed  to  Melanchthon,  who,  how- 
ever, prudently  declined  to  take  active  part  in 
the  strife,  although  he  never  concealed  his  essen- 
tial agreement  with  Calvin.  (See  Corp.  Reform., 
vol.  viii.  p.  •'5G2.)  His  followers  were  now  stig- 
matized as  Crypto-Calvinists.  The  controversy 
was  carried  all  over  Germany  with  incredible 
bigotry  and  superstition.  In  Bremen  and  Heidel- 
berg tlie  Calvinistic  view  prevailed;  but  in  Wiir- 
temberg  and  Saxony  it  was  finally  condemned, 
and  in  the  latter  kingdom  its  defenders  suffered 
exile  and  even  death.  In  tiie  American  Lulheran 
Church  the  charge  of  Crypto-C;ilvinism  was  in 
1881  renewed  against  the  Missouri  Lutherans; 
not,  however,  for  holding  the  Calvinistic  doc- 
trine of  the  l^ord's  Suiiper,  for  they  hold  rigidly 
to  Luther's  view,  but   for  defending  the  (semi- 


CUD  WORTH. 


FilVi 


CULDBES. 


Calviiiistic)  dnctrine  of  uiicoiulitional  election  as 
tauohtiii  tlie  Fnnmila  of  Coiu-ord.  See  Sciiakk's 
('r<-cils  of  ('lirislriiilniii.  vol.  i.  Jip    27!l-28.j. 

CUDWORTH,  Ralph,  Kn-lish  Platoiiist;  b.  at 
Aller,  SoiiiLTsetshirc,  l(il7;  (1.  at  Cauibridgc,  JuMe 
2(),  1()8H.  He  was  ctluoatcd  at  Emmamud  Collcfrc, 
Cambridge;  was  fellow  of  liis  e(dlei;e,  and  M.A., 
10:3',);  master  of  Clare  Hall,  (':Mid)ridKe,  \MTt-U, 
and  Ilebrew  professor,  lti45  till  deidli ;  rector  of 
North  Cadbury,  1C.50-G2;  D.D.,  lOol  ;  master  of 
Christ's  Collejre,  1054-02;  rector  of  Aslnv(dl,  in 
Herefordshire,  1003;  and  prebendary  of  Glouces- 
ter, 107s.  As  a  iihilosopher  and  theolojiian  he  occu- 
pied an  iMtermediatepositionbetween  the  Puritan- 
ic and  Itomauiziny  tendencies  of  his  time;  and, 
withouttakingactualjiart  in  the  controversies  upon 
cliurch  government  and  doctrine,  he  stood  boMly 
forth  as  the  champion  of  revealed  religion  against 
the  reigning  ileisni.  Besides  a  Discourse  conccni- 
iiig  the  True  Xolion  of  the  Lord's  Supptr,  u-ilh  two 
Ser/noiis  (16-1  J),  T/ie  Union  of  Christ  and  the 
Chui-ch  (164l'),  tiie  posthumons  Treatise  on  Eter- 
nal and  Immuttdile  Mortditi/,  published  by  Bishop 
Chandler  in  1731,  and  ,1  Treatise  on  Free  Will, 
edited  by  Rev.  John  Allen,  1838,  he  wrote  the 
great  work  upon  which  his  fame  rests.  The  True 
Intellectual  Hi/stem  of  the  Universe,  ivherein  all  the 
Reason  and.  Philosophij  of  Atheism  is  refuted,  and  its 
Impossihilitt/  flenionslraled,  1678,  fob  ;  2d  ed.,  with 
Life  of  the  author  by  Dr.  BiHCH,  1743,  2  vols. 
4to;  Abridgment  of  1st  ed.  by  Rev.  TiiOM.\s 
Wise,  1706,  2  vols.  4to ;  Latin  translation  by 
MosiiEiM,  Jena,  173o,  2  vols,  fob,  with  improve- 
ments, Leyden,  1773,  2  vols.  4to ;  original  Eng- 
lish edition,  reprinted,  Andover,  U.S.A.,  1837, 
2  vols.  8vo  ;  enlarged  edition,  containing  transla- 
tion, by  John  Harrison,  of  MosiiEUi's  valuable 
Notes,  and  also  an  Index;  London,  1845,  3  vols. 
8vo. 

The  treatises  quoted  above  are  parts  of  a 
gigantic  whole,  of  the  refutation  whicli  Cudworth 
had  planned  to  give  tlie  doctrine  of  necessity  as 
held  by  atheists,  deists,  and  some  Christian 
theists.  The  treatise  on  Morality  contends  in 
platonic  phraseology  for  the  independence  of 
moral  distinctions,  and  that  they  are  discerned 
directly  by  the  reason.  The  treatise  on  Free 
Will  is  a  direct  answer  to  the  necessitarian  doc- 
trines of  Ilobbes,  as  propounded  in  his  Letter  to 
the  Marquis  of  Newcastle,  on  Liberty  and  Neces- 
sity (10.54).  Cudworth  did  not  thoroughly  work 
out  any  more  than  the  first  part  of  his  scheme. 
He  caUed  it  The  True  Intellectual  System;  because 
its  position  over  against  the  refuted  errors  made 
it  true,  and  it  was  intellectual  in  distinction  from 
physical  systems,  like  the  Ptolemaic,  Tychonic, 
and  Coperaicau.  The  occasion  of  its  apjiearance 
was  the  philosophy  of  Ilobbes;  and  therefore  a 
comprehension  of  Ilobbes  is  an  indispensable 
necessity  to  the  compreliension  of  Cudworth. 
Ilobbes  (1588-1070)  was  the  fashionable  philoso- 
pher of  the  time;  because  his  political  views  sup- 
ported tlie  despotic  [lolicy  of  the  restored  mon- 
archy of  Charles  II.,  and  his  materialistic  and 
necessitarian  ethics  sanctioned  the  corrupt  moi-als 
of  the  Cavaliers.  Cndworth  entered  the  lists 
against  him.  and,  as  President  Porter  says,  had 
him  '■prominently  in  mind,  even  when  criticis- 
ing the  ancient  necessitarians  and  materialists." 
Tlie  True  Intellectual  System  in  dealing  with  mate- 


rialistic atheism  considers  four  species,  —  "tlie 
atomic,  adopted  by  Democritus,  Epicurus,  and 
Hobbes,  which  recognizes  no  other  substances 
than  material  atoms,  and  no  other  forces  than 
their  movements;  the  hylopalhic,  maintained  Ijy 
Ana.ximander,  which  makes  infinite  matter  devoid 
of  nnderstauding  and  life,  form  all  tilings  by  a 
a  'secretion  or  segregation,'  which  takes  place 
according  to  inherent  law  ;  the  hylozoic,  asserted 
by  Strato  of  Lanqjsacus,  which  explains  every 
thing  by  thc^  supposition  of  an  inward,  self-or- 
ganizing, plastic  life  in  matter;  and  the  cosnio- 
plastic,  perhaps  held  by  Seneca  and  the  younger 
Pliny,  which  represents  the  univei'se  as  an  organ- 
ized being,  like  a  plant,  with  a  spontaneous  and 
necessary  but  unconscious  and  unreflective  devel- 
opment." The  enormous  learning  of  the  book 
has  liindered  its  usefulness.  .So  fully  did  he 
state  the  views  he  intended  to  refute,  that  it  was 
claimed  in  his  day  that  he  was  at  heart  an  atheist 
himself;  and  in  ours  the  number  of  his  quota- 
tions has  led  superficial  readers  to  suiijiose  that 
he  had  little  original  to  say,  whereas  he  is  in 
reality  profound,  acute,  and  fresh. 

Cudworth  is  a  storehouse  whence  much  precious 
material  has  been  taken  by  many  a  lesser  writer. 
But  to  the  disgrace  of  his  university  tliere  is  no 
complete  edition,  even  of  his  printed  works; 
while  many  of  his  manuscripts  lie  unprinted  in 
the  British  Museum  and  elsewhere.  The  publi- 
cation of  the  first  part  of  his  Intellectual  Si/stem 
was  delayed  seven  years  in  consequence  of  court 
opposition ;  and  the  dread  of  a  theological  war 
restrained  him  from  compileting  it.  It  would 
seem  that  adverse  circumstances  even  yet  debar 
him  from  his  proper  pdace  and  representation  in 
literature.  He  was  the  leader  of  the  Cambridge 
Platonists.     See  Platonists,  Camuridge. 

CULDEES.  The  derivation  and  meaning  of 
this  name,  and  the  exact  functions,  habits,  and 
opinions  of  those  who  bore  it,  have  been  the  sub- 
ject of  much  controversy,  if  not  also,  as  Dr. 
Reeves  asserts,  of  much  mystification.  But  by 
the  publication,  in  our  day,  of  so  many  of  the 
old  records  relating  to  their  establishments,  Brit- 
ish scholars  are  coming  to  agree  in  a  different 
opinion  respecting  them,  though  Dr.  Ebrard  still 
ably  defends  the  long-received  view.  That  view 
was  not,  in  any  sense,  as  it  is  sometimes  charged, 
an  invention  of  Presbyterians  seeking  historical 
support  for  their  system.  It  came  to  them  from 
Hector  Boece  ,aiid  other  pre-Ileformation  histori- 
ans, anil  at  first  was  substantially  aocepited  by  all 
Protestants,  who,  perhaps,  were  too  eager  to  find 
historical  ]irototypes  or  precursors  in  the  primi- 
tive Church.  Nor,  if  the  old  Protestant  view 
is  aljandoned.  should  we  be  warranted  without 
qualification  to  accept  what  some  have  proposed 
to  substitute  for  it,  and  altogether  to  identify  the 
Culdees  of  the  British  Isles  with  certain  disor- 
derly canons  cleric  of  the  Continent.  The  fol- 
lowing are  in  brief  the  conclusions  of  Mr.  Skene 
respecting  them,  than  whom  no  one  has  treated 
the  subject  more  learnedly  and  impartially.  The 
mon.astic  Church  of  the  Columbites,  after  the 
fervor  of  its  first  zeal  had  passed  away,  was  as- 
sailed by  a  twofold  disintegrating  influence  :  1st, 
The  introduction  of  a  secular  clergy  from  abroad ; 
and,  2d,  An  influence  from  within  in  favor  of  in- 
creasing asceticism,  leading  not  a  fesv,  in  whose 


CULDEES. 


380 


CULDEES. 


breast  the  fire  of  piety  still  glowed,  to  abandon 
the  ceuobitical  life  for  the  cell  of  the  anchorite. 
This  form  of  ascetic  life  had  long  existed  in  the 
(liristiau  Church,  and  had  come  to  be  regarded 
bvmanv  as  a  liiglier  form  of  it  than  the  cenobiti- 
■cal;  and  the  name  DeicoUr  came  in  time  to  be 
assigned  to  those  who  followed  it,  as  that  of 
ClirixticoUe  was  extended  to  ordinary  Christians, 
or  specially  appropriated  to  Cenobites.  Such 
jireference  for  the  solitaiy  over  the  cenobite  life 
had  occasionally  been  shown  in  early  times 
among  the  Columbite  monks;  and  many  of  their 
monasteries  had  their  desert,  cave,  carcair,  or  lone 
islet,  to  which  one  seized  with  a  longing  for  soli- 
tary comumnion  with  God  could  retreat  for  a 
longer  or  a  shorter  time.  It  was  towards  the  end 
of  ihe  seventh,  or  beginning  of  the  eighth,  cen- 
tury, that  tills  passion  for  a  solitary  life  increased 
so  much  among  them,  that  it  tended  greatly  to 
break  up  the  regular  niona.stic  system,  and  became 
embodied  in  what  is  termed  the  third  order  of 
Irish  saints,  as  distinct  from  the  second  or  Co- 
lumban,  as  that  was  from  tlie  first  or  Patrician. 
••  These  were  holy  presybters  and  .a  few  bishojis 
.  .  .  who  dwelt  in  desert  places,  and  lived  on 
herbs  and  water  and  the  alms  of  the  faithful. 
They  shimned  private  property  :  tliey  despised  all 
earthly  things,  and  wliolly  avoided  all  whispering 
and  backbiting ;  and  lliei/  /tad  different  rules  and 
iiiusses,  and  different  tonsures:  "  or,  in  other  words, 
with  all  their  fervor  they  belonged,  many  of  them 
at  least,  to  the  party  in  South  Ireland,  who,  in 
the  course  of  the  seventli  century,  conformed  to 
the  Roman  tonsure,  time  of  observing  Kaster,  etc. 
Before  the  close  of  that  century  they  not  only 
lived  in  strict  solitude,  but  seem  at  times  to  have 
formed  "  hermitical  establishments,"  where  a 
number  of  so-called  hermits  lived  in  separate  cells, 
but  within  a  common  enclosure;  and  the  nomen- 
elatnre  of  the  Continental  hermits  began  to  appear 
among  them  in  an  Irish  form,  Cei/e  De  being- 
applied  to  them  as  an  equivalent  of  Deicula, 
meaning  primarily  socias,  and  secondarily  servus, 
or  famtilus  Dei.  The  Latinized  Irish  form  of 
Ceile  IJe  was  Colidcei;  its  Scottish  form,  when  it 
appeared  later,  Callethci  and  Kehilei.  Callidiei 
is  the  name  applied  by  .locelin  to  the  sinijnlares 
cleriri  of  Kentigern's  church,  who  lived  in  .sepa- 
rate huts  around  it.  Keledei  is  the  name  which 
came  to  be  used  in  Scotland  generally  to  denote 
the  Culdeea.  Historically  they  made  tlieir 
appearance  in  the  territory  of  the  Soutliern  I'icts 
after  King  Nechtan  had  i'X|ielled  the  old  Colum- 
ban  monks  for  relusing  to  conform  to  the  Roman 
lime  of  obsirving  Kasti'r ;  and  Mr.  Skene  sup- 
})0ses  that  .\damnan  liimself,  after  breaking 
with  the  strieti-r  party  at  lona,  may  have  had  to 
do  with  the  introduction  of  them.  .So  he  thinks 
may  .St.  .Serf  or  Servanus,  to  whom  he  a.ssigns  a 
later  dati'  than  that  of  I'alladins  or  Kentigern, 
and  whom  lie  snppose.s  to  liave  been,  by  the 
mother-side,  of  I'ictish  descent.  He  is  specially 
connected  witii  tiie  liislory  of  tin;  church  in  Fife 
in  his  time;  and  it  is  in  connection  willi  the 
house  founded  by  him  at  Lochleven  that  Cul- 
dees  are  first  referred  to  in  actual  documents  as 
'•Keledei  liermits,  who  serve  or  sliall  serve  God 
there."  However  they  may  have  been  originally 
introduced,  they  came  in  time  to  occu]>y  many  of 
the  old  seats  of   the  Columbite  monks  within  the 


Pictish  kingdom,  as  at  St.  Andrews,  Abernethy, 
Lochleven. Brechin,  Humblane,  Duukeld,  Muthill, 
Rosemarkie.  Dornoch,  Lismore,  Monymusk.  etc. 
Of  course  they  were  independent  of  lona,  and 
indeed,  so  far  as  appears,  of  all  external  con- 
trol, till,  in  the  end,  the  strong  hand  of  tlie 
king  was  laid  on  them;  for,  whatever  their  origi- 
nal fervor  and  unworldliness,  they  had  mostly, 
long  before  this,  fallen  away  from  what  their 
first  patrons  had  meant  them  to  be.  The  high- 
est offices  in  their  establishments  were  often  in 
the  hands  of  laymen,  nominally  monks  it  may 
be,  but  not  clerics,  and  not  qualified  to  perform 
any  spiritual  function,  at  best  devolving  such 
functions  on  some  substitute  with  inferior  emolu- 
ments ;  at  times  making  no  provision  for  them 
at  all.  Thus  in  some  cases  the  establishment  itself 
fell  into  ruin;  and  its  site  was  marked  only  by 
some  holy  well  or  old  churchyard  remaining,  and 
the  lands  around  passing  by  a  peculiar  tenure, 
from  father  to  son  in  the  family  of  some  former 
abbot  or  superior.  To  meet  and  remedy  this 
state  of  matters  was  one  main  object  of  tlie  refor- 
mation begun  under  IMalcolm  Canmore  and  his 
good  Queen  Margaret,  and  completed  by  the 
pious  King  David,  which,  whatever  .shortcomings 
it  may  have  had,  certainly  substituted  earnest, 
educated,  and  zealous  monks  in  place  of  those 
whose  zeal  had  sadly  decayed,  and  their  influence 
been  lost.  The  old  endowments,  to  a  large  ex- 
tent, were  transferred  to  the  newly  founded  or 
restored  bishoprics,  and  to  the  new  orders  of 
monks;  the  Culdees  being  generally  absorbed 
into  these,  or  gradually  superseded  by  them. 
After  the  thirteenth  century,  all  trace  of  them 
disappears,  save,  perliaps,  in  connection  with  tlie 
old  Church  of  St.  l\Iary  of  the  Rock,  at  St.  An- 
drews, over  whicli  King  Constantine  had  once 
presided,  and  the  provost  of  which,  down  to  the 
time  of  the  Reformation,  continued  to  be  insti- 
tuted by  lay  investiture  on  the  part  of  the  king. 
In  conclusion,  it  is  but  right  to  add,  that  not  all 
the  anchorites  had  degenerated  from  tlieir  first 
original,  even  in  the  days  of  Queen  Margaret. 
Her  biographer,  as  quoted  by  Mr.  Skene,  expressly 
.states,  that  at  this  time  "there  were  many  in  the 
kingdom  of  the  .Scots,  who  in  different  jilaces, 
enclosed  in  separate  cells,  lived  in  the  flesh,  but 
not  according  to  the  flesii,  in  great  straitness  of 
life,  and  even  on  earth  lived  the  life  of  angels. 
In  them  the  queen  did  her  best  to  love  and  ven- 
erati!  Christ,  and  freciuently  to  visit  them  with 
her  presence  and  converse,  and  to  commend  her- 
self to  tlieir  ))rayeis.  .  .  .  Whatever  was  their 
desire  slie  devoutly  fulfilled,  either  in  recovering 
the  poor  from  their  poverty,  or  relieving  tlie 
attlicted  from  the  miseries  wliich  oppressed 
them."  Among  those  better  anchorites,  Mr. 
[  Skene;  includes  the  Cuhlees  of  Lochleven,  to 
whom  the  king  and  queen  gave  the  town  of  Hal- 
christie,  aii<l  to  whom,  as  to  (ho.se  living  devoutly 
in  a  school  of  all  virtues,  liislio])  Fothad  some- 
time before  had  given  the  Church  of  Auclitei- 
derran.  Even  these  met  witli  h.iish  treatment 
at  the  hands  of  King  David.  (For  references  to 
the  ojiinions  and  jiractices  of  the  Culdees,  see 
art.   Kki.tic  CmmcH.) 

Lit. —  The  Culdees  nfthe  llritisli  Islamls,  as  Ihei/ 
ii/)/iiiir  in  Iliston/,  with  an  ap|)endix  of  evidence 
by  \\.  Reeves,  li.D.,  Dublin,   1S(M,  8vo.      "  Cel- 


CULLBN. 


iJ81 


CUMBERLAND  CHURCH. 


tic  Scotland,"  by  "W.  F.  Skene,  Esq.,  vol.  IT., 
Church  and  Culluiv.  Edin.,  1877.  St-e  also  Ge- 
schichte  (li'i-  all-irischrn  Kiirhe,  von  Karl  .lohann 
Oreith,  Kreiburer,  1807,  Svo.  and  Jlin  iro-achol- 
tische  Atlssi/m^--Kir<-ht:,  von  Dr.  11.  U.  Ebrard, 
(iiitersloli,  1873,  8v(i,  also  Grub's  Clmrch  llixlin-y 
(if  Scotlaiul,  and  notes  to  Dr.  Joseph  Kobertson's 
HialMta  Si-otki;.  See  art.  Keltische  Kirrlie  by 
SciioKi.i.,  in  Herzog,  second  edition,  vol.  viii.  pp. 

334-.355.  .\LEX.  F.  MITCHELL. 

CULLEN,  Paul,  D.D.,  b.  at  Pro.spect,  Co.  Kil- 
dare,  Ireland,  April  27,  1803;  d.  in  Dublin,  Oct. 
24.  1878.  Educated  at  Koine,  became  arclibi.shop 
of  Armagh  (18.')0),  archbishop  of  Dul)lin  (18.53), 
cardinal-priest  (1800).  lie  was  the  main  supjiortcr 
of  the  Koman-Catholic  Universitv  of  Dublin. 

CUMBERLAND  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH 
is  a  growth  of  the  jiresent  century.  It  originat- 
ed in  the  remarkable  revival  of  religion  which 
began,  in  1707,  to  develop  itself  in  South-western 
Kentucky,  under  the  labors  of  Rev.  James  Mc- 
(jre.ady  of  the  Presbyterian  C'luirch.  This  re- 
vival rapidly  grew  to  such  proportions  as  to  create 
a  demand  for  ordained  ministers  of  the  gospel 
greater  than  could  be  supplied.  This  circum- 
stance caused  the  Cumberland  Presbytery  to  or- 
dain certain  men  who  could  not  quite  meet  the 
theological  and  educational  requirements  of  the 
Confession  of  Faith  and  Form  of  Ciovernment  to 
which  that  presbytery  was  amenable.  This  pro- 
duced dissensions  in  the  synod  of  Kentucky.,  to 
which  the  Cumberland  Presbytery  belonged,  and 
whicli  culminated,  in  1806,  in  the  dissolution  of 
the  presbytery.  The  synod  annexed  to  the  ad- 
joining Transylvania  Presbytery  the  members 
who  had  not  been  placed  under  prohiliition  to 
preach  the  gospel  and  administer  its  ordinances, 
by  the  committee  appointed  by  the  synod,  in  1805, 
to  take  charge  of  the  matter.  The  Cumberland 
Presbytery  had  taken  the  ground  in  the  contro- 
versy, that  the  proceedings  of  the  committee  ap- 
pointed by  the  synod  were  unconstitutional,  and, 
of  course,  that  the  pro.scribing  act  was  unconsti- 
tutional and  void.  Nevertheless,  from  a  general 
respect  to  authority,  and  from  an  obvious  desire 
to  procure  a  reconciliation,  and  enjoy  peace  and 
quietude  as  far  as  possible,  both  the  proscribed 
members,  and  those  who  had  promoted  their  in- 
duction into  the  ministry,  and  sympathized  with 
tliem,  constituting  a  majority  of  the  presbytery, 
organized  themselves  into  what  they  called  a 
council,  determining  in  this  manner  to  carry  for- 
ward the  work  of  the  revival,  to  keep  the  congre- 
gations together,  but  to  abstain  from  all  proper 
presbyterial  proceedings,  and  await  wliat  they 
thought  would  be  a  redress  of  their  grievances. 
This  council  continued  their  organization  from 
Deceuiber,  1S0.'>,  to  February,  1810.  Hy  tliat 
time  they  became  satisfied  tliat  they  had  nothing 
to  hope,  eitlier  from  the  synod  or  the  General 
Assembly.  .As  a  last  resort,  and  in  order  to  save 
wiiat  they  represent  to  the  General  -Assembly  as 
"  every  respectable  congregation  in  Cumberland 
and  ttie  Harrens  of  Kentuckj',"  two  of  the  pro- 
scribed ministers.  Finis  Ewing  and  Samuel  King, 
assisted  by  Samuel  McAdow,  one  of  those  who 
had  been  placed  under  an  interdict  by  the  com- 
mission for  his  participation  in  what  they  de- 
nominated the  irregularities  of  the  presbytery, 
re-organized  the  Cumberland  Presbytery  at  the 


house  of  Mr.  McAdow,  in  Dickson  County,  Ten- 
nessee, on  the  4th  of  February,  1810.  It  was  or- 
ganized as  an  ind('i«'ndeiit  jiresbytery.  It  will  be 
observed  that  it  was  a  re-organization  of  a  pres- 
bytery which  had  been  dissolved,  and  which  had 
received  its  nanu^  from  its  locality.  The  church 
which  gr(!w  up  from  these  beginnings  naturally 
took  the  name  of  its  first  presliytery  as  a  prefi.\. 
Hence  tliis  church  is  called,  from  the  circum- 
stances of  its  origin,  '•  The  Cumberland  Presby- 
terian Churcli."  This  church  has  grown  with 
exceeding  rapidity,  extending  from  Pennsylvania 
to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  and  from  the  Lakes 
to  Louisiana  and  Texas. 

The  new  presljytery  immediately  set  forth  a 
synopsis  of  its  theology  and  principles  of  action 
by  which  it  proposed  to  be  governed.  Its  theolo- 
gy was  Calvinistic,  with  the  exception  of  the 
offensive  doctrine  of  predestination,  so  exp)re.ssed 
as  to  seem  to  embody  the  old  Pagan  dogma  of 
i;ece.ssity  or  fatality.  The  construction  which 
they,  in  opposition  to  the  letter,  or  form,  of  the 
Calvinistic  symbols,  put  upon  the  "  idea  of  fa- 
tality," was  :  (1)  That  there  are  no  eternal  repro- 
bates; (2)  That  Christ  died,  not  for  a  part  only, 
but  for  all  mankind,  and  for  all  in  the  same  sense  ; 

(3)  That  infants  dying  in  infancy  are  saved 
through  Christ  and  the  sanctification  of  the  Spirit; 

(4)  That  the  Spirit  of  God  operates  on  the  world, 
as  co-extensively  as  Christ  has  made  the  atone- 
ment, in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  all  men  in- 
excusable. The  exception  of  this  one  "  idea  of 
fatality,"  corresponding  to  these  four  points, 
must  have  meant  and  included  only  their  antipo- 
des :  (1)  Eternal  reprobation;  (2)  An  atonement 
limited  to  the  elect  member;  (3)  The  salvation 
of  only  elect  infants  ;  (4)  The  limitation  of  the 
opierations  of  the  Spirit  to  the  elect.  Aside  from 
these  points,  covered  by  the  exception,  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church,  as 
set  forth  in  its  Confession,  was,  according  to  the 
opinion  of  its  founders,  identical  with  that  of 
the  AVestminster  Confession.  In  the  year  1813 
the  Cumberland  Presbytery  had  become  so  large, 
that  it  divided  itself  into  three  presbyteries,  and 
constituted  the  Cumberland  Synod-  This  synod, 
at  its  se.ssions  in  1816,  adopted  a  confession  of 
faith,  catechism,  and  system  of  church  order,  in 
conformity  with  the  principles  avowed  upon  the 
organization  of  the  first  presbytery.  The  Con- 
fession of  Faith  is  a  slight  modification  and 
abridgment  of  the  Confession  of  Faith  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church.  The  Larger  Catechism 
was  omitted,  and  also  some  sections  of  the  chaii- 
ter  on  "  God's  Eternal  Decrees."  A  revised  Con- 
fession was  adopted  in  1883. 

In  1826  its  first  college  was  organized,  under 
the  supervision  of  the  church.  It  was  located 
at  Princeton,  Ky.  In  1842  it  was  transferred  to 
Lebanon,  Tenn.,  and  the  name  changed  to  Cum- 
berland University.  It  is  composed  of  four 
scliools  —  preparatory,  academic,  law,  and  theo- 
logical ;,  each  school  "having  its  own  corps  of  pro- 
fessors and  lecturers.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest,  and 
,  has  long  been  one  of  the  most  prominent  and  use- 
ful, educational  institutions  in  the  .South-west,  not- 
withstanding the  great  difficulties  under  which  it 
has  had  to  struggle  much  of  the  time.  The  church 
now  has  colleges  at  Tehuacana,  Tex.,  Lincoln, 
111.,  and  Waynesburg,  Peun.,  besides  a  number 


GUMMING. 


i>S-l 


CUMMINS. 


of  liigh  scliools  and  academies  under  presbyte- 
rial  and  synodical  control.  It  has  only  one 
theological  "school,  —  the  one  in  connection  with 
Cumberland  University  at  Lebanon,  Tenn.  It 
employs  four  regular  professors,  and  the  course  of 
study  extends  through  two  years  of  ten  mouths 
each. 

In  1830  the  first  newspaper  under  the  jiatron- 
age  of  the  church  was  published :  it  was  a  week- 
ly religious  and  literary  jounial  published  at 
Princeton,  Ivy.  The  church  now  has  under  its 
patronage  three  weekly  newspapers,  one  quarterly, 
and  one  monthly,  besides  the  usual  Sunday-school 
magazines  and  papers.  Its  boards  of  publication 
and  education  are  at  Xashville,  Tenn.  ;  that  of 
missions  (sustaining  five  missionaries  in  the  for- 
eign field,  besides  doing  much  mission-work  at 
home),  in  St  Louis,  Mo.;  that  of  ministerial  re- 
lief, and  its  Woman's  Board  of  Foreign  ^lissions 
(sustaining  four  missionaries  in  Japan),  at  Evans- 
ville,  Ind.  .Since  ISSl  several  synods  have  been 
consolidated,  and  several  new  ones  created.  The 
l^ublished  statistics  for  1885  are  as  follows:  — 

Synods,  l24  ;  presbyteries,  118  :  ordained  minis- 
ters, 1,538;  licentiates,  234  ;  candidates,  21-1;  con- 
gregations, 2,491;  elders,  9,534;  deacons,  3,179; 
added  by  letter,  4,208  ;  total  increase  of  member- 
ship during  the  year,  15,295 ;  adult  baptisms, 
6,821 ;  infant  baptism.s,  2,013 ;  total  in  commun- 
ion, 126,911  ;  total  attending  Sunday  school, 
65,385;  funds  contributed  for  church  building 
and  repairing,  fl73,591 ;  paid  pastors,  8265,879 ; 
presbyterial  purposes,  $9,051 ;  charity,  $10,985  ; 
total  contributions,  $477,564:  value  of  church 
property,  .•82,319,006. 

Lit.  —  FixisEwing:  Lectures  in  TVieo/oji/, Nash- 
ville, 1824  ;  J.\MKs  S.MITH  :  History  of  tite  Vliristian 
Church  fro>n  its  Oriijin  to  the  Present  Time,  includ- 
ing a  Histori/o/ihe  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church, 
Nashville,  1835;  Robert  David.sox  :  History  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Kentucky,  with  a  Pre- 
liminary Sketch  of  the  Churches  in  the  Valley  of  Vir- 
yinia.  New  York,  1847 ;  F.  R.  Cossit  :  Life  and 
Times  of  Finis  Ewing,  Nashville,  1853;  David 
LoW'KY :  Life  of  Her.  Robert  Donnel,  Nashville, 
18()7  ;  RicUAKD  Bkakd:  Biographical  Sketches  of 
Some  of  the  Karly  Ministers  of  the  Cumberlanil 
Presbyterian  Church,  Nashville,  1867,  2  vols.  ;  The 
same :  Lectures  on  Systematic  Theology,  Nashville, 
1870.  3  vols.  ;  The  same  :  Why  am  I  a  Cumberland 
Presbyterian  ?  Nashville,  1874  ;  E.  B.  Cius«ian  : 
Origin  and  Doctrines  of  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian 
Church.  Nashville,  bS75.  K.  v.  FOSTER 

(I'rofuKhor  ill  'riuMlogicul  School,  Lebanon,  Trliii.). 

CUMMING,  John,  D.D.,  b.  in  Aberdeenshire, 
Scotland,  Nov.  10,  1807;  d.  in  London,  July  5, 
1881.  lie  studied  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen  ; 
was  tutor  near  London  ;  ordained  pastor  of  the 
Scotch  Church,  Crown  Court,  Covent  (iarden, 
London,  in  1832,  and  resigned  only  a  short  time 
before  his  death.  lie  was  a  member  of  the 
Established  Church  of  Scotland,  and  strongly 
opposed  to  the  disruption  of  1SI3.  Ilis  repute  a,s 
a  preacher  was  for  nniny  yeais  very  great,  due 
rather  to  his  topics  than  to  his  genius.  His  great 
themes  were  Prophecy  and  Roman  Catholicism  ; 
and  they  exactly  suited  his  fervid,  imiiassioned, 
brilliant  mind.  He  jiorlrayed  the  future  as  if  it 
were  the  present,  and  saw  in  it  the  final,  desper- 
ate  conflict  of    Protestantism    with   Romanism,  i 


j  His  publications  were  originally  discourses.  They 
'  include  the  Apocalyptic  Sketches  (1849),  The  Great 
I  Tribulation.  (1859),  The  Great  Preparation,  or  Re- 
demption Draiceth  Xigh  (1861),  The  Destiny  of 
Nations  (1864),  Soutiding  of  the  Last  Trumpet 
(1867),  The  Fall  of  Babylon  Foreshadowed  in  her 
Teaching,  in  History,  and  in  Prophecy  (1870),  and 
The  Seventh  Vial,  or  the  Time  of  Trouble  Begun 
(1870).  In  the  last  volume  he  (juotes  reliable 
evidence  in  proof  that  the  .Scripture  predictions 
have  been  fulfilled,  and  stands  firmly  by  his  own 
interpretation  of  prophecy. 

CUMMINS,  George  David,  D.D,,  first  bishop  of 
the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church;  b.  near  Smyrna 
Del.,  Dec.  11,  ls22;  d.  at  Lutherville,  near  Balti- 
more, ]\Id.,  June  26,  1876.  lie  was  graduated 
from  Dickinson  College  (1841),  and,  after  a 
two-years'  licentiate  in  the  Methodist-Episcojial 
Church,  became  (spring,  1840)  an  Episcopalian 
minister,  and  assistant  at  Christ  Church,  Balti- 
more. He  afterwards  held  the  following  charges: 
1847,  Church  Church,  Norfolk,  Va. ;  1853,  St. 
James's  Church,  Richmond,  Va. ;  1855,  Trinity 
Church,  Washington  (in  May,  1857,  he  held  the 
first  religious  service  in  the  new  hall  of  the 
Capitol ;  in  July,  1857,  he  received  the  degree  of 
D.D.  from  Princeton  College);  1858,  St.  Peter's, 
Baltimore;  1S63.  Trinit\'  Church,  Chicago.  In 
these  different  fields  of  labor  he  greatly  endeared 
himself  to  his  congregation.  On  June  1,  1866, 
he  was  elected,  and  on  Nov.  15  he  was  conse- 
crated, assistant-bishop  of  Kentucky.  lie  was 
speedily  recognized  as  a  leader  of  the  Evangeli- 
cal party  in  the  Protestant-I^piscopal  Church. 
He  shared  the  belief  that  a  revised  prayer-book 
would  meet  the  dilficulties.  He  clung  to  the  idea 
of  reform  witliin  the  Church  :  so  wlien,  in  the 
summer  of  1869,  the  necessity  of  separating  was 
put  to  him,  he  could  not  acknowledge  it,  but  per- 
severed in  ilis  efforts  against  abuses,  greatly  crip- 
pled by  his  subordinate  position,  for  he  could  not 
forbid  what  he  disliked.  At  length,  thinking  the 
time  for  decisive  action  had  come,  he  wrote  (on 
Nov.  10,  1873)  to  his  senior  bishop,  declaring 
that  he  could  no  longer  .seem  by  his  presence  to 
countenance  the  ritualistic  practices  of  certain 
churches  of  his  diocese  ;  that  he  had  lost  all  liope 
that  this  system  of  error  could  be  or  would  be 
eradicated  by  any  action  of  the  Church ;  and, 
lastly,  that  the  abuse  he  had  received  for  com- 
muning with  his  fellow  Christians  during  the 
(ienei-al  Conference  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance 
in  New  York  (October,  1873)  liad  convinced 
him  that  he  must  take  his  place  where  he  could 
give  open  expression  of  the  Christian  brotherhood 
without  alienating  those  of  his  own  household  of 
faith  :  and  accordingly  he  witiidrew  from  the  Epis- 
copal Church,  and  was  in  consequence  deposed 
from  the  ministry.  Conferences  with  some  who 
were  like  minded  followed,  and  out  of  them 
grew  the  "  Reformed  Episcopal  Cliurch  "  (for  its 
history,  see  title).  In  this  new  enter]irise  ISishop 
Cummins  entered  with  all  his  energy,  for  it  lie 
willingly  spent  himself;  but  the  burden  of  labor, 
and  the  far  heavier  burden  of  abuse,  the  bitter 
ness  of  finding  that  few  had  the  courage  or  the 
conscience  to  follow  where  he  led,  in  comparison 
with  the  many  who  were  expected  .so  to  do,  broke 
him  ilown,  and  aft«'r  a  brief  illness  he  died.  The 
Church  which  he  founded  reveres  his  memory  as 


CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS.      583        CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS. 


a  man  eloquent,  conscientious,  and  devout.  See 
Mkmoik   of    (iiconcK    David   Cummins,  D.D., 

Jurst  Bishi}/!  o/'  tin;  Itrfniiniid  K/tiscojin.l  C/turt'h. 
Jill  his  WIfr.     Nf'w  York,  187S. 

CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS.  Tlie  cunei- 
form, or  \vi^cli;i'-slKi|iiHl,  characters  were  used  by 
various  peoples  of  Western  Asia  from  tlie  earliest 
historic  times  down  to  Alexander's  conquest. 
They  even  appear  occasionally  still  later.  They 
orin;inated  in  picture-signs,  now  lost,  which  were 
jirobably  traced  on  papyrus,  or  some  lilje  material, 
and  degenerated  slowly  into  mere  collections  of 
lines  and  .angles.  When  clay  talilets  were  sub- 
stituted foi'  papyrus,  and  the  characters  were 
made  by  the  pre.ssure  of  a  chisel-like  instrument, 
the  lines  easily  became  wedges ;  and  thus  the 
wedge  was  gradually  adopted  as  the  normal  ele- 
ment of  the  character. 

The  earliest  specimens  known  to  us  of  cunei- 
form writing  are  in  the  Accadiau  language,  which, 
together  with  the  Sumerian,  a  dialect  of  the  same 
tongue,  was  spoken  by  a  cultivated  people  of 
Habylonia.  (SeeAcCAD,  AssviuA,  B.viiYLONiA, 
SiiiXAK.)  They  were  probably  its  originators, 
and  perhaps  the  inventors  of  the  picture-signs 
out  of  which  it  was  developed.  From  them  it 
yiassed  to  the  Shemitio  Babylonians,  who  pos- 
sessed their  land  by  invasion,  and  thence  to  the 
Assyrians,  the  Medes,  and  the  Persians;  while  the 
Assyrians,  in  their  turn,  gave  it  to  the  people  bor- 
dering on  Lake  Van,  on  tlie  confines  of  Armenia. 
Little  is  known  as  yet  of  the  Vannic  language; 
the  Persian  simplified  the  original  system,  so  that 
it  closely  approached  an  alphabet;  the  Medes 
seem  to  have  nearly  followed  the  Babyloni.ans ; 
while  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians  had  in  the 
main  developed  the  principles  of  the  Accadian 
writing. 

The  use  of  picture-characters  in  its  simplest 
stage  requires  merely  that  there  be  attached  to 
each  character  the  sound  of  the  riame  belonging 
to  the  object  pictured.  But  the  Accadians  had 
gone  farther,  and  had  not  merely  combined  two 
or  more  characters  into  a  third,  representing  a 
compound  word,  but  had  .sometimes  given  this 
compound  character  an  entirely  new  pronuncia- 
tion. Moreover,  they  had  so  far  forgotten  the 
picture-origin  of  the  characters,  ihat  in  many 
cases  these  came  to  represent  mere  syllables;  e.g., 
the  character  meaning  -'hand  "  might  be  used  for 
the  prejiosition  ''  to,"  simjily  because  both  were 
jironounced  iu.  In  short,  the  system,  at  first 
purely  iileof/raphic,  began  to  be  also  plioiielic. 

When  the  characters  were  adopted  by  the 
.Shemitie  Babylonians,  certain  difficulties  arose. 
The  Accadian  language  had  a  .'^mailer  number  of 
sounds  than  the  Shenutic,  and  yet  it  had  some 
sounds  which  the  latter  had  not.  There  was 
need,  therefore,  of  various  adaptations.  Accadian 
signs  were  used  not  only  for  identical,  but  also 
for  kindred,  Shemitie  sounds.  For  example,  the 
Accadian  </  had  to  serve  for  the  .Shemitio  li  and  /, 
.sometimes  for  /  .■  and  tlie  .\ccadian  '/,  not  found 
in  Shemitie.  was  made  to  represent  the  Shemitio 
A.  The  weaker  .Shemitie  gutturals  and  the  qui- 
escents.  having  no  equivalent  in  Accadian.  were 
commonly  not  represented  at  all  in  the  Assyro- 
Babylonish.  But  there  was  a  further  complica- 
tion. ^Vhile  a  .Shemitie  pronunciation  was  given 
to  characters  used  as  ideograms,  and  the   same 


sounds  were  often  employed  for  the  same  charac- 
ters used  .as  .syllables,  the  Accadian  sounds  were 
also  retained  as  syllabic  values.  Thus  one  char- 
acter may  be  variously  read  as  hilii  (.V.s.syrian  for 
"house"),  as  the  .syllable  I/it,  or  .as  the  .syll.able 
r,  which  in  Accadian  is  aword  meaning  "  liou.se." 
Furthermore,  both  the  Accadians  and  their  .She- 
I  mitic  conciuerors  represented  words  of  kindred 
meaning  by  a  .single  character;  e.g.,  the  Assyrian 
has  one  sign  for  inn  ("eye"),  piinii  ("face"),  and 
amuni  (••  to  see  ").  'I'his  character  could  likewise 
be  used  as  a  syllable,  and  was  then  pronounced 
ill  (from  Assyrian  inu),  si,  or  liiii:  the  last  two 
sounds  belonged  to  the  character  in  Accadian, 
and  were  adopted  with  it  by  the  Shemitie  invad- 
ers. The  difficulty  of  reading  which  this  polyph- 
onj'  involved  was  diminished  by  certain  habits 
in  regard  to  the  employment  of  particular  v.alues, 
such  as  that  a  phonetic  was  preferred  to  an  ideo- 
graphic value,  and  an  open  to  a  clased  syllable; 
that  a  phonetic  value  ending  in  a  vowel  is  often 
followed  liy  one  beginning  with  the  same  vowel, 
etc.  After  the  first  steps  in  the  decipherment  of 
the  cuneiform  characters  had  been  t.aken,  still 
more  important  helps  to  further  I'eading  were 
found  in  the  inscriptions  themselves.  Such  are: 
(1)  Bi-  and  tri-  lingual  texts;  (2)  P.ar.allel  texts 
in  the  same  language;  (-3)  Dictionaries,  vocabu- 
laries, and  glosses,  giving  the  pronunciation  and 
meaning  of  ideograms.  In  all  these  cases  the 
values  which  are  simjilest,  and  most  e.asily  learned, 
are  made  to  explain  more  unusual  or  difficult  ones. 
Assistance  h.as  been  derived  al.so  from  the  repre- 
sentations on  the  bas-reliefs  .acconqianying  many 
inscriptions;  and  general  information  gained 
from  Greek  and  other  historians  has  had  some 
value  for  the  decipherer. 

Ilistori/  o/Deciplieriiuiit.  —  The  first  in.scriptions 
read  wei-e  Persian.  In  IfllS  De  Figueroa,  a 
.Spanish  ambassador,  visited  and  described  the 
ruins  of  Persepolis,  calling  special  attention  to 
the  cuneiform  inscrijitions  there;  and  in  1621 
Pietro  dellaValle  expressed  the  (correct)  opinion 
that  tliey  were  to  be  read  from  left  to  right.  For 
generations  no  further  progress  was  made ;  but 
in  1774-78  a  new  impulse  was  given  to  investi- 
gation, when  Carsten  Xiebuhr  jiublished  an  ac- 
count of  his  travels  in  the  Orient,  with  many 
plates  of  inscriptions  from  Persepolis.  He  no- 
ticed that  there  were  three  distinct  kinds,  often 
parallel,  and  was  followed  in  liis  attemjits  to  de- 
cipher, at  least  the  sinqilest  kind,  by  Olaf  Tychsen 
and  F.  Miinter.  But  (jeorg  Kriedrich  Grotefend 
of  Hanover,  Germany,  was  the  first  to  succeed  in 
this  task.  He  deciphered  in  the  year  1802  two 
short  Persian  in.scriptions  from  Xiebuhr's  collec- 
tion. Ivnowing  that  at  Persepolis  the  .\cha;me- 
nian  kings  had  built  palaces,  and  assuming  th.at 
these  brief  inscriptions  contained  royal  names,  he 
adopted  the  suggestion  of  Miinter,  that  a  certain 
oft-re|ieated  character  must  stand  for  "  king,''  and 
observed  that  eacli  of  liis  inscriptions  contained 
tills  character,  and  two  groups  of  characters  be- 
side. The  first  group  in  one  he  perceived  to  be 
the  same  with  the  second  group  in  the  other; 
and  in  the  one  the  sign  for  "king"  followed  only 
the  first  group,  while  in  the  other  it  followed 
both.  He  inferred  that  three  persons  were  named 
(two  royal,  and  one  not),  and  tli.at  the  rel.ationship 
between  the  three  was  that  of   son,  father,  and 


CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS.       584      CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS. 


grandfather.  The  translations,  "  Xerxes  the  King, 
son  of  Darius  the  King,"  and  "  Darius  the  King, 
son  of  Ilystaspes,"  proved  to  meet  all  the  re- 
quirements; and  not  oidy  was  this  translation 
found,  after  many  tests,  "to  be  correct,  but  the 
number  of  accurately  known  letters  in  the  Old 
Persian  was  raised,  by  this  one  decipherment,  from 
two  to  eleven,  besides  othprs  read  with  ajiproxi- 
mate  accuracy.  Some  decades  later  (18:50)  E. 
Burnouf  and  C.  L.assen  contributed  materiall}'  to 
furtlier  progress :  X.  AVestergaard  and  A.  Iloltz- 
mann  followed.  In  1837  Henry  C.  Rawlinson 
discovered  the  gre.at  tri-lingual  inscription  of 
Darius  on  the  cliff  of  Behistun ;  and  through  the 
labors  of  these  scholars,  together  with  E.  Ilincks 
and  J.  Oppert,  a  full  knowledge  was  gained  of 
the  old  Persian  characters  ami  language.  Jlean- 
tirae,  the  discoveries  in  Babylon  and  Nineveh 
had  begun.  Rich  (1820)  brought  to  England  a 
small  box  of  stone  fragments  from  Nebi-.Tunus 
and  Knyundjik,  opposite  Mosul.  Botta  (1843- 
45)  unearthed  the  palace  of  Sargon,  at  Khorsabad. 
and  the  Louvre  received  its  treasures.  Botta  was 
succeeded  in  the  work  by  Place ;  and  A.  II.  Layard 
(1845-51)  not  only  brought  to  light  four  great 
palaces  at  Xinirud,  but  made  brilliant  discov- 
eries in  the  mounds  of  Xebi-Junus  and  Knyund- 
jik. Further  excavations  were  made  in  the  same 
region  by  Ilormuzd  Rassam  (1852-54),  — to  whom 
belongs  the  credit  of  discovering  the  palace  of 
Tiglath-pileser  I.  at  Kileh-Shergat,  and  the 
crowning  glory  of  unearthing  the  libr.ary  of 
Asurbainpal  at  Kuyundjik,  —  by  George  Smith 
(1873-70  :  he  died  at  Aleppo  on  his  third  expedi- 
tion, 1870),  and  by  Rassam  again,  since  1870.  In 
Babylonia,  Fresnel  and  Oppert  made  a  valuable 
collection  (1851-54)  ;  but  the  boat  which  held  it 
capsized  in  the  Tigris  (1855),  and  all  was  lost. 
Something  was  done  by  Loftus  and  Taylor  (1853- 
55) ;  and  since  1878  II.  R.assam  (.see  above)  has 
made  important  discoveries  in  Babylonia  as  well 
as  in  .\ssyria.  A  va.st  amount  of  material  for  tlie 
decipiherer  has  thus  been  gathered.  It  was  found 
that  the  inscriptions  were  chiefly  in  a  character 
like  the  third  species  in  the  tri-lingual  inscriptions 
nu-ntioned  above.  The  Persian  proper  names  of 
the  first  species  already  deciphered  gave  the  pro- 
luniciation  of  many  signs  in  the  parallel  species, 
and  in  this  way  became  the  key  to  the  whole  As- 
syro-Babylonish  language.  As  early  .as  1849  De 
Saulcy  discovered  that  the  language  was  She- 
mitic:  Ilincks  found  that  the  signs  represent 
(words  and)  syllables,  not  h'tters.  II.  (".  Raw- 
linson ]iul)lislicil  and  translated  the  Babylonian 
text  of  the  Behistun  inscription  (1851)  :  Oppert, 
Menant,  Xorris,  Fox  'i'albot,  Lenormant,  fol- 
lowed, with  granunatical  and  lexical  as  well  as 
epigraphic  studies.  The  lu^w  science  began  to 
rouse  wide  enthusiasm  ;  and  since  1870  it  has  been 
pushed  with  redoubled  vigor  liy  Rawlinson,  .Smith, 
Sayci',  Pinches,  and  others  in  lOngland;  Oppert, 
Menant,  Lenormant,  Pognon,  and  Guyard  in 
France;  and  by  .SchraihT,  Friedrieli  Delitzsch, 
llaupt,  Lotz,  and  llomniel  in  (iermany. 

Tlie  second  species  of  cuneiform  writing  in  the 
tri-liugual  inscriptions  proved  to  be  in  the  ancient 
Median  language,  which  3till  needs  fuller  investi- 
gation. The  Accadian,  with  its  dialect  tlie  Sn- 
Jnerian,  was  reached  through  the  medium  of  the 
Assyrian  by  the  aid  of  very  numerous  bi-lingual 


tablets, —  Accadian  texts  with  Assyrian  transla- 
tions, either  interlinear  or  in  parallel  columns. 

Some  of  the  far-reaching  results  of  the  decipher- 
ment of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  are  these : 
the  discovery  of  several  new  languages,  the  proof 
that  Shemitic  culture  is  largely  derived  from  the 
non-Shenutic  Accadians.  new  light  on  the  his- 
tory of  Shemitic  wanderings  and  on  long  jieriods 
of  sacred  and  profane  historj-.  The  early  chapters 
of  Genesis,  and  the  period  of  the  kings,  from 
.■Miab  to  the  close  of  the  exile,  are  the  parts  of 
the  Bible  which  receive  special  illustration. 

The  contents  of  the  inscriptions,  as  well  as  the 
materials  inscribed,  are  most  various.  Stone 
slabs,  gems,  clay  tablets,  glass,  and  metals  are  all 
employed;  and  the  subject-matter  is  historical, 
poetical,  mythological,  religious,  official,  com- 
mercial, astronomical,  and  mathematical. 

A  few  of  the  most  striking  inscriptions  are: 
accounts  of  the  creation  and  the  flood  ;  the  Epony  m 
Canon,  or  list  of  officials  whose  names  mark 
successive  yeai's ;  records  of  the  As.syrian  kings, 
Shalmaneser  II,  (contemporary  of  Ahab,  Jehu, 
and  Ilazael),  Tigl.ath-pileser  II.  (Pul),  Slialm.a- 
neser  IV.,  who  besieged  Samaria,  Sargon,  his 
successor,  who  took  it.  >Senn.acherib  (who  describes 
his  campaign  in  Palestine,  and  names  Ilezekiah 
as  king  of  Jerusalem),  Esarhaddon,  and  A5ur- 
banipal,  the  last  great  Assyrian  king;  records  of 
the  Babylonian  and  Persian  kings,  Xebuchad- 
nezzar,  Nabonidus,  Cyrus  (his  capture  of  Babylon 
is  described),  and  Darius. 

The  cuneiform  inscriptions  are  preserved  chiefly 
in  the  British  Museum ;  some,  particularly  those 
of  Sargon,  are  in  the  Louvre  in  Paris ;  a  few  are 
in  Berlin  .and  elsewhere.  The  sculptured  and 
inscribed  slabs  owned  by  several  American  mu- 
seums all  date  from  the  Assyrian  king  Asurn.a.sir- 
pal  (B.C.  883-858);  and  the  inscription  is  the 
same  on  all,  with  only  slight  variations.  It  cele- 
brates the  restoration  of  the  ancient  city  of  Calah 
(Xinn-ild). 

Lit.  (Selected:  most  important  works  starred). 
—  1.  Texts:— Fj.  Botta  and  E.  Fi,.\Nr>iN;  *^fonu- 
ment  de  Xinine,  5  vols.,  Paris,  1849-50  (texts  in 
III.  and  IV.);  A.  II.  L.\Y.\ui);  I»scripti<itis  in  the 
Cuneiform  (  /mraclei;  London,  1851 ;  IL  C.  Raw- 
linson (with  XoRitis,  .Smith,  and  PixciiK.s)  : 
*Cuneiform  Inscription.'!  of  Western  Asia,  vols.  I.- 
V.,  London,  180.5-81;  Victok  Place:  Ninive  et 
PAssi/rie,  3  vols.,  Paris,  1800-09  (one  volume 
contains  texts)  ;  F,  Lknorma.nt  :  C/ioix  ile  Texles 
Ciinc'i/hrnies  inr'Jits,  I. -III.,  P;iris,  1873-75;  Fr. 
Dki.itzsch  :  *Ass>/risclie  Lesestiirl-e,  2te  Aufl.  Leip- 
zig, 1878;  P.  IIaui't:  *A/,-ka(lisclie  u.  Sumeri.iche 
Keilsclirifltexte,  I.- IV.,  Leipzig,  1881. 

2.  1'exls  or  Transliterntinns,  with  Translations  and 
Commentaries. — C.  Lasskn  :  Die  altpersisclien 
Ki-ilinsehriften,  Bonn,  1836;  *Voltslundi(je  Zu- 
.■iammensteHnni)  alter  bis  1S45  hekanni  (jemaehler 
all/tersi.irlien  Keilinsriiriften,  mit  I-Jrklariinr/,  Bonn, 
1845;  II.  C.  Rawmnso.v:  *TIh>  Persian  Cnneiform 
Inscriptions  at  Behistun  deciphered  and  translated ; 
with  a  Memoir.  London,  1849;  F.  SriEOKL  :  *Die 
leltpersischen  Keilinschriften,  Leipzig,  1802,  2te 
Aufl.,  1881  ;  J.  Oim'KIIt:  I.e  Peuple  et  hi  l.ampie 
ile.K  Medes,  Paris,  1879  ;  H.  C,  Rawi.in.so.n  :  *M'em- 
oir  on  the  Jialtiflmiittn  and  Assi/rian  Inseriplions 
(Babylonian  Text  of  B<'hist.  Iiiscrip.),  London, 
1851  ;    J.    OlTEUT  ;    *Les    Inscriptiont   de    Dour 


CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS. 


585 


CUNNINGHAM. 


Sarkwiiui,  Paris,  1870;  J.  JIknant  :  *  Inscriptions 
de  Uammourabi  Roi  de  ]iahi/lone,  Paris,  1803 ; 
*Cal(dof/ue  d<:i  (,'i/Undres  OrioiUiux  du  Cabinet 
Royal  (ies  Mi'daillcs  ("i  la  Ifni/e,  The  Hague,  1878; 
J.  Ori'liRT  aiidJ.  Menant:  Documcntu  Juridiques 
de  I'Assijric  et_  de  la  C/ialde'e,  Paris,  1877;  V.  Lf.- 
xormant:  Etudes  Accadiennes,  Paris,  1873-79, 
Tome  II.  G.  Smith:  History  of  Assurhanijial, 
London,  1871 ;  History  of  Sennacherib,  London, 
1877;  E.  A.  Budge:  Assyrian  Texts,  London, 
1880;  History  of  Esarhaddon,  London,  1880;  E. 
Schuadek:  *Die  Keilinschriften  it.  das  Atte  Testa- 
ment, Iste  Aufl.,  Giessen,  1872,  2te  Aufl.  in  press 
1881;  Die  Hollenjahrt  der  Istar,  Giessen,  1874; 
P.  Haupt  :  *Die  sumerischeu  Familiengesetze,  I., 
Leipzig,  1879;  F.  Hommel  :  Zwci  Jagdinschriftcn 
Asurbanibals,  Leipzig,  1879  ;  W.  LoTZ  :  *Inschrif- 
ten  Tiglalh-pileser's  L,  Leipzig,  1880  ;  H.  Pognon  : 
*L' Inscription  de  Bacian,  Paris,  1879-80. 

3.  English  Translations. — Records  of  the  Past, 
Vols.  I.,  IIL,  v.,  VIL,  IX.,  XL,  London,  1874- 
79.  Translations  by  W.  St.  C.  Boscawen,  E. 
A.  Budge,  W.  B.  Finlay,  J.  IIalevy,  W. 
Houghton,  F.  Lexorm.\nt,  J.  Menant,  J.  Op- 
PEKT,  T.  G.  Pinches,  II.  C.  Rawlin.son,  J.  M. 
RoDWELL,  A.  H.  Sayce,  G.  Smith,  H.  Fo.x. 
Talbot. 

4.  Phonological. — J.  Menant:  Syllabaire  As- 
syrienne,  Paris,  18C1-73;  G.  Smith:  Phonetic 
Values  of  Cuneiform  Characters,  London,  1871;  F. 
Lenormant  :  Les  Syllabaires  C unciforines,  Paris, 
1877;  E.  Schuader  :  Assyrisches  Syllabar,  Berlin, 
1880.     (See  also  1,  2,  and  5.) 

5.  Grammatical.  —  E.  Hincks:  *Spea)nen  Chap- 
ters of  an  Assyrian  Gcammor,  Journal  R.  A.  Soc, 
1866;  J.  Oppert  :  Elements  de  la  Grummaire  As- 
syrienne,  Paris,  1860,  2ifenie  ed.,  1868;  E.  Schra- 
DER :  *Die  assyrisch-habylonischen  Keilinschriften, 
Leipzig,  1872;  A.  H.  S.\yce  :  Assyrian  Grammar 
for  Comparative  Purposes,  Lond.,  1872;  Elementary 
Assyrian  Grammar,  icith  Syllabary,  2d  ed.,  London, 
1876;  Assj/rian  Lectures,  London,  1877;  F.  Lenor- 
mant :  Etudes  Accadiennes,  Tomes  I.,  HI.,  Paris, 
1873-79;  J.  Mexant  :  Manuel  de  la  Langue  As- 
syrienne,  Paris,  18S0;  P.  Haupt:  Assyrische  Gram- 
matik  (in  preparation  1881).     (See  also  2.) 

6.  Lexicid.  —  E.  Norris  :  *  Assyrian  Dictionary, 
Vols.  I.-HL,  London,  1868-72  (incomplete  at 
author's  death)  ;  E.  Chossat  :  Repertoire  Assyri- 
enni',  Lj'on,  1879;  Fr.  Delitzscii  ;  *A.tsyrisches 
Wiirtcrbuch  (in  preparation  1881).  (Also  v.arious 
vocabularies  and  glossaries  appended  to  texts, 
etc. :  see  2.) 

7.  Historical  and  Literary.  — J.  Bonomi  :  Nine- 
veh and  Its  Palaces  ;  The  Discoveries  of  Bolta  and 
Layard  applied  to  the  Elucidation  of  Holy  Writ, 
London,  18.52;  G.  Smith:  The  Assyrian.  Eponym 
Canon,  London,  1874;  *The  Chaldean  Genesis,  2d 
ed.,  by  Sayce,  London  and  New  York,  1881;  G. 
Rawlinson  :  Fire  Gnat  Oriental  Monarchies,  4th 
ed.,  London,  1880,  Xew  York,  1881;  E.  Schua- 
der: *  Die  KeUinschriften  u.  dieGeschichtsfortsetzung, 
Giessen,  1878  ;  M.  Duncker  :  Geschichie  des  Alter- 
?/i»m.«,5te  Aufl.,  Berlin,  1878-80,  Eng.  trans,  in  prog- 
ress, 5th  vol.,  London,  1881;  Fr.  Dei.itzsch:  *Wo 
lag  das  Parodies?  Leipzig,  1881;  F.  MI'rdter: 
Kurzgefasste  Geschichte  Babylonicns  und  Assyriens 
iiach  den  Keilschriftdenhnalern,  Stuttgart,  1882 ; 
F.  Lenormant  :  I^es  Premieres  Cicilisations,  Paris, 
1874;  La  Langue  Primilioe  de  la  Chaldee,  Paris, 


1875;  La  Divination  et  la  Science  des  Presages, 
Paris,  1875;  Chaldean  Magic,  London,  1877;  Les 
Dieux  de  Dabylone  et  de  I'Assyrie,  Paris,  1877 ;  Le.s 
Origines  de  I'lJistoire,  Paris,  1880. 

8.  Discovery  and  DeciphermetU.  —  C.  Nieuuhr  : 
* Reisebeschreibungcn  nach  Arabien  u.  andern  uinlie- 
gendcn  Ldndern,  15d.  II.,  Copenhagen,  1778;  G.  F. 
Grotefend:  *Praeviade  cuneatis  (juas  vocatit  in- 
scriptionibus  Persepolitanis  legendis  et  explicandis 
relalio,  Gottingen,  1802;  also  in  Ilcercn's  Historical 
Researches,  Asiatic  Nations,  London,  1816,  vol. 
II.,App.  II. ;  Rich:  Babylon  and  Perscpolis,  Loa- 
don,  1839  ;  A.  H.  Layard  :  *Nineveh  anil  Its  lie- 
mains,  2  vols.,  London,  1819;  *  Discoveries  in  the 
Ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon  (2d  expedition), 
London,  1853;  W.  K.  Loftus  :  *Chald(rji  and 
Susiana,  London,  1857;  J.  Oppert:  *Expi'ilition 
Scientifque  en  Me'sqpotamie ,  1851-54,  Paris.  1857- 
64  ;  J.  RIenant  :  ^Eli'mints  d'epigrajiliieAssyrienney 
Expose  des  travaux  qui  ont  prepare  la  lecture  et  I'in- 
terpretation  des  inscriptions  de  la  Perse  et  de  I'Assy- 
rie, 2ieme  edition,  Paris,  1864;  Tn.  Benfey: 
Geschichte  der  Sprachwissenschaft  u.  orientalischen 
Philologie  in  Deutschland,  Mun.,  1809;  G.  Smith: 
Assyrian  Discoveries,  Lond.,  1874;  H.  Rassam: 
Recent  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  Research,  Victoria 
Institute,  1880.  FRANCIS  BROWN. 

CUNNINGHAM,  William,  D.D.,  an  eminent 
Scotcli  theologian  and  controversialist;  b.  at 
Hamilton,  Oct.  2,  1805;  d.  in  Edinburgh,  Dec.  14, 
1861.  He  studied  at  Edinburgh  under  Dr.  Chal- 
mers and  others ;  was  licensed  as  a  preacher  in 
1828  ;  settled  as  a  minister  in  Greenock  in  1830  ; 
translated  to  Trinity  College  Church,  Edinburgh, 
in  1834 ;  appointed  professor  in  the  Xew  College 
in  1843,  and  principal  (in  succession  to  Dr.  Chal- 
mers) in  1847.  From  his  student-days  his  great  ■ 
capacity  for  theological  learning  and  singular 
controversial  power  were  apparent.  lie  threw 
himself  with  great  energy  into  the  strife  in  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  which  began  to  become  ear- 
nest about  the  time  of  his  settlement  in  Edin- 
burgh. Both  his  ecclesiastical  learning  and  his 
debating  power  found  a  splendid  field,  as  the 
strife  advanced,  in  conflict  with  such  learned  men 
as  Lord  Medwyu  and  .Sir  'William  Hamilton.  In 
the  General  Assembly  his  speeches  were  singu- 
larly weighty  and  telling.  To  his  combativeness 
he  added  a  simple,  cliildlike  nature,  a  warm 
lieart,  and  a  blunt,  honest  manner;  so  that,  while 
his  foes  spoke  of  liim  with  dn-ad  and  horror,  his 
friends  were  devotedly  attached  to  him.  As  a 
professor  he  had  a  remarkable  power  of  inspiring 
his  students  with  confidence  in  himself,  and  en- 
thusiasm for  their  studies.  When  appointed  pro- 
fessor, he  was  requested  by  the  General  Assembly 
to  go  to  America,  and  make  himself  acquainted, 
witii  the  methods  of  study  pursued  there.  Among 
other  friendships  thus  formed  was  one  of  unusual, 
warmth  and  sympathy  for  Dr.  Hodge  of  Princeton. 
In  theology  Dr.  Cunningham  was  a  thorough  Cal- 
vinist.  His  works  (chiefly  posthumous)  were :  His- 
torical Theology  [Edinburgh,  1862], 2 vols.;  The  Re- 
formers and  the  Theology  of  the  Reformation  [1862]  ; 
Discussions  on  Church  Principles  [1863];  Lectures', 
on  the  Evidences,  Canon,  etc.  [X.  Y..  1878];  Ser-, 
monsfrom  1828  to  1860  [1872],  etc.  His  Life  was  \ 
written  by  the  late  Rev.  James  Mackenzie,  and  Rev. 
Dr.  Rainy,  who  succeeded  iiim  as  prof  essor  of  church 
history,  Edinburgh,  1871.  w.  G.  BLAIKIB. 


CURCELL^US. 


bS6 


CURIA  ROMANA. 


CURCELL>€US,  Stephanus.    See  Courcelles. 

CURATE  denotes,  in  the  Church  of  England, 
the  lowest  degree  of  ministers,  licensed  by  the 
■bishop,  and  employed  by  the  incumbent  of  a 
'parisii  as  his  assistant,  either  in  the  same  church, 
■or  in  a  chapel  of  ease,  but  removable  at  pleasure 
iby  the  bishop  or  the  incumbent.  Thei'e  was 
formerly  a  distinction  made  between  perpetual 
and  temporary  curates,  the  former  not  being 
removable ;  but  this  distinction  has  been  abol- 
ished by  31  and  32  Vict.,  chap.  117,  which  con- 
fers the  title  of  vicar  on  all  perpetual  curates. 
In  the  Anglican  Prayer-Book  the  name  is  some- 
time.? used  in  a  general  sense,  denoting  the  in- 
•cumbent  of  any  kind  of  ecclesiastical  office  with 
which  is  connected  the  care  of  the  souls  of  the 
parish ;  and  this  is  aLso  the  original  meaning  of 
the  name  in  the  Roman-Catholic  Church.  There 
too,  however,  citratus  came,  in  the  course  of  the 
fifteenth  centur}-,  to  be  used  only  for  the  vicars 
or  assistants  of  the  regular  incumbents  of  the 
churches,  though  the  office  never  sank  so  low  in 
social  resjject  as  in  the  Anglican  Church.  The 
Council  of  Trent  forbade  to  employ  temporary 
curates,  removable  at  pleasure  (sess.  vii.  chap. 
5,  7,  de  reform.').  In  the  performance  of  their 
duty,  in  their  cura  actualis,  the  real  incumbent 
of  the  church,  the  parochus  primiticus,  exercises 
only  a  cura  hahilualis. 

GURATE,  Perpetual.     See  Curate. 

CURETON,  William,  a  distinguished  Oriental 
scliolar,  especially  in  Syriac ;  b.  at  Westbury, 
Shropshire,  ISOS;  d.  there  June  17,  1S64.  He 
was  educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford ;  was 
sub-librarian  of  the  Bodleian  (1834),  assistant 
keeper  of  the  manuscripts  in  the  British  JNIuseum 
(1837-50),  chaplahi  to  the  queen  (1847),  canon 
of  Westniinster,  and  rector  of  St.  jNIargaret's, 
AVestniinster  (1849).  Ilis  services,  especially  to 
Ijiblical  and  patristic  learning,  were  very  great, 
us  a  mere  enumeration  of  the  titles  of  his  ]iubli- 
cations  will  show :  Si/rlac  Version  of  t/ie  Epislles 
of  Ignatius  (1845)  ;  Catalogue  of  Arabic  Manu- 
scripts in  the  British  Museum  (1S4G);  Vindicice 
Jgnatianm,  or  the  Genuine  Writings  of  St.  Ignatius, 
<is  exhibited  in  the  Ancic7it  Si/riac  I'cr.'iion,  vindi- 
cated from  the  Charge  of  Ihresi/  (1S4G)  ;  Coipus 
Jgnatianum,  a  complete  collection  of  the  Ignatian 
Epistles,  genuine,  interpolated,  and  .spurious, 
together  witli  numerous  extracts  from  tlieni,  etc., 
in  Syriac,  Greek,  and  Latin;  an  English  transla- 
tion of  the  Syriac  text,  copious  notes  and  Intro- 
duction (184.));  John,  Bishop  of  Ephesus,the  Third 
Part  of  his  Kcclesiastical  Jlistnr;/  [in  Syriac], 
(1853;;  the  same,  translated  by  Dean  Smith,  1860; 
Spicilegiunt  iSi/riacum,  containing  }icniarl,s  of  Bar- 
dtsan,  Meliton,  Ambrose,  ami  ^laru-Bar-Serapion, 
■tvith  an  English  'Translation  and  I^'otes  (1855); 
Quatuor  Enangeliorum  Syriace,  recens.onis  uiiti- 
liiiissima:,  atque  in  occldeute  adhuc  ignotm  (/uod 
:.aj,er<:st  (1858). 

CUREUS,  Joachim,  b.  at  Freistadt,  Silesia,  in 
1532;  studied  theology  ami  pliilo.sophy  at  Wit- 
tenberg (1550-51),  and  medicine  at  I'adua  and 
Bologna  (1557-59),  and  settled  as  [■ractical  pliy- 
.sician  at  Glogau,  where  he  died  in  1.573.  lie 
was  a  ]iassionate  disciple  of  Melanchthou,  and  the 
author  of  the  famous  Exegesis  Perspicua  cl  Ferme 
Integra  Conlroversiir.  de  Satra  C'cena,  which  ap- 
peared anonymously  at  Leipzig  in  1574,  by  the 


same  publisher  who  had  issued  the  Corpus  Philij^- 
picum.  The  work  is  a  defence  of  a  semi-Calvin- 
istic  view  of  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
and  occasioned  the  elector  August  of  Saxony  to 
discharge  all  those  of  his  counsellors  and  theo- 
logians who  leaned  towards  Melanchthon.  The 
work  has  been  reprinted  at  Jlarburg  in  1853  by 
\Y.  Scheffer. 

CURIA  ROMANA  denotes  the  whole  body  of 
officials  which  together  forms  the  papal  govern- 
ment. As  the  Pope  is  Bishop  of  Rome,  arch- 
bishop of  a  province  of  seven  bishoprics,  primate 
of  the  Roman-Catholic  Church,  and,  up  to  1859, 
occupant  of  a  large  territory,  the  States  of  the 
Church,  the  organization  of  the  papal  govern- 
ment consequenth'  developed  in  each  of  these 
directions.  Generally,  however,  the  archbishop 
employs  no  special  officials  for  the  performance 
of  his  archiepiscopal  duties,  but  simply  uses  his 
episcopal  officers  for  these  functions  too;  and 
exactly  in  the  same  manner  it  was  originally 
simply  the  presbytery  of  his  episcopal  diocese 
which  joined  the  Pope  in  the  administration  of 
important  affairs,  whether  episcopal,  or  archi- 
episcopal, or  primatial;  while  cases  of  minor 
consequence  were  left  to  him  to  be  disposed  of 
personally,  in  capella,  or  by  the  aid  of  liis  chap- 
lains. The  College  of  Cardinals,  the  chief  organ 
of  the  papal  government,  developed  around  the 
papal  see  exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
chapter   aroiuid   any   other   episcopal   see.      See 

C--iI!DIN.\L. 

In  the  episcopal  chapter  it  was  the  t\io  princi- 
pal members,  the  arch-deacon  and  the  arch-pres- 
byter, who  transacted  all  business;  while  the 
chapter  proper,  the  former  presbytery,  stood  by 
as  a  board  of  advice.  So,  too,  in  the  College  of 
Cardinals,  where  the  affairs  were  divided  be- 
tween the  cardinal-camerlengo  (the  arch-deacon) 
and  the  cardinal- vicari us  (the  arch-presbyter). 
The  cardinal-camerlengo  is  already  mentioned  in 
the  lilicr  diurnus  as  the  most  influential  member 
of  the  presbytery  as  its  representative.  To  him 
belonged  the  jurisdiction  and  the  llnances  of  the 
diocese ;  and  he  appointed  his  three  principal 
sub-officials  himself,  —  the  vice-camerlengo  for 
the  criminal  jurisdiction,  the  auditor  canierce  for 
the  civil  jurisdiction,  and  the  treasurer  (tcsoriere) 
for  the  finances.  To  Mie  canlinal-vicarius  be- 
longed nil  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  the  diocese, 
and  lie  had  a  suffragan  bishop  among  his  sub- 
officers.  As  the  papal  possessions  increased,  the 
sejiaration  between  these  two  offices  became  more 
sharply  marked.  All  secular  interests  were 
gathered  under  the  cardinal-camerlengo,  and  he 
became  a  state-ollicer  in  the  modern  sense  of  the 
word:  all  ecclesiastical  interests  gathered  under 
the  cardinal-vicarius,  and  he  became  [iractically 
the  Bishop  of  Rome.  The  granting  of  benefices, 
however,  and  the  power  of  tiie  keys  (/lotesla.^ 
ligandi  et  solccndi),  the  Popc^  reserved  for  liim.self, 
or  rather  for  a  special  officer,  the  cardinal-peni- 
tentiary. To  these  three  grand  offieiM's  was 
added,  though  not  until  llie  latter  jiart  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  a  fourth,  — tlie  cardinal-patron, 
or,  as  he  is  now  generally  called,  the  cardinal- 
secretary-of-state.  IIo  began  as  a  kind  of  minis- 
ter of  the  papal  household,  became  tlien,  on 
account  of  his  daily  and  intimate  intercourse 
\\ith    the   I'opi;,  the  ministi  r  of    foreign    affairr-. 


CURIA  ROMANA. 


587 


CURIO. 


ami  assumed  finally  a  position  as  niinistoi'  of  the 
iiitfi'ior,  too,  having  tlif  command  of  the  papal 
troops  and  the  direction  of  the  papal  lpgat<'S, 
which  placed  nearly  the  whole  administration  of 
the  Papal  States,  both  the  patrimony  proper  and 
the  legations,  iu  his  hands.  The  centre  of  the 
\vliole  machine  was  of  course  the  Pope,  to  whom 
the  final  decision  of  all  questions  belonged,  and 
who,  in  connection  with  the  consistoiy,  exercised 
a  general  superintendence. 

The  whole  organization,  such  as  it  Iiad  devel- 
oped and  was  working  in  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteentli  century,  before  the  Council  of  Trent, 
comprised  the  College  of  Cardinals  assembling  in 
consistories,  the  two  signatures  (Signalura  Graticc 
and  liignalwa  Juslitkc),  the  Pocinlenliaria,  the  ]!ola, 
the  Dalaria,  and  the  Chancery.  The  last-men- 
tioned, the  CanccUuria  Apostolica,  w-as  simply  a  bu- 
reau of  expedition  in  wliich  the  affairs  treated  by 
tlie  College  of  Cardinals  and  in  the  signatures  re- 
ceived their  final  business  form,  and  were  issued. 
The  Dalaria  originated  as  a  mere  department  of 
the  chancery,  as  a  kind  of  board  of  control,  in 
which  all  ingoing  and  outgoing  communications 
were  dated  and  registered ;  but,  on  account  of  the 
great  importance  which  this  simple  function  had 
for  all  cases  of  benefices,  the  department  soon 
became  independent,  and  gradually  came  to  exer- 
cise a  considerable  influence.  The  Rota  was  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Christendom,  and  an  immense 
amount  of  business  flowed  into  its  I'ooms.  It 
consisted  of  twelve  members  {audilores), — three 
liomans,  one  from  Bologna,  one  from  Ferrara, 
one  alternately  from  Tuscany  or  Perugia,  one 
from  Venice,  one  from  Milan,  one  German,  one 
Frenchman,  and  two  Spaniards.  It  lost  some  of 
its  importance  when  the  ISiijnulura  Juslitke  was 
established  above  it  as  a  court  of  appeal  for  Italy; 
and  bj-  degrees,  as  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Pope 
w  as  confined  on  the  one  hand  to  a  small  number 
of  cases,  on  the  other,  first  to  the  Papal  States, 
tlien  to  the  City  of  Rome,  and  finally  to  the  pal- 
ace of  the  Vatican,  the  Rota  and  the  S'ujnatura 
JuitiliiK  shrank  into  mere  shadows.  The  Sirjna- 
liira  Graike  and  the  Pcenitendaiia  treated  all  cases, 
assorting  to  i\i6  posleslas  legamli  et  solvendi  dispen- 
sations, indulgences,  etc.,  the  former  in  a  more 
private  and  personal  way,  the  latter  j>ublicly  and 
officially.  Affairs  of  dogmatics,  liturgy,  finance, 
general  policy,  appointment  of  bishops,  etc.,  be- 
longed to  the  College  of  Cardinals,  among  whose 
members  every  country,  diocese,  monastic  order, 
etc.,  had  its  special  pi-olector,  who  reported  on  its 
affairs,  pleaded  its  cause,  and  took  care  of  its 
interests. 

From  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
however,  a  great  change  was  effected  in  this  or- 
ganization by  the  establishment  of  the  so-called 
Cungreyaliones,  committees  of  cardinals  formed 
for  some  special  range  of  business.  The  oldest 
of  these  congregations  is  the  Sancla  Congregalio 
Romance  et  Universalis  Inqiiisilionis,  or  Sancli  Offi- 
cii, generally  called  Sant'  Cfficiu,  founded  in  1542, 
on  occasion  of  the  German  Keformation,  and  with 
the  object  of  eradicating  all  heresy  :  it  was  after- 
wards considerably  enlarged  by  the  addition  of 
the  S.  Congr.  Judicis  Librorum  Proliihiloruin  for 
watching  the  literatures.  A  second  congrega- 
tion, S.  C.  CardinaliuiH  Cuncilii  Tridenttni  Inlcr- 
2>rdtum,  or  Congrcgatiu  ConciUi,  or  Conciglio,  was 


founded  in  1.504  for  the  correct  publication  and 
true  interpretation  of  the  decrees  of  the  Council 
of  Trent.  Its  verdicts  (I'csohilioues,  dcclaralinnes) 
enjoy  great  authority ;  and  a  collection  of  them 
('J'/iisauriis  Hesolulianmii),  comprising  over  one 
liundred  volumes,  has  appeared  since  1718.  Three 
other  congregations  were  founded  by  Sixtus  V. ; 
namely,  .S.  ('.  suiter  negoliis  EpiKcnpornm  (ft  Regu- 
larimn,  oi-  Vescori  et  Regular!,  for  all  episcopal  and 
monastical  affairs;  S.  C.  Rituuin,iov  rituals,  lit- 
urgy, canonization,  etc.;  and  .S'.  C.  ConsiMariaUs, 
to  prepare  all  business  matter  before  it  is  brought 
into  a  regular  consistory.  Of  the  congregations 
established  in  the  seventeenth  century,  the  most 
important  are  De  Propaganda  Fide  (1G22),  for 
the  centralization  of  all  mission  business ;  S.  C. 
Immunitalis  Ecc/esiastica;  (1626),  to  guard  against 
any  encroachment  from  the  side  of  the  State  on 
the  privileges  of  the  Church  ;  S.  C.  Indulgen- 
tiarum  (1669),  etc.  The  Gerarchia  Cattolica  for 
1878  mentions  still  more  congregations.  The  re- 
lation between  these  congregations  and  the  old 
authorities  still  existing  often  gives  rise  to  very 
difficult  questions.  Generally,  however,  the  old 
and  the  new  authorities  are  equally  competent ; 
and  he  who  has  any  business  to  transact  can 
clioose  the  party  with  which  he  prefers  to  deal, 
for  reasons  of  clieapness,  speed,  personal  connec- 
tions among  the  officials,  etc. 

Lit.  —  OcTAViANUS  Vestrius  :  Introductio  in 
Romance  Aidce  Actionem,  Venice,  1.564  ;  Bangen  : 
Die  rOmische  Kurie,  MUnster,  1854  ;  BoNix :  De 
Curia  Romana,  Paris,  1859;  [X.  Barbier  de 
MoNTAULT ;  La  sacre  college  des  canlinaux  de  la 
sainte  e'glise  romaine,  Paris,  1879 ;  W.  Ribbeck  : 
Friedrich  I.  u.  die  romische  Curie  in  den  JaJiren 
1157  his  1159,  Leipzig,  1881.]  mejee. 

CURIO,  Ccelius  Secundus,  b.  at  Cirie,  near 
Turin,  May  1,  150.3;  d.  at  Basel,  Nov.  24, 1569; 
one  of  those  numerous  Italians,  who,  attracted  by 
the  evangelical  movement  of  the  Reformation, 
were  compelled  by  the  counteraction  of  Rome 
to  leave  their  native  country,  and  seek  refuge 
beyond  the  Alps.  While  studying  classical  lan- 
guages, history,  and  jurisprudence  at  Turin,  he 
became  acquainted  with  the  writings  of  Luther, 
Melanchthon,  and  Zwingli,  through  an  Augustini- 
an  monk,  Hieronymus  Niger;  and  the  impression 
he  received  was  so  strong,  that  he  immediately 
set  out  for  Germany  in  order  to  study  the  new 
theology.  But,  on  the  order  of  the  Cardinal- 
bishop  Boniface  of  Ivrea,  he  was  arrested  near 
Aosta,and  imprisoned.  Releasedaftertwo  months, 
he  was  brought  to  the  Monastery  of  St.  Benignus 
to  continue  his  studies ;  but  after  half  scandaliz- 
ing and  half  seducing  the  monks  by  his  views, 
which  he  never  desisted  from  preaching,  he  fled 
from  the  monastery,  visited  Rome  and  other 
It.alian  cities,  and  finally  settled  at  Milan,  where 
lie  married  Margaretha  Blanca  of  the  distin- 
guished family  of  Isachi.  In  order  to  avoid  the 
w\ar  troubles,  he  successively  removed  to_  Pied- 
mont, Savoy,  Pa\-ia,  where  he  lectured  in  the 
university ;  but,  as  he  was  zealous  in  defending 
and  preaching  the  evangelical  views,  he  was 
seized  at  Paviaby  the  Inquisition,  and  incarcerat- 
ed. He  escaped,  however,  and  found  refuge  in 
Venice,  and  at  the  court  of  the  Duchess  Renata  of 
Ferrara.  On  her  recommendation,  he  obtained  a 
position  at  the  University  of  Lucca.     But  he  had 


CURTIUS. 


688 


CUSANUS. 


hardh'  begun  to  teach,  before  the  Pope  demanded 
that  he  be  delirered  up;  and,  when  the  city  de- 
clared itself  unable  to  defend  him,  he  fled  (in 
1542)  to  Switzerland,  wliere  he  was  professor  of 
literature,  languages,  and  rhetoric,  first  at  Lau- 
sanne (1543-4t),  and  then  in  Basel.  As  a  hu- 
manist teacher  he  earned  a  great  reputation,  and 
received  splendid  offers  from  Maximilian  11. ,  the 
Duke  of  Savoy,  and  even  from  Pope  Paul  IV.  ; 
but  he  declined  to  leave  Basel,  where  alone  he 
felt  free  and  safe.  He  was  not,  strictly  speak- 
ing, a  theologian,  but  took  great  interest  in  all  the 
theological  movements  of  his  time,  and  was  not 
■without  influence.  In  Basel  he  stood  at  the  head 
of  that  latitudinarian  group  of  Italians  which 
gathered  there  ;  and  he  was  looked  upon  with 
suspicion,  not  only  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  but 
also  liy  Calvin  and  the  orthodox  Lutherans.  His 
most  widely  known  and  most  characteristic  work 
is  his  PaaquUii  Ecslatici,  a  satire  on  the  papacy 
and  the  Koinan  Church,  Geneva,  1544.  A  posi- 
tive representation  of  his  religious  stand-point 
may  be  found  in  his  ChrintiancE  Religionis  Instilulio, 
Basel,  1549.  But  the  work  which  caused  the 
most  contradiction  from  all  sides  was  his  De 
Amplilmline  Bead  Retjni  Dei,  1554. 

Lit.  — A  complete  list  of  the  materials  for  his 
life  is  given  by  Schelhorn  :  Amcenit.  Lit.  XIV. 
p.  382.  See,  also,  E.  Coquekel  ;  De  Cmlii  S.  Cu- 
rioiiis  Vila,  Paris,  1856,  and  M'Crie  :  Hislori/  <;/" 
the  I'roi/rexs  ami  Suppression  of  the  Reformation  in 
Italii,  Edinburgh.  1827.  WAGENMANN. 

CURTIUS,  Valentin  (Korte,  or  Kortheim)  b. 
at  Li-lius,  in  Brandeijlmrg,  Jan.  6,  1493;  d.  at 
Lubeck,  Nov.  20,  loUT  ;  came  to  Rostock  to  study 
theology  in  1512,  and  entered  the  order  of  the 
Franciscans,  but  embraced  the  Reformation,  and 
was  nia<le  Protestant  preacher  at  the  Church  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  in  1528;  married  in  1532;  was 
called  to  Lubeck  in  1534,  and  made  superintend- 
ent in  1554.  Liibeck  was  at  that  time  the  centre 
of  orthodox  Lutherdom  in  Northern  Germany, 
and  Curlius  occupied  a  prominent  place  in  the 
conventions  and  disputations  of  that  time.  He 
drew  up  tlie  Formula  Lubecensis  (15()0),  which,  up 
to  1G85,  was  signed  by  every  ecclesiastic  appointed 
in  the  city,  and  the  Protestalio  contra  Si/noiluin 
Triilenlinam  (1501).  But  he  was  also  very  eager 
to  have  the  English  refugees  of  1554  expelled 
from  tlie  city  on  account  of  their  Calvinism.  See 
C.  H.  Stakcke:  Liilicclisc/ie  Kirchen-I/istorie, 
Hamburg,  1724  ;  J.  H.  Gekcken:  Dissertatio  de 
Form.  Luh.,  Gottingen,  1755. 

CUSANUS,  Nicolaus(Nicolai  Krypffs, or  Krebs), 
also  known  as  Nicholas  de  Cusa;  b.  at  Cues,  or 
Cusa,  a  village  on  the  Moselle,  in  the  diocese  of 
Treves,  1401 ;  d.  at  Lodi,  Aug.  11,  MC.l ;  was  the 
Bon  of  poor  parents,  but  was  by  Count  Ulrich  of 
Manderscheiil,  in  who.se  service  he  had  entered, 
.sent  to  the  scliool  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Common 
lAii:,  at  Deventer,  and  then  to  the  University  of 
I'adua,  where  he  studied  law,  and  took  the  degree 
in  1424.  He  lost,  however,  the  very  first  case 
ill  whidi  lie  jileaded,  at  Mayence;  and  this  deter- 
mined liim  to  leave  the  legal  career  altogether, 
and  enter  the  Church.  For  several  yeai'S  he 
studied  mathematics  and  astronomy,  Hebrew  and 
Greek,  piiilosuphy  and  theology,  with  great  zeal ; 
and  he  was  Arclideacon  of  Liege,  when,  in  1433, 
he  was  sent  lu  the  Council  of  Basel.     There  he 


attracted  general  attention  by  his  De  Catholica 
Concordantia  and  De  Auctoritate  prcesidendi  in 
Concilio  Generali.  In  the  former  he  declares 
that  the  papal  authority  is  not  tied  up  with  the 
Roman  see;  that  the  true  successor  of  Peter  is- 
he  who  is  duly  chosen  by  the  representatives  of 
Christendom,  and  not  he  who  incidentally  occu- 
pies the  chair  of  Rome ;  that  the  donation  of 
Constantine  is  a  fable ;  that  the  secular  princes- 
are  completely  independent  of  the  Pope  in  all 
secular  affairs,  etc.  In  the  latter  he  vindicates 
the  authority  of  the  oecumenical  council  above 
that  of  the  Pope ;  and,  when  he  concedes  to  the 
Pope  the  right  to  preside  at  the  oecumenical 
council,  this  right  is  one  of  honor  only,  not  of 
]iower,  etc.  Nevertheless,  some  years  later  we 
find  him  travelling  in  Germany  as  papal  legate, 
and  defending  in  the  diets  of  1440-42  the  very 
opposite  views.  He  had  in  the  mean  time  become 
a  friend  of  Eugenius  IV.  ;  and  he  served  hira 
with  great  devotedness  on  many  important  mis- 
sions,—  to  Constantinople,  to  work  for  the  union 
of  the  two  Churches;  to  Germany,  to  gather 
money  for  the  building  of  the  Church  of  St. 
Peter,  etc.  Nicholas  V.  also  showed  him  great 
confidence,  and  made  him  cardinal  in  1448,  and 
Bishop  of  Brixen  in  1451,  in  spite  of  the  protest 
of  Archduke  Sigismund.  During  the  Congress 
of  Mantua  he  was  the  Pope's  vicegerent  in 
Rome,  and  published  his  Crihratio  Alchorani. 
His  troubles  with  Sigismund  disturbed  his  last 
days  (when  the  duke  imprisoned  the  bishoj),  and 
the  bishop  excommunicated  the  duke) ;  and  un- 
happily the  decision  of  the  emperor  in  his  favor 
was  not  given  until  after  his  death. 

The  extraordinarj'  change  in  Cusa's  views  has 
generally  been  explained  as  the  result  of  ambi- 
tion and  cowardice.  He  saw  that  nothing  could 
be  attained  in  the  Church  except  by  standing  on 
the  Pope's  side,  and  he  was  tempted.  He  saw 
that  his  \iews  could  not  be  carried  through  with- 
out causing  a  complete  revolution,  and  he  was 
frigliteued.  There  is,  however,  in  Cusa"s  charac- 
ter, nothing  at  all  to  justify  such  an  explanation. 
He  was  an  honest,  open,  simple-hearted  man, 
who  for  truth's  sake  could  have  sacrificed  his 
worldly  pros]>ects,  even  his  life,  without  regret, 
without  tear,  without  the  least  trace  of  the  mar- 
tyr's bravado,  if  he  had  only  known  the  truth. 
Hut  there  was  just  the  hitch.  In  his  intellect, 
though  he  actuallv  broke  with  the  tradition  of 
the  .schoolmen,  and  though  he  often  is  spoken  of 
as  the  dawn  of  modern  ]>hilos(iphy,  there  was 
just  that  kind  of  confusion  and  obscurity,  which, 
with  an  honest  man  who  is  too  naive  to  conceal 
any  thing,  nuikes  such  a  glaring  inconsistency 
almost  a  matter  of  course.  In  his  books  De  Docta 
Ii/niirantin  and  Dr  Conjecturis,  his  two  principal 
pliilus(>|ihical  works,  he  defines  the  relation  be- 
tween absolute  truth  and  tlie  human  mind  as  one 
of  complete  incongruity.  Absolute  truth  the 
human  mind  is  utterly  unable  to  grasp :  it  can 
only  form  opinions,  conjectures,  about  it.  But, 
when  the  intellect  can  establish  no  other  relatioir 
than  that  of  conjecture  between  itself  and  abso- 
lute truth,  an  honest  character  can,  just  because 
it  is  honest,  hardly  escajic,  at  least  once  in  the 
course  of  its  development,  to  be  thrown  from  that 
stand-point  which  it  holds  over  to  tlie  very  oppo- 
site, unless  it  can  keep  itself  forever  oscillating 


GUSH. 


389 


GUSH. 


k 


in  a  sceptical  dilemma.  But  Cusa  was  not  a 
sceptic,  citluT  intellectually  or  morally.  Intel- 
lectually lie  was  a  realist,  not  without  a  tint  of 
materialism.  lie  was  a  great  mathematician. 
His  propositions  for  tlie  improvement  of  the 
-Julian  Calendar  resembled  those  adopted  after- 
wards by  (iregory  VII.  He  anticipated  Coperni- 
cus in  his  views  of  the  earth's  position  in  the 
planetary  system.  He  was  the  father  of  Giordano 
Bruno.  Morally  he  was  a  mystic,  with  a  .strong 
leaning  towards  asceticism.  He  taught  that 
glimpses  of  the  absolute  truth  could  be  caught 
by  means  of  intuition,  which  aided  the  mind  in 
divining,  as  spectacles  aid  the  eyes  in  seeing.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Meister  Eckardt.  The  speculative 
result  of  this  singular  combination  was  an  ob- 
scure and  inconsistent  pantheism  —  God  as  the 
maximum  has  nothing  outside  himself,  the  world 
is  a  finite  condensation  of  the  maximum  —  wliich 
frightened  his  contemporaries  ;  and  the  practical 
result  is  a  number  of  mystico-materialistic  ab- 
surdities—  -De  Quadratura  Circuli,  De  Nocissimis 
Diehus,  according  to  which  the  universe  should 
perish  in  1734  — which  deter  a  modern  reader. 
But  of  cowardice  and  ambition,  and  other  moral 
blemishes,  there  is  not  much  in  the  man.  Cusa's 
works  make  three  volumes,  and  have  been  pub- 
lished three  times;  last  edition  by  Henri  Petri, 
Basel,  1565. 

Lit.  —  Hartzheim:  Vila  N.  de  Cusa,  Treves, 
1730  ;  ScHAUPFF  :  Cardinal  und  Bischof  Nic.  von 
Cusa,  Mayence,  1843  (only  the  first  volume  has 
appeared)  ;  Dux :  Dei-  deutsche  Cardinal  Nic.  von 
Cusa  und  die  Kirche  seiner  Zeit,  Ratisbon,  1847,  2 
vols,  (according  to  C.  Schmidt,  in  Herzog's  Real- 
•encyclopadie,  lengthy  and  unsystematic) ;  ZiM- 
mermann:  Nic.  Cusanus  als  Vorldufer  Leihnitzens, 
Vienna,  1852  ;  Jager  :  Der  Slreit  des  Card.  Nic. 
■von  Cusa  mil  Herzog  Sig.  von  Oslerreich,  Inns- 
bruck, 1861,  2  vols. ;  Stumpf  :  Die  politischen 
Ideen  Nic.  von  Cues,  Cologne,  1805 ;  Scharpff  : 
Nic.  van  Cusa  als  Reformatur,  Tubingen,  1871 ; 
KiCHARD  Falckenberg  :  Phdosophie  d.  Nic.  von 
Cusa,  Breslau,  1880. 

CUSH  (Hebrew  aO,  Egyptian  Kas,  KS,  or  Kes, 
Assyrian  Kusi  and  Miluhki,  LXX.  MSioTria,  Vyl- 
gate  ^Ethiopia,  except  Gen.  x.  6-8.  1  Chron.  i.  8- 
10,  where  LXX.  have  Xo6f,  Vulgate  Chus)  is  a 
name  applied  in  the  Old  Testament  to  a  person, 
a  land,  and  a  people.  As  a  person,  Cu-sh  is  the 
first  son  of  Ham,  having  five  sons  of  his  own,  — 
Seba,  Havilah,  Sabtah,  Kaamah,  Sabtechah,  — 
and  being  also  the  progenitor  of  Ninirod  (Gen.  x. 
6-8).  Two  sons,  Sheba  and  Dedan,  are  assigned 
to  Kaamah  (v.  7).  The  Scripture-writer  appears 
to  look  back  to  Cush,  with  his  sons  and  grand- 
sons, as  the  founders  of  peoples  known  in  his 
time;  and,  where  these  names  are  elsewhere  men- 
tioned (except  1  Chron.  i.  8-10,  which  repeats 
Gen.  X.  6-8),  they  refer,  not  to  the  founders,  but 
to  the  peoples  descended  from  them,  and  to  the 
lands  (some  in  Asia,  some  in  Africa)  where  these 
peoples  lived.  Seba  (X?P,  Ps.  Ixxii.  10;  Isa.  xliii. 
3,  xlv.  14)  denotes  probably  an  African  people ; 
Havilah  (nS'lH,  Gen.  ii.  11,  x.  29,  xxv.  18;  1 
Sam.  XV.  7.  and  see  Eden),  an  Asiatic,  and  per- 
haps an  African  as  well,  for  Ptolemy  (Geogr.  iv. 
7,  27)  puts  the  people  'A/iaA/rm  on  the  sinus 
.Aia/UTtji  CXi^aXirri^),  along  the  African  coast  near 


the  Straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb;  Sablah  (nnpp),  prob- 
ably an  Asiatic  (an  old  commercial  town  of  Ara- 
bia was  called  laiij3aiia')  ■  Raamak  (rin;;^,  Ezek. 
xxvii.  22),  Sheba  (N3E',  1  Kings  x.  1  f . ;  Job  vi. 
19;  Ps.  Ixxii.  10;  Isa.  Ix.  6;  Jer.  vi.  20;  Ezek. 
xxvii.  22,  xxxviii.  13;  comp.  Gen.  x.  28  and  xxv. 
3),  and  Dedan  (p'1,  Isa.  xxi.  13 ;  Ezek.  xxvii.  15, 
20,  xxxviii.  13;  comp.  Gen.  xxv.  3),  were  all  three 
Asiatic  (Arabian)  peoples;  Sal/lcchah  (KDriDD) 
was  ])robably  Asiatic  also ;  and  the  great  territory 
of  Cush,  divided  among  these  peoples,  formed 
the  southern  boundary  of  the  inhabited  world  as 
known  to  the  Hebrews.  The  appearance  of 
Sheba  and  Havilah  among  the  descendants  of 
Shem  through  Joktan  (Gen.  x.  28,  29),  and 
of  Sheba  and  Dedan  as  descendants  of  Shem 
through  Abraham  and  Jokshan  (Abraham's  son 
by  Keturah,  Gen.  xxv.  1-3),  points  to  a  mixture 
of  blood  in  these  peoples,  unless  we  have  to  do 
with  different  tribes  bearing  like  names,  which 
cannot  be  proved. 

Cush,  as  applied  to  a  land,  is  further  used  in  a 
more  limited  sense  (Gen.  ii.  13,  and  elsewhere  in 
the  Old  Testament,  —  twelve  passages  in  all). 
On  the  Cush  of  Gen.  ii.  13  see  Eden.  In  the 
other  eleven  passages  it  denotes  thp  Nile  Valley 
southward  from  Egypt,  with  the  lands  between 
the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea,  from  Syene  (Ezek. 
xxix.  10)  as  far  south  as  the  junction  of  the  Blue 
and  White  Nile.  The  earlier  boundaries  toward 
the  south  were  quite  vague;  and,  even  when  Cush 
became  a  well-defined  province  and  kingdom, 
tribes  of  the  same  origin  with  the  historical 
Cushites  dwelt  outside  its  borders.  In  a  sense 
which  would  include  these,  the  African  Cush  ex- 
tended into  Abyssinia,  and  perhaps  covered  it; 
but  the  restricted  sense  is  the  ordinary  one  in  use. 
In  the  Book  of  Esther  (i.  1  and  viii.  9)  Cush  is 
named  as  the  extreme  south-west  limit  of  the 
kingdom  of  Ahasuerus. 

This  land  of  Cush  was  called  by  the  Greeks 
Mfp6»;,  from  its  ancient  capital  city  (native  name 
Aleru  or  Merua,  "white  cliff"),  situated  near 
Mount  Barkal,  and  identical  with  Napata. 

The  people  of  Kas  {Kes  or  KiH)  are,  in  the 
Egyptian  records,  always  distinguished  from  ne- 
groes (Nahasi),  both  in  name  and  in  appearance. 
They  are  depicted  with  Caucasian  features,  and 
their  color  is  red  or  brown.  They  appear  to  be 
kindred  with  the  Egyptians.  It  is  believed  that 
the  ancestors  of  all  the  historic  inhabitants  of  the 
Nile  Valley  came  of  a  single  stock  (Cush  and 
Mizraim  are  brothers,  Gen.  x.  6),  and  had  a 
common  home  in  Asia.  One  stream  of  immigra- 
tion entered  North-eastern  Africa  by  the  Isthmus 
of  Suez,  and  became  the  Egyptian  people ;  an- 
other, starting  from  the  same  source,  moved  down 
into  Southern  Arabia;  then  a  part  crossed  the 
Red  Sea  into  Africa,  and  occupied  the  region 
described  above,  becoming  the  historic  Cush  ;  as 
such  they  are  named  some  twenty-five  times  in 
the  Old  Testament;  others  remained  in  Arabia, 
and  it  is  possible  that  reference  is  had  to  these 
in  2  Chron.  xxi.  16 :  "  Arabians  that  were  near 
the  Ethiopians."  (As  to  the  theories  that  an- 
other branch  wandered  northward,  and  became 
the  Phoenicians  of  history,  and  that  Babylonia 
was  peopled  by  colonists  from  the  African  Cush, 
see  Ph<enicia,  Nimrod.) 


CUSH. 


590 


CUTHBERT. 


The  (African)  Cushites  are  first  mentioned  in 
the  Egyptian  records  of  tlie  twelfth  dynasty  (Lep- 
sius,  c.  B.C.  2350),  which  fought  successfully 
against  them.  During  the  reign  of  the  Ilyksos  in 
Egypt,  the  native  Egyptian  kings,  forced  south- ! 
■ward,  came  into  closer  contact  with  the  Cushites ; ' 
and,  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Hyksos  (seven- 
teenth century  B.C.)  Kas  was  treated  as  a  prov- 
ince of  Egypt,  and  had  an  Egyptian  governor. 
In  the  time  of  the  twenty-first  dynasty  it  gained 
its  independence;  and.  in  the  eighth  century  B.C., 
the  Cushite  king,  Piankhi  I.,  conquered  all  Egypt. 
The  twenty-fifth  dynasty  of  Manetho  is  composed 
of  Cushite" kings,  —  Shahak  (Sahacn  =N1D  ['•■'],  '- 
Kings  xvii.  4),  Sliabala/c  (Sebichu),  and  Tahamqa 
(Tirhaka).  The  relation  between  these  kings  is 
obscure  ;  and,  besides  these,  Miamuu  Nut,  succes- 
sor, and  perliaps  son,  of  Piankhi,  figures  on  the 
monuments.  The  Cushite  kings  of  Egypt  came 
repeatedly  in  contact  with  the  Hebrews.  Iloshea 
of  .Samaria  tried  to  form  an  alliance  with  So 
against  the  Assyrians  (2  Kings  xvii.  4).  Isa. 
xviii.  seems  to  imply  like  proposals  from  the 
Cushites  to  the  Hebrews.  Sennacherib's  march 
through  Philistia  was  checked  by  the  approach 
of  Tirhaka,  the  most  formidable  of  all  the  Cush- 
ite kings.  Both  before  and  after  this  time,  there 
is  mention  of  individual  Cushites  who  lived  in 
Palestine  :  Ebed  IMelech  (Jer.  xxxviii.  Vff.,  xxxix. 
IG  if)  is  a  notable  example.  The  Cushite  control 
of  Egypt  ended  with  the  defeat  of  Tirhaka  and 
the  establisliraent  of  an  Assyrian  protectorate  on 
the  Lower  Nile  by  Esarhaddon  (King  of  Assyria 
B.C.  G81-0GS)  ;  and  an  attempt  of  Tirhaka  to 
regain  a  foothold  tliere  was  foiled  by  Asurbani- 
pal,  son  of  Es.arhaddou,  about  B.C.  GOG.  After 
this  we  find  Ethiopian  soldiers  in  the  service  of 
Egyptian  rulers  (Jer.  xlvi.  9;  Ezek.  xxx.  4  f.) ; 
but  Tirhaka's  successors  were  powerful  monarchs 
in  their  own  domain,  and  were  still  reigning  at 
tiie  old  Meroe  when  Cambyses  made  his  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  to  conquer  Ethiopia  (B.C.  524). 
As  late  as  B.C.  450  Herodotus  speaks  of  the 
"  long-lived  Ethiopians,"  whose  capital  was  at 
this  old  Meroe.  The  later  Meroe,  the  island  in 
the  south,  near  Khartum,  was  included  in  the 
empire  of  Tirhaka  and  his  succes.sors,  but  proba- 
bly did  not  become  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  till 
about  the  third  century  B.C.,  under  Erganienes, 
contemporary  with  I'tolemy  Philadeliihus.  The 
later  Greek  wrilt'rs  begin  to  distinguish  froni  the 
civilized  Meroites  various  ruder  Cushite  tribes, 
such  as  the  Blummyes,  Megabares,  and  Troglo- 
dytes. Tlie.se  occupied  the  territory  from  the 
Lake  of  Axum,  in  Abyssinia,  up  to  the  Egyptian 
boundary,  and  were  the  ancestors  of  the  present 
Bega,  or  liischari  tribes. 

The  Cushite  kingdom  existed  until  after  the 
Christian  era  (.Vets  viii.  27  names  Candaoe,  Queen 
of  Ethiopia);  but  by  degrees  the  Nubians,  who 
had  been  crowded  out  by  the  Cushites,  began  to 
get  the  ui^per  hand  of  it,  and  at  length  it  dis- 
appeared. The  precise  date  of  its  extinction  is 
unknown. 

In  person  the  Cushites  were  large,  strong,  and 
liand.some.  Thi'ir  land  produc-ed  corn  and  costly 
woods,  such  as  ebony  and  balsam  ;  of  iiiinc'rals 
they  exported  gold  and  gems;  besides  these  they 
drove  a  large  trade;  in  catth;  and  rare  animals,  as 
well  as  in  negro  slaves.     These  arc  all  depicted 


on  the  monuments  as  articles  of  tribute  paid  to 

Egypt- 

The  culture  and  religion  of  the  Cushites  were 
derived  from  Egypt,  and  began  to  take  firm  root 
among  them  as  early  as  the  time  of  the  Hyksos. 
They  developed  the  arts  thus  received ;  so  that, 
toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  not 
only  the  natural  products  named  above,  but  ar- 
tistic furniture,  covered  with  woven  stuiis  of 
many  colors,  shields  lined  with  variegated  skins, 
chariots  of  gold  and  iron,  rich  garments,  ear-rings, 
and  bracelets,  together  with  other  fine  work  in 
gold,  appear  in  a  representation  of  tribute-offer- 
ings. 

The  language  of  the  African  Cushites  was  dis- 
tinct from  the  Egyptian,  and  is  represented  by 
that  of  the  modern  Bischari ;  but  they  employed 
the  Egyptian  hieroglyphs  from  an  early  time. 
A  peculiar  demotic  character  which  abounds  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  Island  of  !Meroe  is  not 
yet  deciphered,  but  is  believed  to  belong  to  the 
later  Cushite  period,  probably  since  the  time  of 
Ergamenes. 

The  land  and  jieople  of  Cush  are  usually  called, 
after  the  Greek  writers  (so  in  the  LXX.,  the  Vul- 
gate, and  the  Authorized  Version),  Ethiopia  and 
Ethiopians ;  but  the  Cushites  must  be  carefully 
distinguished,  not  only  from  the  Nubians  and 
negro  tribes  generally,  but  also  from  the  Shemitic 
people  of  Abyssinia,  who  spoke  the  Ge'ez  (Ethi- 
opic)  language,  and  have  transmitted  to  us  a  con- 
siderable Christian  literature.  These  also  came 
across  the  sea  from  Arabia,  but  cannot  be  traced 
back  beyond  the  Christian  era.  See  Abyssixiak 
Church. 

Of    Cush,   the    Benjamite    (Septuagint   Xnvci, 
Vulgate  Cliusi),  who  is  luinied  in  the  inscription 
of  Ps.  vii.,  nothing  further  is  known.     He  must 
have  been  a  persecutor  pf  David,  and  was,  per-  ! 
haps,  an  instrument  in  the  hands  of  Saul. 

Lit. — R.  E.  Lkpsu  s  :  Briefe  aiis  ^Egi/plen, 
yEthiopien  u.  der  llatbhisel  des  Sinai,  Berlin,  1852; 
Nuhisclic  Grammatik  (Einleitung),  Berlin,  1880; 
G.  Ebeks  :  .Ei/i/pti'n  n.  die  Bilcher  ]\f(»ie's,  Bd.  I., 
Leijizig,  18GS ;  it.  BuU(;scir-BKY  :  IJis/ori/ o/Er/i/pt 
under  the  Pliaraalis,  2d  Eng.  ed..  Loud.,  1881, 
2  vols. ;  G.  IvAWLixsoN  :  Origin  of  Nations,  Loud., 
1877,  N.Y.,  1881 ;  Ilistonj  of  Ancient  ICi/i/pl,  Lond. 
and  N.Y.,  1881,  2  vols.    '  FR.VNCI.s' iiROWN. 

CUTHBERT,  St.,  d.  at  Fame,  March  20,  087; 
was  born,  in  the  fir:;t  half  of  the  seventh  century, 
in  Nortliumlu-ia,  beyond  the  Tweeil,  of  humble 
descent.  While  shepherding  his  flock  one  night 
(in  051),  he  received,  it  is  saiil,  a  heavenly  revela^ 
tion  in  form  of  a  vision,  and  went  immediately 
to  the  Mona.stery  of  Melrose  (the  Old  Melrose, 
situated  at  the  conlluence  of  the  Leader  and  the 
Tweed),  whose  prior,  Boisil,  admitted  him  into 
till'  brotherhood.  Melrose  was  a  colony  from  Lin- 
disfarne,  but  was  ,at  this  time  sending  out  colo- 
nies herself.  Cuthbert  accompanied  one  wliich 
went  to  Kipon  to  found  a  monastery  on  a  spot 
presented  to  tliem  by  .Mehlrith  ;  and  served  there 
as  /w.ililiunts  (witli  whom  rests  the  entertainment 
of  strangers),  liut  when  .Mchfrith  adopted  the 
liomau  views  of  East<'r,  the  tonsure,  etc.,  tho 
monks  of  Kipon  could  not  agree  with  liira.  They 
returned  home  to  Melrose  in  OGl;  and  in  the  same 
year,  I'.oisil  having  died  of  the  plague,  Cuthbert 
succeeded    him  as  jirior.       Afterwards,  however, 


CUTTY-STOOL. 


591 


CYPRIANUS. 


Cuthbrrt  must  have  adopted  the  Roman  views 
himself ;  for  in  0(il  he  was  called  as  prior  to 
Lindisfarne  expressly  for  the  purpose  of  introdu- 
cing those  views  among  the  monks  of  that  monas- 
tery; in  which  task  he  succeeded.  For  twelve 
years  he  staid  at  Lindisfarne ;  but  in  G7fi  the 
ascetic  tendency  of  his  disposition  gained  upon 
liim :  ho  resigned  his  office,  and  settled  as  a  her- 
mit in  one  of  the  small  islands  of  Fame.  In 
C84  he  was  prevailed  upon  to  return  to  Lindis- 
farne as  its  bishop,  but  only  for  two  years.  In 
68G  he  went  back  to  his  hermitage  on  the  lonely 
island,  and  there  he  died. 

Already  during  life  Cuthbert  was  reverenced 
by  his  lirothcr-monks  as  a  saint,  and  for  centuries 
after  his  death  his  fame  was  still  increasing. 
The  power  of  working  miracles  was  ascribed  to 
him,  and  even  to  his  remains.  Before  he  died,  he 
gave  permission  that  his  corpse  might  be  brought 
to  Lindisfarne,  on  the  condition  that  the  monks 
vowed  never  to  desert  it.  Consequently,  when 
the  Danes  took  the  monastery  (in  875),  and  the 
monks  fled,  they  carried  C'uthbert's  corpse  along 
with  them  on  a  bier  for  eight  years,  until  (in  883), 
they  were  settled  at  C'hester-le-Street.  Overtaken 
here,  too,  by  the  Danes,  they  began  their  wander- 
ings again  in  990,  but  were  finally  settled  in  992 
at  Durham,  in  whose  cathedral  Cuthberfs  re- 
mains now  rest. 

Lit.  — Of  C'uthbert's  own  writings,  Ordinaliones 
and  Prrncepla  Vila;  Rcf/ulnris;  nothing  has  come 
down  to  us ;  but  the  materials  for  his  biography 
are  very  rich.  The  oldest  life  of  him  was  written 
between  698  and  70.^,  by  some  unknown  brother- 
monk,  either  from  Lindisfarne  or  Melrose,  and  is 
printed  in  Acl.  Sanrl.  (March  20),  and  in  Steven- 
son's edition  of  Bcdic  Opera  Minora  (pp.  259-284). 
Of  the  two  Lives  by  liede,  the  oldest  is  in  verse, 
the  best  in  prose,  both  printed  in  Stevenson's 
B.  Op.  Min.  (pj).  1-43,  4.5-137)  and  in  Act.  Sand. 
(March  20).  The  Ilisloria  Translalionmn  S.  C. 
from  the  eleventh  century,  the  Reginakli  Mnnacki 
Dunelmensis  Lihelhis  de  .  .  .  from  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, and  treating  especially  of  his  miracles,  and 
the  so-called  Irish  life  from  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, have  been  published  by  the  Surtees  Society. 
A  full  account  of  the  materials  for  the  history  of 
St.  Cuthbert  is  found  in  IIakdy  ;  Deac.  Cat.  I., 
297-317.  Seealso  James  Raine:  Saint  Cuthbert, 
Durham,  1828;  A.C.  Fuyer:  Cuthbert  of  Lindis- 
farne. London.  1881. 

CUTTY-STOOL,  a  small  raised  seat  or  gallery 
in  old  Scottish  churches,  where  unchaste  men  and 
women  were  obliged  to  sit  during  three  Sundays, 
while  they  were  rebuked  by  the  minister,  if  they 
would  be  received  to  communion  again. 

CYAXARES.     See  Dakius. 

CYCLE.     See  Year,  The  Church. 

CYCLOP/EDIAS.     See  Dictionaries. 

CYPRIAN,  Ernst  Salomon, b.  at  Ostheim,  Fran- 
conia,  1073  ;  studied  at  Jena,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Helmstedt,  1699,  rector 
of  the  gymnasium  of  Coburg,  1700,  and  member 
of  the  Over-Consistory,  in  1713,  in  Gotha,  where 
he  died  in  1745.  Friedrich  Wilhelm  I.  of  I'rus- 
,sia,  who  considered  the  controversies  between  the 
Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches  "  a  bitter  sauce 
mixed  by  the  priests,"  conceived  the  plan  of 
effecting  a  union  between  all  Protestant  churches; 
and  at  first  it  seemed  as  if  the  plan  would  suc- 


ceed. At  this  juncture,  Cyprian  appeared  as  one 
of  the  few  stanch  champions  of  the  old  ortho- 
dox Lutheranism,  .and  wrote  three  pamphlets, 
Ah(/edrunr/ener  Unterricht,  etc.  (1722),  Authcntir/tie 
Rcchtferliyunij,  etc.  (1722),  and  Das  Urtheil  emj- 
tishcr  TIteoloficn  von  dcr  Synode  zu  Dortrechl  und 
ihrer  Lehre  (1723),  which  by  their  rich  historical 
illustrations  give  considerable  information  about 
the  whole  question. 

CYPRIANUS,  Thascius  CaDcilius,  which  last 
name  he  assumed  in  honor  of  an  old  presbyter, 
Cajcilius,  who  was  instrumental  in  his  conversion 
to  Christianity,  was  born  in  Northern  Africa, 
towards  the  close  of  the  second,  or  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  third,  century,  and  educated  at  Car- 
thage, where,  in  the  fourth  decade  of  the  third 
century,  beheld  a  prominent  position  as  a  teacher 
of  rhetoric.  He  was  a  man  of  wealth.  His  house 
and  gardens  were  beautiful,  his  landed  property 
considerable.  lie  was  also  a  man  of  elegance 
and  dignity,  both  in  dress  and  manners,  both  in 
literary  productions  and  in  business  affairs.  Of 
the  history  of  his  conversion  nothing  is  known, 
but  he  was  baptized  in  245  or  246.  Immediately 
after  baptism  he  gave  away  a  part  of  his  fortune 
to  tlie  poor ;  and  all  his  time  he  seems  to  have 
devoted  to  the  study  of  the  Bible  and  the  Chris- 
tian writers  of  the  second  century.  His  Epistola 
ml  Donatum,  De  Idolorum  Vanitate,  and  Lihri  HI. 
Testimoniormn  adv.  Judeves,  in  the  last  two  of 
which  works  he  closely  follows  Minucius  Felix 
and  Tertullian's  Apotogeticus,  belong  to  this 
period. 

The  African  Church  was  at  this  period  flourish- 
ing enough  externally,  but  internally  its  state 
was  rather  precarious.  The  long  peace  it  had 
enjoyed  (nearly  thirty  years)  had  slackened  the 
zeal  and  tlie  discipline  of  its  members.  Even 
the  character  of  the  episcopate  had  suffered. 
Many  of  the  bishops  were  engaged  in  agricidture 
or  trade,  or  even  in  usury.  Instances  of  fraud 
and  swindling  occurred  among  them.  Sometimes 
they  were  so  ignorant  that  they  could  not  instruct 
the  catechumens,  nor  distinguish  between  ortho- 
dox and  heretical  compositions.  Under  such 
circumstances  the  conversion  of  a  man  like 
Cyprian  naturally  made  a  sensation,  and  awak- 
ened expectations.  In  248  the  episcopal  chair 
of  Carthage  became  vacant,  and  he  was  elected 
bishop.  It  is  characteristic,  however,  that  it 
was  the  lower  mass  of  the  church-members  which 
carried  his  election,  while  a  portion  of  the  pres- 
bytery opposed  it  to  the  very  last.  The  poor,  the 
ignorant,  the  humble,  of  the  Church  of  Carthage, 
felt  how  good  it  would  be  to  them  to  have  for 
their  bishop  a  man  of  wealth,  a  m.au  of  learning, 
a  man  of  social  standing.  They  knew  of  Cyprian 
that  he  was  liberal  with  liis  means,  that  he  wa.s 
possessed  of  brilliant  literary  talents,  that  he 
showed  both  decision  and  tact  in  business  trans- 
actions, and  they  would  hear  of  no  refusal. 
Between  July  248  and  April  249  he  was  conse- 
crated bishop.  The  opposition  did  not  dissolve, 
however,  after  its  defeat.  On  the  contrary,  it 
became  more  firmly  organized  ;  and  it  soon  found 
a  point  from  which  an  attack  could  be  made. 
Early  in  250  Decius  issued  the  edict  for  the  sup- 
jjression  of  Christianity,  and  the  persecution 
began.  Measures  w'ere  first  taken  against  the 
bishops  and  officers  of  the  church :  by  slaying  the 


CYPRIANUS. 


592 


CYPRIANUS. 


shepherds  it  was  hoped  the  flock  would  be  stolen. 
The  proconsul  on  circuit,  and  five  commissioners 
for  each  town,  administered  the  edict ;  but,  when 
the  proconsul  reached  Carthage,  Cyprian  had 
fled. 

In  his  book  De  Lapsis,  and  in  his  letters  to  his 
contjregation,  to  his  fellow-bishops  of  the  African 
Church,  and  to  the  clergj'  of  Rome,  Cyprian 
defends  very  adroitly  the  line  of  conduct  he  had 
adopted;  but  none  of  the  reasons  which  he  prof- 
fers—  the  necessity  of  preserving  himself  for  the 
good  of  his  church,  the  direct  command  of  God 
through  a  vision,  etc.  —  are  quite  acceptable,  and 
with  the  idea  of  heroism  they  are  altogether  in- 
compatible. But  it  must  be  remembered,  first, 
that  martyrdom  had  not  yet  become  a  fashion,  a 
rage,  the  necessary  close  of  a  distinguished  life, 
the  greatest  grace  which  God  could  grant.  "When 
the  Decian  persecution  broke  out,  Dionysius  of 
Alexandria,  Gregory  Thauraaturgus,  Maximus 
of  Xola,  and  many  other  bishops,  did  as  Cyprian, 
—  fled  before  the  storm.  Next,  the  edict  was 
directed,  pvrincipally  if  not  alone,  against  the 
V)ishops,  —  a  circumstance  which  could  not  but  in- 
fluence their  policy.  In  Rome  the  congregation 
left,  for  this  very  reason,  the  episcopal  chair  un- 
occupied for  sixteen  months  after  the  martyrdom 
cf  Fabian.  Finally  the  individual  character 
must  be  taken  into  account.  Cyprian  was  a  man 
of  education,  not  of  genius  ;  he  reasoned  from 
facts,  not  from  enthusiasm  ;  he  acted  upon  con- 
victions, not  npon  passion.  But  with  such  char- 
acters every  thing  grand  is  the  result  of  a  slow 
growth,  not  of  a  moment's  inspiration;  and  the 
i-emark  of  Augustine  about  Cyprian's  style,  that 
it  ripened  with  age,  growing  simpler,  nobler, 
and  more  fit  to  express  the  fulne.ss  of  Christian 
truth,  must  be  applied  also  to  his  conduct.  Never- 
tlieless,  his  fliglit  gave  his  enemies  a  dangerous 
weapon  in  hand.  Towards  the  close  of  250  he 
sent  the  two  bishops,  Caldonius  and  Ilerculanus, 
to  Carthage  with  money  f<u-  the  poor,  with  spirit- 
ual aid  for  the  weak,  with  disciplinary  power  for 
those  who  had  fallen.  Rut  in  Carthage  Caldonius 
and  Ilerculanus  met  with  the  most  determined 
opjwsition  from  the  side  of  Felicissimns,  a  deacon  ; 
and  when  Cyprian  excommunicated  Felicissimns, 
five  presbyters,  headed  by  Novatus,  took  np  his 
cause :  a  schism  thus  broke  out.  In  spring  of 
231  Cyprian  returned;  and  the  great  question 
of  the  re-admission  into  i\w.  Church  of  the  la]->si, 
especially  of  the  lihcllaUci,  was  now  to  be  decid- 
ed. The  most  extreme  views  found  defenders. 
Oueparty  refused  altogether  to  re-admit  the  lapsi: 
another  granted  them  re-admission  without  any 
restriction  at  all.  Cyprian  adopted  a  middle 
course :  after  due  penance  he  re-admitted  those 
■who  had  fallen.  In  the  synods  of  Carthage  (251 
and  252)  he  carried  through  his  policy,  and  it 
became  the  policy  of  the  whole  Christian  Church. 
The  two  other  parties,  however,  in  wliich  his  ad- 
versaries were  mixed  up  in  a  most  singular  man- 
ner (see  tlie  articles  on  Frdicinslmus,  Novalianus, 
and  Novntu.s),  appointed  each  an  anti-bishop, 
Maximus  and  Fortuuatus.  The  schism  was  thus 
complete. 

It  would  seem,  however,  that  the  authority  of 
Cyprian  was  in  no  way  impairi^d  Iiy  this  scliism. 
The  practical  wisdom,  the  inexhaustible  energy, 
and    the    great  self-abnegation    with    which  lie 


administered  to  the  weal  of  his  flock  during  the 
horrible  plague  which  reached  Carthage  in  252 
(see  his  De  Mortalitate  and  De  Eleomosijnix),  drew 
all  true  Christians  close  to  their  bishop;  and  the 
schismatics  were  forgotten.  At  the  time  when 
the  controversy  concerning  baptism  broke  out 
between  him  and  Bishop  Stephen  of  Rome  (255), 
Cyprian  stood  undisputedly  as  the  prominent 
and  most  influential  leader  in  the  Christian 
Church.  The  Roman  Church  held  that  baptism 
administered  in  due  form  was  valid,  even  when 
administered  by  a  heretic,  and  admitted  baptized 
heretics  and  schismatics  by  simple  imposition  of 
hands;  while  Cyprian  protested  that  there  was 
no  baptism  outside  of  the  orthodox  church,  and 
baptized,  or  rather  re-baptized,  heretics  and 
schismatics,  before  admitting  them  into  the 
church.  The  Roman  view  held  the  ground ; 
but  it  is  very  instructive  to  notice  the  relation 
in  which  Cyprian  places  himself  to  the  Bishop 
of  Rome.  Acknowledging  Rome  as  the  natural 
centre  of  Christendom,  and  the  successor  of 
Peter  as  primiia  inter  pares,  he  recognizes  the 
precedence  as  one  of  honor  only,  and  by  no  means 
as  one  of  power.  Of  a  feeling  of  subordination, 
of  a  yielding  to  a  higher  power  of  jurisdiction, 
there  is  in  all  his  tracts  and  letters  not  the  least 
trace.  The  papacy  was  not  yet  born.  On  the 
contrai-y,  it  is  Cyprian  who  is  styled  Papa  by 
the  Roman  bishop;  and  he  does  not  give  back 
the  title  to  his  interlocutor. 

In  spring  of  257  Valerian's  edict  against  the 
Christians  was  issued,  and  in  August,  Cyprian 
appeared  before  the  proconsul.  Aspasius  Paternus ; 
and,  when  he  refused  to  offer  s.acrifice  to  the 
Roman  state-gods,  he  was  banished  to  Curubis,  a 
lonely  place  on  the  seashore,  but  only  a  day's 
journey  from  Carthage.  He  lived  there  eleven 
months,  in  decent  retirement,  and  in  stead)'  com- 
munication with  his  flock.  A  new  proconsul,  Ga- 
lerius  Maximus,  recalled  him ;  but  sliortly  after 
a  much  severer  edict  was  issued,  and  (Aug.  13)  he 
was  again  arrested.  On  Sept.  13  the  trial  began, 
and  the  next  day  the  proconsul  pronounced 
reluctantly  tile  sentence  of  death  by  the  sword. 
"■Deo  Gralia.i!"  Cyprian  exclaimed.  The  exe- 
cution followed  immediately.  But  the  proceed- 
ings were  carried  on,  from  the  side  of  the  State, 
with  a  regard  for  the  victim  which  shows  the 
great  weight  he  carried  in  public  opinion  ;  and 
the  execution  was  witnessed  with  a  synqxitiietic 
awe  which  was  still  vibrating  in  people's  hearts 
when  Augustine  preached. 

Lit.  —  Till'  first  collected  edition  of  Cyprian's 
works  is  that  by  Er.vsmus  (Basel,  1520):  among 
the  later  are  those  bv  (ioi.DiioiiN  (Leipzig,  1838- 
39,  2  vols.),  and  G."  IlAitTKi.  (Vienna.  18G8-7], 
3  vols.).  The  last  is  by  far  the  best:  it  rests 
upon  a  critical  compai'ison  of  above  forty  manu- 
scripts. Translations  into  Engli.sh  of  his  trea- 
tises On  Morlaliti/,  On  the  Lord's  Prayer,  etc.,  are 
numerous.  Of  his  complete  works  there  are 
two,  —  by  Maushali.  (London,  1717,  fob),  and 
l)y  R.  E.  AVai.i.is,  in  AiUe-i\lcene  Library,  vols. 
VIII. ,  1808,  and  XIIL,  1SC9. 

The  sources  to  Cyprian's  life  .are,  besides  hi.s 
own  writings  and  the  church-history  of  Euse- 
V)iiis,  Pontius,  De  Vila  Cipriani,  and  the  Ada 
Procon.iularia  Marli/rii  Ci/priani,  both  given  by 
Itui.NAKT,    Act     Mart.,   ll.,    and   the   former  in 


CYPRUS. 


593 


CYRIACUS. 


anost  editions  of  his  works.  Among  modern 
treatments  of  liis  life  are,  J.  Peauso.v  :  Annales 
Ci/prianici,  Oxford,  1G82 ;  H.  Dodwkll:  Diss. 
C'l/pr.,  Oxford,  1084;  A.  F.  Gkrvaisk  :  La 
vie  (le  St.  Ct/]}rien,  Paris,  1717;  Rkttbeug: 
Those.  C.  Cijprianus,  Gcittingen,  1831  :  G.  A. 
Poole:  Life  and  Times  of  C,  Oxford,  1810;  15. 
Fkchtuup:  Der  heiliye  Cyprian.  I.  Cyprian's 
Ltben,  Jliinster,  1878  ;  O.  Ritsciil  :  Cyprian  von 
Kiirthayo  unci  die  Verfassuny  der  Kirche,  Gottingen, 
1885. 

Referring  to  special  points  of  Cyprian's  doc- 
trines are  J.  Sage  :  Principles  of  the  Cypriunic 
Aye,  London,  1G95,  and  Vindication  of  the  P., 
London,  1705 ;  W.  Jameson  :  C.  Isotimus,  Edin- 
burgh, 1705  (directed  against  the  preceding) ; 
Reuchlin:  De  Doctrina  Cypr.,  I. -III.,  Strasburg, 
1751-54;  G.  MUlleu:  Ohseroationes  in  C,  Gera, 
1771 ;  ScHMlEDEK :  IJber  die  Sckrift  de  Unitate 
Ecclcsia:,- Leipzig,  1822;  J.  H.  Reinkens  :  Die 
Lehre  d.  h.  C.  von  d.  Einheit  der  Kirche,  Wiirz- 
burg,  1873.  llAGENBACn  (LEIMBACH). 

CY'PRUS,  a  large  fertile  island  of  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  triangular  in  form,  a  hundred  and 
fifty  miles  long,  and  from  fifty  to  sixty  miles 
broad.  Its  principal  towns  were  .Salarais  at  the 
east,  and  Paphos  at  the  west,  end  of  the  island. 
Its  chief  goddess  was  Venus,  who  had  a  famous 
temple  at  Paphos,  and  hence  was  called  the 
Paphian  goddess,  as  well  as  Cypria.  The  island 
was  colonized  in  early  times  by  the  Phoenicians. 
It  is  called  Chittim  in  the  Old  Testament.  The 
Greeks  gave  it  the  name  Kypros,  perhaps  from 
the  plant  of  that  name,  which  is  our  henna.  Cop- 
per, and  articles  in  copper,  made  the  inhabitants 
rich.  Cyprus  was  successively  tributary  to  the 
great  empires  of  antiquity,  and  finally  fell  under 
Rome  (B.C.  58).  Cicero  was  proconsul  there 
(B.C.  52).  In  the  reign  of  Trajan  (117  A.D.) 
the  Jews  there  revolted,  massacred  the  Greek 
inhabitants,  but  were  massacred  themselves.  In 
the  division  of  the  Roman  Empire  the  island  fell 
to  the  East;  in  the  seventh  and  ninth  centuries 
the  Saracens  seized  it ;  but  each  time  it  quickly 
lapsed  again  into  the  hands  of  the  Byzantine 
emperors ;  but  from  them  the  Crusaders,  under 
Richard  I.  of  England,  wrested  it  (A.D.  1191), 
and  gave  it  to  "the  titular  king  of  Jerusalem, 
as  some  compensation  for  the  loss  of  the  holy 
city."  Later  the  Genoese  and  Venetians  held  it, 
until  in  1570  the  Turks  dispossessed  the  Vene- 
tians. By  a  secret  treaty  of  Lord  Beaconsfield 
with  the  Sultan  (1878),  the  island  was  secured  by 
the  English  Government.  Gen.  Cesnola's  excava- 
tions tliere  have  been  of  extraordinary  interest 
and  value  (Cesnola  :  Cyprus;  its  Ancient  Cities, 
Tombs,  and  'Temples,  N.  Y.,  1877). 

In  the  Acts  alone  Cyprus  is  mentioned.  The 
gospel  very  quickly  reached  it;  and  the  response 
to  the  Master's  command,  "  Go,"  was  very  prompt 
(Acts  xi.  19,  20;  of.  xxi.  16).  Barnabas  was  a 
Levite  of  Cyprus  (iv.  30),  and  naturally  began 
there  his  missionary  activity  (xiii.  4),  and  sailed 
thither  after  his  dispute  with  Paul  (xv.  39). 
The  other  New-Testament  references  are  purely 
geographical.  All  the  notices  of  Cyprus  occur- 
ring in  ancient  writei-s  can  be  found  in  Meur- 
sn  Opera,  vol.  iii.,  Flor.,  1744,  and  in  Engel: 
Kypros,  eine  Monoyraphie,  Berlin,  1841,  2  vols. ; 
Jr.  Loher  :  Cyprus,  History  and  Description, 
39  —  1 


abridyed,  with  much  additional  matter,  by  Mrs.  A. 
B.  Joyner,  N.Y. ,  1878 ;  (Anonymous)  Leokosia,  the 
Capital  of  Cyprus,  London,  1881. 

CYRE'NE,  the  capital  of  a  small  province,  and 
the  chief  city  of  Libya,  in  Northern  Africa. 
Modern  Tripoli  corresponds  to  the  province.  It 
was  a  Greek  city,  dating  from  B.C.  031.  Alex- 
ander the  (ireek  granted  tlie  Jews,  who  formed 
about  a  fourth  of  its  population,  the  rights  of 
citizenship  on  equal  terms  witli  the  Greeks. 
After  Alexander's  death,  the  city  became  a  de- 
pendency of  Egypt,  and  in  B.C.  75  became  a 
Roman  province.  The  New-Testament  allusions 
to  it  are  of  singular  interest.  Simon,  a  Cyrenian, 
bore  our  Lord's  cross  (Matt,  xxvii.  32_);  Cyrenians 
were  present  at  Pentecost  (Acts  ii.  10,  vi.  9), 
and  of  them  were  some  of  the  earliest  j^reachers 
of  the  gospel  (Acts  xi.  20,  xiii.  1).  The  city 
was  destroyed  by  the  Saracens  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, and  is  now  desolate. 

CYRENIUS.     See  Quikinius. 

CYRIACUS  (synonymous  with  Dominicus,  "be- 
longing to  the  Lord ")  is  the  name  of  several 
persons,  some  legendary  and  some  historical. 
Thus  the  Ada  Sanctorum  conta\n  no  less  than 
eleven  saints  of  this  name,  among  whom  are  a 
deacon  of  Rome,  who  was  sentenced  to  the  gal- 
leys under  Diocletian,  fled  to  King  Sapores  of 
Persia,  and  was  beheaded  under  Maximian  ;  and 
a  pope  of  Rome,  who  resigned  his  office,  and 
followed  St.  Ursula  and  her  eleven  thousand 
virgins  to  Cologne,  where  they  all  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom. It  has  jiroved  impossible  to  get  a  pla.ce 
for  this  pope  in  the  papal  succession  ;  but  then  it 
has  been  suggested  that  the  cardinals  may  have 
erased  his  name  from  the  catalogues,  from  indig- 
nation over  his  abdication!  The  Church  of  St. 
Cyriaous,  however,  in  Neuhausen,  near  Worms, 
boasts  of  possessing  his  remains. 

Historical  are  Cyriacus,  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople in  the  time  of  Gregory  I.,  and  Cyriacus, 
IMetropolite  of  Carthage  in  the  time  of  (iregory 
VII.  The  former  was  presbyter  and  aconoinicus 
of  the  Church  of  Constantinople,  when  (in  595)  he 
was  elected  patriarch,  on  the  death  of  John  IV. 
Like  his  predecessor,  he  assumed  the  title  of 
"  fficumenical  Patriarch,"  and  a  synod  of  Con- 
stantinople confirmed  the  title ;  but  these  pro- 
ceedings were  met  with  the  most  violent  protests 
from  Gregory  I.  of  Rome,  who  wrote  letters  upon 
letters  to  the  Emperor  Mauritius  and  to  the  other 
patriarchs  of  the  Orient,  denouncing  the  a.ssunip- 
tion  as  scandalous,  perverse,  punishable,  anti- 
Christian,  Satanic,  etc.  (see  J.\ffe  :  Rec/esta  Pon- 
tif,  1105,  1109,  1111).  In  602  Mauritius  was 
dethroned  by  Phocas,  a  rude  and  coarse  soldier ; 
and  disagreement  soon  arose  between  the  em- 
peror and  the  patriarch.  Gregory  I.  was  too 
wide  awake  not  to  avail  himself  of  such  an 
opportunity;  and,  according  to  Roman  historians, 
Phocas  issued  an  edict  in  which  he  designated 
the  Bishop  of  Rome  as  caput  omnium  ecclesiarum. 
But  the  edict  does  not  exist,  and  is  probably  a 
mere  fable.  At  all  events,  the  edict  had  not 
appeared  when  Cyriacus  died  (Oct.  7,  606) ;  and 
the  connection  which  some  authors  have  thought 
to  find  between  the  imperial  edict  and  the  death 
of  the  patriarch  is  mere  fiction.  See  Greyorii 
L  Epistoke,  VII. 

Cyriacus  of  Carthage,  living  in  the  latter  part 


CYRIL  OF  ALEXANDRIA. 


594 


CYRIL  LUCAR. 


of  the  eleventh  centurj',  was  one  of  the  last  Chris- 
tian bishops  of  Northern  Africa,  lie  refused  to 
perform  uncauonical  consecration ;  and  for  this 
reason  some  of  his  flock  accused  him  before  the 
Saracenic  emirs,  who  tortured  him  in  a  most 
cruel  manner.  He  addressed  himself  to  Gregory 
VII.,  and  received  from  him  letters  of  consola- 
tion and  exhortation.  See  Greyorii  VII.  Rei/ixtr., 
L.  22.  23;  and  Jaff^:  Reg.  Pont,  ad  ann.,  107;5, 
Sept.  1.5.  No.  3.557.  m-agexmanx. 

CYRIL  OF  ALEXANDRIA  was  b.  in  Alex- 
andria, towards  the  close  of  the  fourth  century, 
and  d.  there  in  444.  After  living  for  several 
years  as  a  monk  in  the  Nitrian  Mountains,  he 
succeeded  his  uncle  Theophilus  on  the  patriar- 
chal chair  of  Alexandria,  in  412.  Like  his  prede- 
cessor, he  distinguished  himself  by  his  violence 
against  any  deviation  from  what  he  considered 
orthodox  faith.  He  expelled  the  Novatians  from 
their  church,  and  robbed  their  church-treasury; 
he  led  in  person  the  mob  which  drove  all  Jews 
away  from  Alexandria  in  415;  and  he  took  part, 
.at  least  indirectly,  in  the  foul  murder  of  Hy- 
patia.  He  became  most  notorious  from  his  con- 
troversy with  Nestorius,  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople. Xestorius  refused  to  give  to  IMary  the 
prsedicate  iSforoxof :  this  occasioned  Cyril  to  write 
a  treatise  (429),  explaining  the  union  of  the  logos 
and  the  human  nature  in  Christ,  and  the  birth  of 
the  logos  by  Mary,  and  to  issue  an  encyclic  letter 
to  the  Egyptian  monks,  warning  them  against 
Xestorianism.  The  controversy  between  the  two 
patriarchs  soon  became  very  excited ;  and  both 
endeavored  to  gain  the  emperor,  Theodosius  II., 
and  Pope  Celestine,  over  on  his  side.  Celestine 
finally  decided  against  Nestorius,  and  commis- 
sioned Cyril  to  excommunicate  him  if  he  did  not 
recant  within  ten  days.  Cyril  consequently  con- 
vened a  synod  at  Alexandria,  and  the  an.athema 
was  spoken  against  any  one  wlio  refused  to  give 
to  ^lary  the  disputed  praidicate.  Xestorius  an- 
swered with  a  countei'-anathema,  and  both  ap- 
pealed to  an  oecumenical  sjmod.  This,  the  third, 
was  called  by  the  emperor,  at  Ephesus,  431.  But, 
before  Jolin  of  Antioch  and  his  bishops  arrived, 
the  synod  condemned  Nestorius  and  liis  doctrine 
of  the  two  natures  in  Christ.  The  Antiochi.an 
bishops  (from  thirty  to  forty)  tlien  formed  an  in- 
dependent synod,  and  condemned  Cyril  ;  and  the 
emperor  confirmed  both  condemnations, — both 
that  of  Nestorius  and  that  of  Cyril.  The  party 
of  the  latter,  however,  succeeded  in  g.iining  over 
the  emperor;  and  Cyril  was  re-instated  in  liis 
see,  while  Nestorius  was  sent  bark  to  liis  monas- 
tery. A  reconciliation  was  afterwards  effected 
between  Cyril  and  John  of  Antioch;  but  the 
former  continued  to  look  with  suspicion  at  the 
Antiochian  school,  especially  at  Diodorns  of  Tar- 
sus, and  Theodoras  of  Mojisuestia,  whom  he  con- 
sidered the  true  fathers  of  Xestorianism.  Besides 
liis  dogmatical  works.  ('y>'il  wrote  ten  liooks  of 
Apologetics  against  Julian,  and  a  number  of 
homilies.  His  collected  works  have  been  edited 
by  J.  AuDKUT,  I'ari.s,  1<)3.S,  4  vols.  fol.  His  Life 
lias  been  writfj^n  by  Kkxandot  :  Uisl.  I'lilrinrc/ia- 
riim  Alfix.,  Paris,  1713;  Kui-am.ik:  C'l/ritliis  nm 
Alexamlria,  Mainz,  Issl.  c.  BtJltK. 

CrRIL  LUCAR  (Cyrillus  Lucaris,  Kyrillos  Lou- 
karis,  i.e.,  Cyril,  .'-on  of  Lmar).  Patriarch  of  Con- 
8tantino{)le ;  b.  loUb  or  1572,  in  Candia  (Crete)  ; 


strangled  to  death,  by  order  of  the  Sultan,  in 
Constantinople,  1638.  He  studied  and  travelled 
extensively  in  Europe,  and  was  for  a  while  rector 
and  Greek  teacher  in  the  Russian  seminary  at 
Ostrog,  in  modern  Volhynia,  a  part  of  Western 
Russia,  formerly  Lithuania.  In  French  Switzer- 
land he  became  acquainted  with  the  Reformed 
Church,  and  embraced  its  faith.  Subsequently 
he  openly  professed  it  in  a  letter  to  the  professors 
of  Geneva  (1636)  through  Leger.  a  minister  from 
Geneva  who  had  been  sent  to  Constantinople, 
and  conceived  the  bold  scheme  of  ingrafting  Prot- 
estant doctrines  on  the  old  oecumenical  creeds  of 
the  Eastern  Church,  thereby  effecting  her  reforma- 
tion. In  1593  he  was  ordained  in  Alexandria  a 
priest  of  the  Greek  Church,  and  afterwards  archi- 
mandrite by  his  uncle,  who  was  the  patriarch.  In 
1595  he  went  as  exarch  to  Poland  to  oppose  the 
union  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches;  from 
this  event  dates  his  hatred  of  the  Latin  Church. 
In  1602  he  was  elected  Patriarch  of  Alexandria, 
and  of  Constantinople  in  1621.  In  1623  he  was 
deposed  by  the  intrigues  of  Jesuits,  and  banished 
to  the  Island  of  Rhodes,  but  re-instated  mainly 
through  the  exertions  of  the  English  ambassador 
at  the  Turkish  court.  In  1629  he  wrote  in  Latin 
his  remarkable  Confession,  and  in  Greek  in  1631,. 
with  an  addition  of  four  questions  and  answers. 
It  was  published  in  both  languages  at  Geneva, 
1633.  It  expresses  his  own  individual  faith, 
which  he  vainly  hoped  would  become  the  faith 
of  the  Greek  Church.  It  is  divided  into  eighteen' 
brief  chapters,  each  fortified  with  Scriptui'e  refer- 
ences. Eight  chapters  contain  the  old  Catholic 
doctrine,  while  the  rest  bear  a  distinctively  Prot- 
estant character;  thus  in  chap.  ii.  he  asserts  that 
the  authority  of  the  Scriptures  is  superior  to  tlie 
authority  of  the  Church,  since  the  Scriptures 
only  are  infallil)le,  and  defends  their  circulation, 
excluding  the  Apocrypha.  In  chap.  iii.  he  accepts 
the  Calvinistio  doctrine  of  the  decrees;  in  chap. 
XV.  he  maintains  that  the  eacraments  are  two  in 
number,  and  that  faith  is  the  condition  of  their 
.application,  and  in  cli.ap.  xvii.  that  there  is  a  real 
but  spiritual  presence.  As  might  be  supposed, 
Cyril  was  persecuted.  Five  times  he  was  de- 
posed, five  times  re-instated.  He  was  well  aware 
that  his  foes  were  m.any,  and  his  stanch  friends 
few.  The  Jesuits,  with  the  aid  of  the  French 
ambassador  at  the  Sublime  Porte,  spared  no 
intrigues  to  counteract  and  clieckraate  his  Prot- 
estant schemes,  and  to  bring  aliout  instead  a 
union  of  the  Greek  hierarchy  wifli  Rome.  Even 
the  priiiting-pre.^s.  wliicli  he  had  imported  from 
England  on  which  to  print  his  Confession  and 
several  catechisms,  was,  on  their  instigation,  de- 
stroyed by  the  Turkish  Government.  At  length 
they  succeeded  in  their  unprincipled  designs. 
They  accused  him  of  cons]iiring  .against  the  gov- 
ernment. He  was  strangled  by  order  of  the  Sul- 
tan, and  his  body  was  thrown  into  the  Bospho- 
rus.  His  friends  surrouii<Ie(l  the  palace  of  his 
successor,  Cyril  of  Benea,  who  liad  been  a  cliief 
instigator  of  his  murder,  crying,  "  Pilate,  give 
us  the  dead,  that  we  may  bury  him."  But  it 
was  not  until  the  body,  once  thrown  up  by  tlie 
tide,  hivd  been  again  pushed  upon  the  unwilling 
watirs,  and  again  returned,  that  it  was  given  over 
to  the  dead  man's  adheriMits.  C>Til  of  Beroea 
was  himself  soon  after  deposed  and  anathema- 


CYRIL  OP  JERUSALEM. 


595 


CYRILLUS. 


tized  for  fraud,  extortion,  and  the  part  he  took  in 
Cyril  Lucar's  death ;  and  the  next  patriarch,  Par- 
thenius,  granted  the  reformer  a  decent  burial. 

Cyril  unfortunately  left  no  followers  able  or 
willing  to  carry  on  his  work.  His  doctrines 
were  denounced  by  the  Patriarch  Cyril  of  Beroea 
and  the  synod  of  Constantinople  held  in  1638 ; 
which  condemnation  was  confirnied  by  the  synods 
of  Jassy,  in  Moldavia,  1642,  and  of  Jerusalem, 
1672.  The  two  latter  synods  saved  the  honor  of 
Cyril's  name  and  his  patriarchal  dignity  by  boldly 
denying  the  authenticity  of  his  Confession,  and 
contradicting  it  by  written  documents  from  his 
pen.  It  is,  however,  a  vain  invention  which  at- 
tributes it  to  Cornelius  van  der  Haga,  ambassa- 
dor of  the  United  Netherlands  to  the  Sublime 
Porte.  Cyril  sincerely  loved  his  church,  and 
ardently  longed  to  bring  her  back  to  the  primi- 
tive faith,  and  to  guard  her  against  the  seductions 
of  Rome.  The  (Jreek  Church  of  his  day  was 
surely  in  a  humiliating  condition  under  the  Mo- 
hammedan yoke  and  amid  the  toils  of  Rome. 
Cyril  may  have  looked  longingly  upon  Protestant 
aid,  which  he  knew  was  to  be  obtained  only  on 
condition  of  acceptance  of  the  Protestant  faith. 
lie  certainly  did  his  best  to  bring  about  this  de- 
sired result.  He  entered  into  corresiiondence 
with  Protestant  divines  in  Switzerland,  IloUaud, 
and  England  (e.g.,  with  Abbot,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury),  sent  promising  youths  to  Protestant 
universities,  and  enlisted  the  press  to  circulate 
tlie  truth.  But  all  was  in  vain.  Yet  not  all ;  for 
his  nobility  of  thought  and  conduct,  his  ability 
and  courage,  his  sincerity  and  piety,  have  en- 
deared his  memory  to  that  nation  which  he  was 
fain  to  lead  to  the  liberty  and  religion  of  Christ. 

Cyril  Lucar  has  a  peculiar  claim  upon  Bible 
students,  because  he  presented  the  famous  uncial 
codex  Alexaudrinus,  denominated  codex  A.  (see 
Bible-Text,  N.T.),  to  Charles  I.  of  England, 
1G28.  He  also  translated  the  New  Testament 
into  the  modern  Greek  language,  Geneva  (or  Ley- 
den),  1638,  Loudon,  1703. 

Lit.  —  Cyuillus  Lucaris  :  Confessio  Christi- 
o/pfe_^rfet  (Latin),  Geneva,  1629;  c.  addilam.  CijrilU 
((Jreek  and  Latin),  1633,  aud  often;  French 
translation,  Jean  Aymon  :  Leilrcs  anecdotiquen 
dc  Cyrille  Lucar  et  sa  cotifcssion  de  foi,  avec  des 
remarques ;  concile  de  Jerusalem,  etc.,  Amsterdam, 
1718;  Thomas  Smith:  Collectanea  de  Ci/rillo 
Lucari,  London,  1707  ;  the  same :  Miscellanea, 
which  contains  Narratio  de  vita,  studiis,  r/estis  et 
marti/rio  C.  L.,  Hal.,  1724;  Kimmei.  :  Monumenta 
Jidei  eccl.  orient.,  Jena,  1850,  2  vols. ;  J.  Mason 
Neale  :  Historij  of  the  Holy  Eastern  Church, 
London,  1847-50,  4  vols.  II.  p.  356  sqq. ;  Aloy- 
sius  PiCHLEK  :  Geschichte  des  Prolestanlismus  in 
der  orienialischen  Kirche  im  17.  Jahrhundcrl,  oder: 
Der  Patriarch  Cyrillus  Lucaris  und  seine  Zcit,  Miin- 
chen,  1862;  the  same:  Geschichte  der  lirchlichen 
Ti-ennunr/  zicischen  dem  Orient  und  Occident,  Miin- 
chen,  1804,  1865,  2  vols.;  A.  Mettetal:  Ci/r. 
Lucar,  Strassburg,  1869 ;  Wii.nEi.M  Gass  :  Si/m- 
holik  der  griechischen  Kirche,  Berlin,  1872,  and  his 
art.  in  Herzog,  ed.  U.,  vol.  ix.  pp.  5-11 ;  P. 
Trivier  :  Un  patriarche  de  Constantinojile,  Paris, 
1877;  Schaff;   Creeds  of  Christendom,  I.  5i-oS. 

CYRIL  OF  JERUSALEM,  b.  probably  in  315; 
d.  probably  March  18,  386 ;  spent  his  w^hoie  life 
in  Jerusalem,  \^here  he  was  consecrated  deacon, 


in  335,  by  Bisliop  Makarius,  and  presbyter,  in  315^ 
by  Bishop  Maximus,  and  where  he  finally  be- 
came bishop  himself.  In  the  Arian  controversy 
he  tried  to  maintain  a  neutral  position,  in  which, 
however,  he  did  not  succeed.  After  the  death  of 
Maximus,  or,  as  Socrates  and  Sozomen  have  it, 
after  the  expulsion  of  Maximus  by  the  Arians, 
Cyril  became  bishop  by  the  aid  of  this  party. 
At  all  events,  he  was  consecrated  by  Acacius  of 
Cajsarea,  who  was  an  Arian.  15ut  the  harmony 
between  him  and  Acacius  did  not  last  long.  Ac- 
cording to  the  seventh  canon  of  the  Council  of 
Nice,  the  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  ranked  immedi- 
ately after  the  Bishops  of  Rome,  Alexandria,  and 
Antioch,  though  with  reservation  of  the  right 
of  the  Bishop  of  Ca;sarea  as  metropolite.  From 
this  point  the  disagreement  began;  but  it  was 
greatly  inflamed  by  religious  discrepancies.  Acar 
cius  cited  Cyril  before  him;  and,  when  the  latter 
declined  to  apprar,  the  former  had  him  deposed 
by  a  council  of  only  a  few  bishops  (358).  Cyril 
apjjealed  to  another  and  larger  council,  held  at 
Seleucia  (359),  and  mostly  composed  of  Semi- 
Arians ;  and  this  council  deposed  Acacius.  But 
in  360  a  still  larger  council  of  Arians,  held  in 
Constantinople,  confirmed  the  deposition  of  Cyril; 
and  it  was  only  the  death  of  Constantius  and  the 
accession  of  Julian  which  enabled  Cyril  to  re- 
turn to  his  see.  During  the  last  twenty  years  he 
lived  in  comparative  peace  and  quiet,  though  he 
was  expelled  twice  more,  under  Valens. 

Of  the  works  ascribed  to  Cyril,  the  homilies 
are  certainly  sjjurious,  though  with  the  exception 
of  the  one  on  the  impotent  man  at  the  Pool  of  Be- 
thesda,  first  published  by  Thomas  Milles  in  1703, 
which  seems  to  be  genuine.  The  letter  addressed 
to  the  Emperor  Constantius,  and  giving  an  ac- 
count of  a  vision  of  a  radiant  cross  in  the  heavens, 
is,  at  all  events,  much  interpolated.  But  the  cate- 
chcses,  or  catechetical  lectures,  are  genuine,  and 
are  of  the  greatest  interest,  both  for  the  history 
of  the  Christian  dogmas,  and  for  the  true  under- 
standing of  the  liturgy  and  catechetical  methods 
of  the  ancient  Church.  They  were  edited  by  J. 
Prevot  (Paris,  1608),  Thomas  Milles  (Greek  and 
Latin,  Oxford,  1703,  foL),  and  A.  A.  Toutee  (Paris, 
1720,  fob,  reprinted  at  Venice,  1763).  There  is  a 
translation  of  them  in  German  by  Feder,  Bam- 
berg, 1786.  See  Van  Vollenhoven:  Specimen 
Theol.  De  Cijr.  Hier.  Cat.,  Amsterdam,  1837  :  I. 
Tii.  Putt  :  De  Ciirilli  Hier.  Orationihus  Cat., 
Heidelberg,  1855;  [Newman's  preface  to  the  Li- 
hrary  of  the  Fathers,  II.  1;  C.  Petit:  Vie  des. 
Cijrille  de  Jerusalem,  Paris,  1877].  C.  BUEK. 

CYRILLUS  and  METHODIUS,  the  apostles  of 
the  Slav.s.  In  the  sixth  and  more  especially  in 
the  eiglith  century,  the  Slavs  penetrated  across  the 
Danube  and  the  Balkan,  into  Macedonia,  Epirus, 
Thessalia,  Hellas,  and  Peloponnesus,  and  took 
permanent  possession  of  those  regions.  Towards 
the  close  of  the  eighth  century  they  were  Chris- 
tianized from  Thessalonica,  in  which  place  Greek 
civilization,  stimulated  by  the  influx  of  the  Slav 
elements,  burst  into  a  fresh  bloom.  It  was  also 
from  Thessalonica  that  the  conversion  of  the 
Slavs  outside  the  Greek  Empire  was  effected. 
Cyrillus  and  Methodius  were  born  there  in  the 
first  half  of  the  ninth  century. 

Cyrillus,  whose  true  name  was  Constantinus, 
studied  philosojihy  at  Constantinople,  obtained 


CYRILLUS. 


596 


CYRILLUS. 


the  friendship  of  the  learned  Photius,  was  for 
some  time  a  teacher  himself  of  profane  science, 
and  was  given  the  surname  "the  Philosopher," 
which  he  retained  ever  after.  Soon,  however,  the 
religious  tendency  of  his  nature  gained  the  ascen- 
dency. He  entered  the  clerical  estate,  took  up  his 
abode  in  a  monastery,  together  with  his  brother 
Methodius,  removed  thence,  and  finally  settled 
in  the  solitude  of  the  mountains.  At  the  same 
time  he  began  to  take  active  part  in  the  dogmati- 
cal controversies.  He  had  a  dispute  with  Photius 
about  the  unity  or  duality  of  the  soul ;  he  de- 
fended the  worship  of  images ;  he  distinguished 
himself  as  a  Christian  apologist  against  the  Mo- 
hammedans; and  in  this  last  direction  went  also 
Jiis  first  activity  as  a  missionary. 

Among  the  Chazari,  a  Tartar  tribe  occupying 
the  regions  between  tlie,  north-eastern  shore  of 
the  Black  Sea  and  the  lower  course  of  the  Wolga, 
Jews  and  Mohammedans  liad  for  some  time  been 
busy  making  proselytes.  Cliristian  missionaries 
had  also  visited  them ;  and  when,  in  800,  they 
addressed  tlie  emperor,  Michael  III.,  on  the  ques- 
tion, he  sent  Cyrillus  to  them.  In  order  to  pre- 
pare himself  properly  for  the  mission,  Cyrillus 
first  settled  at  Cherson,  and  began  to  study  the 
language  of  the  Chazari ;  and  it  was  in  Cherson 
that  he  came  in  possession  of  tlie  remains  of 
Clement  of  Kome,  which  he  afterwards  always 
carried  about  wherever  he  went.  After  due  prepa- 
ration he  penetrated  deeper  into  the  country;  and, 
under  the  protection  of  the  chief,  he  preached 
and  lield  disputations  in  defence,  and  for  the 
propagation,  of  Christianity.  It  also  seems  that 
a  considerable  number  of  the  inhabitants  decided 
in  his  favor:  but  there  is  not  the  least  trace  of 
any  eliurch  organization  among  them ;  and,  some 
jears  later  on,  the  majority  of  the  Chazari  had 
adopted  either  Judaism  or  ^Mohammedanism. 
Having  eilected  the  release  of  a  number  of  Greek 
captives,  Cyrillus  returned  witli  the  relics  of  St. 
Clemens  to  Constantinople,  where  he  lived  in 
ascetic  seclusion,  togetlier  with  his  brother,  until 
a  field  of  practical  activity  opened  before  them. 

Rastislav  had  just  formed  a  great  Slav  Empire 
on  the  eastern  boundary  of  Germany.  Its  name 
was  Moravia:  its  boundaries  are  uncertain,  and 
were  probably  somewhat  variable.  A  number  of 
Jiis  subjects  were  Christians,  converted  by  Ger- 
man missionaries  from  Passau  and  Salzburg. 
I5ut,  with  German  missionaries  of  that  time,  con- 
version to  Cliristianity  meant,  first  and  foremost, 
political  submission  ;  and  tliis  was  the  verj'  reason 
wliy  Hastislav  wanted  the  whole  matter  put  into 
the  liands  of  the  Greek  Church.  The  Greek  mis- 
sionaries employed  only  instruction,  no  violence, 
and  tliey  wei-e  always  willing  to  adapt  themselves 
to  national  peculiarities.  Hy  their  aid  only  an 
indeiMMident  Slav  Church  could  be  reared;  and,  as 
it  was  only  such  a  cliurcli  wliich  could  fit  into 
the  politic  fabric  of  Kastislav,  lie  was  eager  to 
invite  Greek  missionaries  to  come  to  ^Moravia. 
CyriUus  and  Methodius  accepted  the  invitation. 
They  were  well  prejiared  for  the  task.  Tliey  un- 
derstood the  Slav  language;  perliaps  they  tliem- 
sc'lves  belonged  to  a  family  of  Grecized  Slavs: 
at  all  events,  they  must  have  heard  the  Slav 
language  at  Thessalonica  from  their  early  youth. 
Cyrillus  had  even  formed  an  idea  of  influencing 
I  *he  Slavs  in  a  literary  way.     lie  had  translatecl 


parts  of  the  Bible  into  Slav,  and  invented  au 
alphabet,  by  means  of  which  the  translation  could 
be  put  in  writing. 

In  863  the  two  brothers  arrived  at  the  court  of 
Rastislav,  where  they  were  well  received  ;  and  the 
labor  began.  They  founded  a  seminary  for  the 
education  of  native  priests;  they  distributed 
the  holy  writings  in  Slav  translation":  thc^y  taught 
the  people,  preached,  and  celebrated  divine  ser- 
vice, in  the  vernacular  tongue,  etc.  The  effect. 
was  very  great.  The  German  priests,  with  their 
Latin  liturgy,  which  they  did  not  uiiderstangl 
themselves,  and  their  perpetual  hagglincs  about 
tithes  and  revenues,  returned  to  their  respective 
dioceses ;  and  an  independent  national  church 
began  to  arise  among  the  Slavs.  Pope  Nicholas 
I.  was  well  aware  of  the  importance  of  this  fact, 
and  summoned  the  two  brothers  to  Home  to  have 
their  work  legitimized.  The  summons  was 
immediately  obeyed.  Cyrillus  always  nourished 
a  kind  of  mystic  enthusiasm  for  Rome ;  and 
Nicholas  I.  was  much  beloved  on  account  of  the 
rare  wisdom  and  full  trustworthiness  which  he 
had  evinced  in  the  Bulgarian  affairs.  Accompa- 
nied by  a  great  number  of  pupils,  the  brothers 
set  out  for  Rome  in  8G7,  carrying  thither  the  re- 
mains of  St.  Clemens.  When  they  reached  the 
city,  Nicholas  I.  had  died.  But  Adrian  II.  adopt- 
ed, with  respect  to  the  Slav  mission,  the  policy  of 
his  predecessor;  and  the  organization  of  a  Slav 
Church,  independent  both  of  the  Greek  and  the 
German  Church,  and  corresponding  directly  with 
the  see  of  Rome,  was  agreed  upon.  Of  the  Slav 
translation  of  the  Bible,  of  the  Slav  liturgy,  the 
Pope  took  no  umbrage,  not  even  of  the  Greek 
dogmatics.  Cyrillus  died  in  Rome,  Feb.  14, 
868;  and  Methodius  returned  alone  to  Moravia, 
having  been  consecrated  archbishop  of  the  new 
church. 

The  establishment  of  the  Slav  Church  was,  to 
some  extent,  an  encroachment  upon  the  rights 
of  the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg;  and  in  871  a  me- 
moir appeared,  setting  forth  how  the  countries 
now  belonging  to  the  diocese  of  Methodius  origi- 
nally had  received  Christianity  from  Salzburg, 
and  how  the  Greek  Methodius  h:ul  seduced  the 
people,  and  allured  them  away  from  the  doctrine, 
liturgy,  and  language  of  the  Roman  Church.  On 
the  merely  juridical  side  of  the  ([uestiou  this 
memoir  made  no  impression,  either  in  Jloravia.  or 
in  Germany,  or  in  Rome.  But  Pope  John  VIII. 
was  very  much  averse  to  the  use  of  the  Slav  lan- 
guage in  divine  service,  and  considered  that  the 
time  had  come  to  take  back  the  concession  which 
his  predecessors  had  granted.  He  consequently 
ordered  Methodius  to  substitute  the  Latin  for  the 
Slav  language;  and,  when  this  order  was  disre- 
garded, he  summoned  him  to  Rome.  But  when 
Methodius  arrived  in  Rome,  and  began  to  explain 
the  whole  matter,  the  Pope  understood  that  ho 
could  not  treat  the  Slav  Church  in  this  high- 
handed manner,  without  throwing  it  directly  into 
the  arms  of  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 
Methodius  returned  from  Rome  in  880  with  an 
express  confirmation  of  the  use  of  the  Slav  lan- 
guage in  his  Church,  and  with  his  doctrines  and 
practices  fully  justified. 

In  the  mean  time  a  suffragan  see  had  been  es- 
tablished at  Neitra,  and  its  first  occupant  was 
Wiching.     But  AViching  was  a  vehement  adver- 


CYRUS  THE  GREAT. 


CYRUS  THE  GREAT. 


sary  of  Methodius  and  the  Slav  churches.  As 
Swatopluk,  tlic  successor  of  Rastislav,  also  leaned 
towards  (ierniauy,  Wiching  succeeded,  by  suppos- 
ititious letters  from  the  Pope,  exciting  him  against 
Methodius,  whose  jiositioii  became  more  and  more 
difficult.  Methodius  addressed  himself  to  the 
I'ope  for  supi^ort.  and  the  Pope  answered  him 
very  kindly  March  2:5,  8«1.  But  John  VIII.  died 
in  882 ;  and  in  the  contest  with  Wiching,  Swato- 
pluk, and  tin.'  German  prelates,  Methodius  finally 
succumbed.  Ilis  successor,  Gosrad,  a  Slav,  was 
expelled.  The  Slav  language  and  liturgy  wei-e 
abolished  in  the  service,  and  supplanted  by  the 
Latin ;  the  Slav  priests  were  persecuted,  and 
finally  banished :  they  fled  to  Bulgaria,  whither 
they  brought  the  Slav  translation  of  the  ]}ible. 
The  deatli-year  of  Methodius  is  not  known  :  it  va- 
ries between  881  and  910.  The  Painionian  legend 
gives  April  6,  885.  The  Bohemians  and  Mora- 
vians celebrated  the  thousandth  jubilee  of  their 
apostle,  July  5,  1863.  Cyrillus  and  Methodius 
were  canonized  in  1881,  under  Pope  Leo  XIII. 

Lit.  —  The  sources  to  the  life  of  Cyrillus  and 
Methodius,  among  wliich,  singularly  enough,  there 
are  no  Byzantine,  have  been  gathered  by  Scn.\- 
TARIK  in  Stdtcische  Allcrliimer  (11.  471),  and  by 
Giuzel:  Geschiclded.  Slawenapostcl  (Apji.  1-72). 
See,  also,  y4 (.7.  Satict.  March,  II.  II;  Assem.\ni  ; 
Kalendaria  Eccel.  Universm  III.;  Doisuowsky: 
C.  und  M.,  Prague,  1823,  and  Mahrische  Lec/ende 
von  C.  und  M.,  Prague,  1820;  PinL.\RET:  C.  und 
J/.,  Milan,  1847  ;  Wattenijacii  :  Beitrdge  z.  Ge- 
schirlite  d.  christ.  Kirclic  in  Miihrcn  und  Bohmen, 
Vieniui,  1841).  ALBUEcnT  VOCiEL. 

CYRUS  THE  GREAT  (date  of  birth  unknown, 
d.  B.C.  529)  is  named  in  the  following  passages 
of  the  Old  I'estament,  —  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  22,  23; 
Ez.  i.  1-8,  iii.  7,  iv.  3,  5,  v.  13,  14,  17,  vi.  3-5, 
14  ;  Isa.  xliv.  28,  xlv.  1;  Dan.  i.  21,  vi.  28,  x.  1. 
For  his  history  in  detail  we  must  look  to  Greek 
■writers,  particulai'ly  Herodotus,  Xenophon,  and 
Ktesias,  and  to  scanty  but  invaluable  contem- 
porary records  in  the  cuneiform  character.  His 
early  life  is  obscured  by  conflicting  traditions, 
through  which  only  a  few  general  facts  may  be 
clearly  distinguished.  Cyrus  (Persian  K'ur'ush, 
Babylonian  Kuras,  Hebrew  V}')'3,  Greek  Kiipof; 
the  meaning  is  in  dispute)  was  the  descendant  of 
a  line  of  kings  ruling  in  Anzan  (Babylonian  An- 
kin,  or  ASfnn),  a  country  known  to  the  nations 
west  of  it  as  Elam  (highland).  They  had  estab- 
lished themselves  there  by  invasion,  not  many 
generations  before  Cyrus,  whose  genealogy  is 
traced  in  the  inscriptions  no  farther  than  his 
great-grandfather,  Teispes.  The  order  is  as  fol- 
lows :  Cyrus,  Cambyses,  Cyrus,  Teispes.  What 
relation  this  royal  line  had  sustained  to  Persia, 
the  country  south-east  of  Anzan,  we  camiot  cer- 
tainly tell ;  but  to  Media  on  the  north  it  had  proba- 
bly paid  a  continuous  or  occasional  tribute. 
Herodotus  and  Xenophon  tell  us  that  Cyrus's 
mother  was  Mandane,  the  daiighter  of  Astyages, 
King  of  Media  :  this  is  opposed  to  the  testimouy 
of  Ctesias,  and  is  unlikely.  It  is  still  more  un- 
likely that  Astyages  sought  to  kill  his  grandson, 
because  he  was  heir  to  the  throne  (Herodotus). 
All  traditions,  however,  point  to  a  sojourn  of 
Cyrus  at  Astyages'  court,  pi'esumably  as  liostage. 
M'^hile  there,  he  no  doubt  observed  the  degeneracy 


of  the  Median  kingdom,  and  the  disaffection  of 
the  nobles  from  Astyages,  who  estranged  them 
by  his  arbitrariness  and  favoritism.  In  B.C.  5.58,, 
probably  at  the  death  of  Cambyses  his  father, 
Cyrus  ascended  the  throne  of  Anzan ;  and  his 
ordinary  title  in  the  contemporary  cuneiform  rec- 
ords is  "  King  of  Anzan,"  rarely  "  King  of  the 
land  of  Persia."  How  .soon  the  struggle  with 
Astyages  began  is  not  clear;  but  its  decisive  set- 
tlement was  not  reached  till  5.50,  when,  in  the 
midst  of  a  campaign,  the  scildiers  of  Astyages 
revolted,  and  delivered  him  into  Cyrus's  hands. 
Cyrus  then  seized  and  plundered  the  royal  city 
Ecbatana.  After  the  fall  of  Media,  and  the 
voluntary  or  forced  acknowledgment  of  Cyrus's 
authority  by  several  tributary  peoples,  with  Ar- 
menia already  his  friend,  he  soon  turned  his 
attention  toward  Lydia.  Cra?sus,  its  king,  was 
overcome,  and  Sardis  captured  iu  547;  and  while 
the  general  of  Cyrus  was  reducing  the  whole 
Ionian  coast  to  submission,  Cyrus  liimself  marched 
toward  the  East.  The  following  eight  years  were 
spent  in  triumphant  campaigns,  which  made  his 
power  felt  even  beyond  the  Indus.  But  a  further 
achievement  was  in  store  for  him,  less  difficult,  as 
it  proved,  than  many  others,  but  of  far-reaching 
importance.  He  must  become  master  of  Baby- 
lonia. In  the  month  Tannnuz  (July),  B.C.  538, 
he  entered  Accad,  or  Northern  Babylonia,  with  a, 
powerful  army.  The  empire  which  Xebuchad- 
nezzar  had  made  so  terrible  bad,  however,  become 
outwardly  reduced  and  inwardly  weak.  Xaboni- 
dus  the  king  was  too  inactive  to  secure  the  enthu- 
siasm of  the  people,  and  too  negligent  of  the 
gods  and  temples  to  retain  the  suiiport  of  the 
powerful  hierarchy.  Accad  revolted  from  him, 
and  none  were  more  eager  than  the  [iricsts  in 
welcoming  the  conqueror.  Cyrus  entered  Sippa^ 
ra  ("  City  of  the  Sun,"  comp.  Heb.  D^J^flp)  with- 
out striking  a  blow  ;  and  two  days  later  his 
general,  Gobryas,  occupied  Babylou,  where  Nabo- 
nidus,  who  had  fled  from  the  field  at  the  time  of 
the  revolt,  was  taken  prisoner.  Cyrus  followed 
in  person  nearly  four  months  later  (3d  Marches- 
van),  and  appointed  Gobryas  and  others  to  official 
positions.  Nabonidus  died  before  the  close  of 
the  year. 

Cyrus's  religious  policy  began  at  once  to  show 
a  marked  diilerence  from  that  of  Nabonidus. 
He  repaired  the  shrines ;  he  issued  a  proclama- 
tion calling  Merodach  and  Nebo  "his  lords,"  and 
recognizing  his  victory  as  due  to  them;  his  son 
Cambyses  presided  at  a  great  religious  festival; 
he  pacified  tributary  jieoples  by  restoring  to  them 
the  images  of  their  gods  which  had  been  brought 
to  Babylon.  Among  those  wliose  religious  feel- 
ings he  thus  regarded  were  the  captive  Hebrews, 
to  whom  he  at  the  same  time  restored  certain 
political  and  social  rights.  The  coming  of  this 
deliverer  had  been  foretold  to  them  (Isa.  xliv. 
28,  xlv.  1  sqq.,  xlvi.  1  sqq  ;  Jer.  1..  li.,  etc.),  and  no 
doubt  they  welcomed  him  with  joy  and  hope. 
This  hope  was  gratified  by  an  edict,  transmitted 
to  us  in  two  fragments  (Ez.  i.  2-4,  vi.  3-5),  in 
which  he  gave  them  permission  to  return  to  Jeru- 
salem, and  directed  that  Jehovah's  temple  should 
be  there  rebuilt  at  the  expense  of  his  own  treasu- 
ry. This  was  evidently  in  pursuance  of  his  set- 
tled policy  of  conciliation.     The  remaining  years 


CYRUS  THE  GREAT. 


598 


CYRUS  THE  GREAT, 


■of  Cyrus  were  spent  chiefly  in  reducing  to  order 
the  affairs  of  his  rast  empire.  Some  dated 
tablets  prove,  that,  as  early  as  B.C.  532,  he  set 
Cambyses  on  the  throne  of  Babylonia  as  semi- 
independent  ruler  of  that  province.  He  himself 
was  doubtless  engaged  elsewhere.  His  last  expe- 
dition was  against  a  people  in  the  north-east 
(either  the  Jlassagetce  or  the  Derbikkas),  and  it 
ended  in  his  death  from  wounds  received  in  battle 
B.C.  529.  His  tomb,  of  doubtful  genuineness, 
is  still  to  be  seen  on  the  plain  of  Murgab,  north 
of  Persepolis. 

Cyrus  was  not  a  monotheistic  zealot :  he  was 
probably  a  polytheist,  and  no  Zoroastrian  at  all. 
His  own  records  show  him  uttering  the  same  lan- 
guage in  regard  to  Merodach  that  Ezra  puts  into 
his  mouth  with  reference  to  Jehovah.  It  can 
hardly  have  had  much  depth  of  meaning  in  either 
case.  But  he  was  politic  and  considerate,  know- 
ing how  to  use  the  sentiments  of  others  for  large 
political  ends ;  and,  even  if  his  friendly  treatment 
of  the  Hebrews  sprang  mainly  from  a  desire  to 
have  attached  subjects  on  a  threatened  frontier, 
lie  was  none  the  less  their  deliverer  from  bondage. 


In  the  nature  of  the  case  he  could  not  organize 
his  vast  conquests  as  Darius  afterwards  did.  If 
he  had  been  born  heir  to  a  great  empire,  instead 
of  having  to  create  one,  his  administrative  power 
would  have  had  freer  play.  As  it  was,  tlie  quali- 
ties of  a  determined,  rapid,  successful,  politic, 
benignant  conqueror,  are  those  that  will  perpetu- 
ate his  fame. 

Lit.  —  51.  DujfCKER :  GescMchte  des  Alterthums, 
oth  ed.,  Berlin,  1878-80,  4  vols.,  Eng.  trans., 
London,  1877-82,  6  vols. ;  F.  Ju.sti  :  Gescldchte 
Persiciis  (in  W.  Oncken's  AUgemeine  GescldclUe), 
Berlin,  1879 ;  George  RAWLiN.soNr :  Five  Great 
Oriental  Monarchies,  4th  ed.,  London,  ISSO,  New 
York,  1881;  Sir  Henry  Rawlixson  :  Clay 
Cylinder  of  Cyrus  the  Great,  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Soc,  January,  1880 ;  T.  G.  Pinches  : 
Capture  of  Babylon  by  Cyru^,  from  Transactions 
of  Soc.  for  Bib.  Archseol.,  vol.  vii.,  1880;  J. 
Halevy  :  Cyrus  et  le  Retour  de  V Exile,  Revue  des 
Etudes  Juives,  1880 ;  V.  Floigl  :  Cyrus  and 
Herodot,  Leipzig,  1881 ;  E.  Babelon  :  Les  in- 
scriptions cunciformes  relatives  a  la  prise  de  Bahylone 
par  Cyrus,  Paris,  1881.  FRANCIS  BROWN. 


DACH. 


599 


DALBBRG. 


DACH,  Simon,  b.  at  Memel,  July  29,  1605;  d. 

at  K(inigsberg,  April  15,  1059 ;  studied  at  Kbnigs- 
l)erg,  Wittenberg,  and  Magdeburg,  and  became 
teaclier  in  the  cathedral  school  of  Kouigsberg  in 
1G:?3,  co-rector  in  loyO,  and  professor  of  poetry 
in  the  university  in  1039.  He  was  the  most 
prominent  member  of  what,  in  the  history  of 
(Jerman  literature,  is  called  the  School  of  Konigs- 
berg,  and  wTote  a  great  number  of  poems,  social 
and  religious ;  the  former  without  any  value,  the 
latter  highly  esteemed.  They  were  printed  sepa- 
rately, on  loose  leaves ;  but  there  are  compre- 
hensive collections  of  the  original  prints  in  the 
libraries  of  Konigsberg,  Breslau,  and  Berlin. 
The  Prussian  hymn-books  of  1605  and  1675  con- 
tain many  of  his  religious  poems.  The  Churhran- 
denburgische  Rose,  Adlei;  Like,  und  Scepter  (1680) 
contains  the  verses  he  wrote  in  honor  of  the  reign- 
ing dynasty.  A  selection  of  his  poetry,  and  a  life 
of  him,  is  found  in  Karl  Goedeke  and  Julius 
Tittmann:  Deutsche  Dichter  d.  ITten  Jahrhun- 
i/erts.  Leipzig.  1876. 

D'ACHERY.     See  Achery,  D'. 

DA  COSTA,  Isaak,  b.  in  Amsterdam,  Jan.  14, 
1798;  d.  there  April  28,  1860;  belonged  to  a  rich 
and  distinguished  family  of  Portuguese  Jews, 
but  embraced  Christianity  in  1821.  He  studied 
jiu'isprudence  and  belles-lettres  at  Leyden,  and 
developed,  under  the  influence  of  W.  Bilderdyk, 
into  one  of  the  most  briUiant  poets  of  the  Dutch 
literature.  His  poetical  works  appeared  in  three 
volumes  at  Harlem  (1861).  But,  besides  being 
a  great  poet,  he  was  one  of  the  most  energetic 
and  influential  of  modern  Christian  apologists. 
Possessed  of  comprehensive  knowledge  and  con- 
siderable critical  power,  he  opposed  the  anti- 
Christian  tendencies  of  the  age,  especially  the 
Tiibingen  school,  with  a  zeal  and  perseverance 
which  had  effect  also  outside  of  his  own  country. 
He  worked  principally  as  a  lecturer,  and  his 
apologetical  works  originated  in  the  lecture-room. 
The  most  important  was  The  Four  Witnesses 
(1840,  translated  into  English  by  D.  Scott,  Lon- 
don, 1851),  directed  against  D.  F.  Strauss's  Leben 
Jcsu.  His  Life  has  been  written  by  H.  J.  Koenen, 
in  Handelingen  van  de  Maatschappy  der  Nederl. 
Letterkunde,  1860.  J.  J.  VAN  OOSTERZEE. 

DAGGETT,  Oliver  Ellsworth,  D.D.,  b.  at  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  Jan.  14,  1810 ;  d.  in  Hartford, 
Sept.  1,  1880.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege (1828) ;  was  pastor  of  the  South  Church, 
Hartford,  and  of  the  First  Congregational  Church, 
Canandaigua,  N.Y.,  twenty-three  years;  pastor  of 
Yale  College  three  years,  and  of  the  Second  Con- 
gregational Church,  New  London,  Conn. ;  and 
was  one  of  the  compilers  of  the  Connecticut  Hymn- 
Bonl-,  1845. 

DA'GON  (llJl  great  fish),  a  PhilLstine  divinity, 
having  a  marine  body,  and  human  face  and  hands. 
Philo  Byblius,  followed  by  others,  falsely  derived 
the  name  from  Ziruv  (corn),  and  designates  the 
god  as  Zffif  upoTpioc  (the  god  of  agrictdture) .  That 
tlie  former  derivation  is  correct  is  plain  from 
1  Sam.  V.  4,  where  it  is  reported,  that,  when  the 


hands  and  face  were  broken  off,  only  "  Dagon  " 

was  left.  The  English  version  puts  in  what 
is  not  in  the  Hebrew,  "  the  stump  of  Dagon." 
Dagon  is  allied  to  the  Syrian  female  divinity, 
Atargatis  (also  called  Derceto),  and  is  probably 
tlie  same  as  the  Assyrian  iisii-god,  Odakon,  men- 
tioned by  Berosus.  He  Iiad  temples  in  Ashdod 
(1  Sam.  V.  3  sqq.),  where,  on  two  successive 
idghts,  his  image  fell  to  the  floor  when  the  ark  of 
the  Lord  was  placed  beside  it,  and  at  Gaza  (Judg. 
xvi.  23  sqq.).  This  latter  Samson  pulled  down 
by  pushing  out  the  two  colunms.  Cities  in  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  41)  and  Asher  (xix.  27)  wei-e  called 
Beth-dagon  ("home  or  temple  of  Dagon  "). 

DAILL^,  Jean,  b.  at  Chatellerault,  Jan.  6, 1594; 
d.  at  Charenton,  April  15,  1670;  .studied  at  the 
seminary  of  Saumur,  under  Camero  and  Gonia^ 
rus ;  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Amyraut  and 
Cappel ;  lived  for  a  number  of  years  in  the  house 
of  Gov.  du  Plessys-^Iornay  as  tutor  to  his  grand- 
son, with  whom  he  visited  Italy,  ^\■here  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Sarpi  at  Venice,  Switzerland, 
England,  and  Holland ;  and  was  in  1626  ap- 
pointed pastor  at  Charenton,  that  is,  to  the  Re- 
formed Congregation  of  Paris.  His  print;ipal 
work  is  his  treatise  De  usu  Pntrum  (1336),  trans- 
lated into  English  (1651)  under  the  title,  A  Trea- 
tise concerning  the  right  Use  of  the  Fathers  in  the 
Decision  of  Controversies  that  are  at  this  Day  in 
Religion,  re-edited  by  Jekyll,  London,  1841,  Pliila- 
delphia,  1842.  His  Exposition  of  the  Pliilippians 
and  of  the  Colossians  have  also  been  translated 
into  English  by  Sherman,  London,  1841. 

D'ALLI,  or  D'AILLY.     See  Ailli. 

DALBERC,  Karl  Theodor  (baron,  arch-chan- 
cellor of  the  German  Empire,  prince-primate  of 
the  Rhenish  Confederacy,  grand  duke  of  Frank- 
furt), was  b.  at  Hernsheim,  Feb.  8,  1744,  and  d. 
at  Regensburg,  Feb.  10,  1817.  He  studied  fir.st 
law  at  Gottingen  and  Heidelberg,  but  entered 
afterwards  the  church,  advanced  rapidly,  and  be- 
came, as  governor  of  Erfurt  (from  1772),  one  of 
the  centres  of  literary  and  political  life  in  Ger- 
many, a  friend  of  Goethe,  the  IMsecenas  of  Schiller, 
an  intimate  of  Joseph  II.  Some  very  spirited 
writings  of  his  belong  to  this  period :  Betrach- 
tungen  iiher  d.  Universum  (1777),  Verhiiltniss  zwischen 
Moral  und  Staatskunst  (1786),  etc.  In  1787  he 
was  appointed  coadjutor  and  successor  to  the 
Elector  of  Mayence,  and  in  1788  coadjutor  to  the 
Bishop  of  Mayence.  In  the  same  year  he  was 
consecrated  Archbishop  of  Tarsus,  and  in  1797  he 
was  made  provost  of  the  chapter  of  Wtii'zburg. 
When  the  French  invasion  began,  in  1797,  he 
belonged  to  the  patriot  party ;  and  for  several 
years  on  he  stiU  clung  to  the  old  establishment 
of  the  emjjire.  But  he  was  unable  to  withstand 
Napoleon,  who  alternately  coaxed  and  threatened 
him,  until  he  became  a  mere  tool  in  his  hands. 
He  was  present  at  the  coronation  in  Paris  (1804)  ; 
he  signed  the  Rlienish  Confederacy  in  1806,  and 
was  made  prince-primate;  he  accepted  in  1810 
the  title  and  function  as  grand  duke  of  Franc- 
fort  ;    but   he  paid   in    honesty  what   he   got  in 


DALE. 


600 


DAMASCUS. 


honors.  After  the  battle  of  Leipzig  he  tried  to 
explain  his  relation  to  Napoleon,  but  in  vain. 
With  a  pension  he  retired  from  public  life.  Ilis 
biography  has  been  written  by  B.  A.  Kramer, 
Leipzig,  1821,  and  also  by  J.  Miji-LER,  AViirzburg, 
IsTl.  KLiJPFEL. 

DALE,  James  Wilkinson,  D.D.,  b.  in  New  Cas- 
tle County,  Del.,  Oct.  l(j,  1S12:  d.  at  Media, 
Fenn.,  April  19,  1881.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1831,  and  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary.  He  also  studied 
medicine  with  a  view  to  more  efficient  missionary 
.service  in  India:  but  the  financial  difficulties  of 
the  American  Board  prevented  his  dejiarture, 
and  for  seven  years  he  held  an  appointment  from 
the  Bible  Society  of  Philadelphia,  to  distribute 
Bibles  throughout  the  State.  From  1845  to  18G6 
he  was  pastor  of  the  united  Ridley  and  Middle- 
town  Presbyterian  churches  in  Delaware  County, 
Pennsylvania,  from  1866  to  1871  pastor  of  the 
Media,  and  from  1871  to  1876  of  the  Wa3'ne, 
Presbyterian  Church. 

Dr.  Dale  was  a  man  of  intense  activity.  He 
issued  many  sermons,  and  labored  zealously  in 
behalf  of  total  abstinence.  His  reputation,  how- 
ever, was  made  by  his  elaborate  works  ujion 
baptism,  in  which  he  defends  pedobaptism  and 
sprinkling.  The  volumes  are.  Classic  Baptism 
(Philadelphia,  1867),  Judaic  (1871),  Johaiinic 
(1872),  Christie  and  Patristic  (1S74).  Condensed 
statements  of  his  views  will  be  found  in  The  Cup 
and  the  Cross,  Philadelpliia,  1872,  and  in  his 
article  Baptism,  contributed  to  this  Ci/ctojxedia 
.shortly  before  his  death. 

DALMA'TIA,  a  mountainous  district  on  the 
east  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  visited  by  Titus  (2  Tun. 
iv.  10). 

DALMATIC  (Dabnatica  sc.  vestis),  a  white  tunic 
with  Icing  and  wide  sleeves,  worn  by  rich  and  dis- 
tinguished persons,  at  one  time  by  the  Koman 
senators,  derived  its  name  from  the  province 
Dalmatia,  in  which  it  was  first  manufactured. 
By  a  decree  of  Pope  Sylvester  I.,  335,  it  was  made 
a  part  of  the  deacon's  vestment,  and  as  such 
adorned  by  two  longitudinal  stripes  behind.  It 
corresponded  to  the  culohium.  u.sed  in  the  Greek 
Cliurcli.  wliicli,  lunvever,  was  without  .sleeves. 

DAMASCUS  (usually  called  Esh-Shdm,  also 
Dimishk),  situated  at  the  base  of  tlie  Anti-Leli- 
anon  Mountains,  in  latitude  33°  32'  N.,  longitude 
36°  20'  K.,  a  hundred  and  tliirtv-throe  miles  north- 
north-east  of  Jerusalem,  and  a^iout  fifty  miles  east 
of  the  Mediterranean,  at  an  altitude  of  2,260  feet 
above  the  sea,  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  re- 
markable cities  in  the  world,  —  remarkable  both 
on  account  of  the  beauty  of  its  location  and  on 
account  of  the  interest  of  its  history.  It  is  called 
the  "Eye  of  the  Desert."  The  Aloliammedans 
regard  it  as  the  best  earthly  reflection  of  paradise. 

Joseplms  affirms  tliat  tlie  city  was  founded  by 
Uz,  the  son  of  Aram  ;  and  it  was  certainly  known 
in  the  days  of  the  patriarchs,  as  Alirahani's  trusted 
servant  hliezer  was  a  native  of  Danuiscus  ((Ion. 
XV.  2).  It  is  often  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, also  in  the  Acts,  and  twice  in  tiie  Epistles 
of  Paul  (fial.  i.  17,  and  2  Cor.  xi.  32).  David 
conquered  it  after  a  bloody  w<ar  (2  Sam.  viii.  .5,  fl)  ; 
but,  under  Solomon,  an  adventurer  made  himself 
King  of  Damascus,  and  foimded  an  emiiiro,  witli 
which  the  Israelites  came  thenceforth  often  into 


•saolent  conflict.  In  732  B.C.  the  kingdom  of 
Damascus  lost  its  independence,  conquered  by 
Tiglath-pileser ;  and  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah  was 
thus  fulfilled  (Isa.  xvii.  1-3).  Alexander  the 
Great  conquered  Syi-ia  in  333  B.C.  After  various 
fortunes,  the  country  became  a  Roman  province 
in  63  B.C.  At  the  time  of  Christ,  Damascus  hadl 
several  Jewish  synagogues.  In  the  Byzantiuef 
Empire  it  became  the  residence  of  a  Christian 
bishop  next  in  rank  to  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch, 
and  numbered  several  churches  and  a  cathedi'al 
in  honor  of  John  the  Baptist.  In  634  A.D.  it 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Islam ;  and  ^loawj'ah,  the 
first  caliph  of  the  Omeiyades,  made  it  the  capital 
of  the  ^Mohammedan  Empire  (661),  and  raised  it 
to  great  splendor.  During  the  crusades  it  shared 
the  changing  fortunes  and  misfortunes  of  the  cities 
in  the  Holy  Land.  Saladin  made  it  his  head- 
quarters in  his  campaigns  with  the  Franks,  and 
in  1516  it  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  Turk- 
ish Sultan.  The  cross  has  never  since  displaced 
the  crescent.  Damascus  is  still  a  provincial  capital 
of  Turkey. 

The  most  important  event  which  took  place  in 
Damascus,  and  one  of  the  most  important  events 
in  the  history  of  mankind,  is  the  conversion  of 
St.  Paul.  It  is  reported  three  times  in  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  (ix.  1-22,  xxii.  4-20,  xxvi.  12-20), 
and  several  tunes  alluded  to  m  the  Epistles  of  St. 
Paul.  It  occurred  a  few  years  after  the  crucifixion 
of  Christ,  and  a  few  weeks  after  the  martyrdom 
of  St.  Stephen,  about  37.  An  old  tradition  points 
out  the  place  at  a  distance  of  about  five  miles 
from  the  city,  at  a  iiomt  where  the  dhect  road 
from  Jerusalem  crosses  the  one  from  Banias  and 
Kefr  Ilauwar,  near  an  oasis  and  a  fountain,  in 
view  of  the  ndnarets  of  the  city,  the  majestic 
Ilermon,  and  the  bare  ridge  of  the  Anti-Lebanon. 
The  window  in  the  wall  through  which  Paul  was 
let  down  in  a  basket  (2  Cor.  xi.  33),  the  house  of 
Ananias,  and  the  house  of  Judas,  are  also  .shown  ; 
and  "the  .street  which  is  called  Straight,"  and  in 
which  Ananias  was  to  inquire  after  Saul  of  Tarsus, 
still  bears  that  name. 

At  jirescnt  the  ci(y  is  a  hotbed  of  ISIoIiamme- 
dan  fanaticism :  the  Moslems  mingle  curses  on 
the  Christians  with  their  prayers  to  Allah.  Every 
Christian  there  remembers  the  frightful  massacre 
in  1860.  Taking  advantage  of  the  disturbances 
among  the  Druses  in  the  Lebanon,  the  Moslems 
arose,  on  the  9th  of  July,  against  the  Christians; 
and  on  that  day  and  the  following  about  three- 
thousand  adult  males  were  murdered  in  cold  blood, 
and  many  others  afterwards  died  of  their  wounds, 
or  perished  in  the  desert.  The  Turkish  Govern- 
ment looked  on  without  interfering.  A  whole- 
some lesson,  however,  was  given  to  the  Moslem."* 
by  the  French  expedition,  and  the  punishment  it 
inflicted  upon  the  guilty;  but  the  hatred  is  .still 
burning,  and  restrained  only  by  fear. 

Since  1843  tlie  United  Presbyterian  Church  of 
America  and  the  Presbyterian  Clnneh  of  Ireland 
have  jointly  maintained  a  mission  in  Damascus, 
with  a  church  for  converts  from  the  Jews  and  the 
Greek  Christians,  and  with  schools.  The  London 
Society  for  the  Conversion  of  the  Jews  has  also  a 
mission  there. 

Lit.  —  PoRTEU  :  Fire  Years  in  Datnascus,  [^on- 
don,  18.")5;  Sciiakf:  Through  Bible  Lands,  New 
York,  1878,  pp.  301  .sqq. 


DAMASUS. 


601 


D^.NCB. 


DAMASUS  is  the  name  of  two  popes.  —  Damasus 

I.  (:56G-3S-1)  was  born  in  Koine,  (pi'obalily  '■Mi), 
and  made  archJeacon  in  85.").  His  election  to 
the  episcopal  see  was  contested  liy  tlie  deacon 
Ursicinu.s,  and  the  contest  s])read  even  into  the 
provinces,  lie  was  a  standi  opponent  of  Arian- 
ism,  and  lield  one  synod  in  Home  (in  ;!(i8),  wliich 
condennied  tlie  two  Illyrian  liishops  Ursacins  and 
Valens,  and  anotlier  (in  ;i7<l),  wliieli  condemned 
Auxentins  of  Milan.  He  stood  in  intimate  rela- 
tions to  Jerome,  whom  he  encouraged  to  revise 
the  Latin  translation  of  the  Bible.  He  showed 
also  great  interest  for  the  artistic  improvement 
of  the  Roman  Catacombs.  After  liis  death  he 
was  canonized.  His  festival  falls  on  Dec.  11.  His 
works,  consisting  of  letters  and  poems,  appeared 
in  Rome  1(>!S  and  17;")4,  and  in  Paris  1840.  See 
also  Martin  Rade  :  DamiiKiif:,  Bischofvon  Rum., 
Freiburg  in  B.,  1882.  —  Damasus  II.  was  Bishop 
of  Brixen,  when,  in  lOtS,  he  was  elected  Pope  by 
the  influence  of  Henry  III.  ;  but  he  died  twenty- 
three  days  after  his  accession. 

DAMIANUS,  or  DAMIANI,  Peter,  b.  at  Raven- 
na, 1007 ;  d.  at  Faenza,  Fel>.  2o,  1072  ;  studied 
at  Ravenna,  Faejiza,  and  Parma,  and  taught  for 
several  years  in  Ids  native  city,  with  great  suc- 
cess, but  retired,  when  about  thirty  years  old, 
suddenly  and  unexpectedly,  to  the  herndts  of 
Fonte  Avello,  near  Gubbio.  Here,  too,  he  dis- 
tinguished himself;  was  made  jirior  and  abbot, 
enlarged  and  consolidated  the  congregation,  and 
brought  into  fashion  a  new  system  of  flogging- 
penance.  The  flogging,  performed  with  a  leath- 
ern thong  on  the  bare  back,  accompanied  the 
recitation  of  the  psalms,  and  followed  along  with 
the  measure  of  the  verses.  To  each  psalm  lie- 
longed  a  hundred  strokes ;  to  the  whole  psalter, 
fifteen  thousand.  But  three  thousand  strokes 
were  computed  to  be  equal  to  one  year  of  damna- 
tion, and  an  energetic  person  could  by  one  day's 
work  make  up  for  several  years  of  penance. 
The  fashion  became  a  rage ;  and  monks  flogged 
themselves  to  death  after  the  music  of  the  psalms ; 
and  Damiani  himself  had  to  interfere,  and  try  to 
moderate  the  enthusiasm.  Meanwhile  his  fame 
grew  prodigiously.  The  whole  party  among  tlie 
Italian  monks  who  inclined  towards  an  austere 
view  of  monastic  life  looked  to  him  as  their 
leader.  Miracles  were  ascribed  to  him ;  and  when 
Henry  HI.  came  to  Italy  he  found  it  necessary  to 
make  the  hermit  liis  ally,  in  order  to  have  his 
reforms  accepted  by  the  people.  With  Gregory 
VI.  and  Clement  II.,  Damiani  coiTespouded  ;  and 
to  Leo  IX.  he  sent  his  Liher  Gomorrhianus,  com- 
paring the  life  of  the  clergy  to  that  of  the  men  of 
Sodom  and  (tomorrah.  To  the  Hildebrand  party 
he  belonged,  so  to  speak,  by  nature ;  and  in  10.58 
Stephen  X.  called  liim  from  the  hermitage  to  the 
papal  court,  and  compelled  him  to  assume  the 
offices  of  Bi.shop  of  O.stia  and  head  of  the  College 
of  Cardinals.  This  position,  however,  did  not  suit 
him,  and  he  fled  back  to  the  hermits.  But  he 
became,  nevertheless,  one  of  the  most  active  mem- 
bers of  the  Hildebrand  party.     In  1059  Nicholas 

II.  sent  him  as  papal  legate  to  Milan ;  and  he 
succeeded  in  reforming  the  clnn-ch,  and  bringing 
it  into  due  submission  to  the  Roman  see.  After 
the  death  of  Nicholas  II.  he  was  very  active  for 
Alexander  II.,  and  did  much  for  his  cause  in 
Florence,  Monte   Casino,  and  Clugny.     In  1062 


ho  became  the  confessor  of  Agnes,  the  widow  of 
Henry  III.;  and  in  1009  he  was  .sent  as  papal 
logatt!  to  Henry  IV.,  on  account  of  his  intimate 
relaiions  both  with  the  father  and  the  mother  of 
the  young  prince.  Henry  submitted.  Hi.s  last 
gi'eat  pi'actical  undertaking  was  the  ref(jrm  of 
the  churcli  of  his  native  city. 

Lit.  —  'I'lie  works  of  Damiani,  among  wliich 
are  many  hymns  and  a  number  of  sarcastic  epi- 
grams, werc^  collected  by  C'ajctaii,  and  appeared 
in  Home,  1000,  in  4  vols.  tol.  ;  later  editions  in 
Paris,  1010,  1042, 1003,  and  at  Venice,  174«.  The 
sources  of  his  life  are  found  in  Act.  Snncl.,  Feb. 
23,  and  Act.  Sand.  Ord.  S.  Ben.  His  biography 
has  been  written  by  Jacob  LADFjifiii,  in  Latin, 
Rome,  1702,  and  by  Neukirch,  in  German,  Got- 
tingen,  1876;  [J.  Kleinermann.s  :  Pelrus  Dami- 
ani ill  sein.  Leben  ii.  Werken,  nach  d.  Qiiellen 
dari/rsfclll.  Sfeyl,  1882].  ALBRECHT  VOGEL. 

DAMIANUS,  ST.    See  Cosmas  and  Dajiiaxus. 

DAMIANUS,  d.  001;  Patriarch  of  Alexandria, 
inclined  towards  monophysitism,  and  maintained 
views  concerning  the  Holy  Trinity  very  similar 
to  those  of  Sabellius.  "  The  godhead,"  he  said, 
"of  the  Father,  tlie  Son,  and  the  Holy  Sjiirit, 
forms  one  single  substance,  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  three  persons  of  the  Trinity  are  not  God  each 
by  himself  and  separately,  but  only  when  united 
together."  The  adherents  of  this  view  were  called 
Damianites,  or,  after  their  meeting-place  in  Alex- 
andria, the  Anr/elluiii,  Angelites.  Their  adversa- 
ries called  them  Tetradites,  TerpadiTm,  because  they 
had  four  gods — -the  Father,  the  Son,  the  Holy 
Spirit,  and  the  Divine  Being  —  in  which  tho.se 
tliree  were  united. 

DAN.     See  Tribes  or  Israel. 

DAN>EUS,  Lambert,  b.  at  Beaugenzy,  in  1.530; 
d.  at  Castres,  1595 ;  studied,  first  law  at  Orleans, 
afterwards  theology  at  Geneva,  and  wa»  made 
pastor  in  Chien,  but  driven  away  by  persecution 
in  1563;  fled  from  France  after  the  Massacre  of 
the  night  of  St.  Bartholomew  (1572),  and  was 
pastor  in  Geneva,  and  citizen  of  the  city  from 
1581 ;  accepted  an  invitation  to  Leyden,  but  was 
compelled  to  give  up  the  position  after  the  fall  of 
Leicester ;  was  finally  made  pastor  and  professor 
at  Castres,  in  the  Kingdom  of  Navarre.  A  list 
of  his  works,  exegetical,  dogmatical,  ethical,  etc., 
is  given  in  Ha.\g,  La  France  Prolcstante.  IV.  p. 
194.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  treat  Christian 
ethics  separately  from  dogmatics.  His  Commen- 
tary on  the  Minor  Prophets  was  translated  into 
English  by  Stockwood,  London,  1594. 

DANCE  AMONG  THE  HEBREWS.  The  He- 
brew language  has  several  expressions  denoting 
the  art  of  "dancing."  Thus  we  find  rakait,  which 
means  to  akip,  or  leap  for  joy  (Eccl.  iii.  4);  kirker, 
"  to  jump  or  spring  "  (2  Sam.  vi.  14,  16);  chagag, 
"  turning  round  in  a  circle ' '  (1  Sam.  xxx.  16) ;  and 
chill,  "  to  twist,"  probably  referring  to  the  wkirling^ 
motions  of  the  dances  (Judg.  xxi.  21).  Occa- 
sions for  dancing  were  either  solemn  anniversa- 
ries in  common  life,  or  anniversaries  partaking 
of  a  religious  chaj-acter.  In  the  Old  Testament 
dancing  in  connection  with  divine  service  is  men- 
tioned only  in  2  Sam.  vi.  14.  When  it  is  said, 
"  Return,  return,  O  Shulainite ;  return,  return, 
that  we  may  look  upon  thee.  What  will  ye  see 
in  the  Shulamite?  As  it  were  the  company  of 
*wo  armies  "  (Song  of  Songs,  vi.  13),  a  form  of 


DANCERS. 


602 


DANIEL. 


dancing  is  probably  meant,  which  is  still  used 
in  the  liarenis,  wlieie  two  rows  of  dancing-girls, 
in  accordance  with  the  orders  given  by  a  leader, 
perform  their  dances.  At  the  dance  the  maidens 
made  use  of  a  tambourine,  as  is  still  customary 
in  the  East.  From  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
(ireat,  Greek  dances  became  customary  in  tlie 
East ;  and  of  the  dances  as  were  common  among 
the  Jews  on  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  or  on  the 
Day  of  Atonement,  nothing  is  said  in  the  Old 
Testaiiu'nt.      They  are   the   outgrowth  of  later 

JllilaisiH.  LEYRER   (B.   PICK). 

DANCERS,  wild  enthusiasts  of  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteentli  centuries.  Religious  dancing,  of  a 
reverent  and  decorous  sort,  as,  for  instance,  among 
the  Shakers,  has  been  occasionally  introduced  into 
Christian  worship ;  but  the  sect  of  the  Dancers, 
who  were  enthusiasts,  first  appeared  in  1374,  on 
the  Lower  Rhine,  dancing  in  honor  of  St.  John, 
altliough  why  he  was  selected  no  one  knows.  In 
July  of  that  year  they  made  tlieir  appearance  at 
Aachen.  —  a  crowd  of  men  and  women  dancing 
hand  in  liand,  either  in  pairs  or  in  a  circle,  on  the 
streets,  in  the  chinx-hes,  in  private  houses,  wher- 
ever they  might  be,  without  shame,  without  rest, 
hour  after  hour,  luitil  they  dropped  from  sheer 
exhaustion.  Then  convulsions  set  in  :  tliey  felt 
severe  pain  in  the  abdomen,  and  so  they  cried  out 
lustily,  until  by  cloths  wound  tightly  about  theii- 
waists,  by  blows  with  the  fists,  or  even  by  being 
trodden  on,  tliey  got  relief.  During  the  dance 
they  sang,  "  Here  sent  Johan,  so  so,  frish  ind  fro, 
here  .sent  Johan,"  and  encoiu'aged  themselves  to 
renewed  exertions  by  crying,  ''Frish,  fri.skes." 
They  also  employed  unintelligible  expressions, 
wliich  were,  of  course,  interpreted  as  calls  upon 
ludieard-of  demons ;  visions  visited  them  :  in 
short,  these  dancers  were  thorough-going  fanatics. 
liul  the  mania  s]ii'ead  in  a  short  time  through  all 
the  Low  Country,  and  even  into  France :  wlier- 
ever  these  dancers  went,  they  found  ready  imi- 
tators. Cliildren  left  tlieir  jiareuts,  and  joined 
the  wandering,  crazy  throng;  wives  forgot  their 
houses,  maidens  their  duties;  all  classes  sent 
recruits.  Of  course,  immorality  quickly  .showed 
itself,  for  thieves  and  libertint's  improved  the  op- 
portunity. But  at  la.st  tlie  clergy  bestirred  them- 
selves. The  evil  was  universally  attributed  to 
demoniacal  possession,  aiul  therefore  it  was  to  be 
cured  by  .solemnly  exorcising  tlie  devil.  Tliis 
was  done  with  great  success,  although  it  was 
almost  a  year  before  the  excitement  entirely  died 
out;  and  for  several  years  afterwards  sporadic 
cases  of  dancing  were  found.  In  Cologne,  where 
these  had  been  freijnent,  much  time  was  required 
to  get  the  nuLstery. 

In  the  next  century,  the  fifteenth,  religious 
dancing  again  made  its  a])]iearan(e ;  but  the  e])i- 
deinic  was  milder  than  before,  and  of  a  dilferent 
character.      In  Strasburg,  for  instance,  during  the 

Elagne  in  MIS,  tliisform  of  I'lithnsiasm  appiMied; 
ut  the  dancers  now  went  to  tlu;  church,  not  to 
dance  there,  but  to  be  liealed.  On  advice  they 
■were  collected  an<l  sent  in  divisions,  under  ))roper 
supervision,  to  the  Cliapel  of  .St.  \'itiis  at  Rotes- 
tein,  where  the  mass  was  ceh^brated  for  them,  an<l 
tliey  were  led  around  the  altar  in  solemn  jiroces- 
!^ion:  hence  our  name  for  the  di.sease  ".St.  \'itus"s 
Uance"  (chorea).  Cases  of  tlu-  malady,  and  oc- 
iifLsionally  very  many,  occurred  up  to  the  .seven- 


teenth century:  they  were  always  attributed  to 
demoniacal  possession,  and  treated  accordingly. 
Since  then  it  has  been  rare,  although  a  case  of 
this  maniacal  dancing  occurred  in  Ohio  a  few 
years  ago,  on  the  breaking-up  of  a  religious  gath- 
ering, and  the  confusion  had  to  be  put  down  by 
force.  See  Forstemaxn  :  Die  christ.  Gcissler- 
geselhchaflen,  Ilalle,  1S2S;  IIecker:  Die  Tanz- 
wtillt  eine  ^'olksk-nnd-Zieit  im  Mitlelaltei;  Berlin, 
1832.     See  11.  M.\li,et,  in  Ilerzog  ed.  I. 

DAN'IEL  ('7S'.J-1  God  is  my  judge),  the  fourth, 
of  the  greater  prophets.  He  was  of  noble,  per- 
haps royal  descent,  and  was  carried  off,  in  the 
reign  of  Jehoiakim,  into  exile  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 
'\^'ith  three  other  Hebrew  youths  he  was,  by  com- 
mand of  the  king,  selected  for  his  comeliness  of 
person  and  talent,  to  receive  special  training  for 
service  at  coiu-t.  He  became  a  conspicuous  per- 
sonage in  the  realm,  and  was  promotf  d  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar to  be  "rider  over  tl;e  whole  province 
of  Babylon,  and  chief  of  the  governors  over  all 
the  wise  men  of  Babylon  "  (Dan.  ii.  48).  During 
the  subsequent  reign  of  Belshazzar  he  seems  to 
have  withdrawn  into  retirement  (v.  11),  from 
which  he  was  summoned  to  the  impious  feast 
which  just  preceded  the  overthrow  of  that  mon- 
arch. In  the  subsequent  reigns  of  Darius  and 
Cyrus  he  held  high  office,  and  in  the  former  the 
most  distinguished  in  the  kingdom,  next  to  the 
king  (vi.  2).  In  addition  to  his  great  prosperity, 
three  prominent  features  in  his  life  are  to  be  no- 
ticed. (1)  His  devotion  to  principle. .  He  began 
his  career  by  refusing  to  partake  of  that  which  he 
had  been  taught  to  regard  as  unclean  (i.  8).  The 
temptations  of  preferment  and  court  favor  coidd 
not  corrupt  him.  He  would  h.ive  perished  in  the 
furnace  rather  than  have  bowed  down  to  the 
golden  image  (Dan.  iv.)  :  indeed,  he  was  thrown 
into  the  lions'  den  for  refusing  compliance  with 
an  injunction  forbidding  for  thirty  days  prayer  to 
(ioil  (vi.).  (2)  His  di.iliiu/iiislii'il  wisdom.  He  was 
known  above  all  the  iiuigicians  and  astrologers 
of  the  realm  for  .skill  in  iaterpreting  visions  and 
dreams  (i.  20).  To  this  he  added  jiractical  knowl- 
edge of  statecraft.  (3)  His /"earfev.vnc.w.  He  hesi- 
tated not  to  convey  to  Nebuchadnezzar  the  news 
of  (ioil's  jiurpo.se  to  abase  him  (iv.  32),  and  to 
interpret  in  the  |iresence  of  the  royal  revellers 
the  doom  of  Belsha/.zar  (v.  28).  Ezekiel  refers 
to  Daniel  as  a  pattern  of  righteousness  (xiv.  14) 
and  of  wisdom  (xxviii.  3).  His  life  bears  a  strong 
rcsenibkince  to  that  of  Joseph,  who,  also  an  exile, 
acquired  the  highest  dignities  at  a  foreign  court, 
and  gave  one  of  tlie  most  conspicuous  illustrations 
of  fidelity  to  Ood  under  the  most  trying  tempta- 
tions, ilis  career  is  also  a  coiiifortiug  examide 
of  (iod's  protection  of  his  ]>eople. 

DANIEL,  Book  of.  There  is  testimony,  outside 
the  limits  of  the  book  which  bears  his  name,  to 
the  life  of  Daniel.  Ezekiel  twice  (xiv.  14,  xxviii. 
3)  refers  to  him  as  a  well-know  n  pcrsnuage.  Tlie 
first  i^assage  was  written  .092  B.C.  If  Daniel  Wiw 
de)iorted  to  Babylon  in  the  third  year  of  Jehoia- 
kiin's  reign  ((ioii  B.C.),  he  must  have  been,  at 
the  timi!  of  Ezekiel's  first  mention,  about  thirty 
years  old;  for  at  the  date  of  deportation  he  liad 
already  i)as.si'd  the  years  of  childhood  (Dan.  i.  4). 

In  order  to  a  just  judgment  of  the  book,  two 
things  must  be  taken  into  consideration :  (1) 
Nowhere   in  the  book  itself  is  any  direct  clauu 


DANIEL. 


003 


DANIEL. 


made  to  Danii'lio  authorsliip  [but  see  cliaps. 
vii.-xii.  and  remarks  below] ;  and  (2)  Jn  the 
Hebrew  canon  the  work  is  pkiced  among  the 
Hagiogra))lia,  and  not  among  the  l^rophets.  This 
location  deterniincs  nothing  certainly  as  to  the 
date  of  composition,  but  proves,  that,  althongh 
Daniel  was  endowetl  with  prophetic  vision,  he  was 
not  in  the  strict  sense  a  projihet  l)y  vocation.  The 
work  is  certainly  derived  from  Uanielic  traditions, 
a  statement  justified  by  the  above  references  in 
Ezekiel,  which  speak  of  a  Daniel  of  the  exile 
period,  who  was  a  wise  and  righteous  man.  A 
comparison  with  the  apocryphal  additions  which 
pretend  to  narrate  facts  of  his  life,  fully  establishes 
the  majestic  sinijilicity  of  the  book,  and  its  accu- 
rate acquaintance  with  Babylonian  and  Persian 
institutions.  The  book  is  divided  into  two  parts 
of  six  chapters  each.  Its  language  is  the  Aramaic 
from  chap.  ii.  4  to  chap.  vii.  :  otherwise  Hebrew. 
The  Hebrew,  wlien  compared  with  that  of  the 
ancient  authors,  as  well  as  the  Misclina,  exhibits 
many  peculiarities,  and  much  harshness  of  style, 
but  bears  resemblance  to  that  of  the  chroniclers 
who  wrote  at  the  opening  of  the  Greek  period 
{third  century  B.C.).  The  Aramaic  is  distin- 
guished from  the  later  Aramaic  of  the  Targums, 
as,  for  example,  the  'T  has  not  yet  been  abbreviated 
iirto  1.  With  the  Book  of  Ezra  it  is  the  oldest 
monument  in  existence  of  East-Aramaic.  The 
Aramaic  was  used  in  the  Babylonian  realm,  at  the 
side  of  the  Assyrian ;  and  the  transition  from 
Hebrew  needs  no  other  explanation  than  that  the 
author  desired  to  let  the  Chaldaeans  speak  in  their 
own  tongue.  The  work  throughout  is  homogene- 
ous :  and  the  theory  of  Lenormant  and  Zockler, 
that  the  work  contains  interpolations,  is  resorted 
to  in  the  interest  of  the  Danielle  authorship,  but 
is  withont  facts  to  warrant  it.  Tlie  Greek  names 
of  three  musical  instruments,  sackbut,  psaltery, 
and  dulcimer  (^ai^apK,  cvfiijiuvia,  xpa'Anjptov,  chap.  iii. 
5),  seem  to  indicate  a  date  in  the  second  century 
B.C.  It  is  possible,  but.  as  Lenormant  himself 
acknowledges,  very  improbable,  that  these  should 
have  been  known  in  Babylon  in  the  time  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. But  we  know  from  I'olybius  (Athe- 
nasus,  X.  52)  that  the  dulcimer  was  a  favorite 
instrvmient  at  the  court  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
(175-104  B.C.).  Tills  seems  to  be  more  than  a 
mere  casual  coincidence. 

The  truth  of  the  historical  narrative  has  been 
questioned ;  but  it  must  be  granted  that  savants 
in  Assyriology  ai-e  more  conservative  in  their 
judgment  on  this  point  than  others.  Lenormant 
says  he  is  moie  and  more  impressed  with  the 
genuineness  each  time  he  peruses  the  book.  Op- 
pert  thinks  he  has  found  the  very  pedestal  on 
which  the  image  of  Dura  rested.  Talbot  illus- 
trates the  punishment  of  the  fiery  furnace  from 
inscriptions.  These  investigators  find  confirma- 
tive testimony  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  insanity  in 
Berosus,  Abydenus,  and  Josephus.  In  1854  an 
inscription  was  discovered  at  Mugheir,  containing 
the  name  of  Belsar-usnr,  son  of  Nabonahid.  In 
regard  to  other  historical  difficulties  advanced,  it 
must  not  be  overlooked  that  chap.  v.  30  speaks 
only  of  the  death  of  Belshazzar,  not  necessarily  of 
the  termination  of  the  Chaldsean  monarchy.  It 
is  difficult,  also,  to  harmonize  the  account  of  Da- 
rius with  the  records  of  profane  history,  and  no 
place  may  have  yet  been  found  iu  contemporary 


accounts  for  his  dynasty ;  but  it  deserves,  on  the 
other  hand,  to  be  carefully  notici^l  that  tlie  in- 
•scriptions  of  the  first  two  years  of  Cyrus's  reign 
designate  him  as  "  King  of  Nations,"  and  for  the 
first  time  in  its  third  year  is  he  styled  "■  Kinr/  of 
Jiahi/ton,  King  of  Nations  '  The  attempt  of  Le- 
normant to  clear  uj)  the  difficulty  by  supposing 
Dai-ius  to  have  been  a  viceroy  of  Cyrus  fails. 
The  book  evidently  lets  a  Median  monarchy  follow 
the  Chaldican. 

As  regards  the  monarchies  (see  Dariu.s)  of 
Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  (chap,  ii.),  which  Menant 
thinks  have  the  ring  of  a  woi'd-foi'-word  paraphrase 
of  some  cuneiform  inscription,  the  old  interpreta- 
tion (Hengstenberg,  etc.)  represents  them  as  re- 
spectively the  Chalda>an,  Medo-Persian,  Grecian, 
and  Roman.  But  the  later  and  better  view 
(Ewald,  Bleek,  Zockler,  etc.)  agrees  in  making 
the  last  monarchy  to  be  the  Grecian,  thus  exclud- 
ing the  Koman  entirely. 

With  chap.  vii.  begin  the  visions,  and  from  the 
.second  verse  Daniel  sjieaks  in  the  first  person. 
This  chapter  narrates  a  vision  of  four  l>easts 
coming  up  out  of  the  sea,  in  appearance  like  a 
lion,  a  bear,  and  a  leopiard,  and  the  fourth  "  dread- 
fid  and  terrible,"  with  ten  horns  (ver.  7).  A 
little  horn  (the  eleventh)  gi'ows  up  among  the 
ten  horns  of  the  fourth  beast,  and  plucks  up  three 
of  their  number  by  the  roots.  Then  the  Ancient 
of  days  appears,  who  destroys  the  beasts,  and  con- 
fers upon  "  the  Son  of  man  coming  in  the  clouds  " 
(ver.  13)  a  kingdom  which  is  indestructible.  The 
beasts  of  this  vision  refer  to  the  same  monarchie.i 
as  the  image  of  chap,  ii.,  and  the  Son  of  man 
corresponds  to  the  stone  cut  out  of  the  mountain. 
While  our  first  impulse  is  to  interpret  the  fourth 
bea.st  to  be  the  Koman  Empire,  the  vision  ol 
chap.  viii.  forces  us  to  the  former  conclusion,  that 
it  was  the  Grecian.  There  (chap,  viii.)  the  Medo 
Persian  is  represented  by  the  ram,  and  the  Gre 
cian  (ver.  21),  so  it  is  expre,ssly  .stated,  by  the  goat, 
which  overcomes  the  ram.  At  first  it  has  ouw 
horn,  whose  place  is  subsequently  taken  by  four 
others.  A  fifth  then  grows  out,  which  reaches  to 
heaven,  casts  down  some  of  the  stars,  tramples 
them  under  foot,  and  oppresses  nations,  and  es- 
pecially the  saints  for  two  thousand  three  hun- 
dred days  (Hebi'ew,  eveinny-morniny).  This  great 
horn  is  Alexander  the  Great,  and  tlie  other  four, 
stretching  "toward  the  four  winds  of  heaven" 
(ver.  S),  the  Macedonian,  SjTian,  Egyptian,  and 
Thracian  dynasties.  The  little  horn  (ver.  9)  which 
desolates  the  sanctuary  (vers.  11,  12)  is  Anti- 
ochus Epiphanes.  The  termination  of  the  two 
thousand  three  hundred  days  (ver.  14)  is  marked 
by  the  reconsecration  of  the  temple  in  164  B.C., 
an  event  which  the  Jews  have  since  commemo- 
rated by  a  yearly  festival,  beginning  the  25th  of 
Kislev.  It  being  settled  that  the  little  horn  o£ 
chap.  viii.  is  Antiochus,  tliere  can  be  no  doubt 
that  we  should  interpret  the  fourth  beast  of  chap, 
vii.  and  the  fourth  world-kingdom  of  chap.  ii.  as 
the  Grecian,  and  not  the  Roman,  Empire.  Th& 
conduct  of  the  "little  horn"  (chap,  viii.)  and  the 
fourth  beast  (chap,  vii.)  towards  the  saints  ii 
the  same,  —  cruel  and  relentless;  and,  though  there 
are  variations  in  the  descriptions,  they  are  no 
greater  than  those  between  the  fourth  beast  of 
chap.  vii.  and  the  fourth  kingdom  of  chap.  ii. 
This  view  is  further  favored  by  the  correspond- 


DANIEL. 


604 


DANIEL. 


ence  in  the  periods  during  which  the  desolations 
dI  the  arch-enemy  continue.  According  to  chap, 
vii.  25  they  last  "for  a  "time,  and  times,  and  the 
di\-iding  of  time"  (l-|-2  +  |  =  3i).  According  to 
ix.  27  they  stop  in  the  middle  of  the  week,  or 
after  three  days  and  a  half;  and  cliap.  xii.  7 
agrees  with  this  description.  Turning  back  to 
chap.  viii.  19,  these  desolations  are  said  to  occur 
just  before  the  "end  of  the  indignation."  Com- 
paring all  these  statements,  we  find  the  measure- 
ment to  be  the  same,  and  are  again  forced  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  fourtii  beast  of  chap.  vii.  is 
identical  with  the  "  little  horn "  of  chap.  viii. 
which  Gabriel  interprets  to  be  "  Grecia  "  (ver.  21). 
The  result,  tnen,  we  finally  reach  is,  that  the  four 
kingdoms  preceding  that  of  the  Messiah,  of 
chaps,  ii.,  vii.,  and  viii.,  are  the  Chaldean,  Median, 
Persian,  and  Greek.  That  the  Median  and  Pei'- 
sian  were  distinct  is  confirmed  by  the  additional 
fact  that  the  ram  of  cliap.  viii.  20  had  two  horns, 
and  tliat,  while  Cyrus  is  styled  "  King  of  Persia  " 
(x.  1),  Darius  never  is.  The  symbolism  of  the 
iron  legs,  with  feet  composed  in  part  of  iron,  and 
in  part  of  clay  (chap.  ii. ),  is  well  borne  out  by  the 
Grecian  kingdom,  which  was  divided  after  Alex- 
ander's death.  The  admixture  of  iron  and  clay 
is  explained  by  the  intermarriage  of  the  Egyptian 
and  Syrian  dynasties  (xi.  6,  17).  Tlie  ten  horns 
(or  toes)  are  ten  kings  (vii.  24)  :  (1)  Seleucus 
Kicator,  312-280;  (2)  Antiochus  Soter,  279-261 ; 
(3)  Antiochus  Theus,  260-246 ;  (4)  Seleucus  Cal- 
linicus,  245-226  ;  (5)  Seleucus  Ceraunus,  225-223  ; 
(6)  Antiochus  the  Great,  222-187 ;  (7)  Seleucus 
Philopator,  186-176 ;  (8)  Ileliodorus,  who  held 
the  throne  for  a  short  time ;  (9)  Demetrius,  the 
lawful  successor  of  Philopator;  (10)  Ptolemy  VI., 
in  whose  favor  Cleopatra  laid  claim  to  the  throne. 
These  three  last,  Antiochus  Epiphanes  (the 
"little  horn")  superseded  (vii.  24). 

The  second  great  historical  problem  is  the 
seventy  weeks  (7-t-62-t- 1).  At  the  beginning  of 
the  single  week  (ix.  27)  the  IMessiah  will  be  cut 
off,  the  city  and  sanctuary  destroyed,  and  a  flood 
and  desolations  will  occur'.  In  the  middle  of  the 
week  sacrifices  are  to  cease.  This  week  is  the 
time  of  the  Antiochian  persecution  (see  vii.  25, 
xii.  7).  In  176  Onias  111.,  the  high  priest  (.l/c.s- 
aiah,  comp.  I>cv.  iv.  3,  Hebrew),  fell,  and  in  170 
B.C.  Antiochus  jilundered  the  temple,  cut  down 
forty  thovisand  .Jews,  and  was  bent  upon  the  ex- 
termination of  the  whole  luition  and  its  religion. 
His  death  occurred  164  B.C.,  seven  years  (one 
week)  afterwards;  in  tlie  middle  of  which  period 
(three  days  and  a  half),  or  the  year  167,  the  sacri- 
fices were  abolished,  and  ()lym])ian  Zeus  intro- 
duced into  the  temjile.  Sixty-two  weeks  precede 
this  period.  [Dr.  Delitzsch  divides  ix.  25  in  the 
middle,  after  the  expression  "seven  weeks;"  so 
that  the  .seven  refers  to  tlie  first,  and  the  sixty-two 
to  the  second,  clause.  We  may  also  state  here 
that  he  refers  the  term  "  Messiah  "  to  the  high 
prie.st  (Ivtv.  iv.  3),  and  "  prince  "  to  Antiochus  (ix. 
26),  but  the  "Messiah-j)rince  "  of  v.  25  to  Christ.] 
During  these  sixty-two  weeks  (434  years)  .Jerusa- 
lem was  built.  Counting  ba<;k  from  170  H.C., 
this  would  give  us  the  date  005  B.C.,  wliich  is 
the  fourth  year  of  .Iclioiakim's  reign,  and  the  year 
of  the  battle  of  Carchemish,  and  the  first  year  of 
Nebuchadnezzar's  reign.  The  other  seven  weeks 
followed  the  02+1.     That  we  are  justified  iu  re- 


garding the  sixty-two  weeks  as  antecedent,  and 
the  seven  weeks  as  subsequent,  to  the  one  week,  is 
apparent  from  the  fact  that  the  end  of  the  period 
62-1-1  is  marked  by  a  terrible  judgment  (ix.  26); 
the  end  of  the  whole  period,  62-t-l-)-7  (seventy 
weeks),  on  the  other  hand,  by  the  final  salvation, 
etc.  (ver.  24).  This  obliges  us  to  put  the  seven 
weeks  after  the  62+1.  Here,  however,  we  meet 
the  difticulty.  that,  if  we  count  from  164  B.C.  (the 
end  of  the  62+1  weeks)  the  seven  weeks  (forty- 
nine  years),  we  do  not  reach  the  birth  of  .Jesus. 
"Wieseler  avoids  the  difficulty  Ijy  assuming  that 
the  seven  weeks  stand  for  an  indefinite  jieriod, 
like  the  .Juliilee  Year.  But  the  difficvdty  still  re- 
mains an  unsolved  mystery.  As  for  the  words  of 
Christ  (Matt.  xxiv.  15),  they  certainly  establish 
the  prophetic  character  of  Dan.  ix.  26  sq..  but, 
while  he  refers  the  prophecy  to  the  destruction  of 
.Jerusalem,  it  does  not  follow  that  it  was  not  ful- 
filled before  (under  Antiochus),  and  will  not  be 
fulfilled  again  in  antichrist  (2  Thcss.  ii.  4).  The 
first  fulfilment  of  a  prophecy  may  be  only  partial. 
It  is  not  necessarily  exhaustive. 

In  spite  of  the  conclusion  to  which  we  have 
thus  arrived,  that  Antiochus  Epiphanes  is  the 
stand-point  from  which  Daniel  makes  his  eschato- 
logical  observations,  we  cannot  draw  an  abso- 
lutely certain  inference  that  the  book  was  written 
in  the  period  of  the  Seleucida\  But  the  weight 
of  the  considerations  cannot  be  denied,  which 
make  for  a  date  at  this  time  (the  middle  of  tlie 
second  century  B.C.).  —  a  man  of  God  incorpo- 
rating into  a  work  of  consolation  for  the  Jews, 
Babylonian  and  Persian  traditions,  and  ]iropliecies 
of  Daniel  which  had  been  handed  down.  The 
more  exact  date  which  commends  itself  to  us  for 
its  composition  is  the  winter  of  168  B.C.,  soon 
after  the  ignominious  third  Egyptian  campaign 
of  Antiochus,  and  the  attack  upon  .Jerusalem  by 
ApoUonius.  frz.  dklitzsch. 

To  the  above  discussion,  in  which  the  author 
with  great  learning  presents  his  own  view,  it  is 
proper  to  add  the  following  ujioii  (lie  chronology 
of  Daniel,  and  the  question  of  i/cnuiiicnex.t. 

1.  Clironoloyy.  —  The  interpretation  of  the 
seventy  weeks  (four  hundred  and  ninety  years), 
and  the  explanation  of  the  fourth  kingdom  (or 
fourtli  lieast  of  chap.  vii.).  are  so  closely  related, 
that  the  determination  of  the  one  settles  the 
other.  Jf  the  fourth  kingdom  be  the  Boman 
Empire,  then  the  seventy  weeks  tei'iiiinate  in  the 
events  of  Christ's  life  and  the  years  immediately 
.succeeding.  If  the  fourth  kingdom,  however, 
be  the  Greek  Empire,  then  the  weeks  tcrniinate 
in  the  events  of  the  lite  of  .'\ntiochiis  I'.piphanes 
(175  IS. C. -164  B.C.).  This  is  on  the  sujiposition 
that  (he  .seventv  weeks  be  reckoned  in  the  order 
of  7+62+1  (chap.  ix.  25).  But  the  author  of 
the  foregoing  articli>  changes  this  order,  making 
the  seven  vveeks  come  last  ((i2+l  +  7).  In  this 
he  follows  'I'ertiillian  and  Tlieodoret,  and  agrees 
with  llofman,  Wieseler,  and  others.  'I'his  enables 
him  to  interpret  the  fourtli  kingdom  to  be  the 
(irecian  I'jnpire,  and  at  the  same  time  to  hold, 
that,  at  the  end  of  tlie  seventy  vveeks,  the  Messiah 
came. 

In  general,  the  interiiretatioiis  ooncerning  the 
seventy  weeks,  and  the  inojihecies  tlierewith  con- 
nected, may  be  reduced  to  four:  — 

1.  Tliey  have  their  fulfilment  in  the  events  of 


DANIEL. 


605 


DANIEL. 


the  life  of  Antiocliiis  Epiphanes  (175  B.C.-1G4 
B.C.).  He  died  at  the  teriniuatiou  of  the  last 
week  (164  B.C.),  in  tlie  middle  of  which  (107 
B.C.)  the  sacrifices  (by  his  sacrilege)  were  vio- 
lently discontinued  in  the  temple. 

2.  The  propliecies  were  fulfilled  in  Aidioclius 
Epiphanes,  but,  in  accordance  with  the  view  of 
a  cyclical  and  progressive  fulfilment  of  prophecy, 
were  fulfilled  again  at  the  time  of  Christ,  au<l 
■will  be  fulfilled  once  more  at  his  second  coming. 

3.  The  third  view  is  the  one  generally  preva- 
lent in  the  cluu'ch,  —  that  reference  is  exclusively 
to  events  of  Christ's  life  and  the  time  that  fol- 
lowed, some  including  the  I'ope  of  Rome  in  the 
fulfilment.  Tliis  view  denies  all  allusion  to 
Antiochus  Epiphanes.  Dr.  Pusey,  in  his  ex- 
tended work  on  Daniel,  places  tlie  inception  of 
Christ's  ministry  at  the  beginning  of  the  last 
■week,  liis  death  in  the  middle,  and  the  rest  of  the 
week  (tliree  years  and  a  half)  lie  refers  to  the 
years  that  immediately  follow. 

4.  The  modified  view  elaborated  in  the  pre- 
ceding article.  Antiochus  Epiphanes  fulfils  the 
events  of  the  single  week ;  but  the  seven  weeks 
(forty-nine  years)  follow  upon  these  events,  and 
the  prophecy  connected  with  theiu  (ix.  2o)  refers 
to  Christ. 

As  regards  these  views,  the  following  may  be 
said.  The  first  view  must  be  discarded,  as  it 
denies  the  proplietic  character  of  the  work  and 
the  reference  to  the  kingdom  of  Cln-ist,  which 
the  book  evidently  intends.  The  stone  cut  out 
of  the  mountain,  and  the  JMessiah  the  Prince 
(ix.  25),  can  only  refer  to  Christ  and  his  king- 
dom. The  second  view  (Westcott,  in  Smith's 
Bible  Dictionary,  and  others)  does  not  sufficiently 
account  for  the  definiteness  of  the  prophecy  of 
the  Messiah.  But  the  cyclical  principle  of  inter- 
pretation may  still  be  applied  as  Delitzsch  him- 
self does.  The  third  view,  while  the  most  plausi- 
ble, strains  the  significance  of  the  expressions  in 
chap.  ix.  25-27.  Eor  example,  the  death  of 
Christ  in  the  middle  of  the  last  week  can  hardly 
be  made  to  fulfil  the  "words.  " and  in  the  midst 
of  the  week  he  shall  cause  the  sacrifice  and  the 
oblation  to  cease"  (ix.  27).  These  did  not  cease 
in  fact  till  the  destruction  of  .Jerusalem,  forty 
years  afterwards.  Another  consideration  bearing 
against  this  view  is,  that  no  event  can  be  found 
to  correspond  with  the  end  of  the  single  week, 
■which  is  at  the  same  time  the  end  of  the  whole 
period  of  .seventy  weeks.  We  then  turn  to  the 
view  in  Dr.  Delitzsch's  article.  The  arguments 
he  gives  in  its  favor  need  not  be  repeated.  The 
events  in  the  life  of  Antiochus  correspond  so 
exactly  to  the  minute  details  of  the  prophecy, 
that  the  conclusion  can  hardly  be  escaped  that 
they  refer  to  him.  The  change  in  the  oi'der  of 
counting  the  weeks  to  62-|-l-|-7  has  much  in  its 
favor,  and  carries  us  back  exactly  to  the  battle  of 
Carchemish  as  a  starting-point.  The  conclusion 
of  the  62-1-1  weeks  has  a  character  so  different 
from  the  conclusion  of  the  whole  seventy  weeks, 
that  we  are  almost  shut  up  to  this  way  of  count- 
ing. The  pi-incipal  objection  to  this  view  is, 
that  the  interval  from  the  death  of  Antiochus  to 
the  birtli  of  Christ  is  a  hundred  and  sixty-four 
years,  while  the  prophecy  only  allows  seven 
■*eeks  (forty-nine  years). 

II.   Genuineness.  —  The    received   date    of    tlie 


Book  of  Daniel  is  570-536  B.(;.  1'he  date  given 
by  some  modern  critics  is  175-160  B.C.  The  first 
to  deny  the  Danielle  authorsliip  was  Porphyry 
(233-302  A.D.).  No  further  attempt  was  made 
to  discredit  it  till  many  centuries  later,  by  Spinoza 
and  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  Tlie  first  critical  attack 
of  much  weight  was  made  by  Bertholdt  in  1803. 
It  has  since  been  one  of  the  burning  questions 
of  biblical  criticism  ;  such  .scliolars  as  Bleek,  De 
Wette,  Ilitzig,  and  Ewald,  denying  the  autlien- 
ticity,  and  Ilengstenberg,  Ihivernick,  (iaussen, 
Anberlen,  Pusey,  and  Mo.ses  Stuart,  as.serting  it. 

Ari/umenis  cif/ainst  llie  Genui)ieness  are  :  1.  Pliilu- 
hx/iail.  Nothing  can  be  certainly  determined 
from  the  Hebrew  and  Aramaic  used,  although, 
as  indicated  above,  the  peculiarities  ratlier  make 
for  the  early  date.  As  for  the  Greek  terms  em- 
ployed for  the  musical  instruments  (chap.  iii.  7), 
Bertholdt  adduced  ten.  But  tlieir  number  lias 
been  reduced  to  three  (see  above);  and  only  in 
the  case  of  one  of  these  is  the  evidence  unques- 
tionable (Lange's  ('onnnentary,  p.  26).  It  is  argued 
that  no  Greek  instruments  were  known  at  Baby- 
lon before  the  conquest  of  Alexander,  and  there- 
fore the  work  could  not  have  been  composed  at 
the  received  date.  This  argument,  however,  pre- 
sumes too  much.  Rather  is  it  likely  tliat  Baby- 
lon, the  "city  of  merchants"  (Ezek.  xvii.  4),  had 
intercourse  with  the  Greeks  even  before  the  fifth 
century  B.C.  ;  and,  according  to  Strabo  (xiii. 
3,  2),  a  brotlier  of  the  Greek  poet  Alcajus  ser\-ed 
in  tlie  armies  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 

2.  Historical.  There  are  several  difficulties 
under  this  head  deserving  special  mention  here. 
Two  errors  are  professedly  found  in  chap.  i.  1, 
and  cliap.  ii.  1.  In  the  first  passage  the  state- 
ment is  made  that  Nebuchadnezzar  besieged  Je- 
rusalem in  the  third  year  of  .Jehoiakim's  reign. 
This  is  said  to  contradict  Jer.  xlvi.  2,  where  the 
event  is  referred  to  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign. 
A  proper  explanation  is  secured  l)y  ascribing  the 
first  passage  to  Neljuchadnezzar's  departure  for 
.lerusalem  (comp.  Jonah  i.  3),  the  second  for  the 
actual  arrival,  not  forgetting  the  loose  usage  of 
the  terms  "day"  and  "year"  amongst  the  He- 
brews. The  second  apparent  error  affords  more 
difficulty ;  but  a  deeper  study  of  the  scriptural 
chronolog'y  more  than  vindicates  our  author. 
Chap.  i.  5,  Daniel  is  said  to  liave  been  in  tutelage 
three  years.  But  Nebuchadnezzar  is  called  King 
(chap.  i.  1)  at  the  time  of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem; 
and  it  was  in  the  second  year  of  his  reign  (chap, 
ii.  1)  that  he  dreamed  his  dream.  There  seems 
to  be  no  place  for  these  three  years.  We  shall 
see  that  the  term  "  king "  was  only  given  to 
Nebuchadnezzar  by  anticipation  at  the  siege 
(chap.  i.  1),  Nabopolassar  being  then  king,  and 
that  Daniel's  statement  is  strictly  accm'ate  in 
chaps,  i.  6,  ii.  1.  Nebuchadnezzar's  actual  reign 
began  about  a  year  after  Daniel's  arrival  in 
Babj'lon.  Tliis  is  proved  by  the  folio-wing  calcu- 
lation. Jehoiakim's  reign  lasted  seven  years 
after  tlie  siege  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  5).  His  son 
Jehoiachin,  after  a  short  reign  of  three  months 
(2  Chron.  xxxvi.  0),  was  carried  into  captivity. 
He  had  spent  thirty-seven  years  in  captivity  when 
Evil-Merodach  began  to  reign,  and  his  predeces- 
sor, Nebuchadnezzar,  died  (2  Kings  xxv.  27). 
Counting  up,  we  have  fully  forty-four  years  from 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem  till  the  death  of  Nebuchad- 


DANIEL. 


606 


DANNHAUER. 


nezzar.  But  that  monarch,  as  we  know  from 
other  sources,  only  reigned  fortv-three  years. 
This  would  make  his  reign  begin  a'bout  one  year 
after  the  siege.  With  this  year,  and  the  state- 
ment that  it  was  not  till  the  second  year  of  his 
reign  that  he  had  his  dream,  we  have  an  inten-al 
suiticient  to  comprise  the  three  years  of  Daniel's 
tutelage  after  his  deportation  to  Babylon.  Two 
other  historical  difficulties  may  be  mentioned. 
In  the  list  of  kings  given  by  Berosus,  Belshazzar 
is  not  mentioned.  Great  stress  was  at  one  time 
laid  ujxm  this  omission.  But  the  scriptural 
account  has  been  fully  confirmed  by  an  inscrip- 
tion found  by  Sir  H.  Rawlinson  in  1854  among 
tablets  obtained  at  !Mugheir.  It  mentions  a  Bil- 
shar-uzur,  a  son  of  Nabonidus,  whom  that  mon- 
arch associated  with  himself  on  the  throne.  This 
enables  us  to  understand  how  Daniel  could  be 
called  the  "third  ruler"  (v.  16,  29).  It  is  said 
that  profane  history  knows  nothing  about  Darius 
the  Mede,  King  ot  Babylon.  Various  explana- 
tions have  been  given ;  the  one  identitMng  him 
with  Cyaxares  II.,  whom  Xenophon  said  preceded 
Cyrus,  having  perhaps  most  in  its  favor.  It  was 
not  uncommon  for  individuals  to  bear  two  names, 
just  as  Daniel  did  himself.  Some  future  dis- 
covery may  clear  up  this  difficulty  as  satisfactorily 
as  the  preceding  one  has  been. 

3.  The  main  objection  is  based  upon  the  super- 
natural events  and  prophecies  which  the  book 
records.  The  mu-acles  are  said  to  be  too  porten- 
tous to  be  authentic,  and  the  prophecies  too  mi- 
nute and  definite  to  accord  with  the  general  spirit 
of  the  genuine  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament. 
This  objection  seems  to  imply  a  dogmatic  prepos- 
session averse  to  the  belief  in  the  miraculous. 
But,  leaving  this  aside,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
peculiar  position  of  Daniel  and  the  Jews  in  exile 
demanded  a  striking  exhibition  of  divine  power, 
such  as  was  given  in  other  exigencies  of  Old- 
Testament  history. 

Ari/uments  for  the  Genuineness.  —  1.  Tlie  work 
is  eitlier  by  Daniel,  or  else  an  imposture.  The 
justice  of  tills  dilemma  is  denied  by  many  critics  ; 
but.  on  the  very  face  of  it,  the  work  seems  to 
shut  us  up  to  one  of  these  two  views.  In  chaps, 
vii.-sii.  the  author  speaks  of  himself  as  Daniel. 
2.  Christ  refers  to  it  (Matt.  xxiv.  15)  as  a  proph- 
ecy sjXjken  b;/  (fnitiiv  did)  Daniel.  3.  According 
to  Josephus  (AnI.,  XI.  8,  4),  the  book  was  i)laced 
before  Alexander  (350-.'i23  B.C.).  4.  The  work 
betrays  an  accurate  and  minute  acquaintance 
with  Babylonian  and  Persian  manners,  such  as 
only  a  contemporary  could  be  expected  to  liave, 
as  in  tlie  description  of  the  courtiers'  dress  (iii. 
21),  punishment  by  burning  alive  (iii.  G),  pre.s- 
ence  of  women  at  feiusts  (v.),  etc.  5.  The  whole 
spiritual  tone  of  the  book,  which  distinguishes  it 
in  a  marked  manner  from  tlic  aiwcryphal  addi- 
tions, makes  .strongly  for  the  genuineness.  To 
these  arguments  the  following  considerations 
must  be  noted.  Whetlier  we  .settle  upon  the 
later  or  earlier  date,  the  work,  in  both  cases,  re- 
mains a  jirnpluri/  of  Christ.  And,  second,  too 
much  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  fact  that 
the  great  A.ssyriologists  do  not  grant  the  conclus- 
ions reached  by  critics  unfavorable  to  the  genuine- 
ne.ss.  Monumental  evidence  is  always  decisive 
as  against  arguments  based  upon  induction. 
Discoveries  in  Babylon    have   already  confirmed 


statements  of  Daniel  which  were  denied  by 
critics.  Thej-  may  be  expected  to  do  so  in  the 
future. 

Lit.  —  Commentaries.  —  Against  genuine- 
ness: Sir  I.  Newton;  Observations  upon  Ike  Prophe- 
cies, Lond.,  1733;  Bertiioldt  (1806);  Vox  Lex- 
GERKE  (1835) ;  IIitzig(1S50).  —  For  genuineness : 
besides  those  of  the  Reformers,  Hengstenberg  : 
1831  (trans.);  Havernick,  1832;  Avberlen, 
18.56  (trans.);  Moses  Stvart,  Boston,  1850; 
B.\RNES :  Notes,  New  York,  1853 ;  Speaker'.s 
Com.  New  York,  1876;  ZiicKLER.  in  Laxge  (Eng. 
trans.).  New  York,  1877.  — Rohlixg.  Mainz.1876; 
O.  Bardenhewer:  Des  heili/jen  Hippol>/lus  ran 
Ro7n  Commentar  zuin  Buche  Daniel,  Freiburg-i.- 
Breisgau,  1877. 

Sjiecial  works  bearing  on  the  genuineness : 
Bleek,  in  Berl.  Theol.  Zeitsch.  III..  1822.  and  in 
his  Einl.  ins  A.  T.,  Berlin,  1865:  LicKE  :  Einlei- 
lung  ill  d.  Ojfenb.  Johannis,  etc.,  Bonn,  18.52:  De 
Wette  :  Einl.,  8th  ed.,  revi.sed  by  Schrader,  1869, 
Berlin,  1852;  Keil:  Einl.  in  d.  A.  T.,  Frankfurt- 
a.-M.,  2d  ed.,  1859;  Ewald:  Propkelen  d.  A.  B., 
Stuttgart,  1841;  Hof.maxn:  Weissayung  u.  Er/iil- 
lunq.  Nordlingen,  1844;  D.widson  :  Introd.  to  the 
0.  'T.,  London.  1856;  K.  B.  Pi'sey:  The  Prophet 
Daniel,  nine  lectures,  Loudon,  18.54 ;  Perowne, 
in  the  Contemp.  Reeiew,  1866 ;  Westcott,  in 
Smith's  Bible  Did.  s.  v. ;  Rieii.m,  in  his  Hand- 
ii'Srlerbuch  des  bib.  Alterlnms;  E.  Reuss:  Die  Ge- 
schichte  d.  heil.  Schrifien  A.  T.,  Braunschw.,  1881. 
—  Historical  and  Assyriological  works  vindicat- 
ing the  authenticity:  JM.  voN  Niebuhr:  Gesch. 
As.^urs  u.  Babel.;  George  Rawlinson:  Historical 
Evidences,  1860 ;  Oppert  :  Expe'dition  scientifique 
en  Mesopotamie,  t.  i.,  Paris,  1863;  Lenormant  : 
La  dicination  et  la  science,  etc.,  Paris,  1875; 
George  S.mitii  :  Explorations  in  A.sst/ria.  and  A  nc. 
IIi.ll.  of  A.isi/ria,  1876.  —  Monographs  on  special 
points:  Reichei,  :  Die  70  Jahreswochen,  in  Stud, 
u.  Kril.,  1858;  AViesei.er:  Die  70  Wochen  u.  d. 
63  Jahncochcn,  1839 ;  S.  P.  Tregelles  :  Bern,  on 
V^isions  of  Daniel,  London,  5th  ed.,  18t)4 :  P.  S. 
Desprez:  Daniel  and  John,  or  the  Apocalypse  of 
the  Old  and  the  Neir  'I'eslainents,  London,  1878. 
For  further  literature  .see  ZiicKLEK,  in  Laxge: 
Coituiieiilari/,  p.  51  sq(j.  ]).  S.  SCHAFF. 

DANIELi  Apocryphal  Additions  to.  The.se ex- 
ist only  in  tireck,  and  are,  1.  The  Song  of  the 
Three  Ilohj  Children,  which  purports  to  give  the 
triumphant  song  of  Daniel  and  his  companions 
in  the  furnace  (Dan.  iii.  23);  2.  Hislori/  of  Susan- 
na, who  was  cleared  from  the  charge  of  adultery 
by  the  shrewdness  of  Daniel  ;  3.  The  Ilistori/  of 
Bel  and  the  Dragon,  an  exaggeration  of  the  mirac- 
ulous deliverance  of  Daniel  (vi.).  There  is  no 
evidence  that,  these  woi'ks  ever  formed  a  part  of 
the  Hebrew  text,  and  no  sufficient  proof  that  they 
even  li:id  .\ramaic  originals. 

DANNHAUER,  Konrad,  b.  at  Breisgau,  1603  ;  d. 
at  Strasliiu-g,  1666;  studied  theology  at  Marburg, 
Altorf,  and  Jena,  and  was  ap]iointed  professor  at 
Strasburg  in  1628,  and  pastor  of  the  Cathedral 
Church  in  1638.  He  was  the  teacher  of  Sjieuer, 
but  does  not  seem  to  have  made  any  great  ini- 
pre.ssion  on  him;  nor  could  he,  as  the  whole 
character  of  his  activity  was  essentially  polemical. 
He  was  an  ardent  champion  of  Lutheran  ortho- 
doxy, and  wrote  against  the  Romanists,  Uodo- 
moria    Spirilus    Papa:    and    llijana    Friburgica; 


DANTE. 


607 


DANTE. 


against  the  Calvinists,  Ilodoiuoria  Spiriltis  Cal- 
viniani  and  Rcfonnirte  Salve,  and  against  tlic  syn- 
cretistic  tendency  of  one  wing  of  tlie  Lutheran 
Church,  represented  by  Calixtus,  .Ui/sleriinit  Si/ii- 
cretismi  Detecti.  His  polemical  zeal,  however,  for 
the  purity  of  doctrine,  was  connected  with  per- 
sonal piety,  deep  practical  earnestness,  —  his  Kate- 
chismitsmilch  forms  10  heavy  vols,  in  4to.  —  and 
comprehensive  learning,  as  seen  from  his  Hudosu- 
phia  and  Theolo<;ia  Conscieii/iaria.  See  Tiioluck  : 
Akadeinischcs  Leben  d.  17  Jahi'hunderls,  II.  p. 
126.  THOLUCK. 

DANTE  ALIGHIERI,  b.  at  Florence,  between 
May  18  and  June  17,  120.5;  d.  at  Kavenna,  Sept. 
14,  1321.  Dante  is  a  contraction  for  Durante,  by 
which  name  he  was  baptized.  The  family  name 
of  his  mothei'.  Donna  Bella,  is  unknown.  His 
teacher  was  Brinietto  Latini,  a  pliilosopher  and 
historian,  under  whom  he  learned  the  classic  poets, 
rhetoric,  and  the  elements  of  mathematics.  He 
also  applied  himself  to  painting  and  music,  and 
later  to  theology  and  philosophy,  and  became 
master  of  all  the  science  of  his  age. 

He  belonged  to  the  Guelph  or  Papal  party,  and 
fought  with  distinction  at  the  battle  of  Campab 
dino  in  1289,  in  w'hich  the  Ghibellines  or  Imperial 
party  were  utterly  and  finally  I'outed. 

In  1295  he  became  a  member  of  the  Arte  degl'i 
Speziali,  or  druggist's  guild,  and  in  1300  was  chosen 
one  of  the  six  priori  in  whom  the  executive  power 
of  the  State  was  lodged.  The  Guelph  party  be- 
came split  into  the  Bianchi  and  Neri  (Whites  and 
Blacks).  Dante  was  instrumental  in  banisiiing 
the  leaders  of  both  parties ;  but  the  next  year 
the  Neri,  returning,  enlisted  the  aid  of  Cliarles  of 
Valois.  To  defeat  this  combination,  Dante,  with 
three  others,  was  sent  to  Rome  to  secure  the  veto 
of  Pope  Boniface  VIII. ;  but  the  delay  gave  the 
advantage  to  the  Neri,  and  on  Dante's  return  he 
was  arraigned  on  a  cliarge  of  peculation,  and  was 
sentenced,  in  January,  1302,  to  a  heavy  fine  and 
to  perpetual  banishnjent.  From  this  time  he 
espoused  the  Ghibelline  side,  until  he  gradually 
detached  himself  from  both  parties,  and  created 
a  party  for  himself. 

In  1292  he  married  Gennna  Donati,  by  whom 
he  had  seven  children,  and  whom  he  never  saw 
after  his  banishment.  The  history  of  his  exile 
is  obscure.  He  appears  at  Arezzo,  Verona,  Padua, 
Milan,  whither  he  went  to  meet  Henry  of  Luxem- 
burg on  his  assumption  of  the  iron  crown ;  at  Paris, 
Lucca,  Venice,  and  finally  at  Ravenna,  where  he 
died,  of  a  malarial  fever,  at  the  age  of  fifty-six 
years  and  four  months,  and  where  his  remains 
still  rest. 

Literary  Works.  —  1 .  The  Vila  Nnova  ;  or,  life 
renewed  by  love.  Its  inspiration  was  Beatrice 
Portinari,  whom  he  made  the  subject  of  an  ideal 
passion,  and  afterwards  the  incarnation  of  divine 
philosophy  in  the  Commedia.  The  Vita  Nuova  is 
the  story  of  this  passion.  It  is  written  in  prose, 
in  short  chapters,  interspersed  with  brief  poems, 
to  each  of  which  is  appended  a  short  explanation 
in  prose.  It  contains  tlie  first  hint  of  the  Comme- 
dia, and  without  it  the  latter  cannot  be  thoroughly 
understood.  Its  date  is  somewhere  from  1295  to 
1307. 

2.  Convito ;  or.  The  Banquet.  An  incomplete 
work  projected  in  fourteen  treatises,  only  four 
of  which  were  written.     It  was  intended  to  be  a 


handbook  of   the  knowledge   of  the  age.     Date 
uncertain. 

3.  Canztmiere ;  or,  Minor  Poems,  a  collection  of 
songs,  ballads,  and  sonnets,  some  of  them  by 
other  hands. 

4.  l)e  Monarchia  (On  3tonrirchi/),  date  l)etween 
1310  and  1313.  Written  in  Latin,  and  consisting 
of  three  books,  in  which  he  tries  to  prove  that 
monarchy  is  the  normal  and  divinely  instituted 
form  of  "government ;  that  Itome  is  its  divinely 
appointed  seat,  and  the  Roman  sovereign  God's 
civil  vicegerent;  that  man  with  his  double  nature 
is  subject  to  a  double  order,  temporal  and  spirit- 
ual, the  empii-e  and  the  papacy,  the  Pope  being 
God's  spiritual  vicegerent,  and,  like  the  emperor, 
having  his  legitimate  seat  at  Rome,  and  being, 
though  the  two  jurisdictions  are  indejicndent,  in 
some  sense  supei'ior  to  the  emperor,  as  the  mortal 
interest  of  man  is  subordinate  to  the  innuortal. 

5.  Dc  Vuiguri  Eloqniu  {On  J'opidar  Eloijuence), 
also  in  Latin.  It  treats  of  poetizing  in  the  vul- 
gar tongue,  and  of  the  different  Italian  dialects ; 
and  its  object  is  to  establish  the  Italian  language 
as  a  literary  tongue,  and  to  give  rules  for  the  com- 
position of  Italian  poetry.  It  was  projected  in 
four  books,  but  only  two  are  extant. 

6.  Latin  Epistles,  fourteen  in  numliei'. 

7.  De  Aijita  el  Terra  (On  Water  and  JCarll). 

8.  The  Bucolic  Eclogues.  Two  epistles  m  Latin 
hexameters,  in  answer  to  an  invitation  to  come  to 
Bologna  and  compose  a  great  Latin  work. 

9.  Dioina  Commedia.  Composed  during  the 
nineteen  years  between  Dante's  banishment  and 
death.  He  called  it  Commedia,  because,  though 
beginning  harshly,  it  ends  pleasantly,  unlike 
tragedy,  which,  witii  a  pleasing  beginning,  issues 
in  a  catastrophe.  The  term  '•divina"is  a  later 
addition ;  the  original  title  is  "  Incipit  Comcedia 
Dantis  Alif/kierii  Florentini  nationc  non  morihus." 
"The  subject  of  the  whole  work," he  says, "taken 
literally,  is  the  state  of  souls  after  death  regarded 
as  a  matter  of  fact;  taken  allegorically,  its  subject 
is  man,  in  so  far  as  by  merit  or  demerit  in  the 
exercise  of  free  will  he  is  exposed  to  the  rewards 
or  punishments  of  justice." 

'Phe  cosmogony  of  the  poem  is  liased  u]ion  the 
Ptolemaic  system.  The  central  point  of  the  uni- 
verse is  tlie  centre  oi  the  earth.  The  globe  is 
divided  into  two  elemental  hemispheres,  — the  east- 
ern, of  land ;  and  the  western,  of  water.  .Jerusa- 
lem is  the  centre  of  the  land  hemisphere :  and  the 
lowest  point  of  Hell  is  directly  under  it,  and  forms 
the  centre  of  gravity.  Hell  is  in  the  form  of  a 
hollow  inverted  cone  divided  into  nine  concentric 
circles,  each  devoted  to  the  )iunishnient  of  a  differ- 
ent class  of  sins.  Purgatory  is  a  lofty  island- 
mountain  in  the  western  heniisiihere,  its  shores 
washed  by  the  western  ocean.  From  its  base  a 
path  rises  in  a  spiral  of  three  circles,  forming 
Aute-Purgatory,  and  terminating  at  tlie  Gate  of 
St.  Peter,  the  entrance  to  Purgatory  proper,  a 
series  of  seven  concentric  terraces  girding  the 
mountain,  and  communicating  with  each  other 
by  steps  in  the  rock.  On  each  terrace  one  of  the 
seven  sins  is  expiated.  The  soul  then  emerges  to 
the  Earthly  Paradise  on  the  summit,  where  it 
bathes  in  the  River  Lethe,  and  drinks  the  wateis 
of  Eunoe,  thus  obliterating  the  memory  of  earthly 
sin  and  sorrow,  and  awakening  the  memory  of 
good. 


DANTE. 


608 


DANTE. 


Above  the  Purgatorial  Mount  rise  the  nine 
heavens,  each  a  hollow  revolvmg  sphere,  enclosing 
and  enclosed,  and  ending  with  the  Primwn  Mobile, 
or  Crystalline  Heaven,  which  controls  the  motions 
of  the  lower  spheres.  Outside  this  is  the  Empy- 
reau,  the  abode  of  God  and  of  the  saints,  who, 
arranged  in  the  form  of  a  rose,  surround  a  vast 
lake  of  light. 

The  poem  consists  of  three  parts,  or  cantice.  — 
Inferno,  Purgatorio,  Paradise,  —  each  part  divided 
into  thirty-three  cantos  in  allusion  to  the  years  of 
Christ's  earthly  life.  Dante,  in  the  midst  of  his 
life-journey,  finds  himself  astray  in  a  gloomy  and 
savage  forest,  where  he  is  met  by  the  shade  of 
Virgil,  sent  by  Beatrice  to  conduct  him  through 
the  three  worlds.  Passing  tlirougli  the  succes- 
sive circles  of  Hell,  they  reach  tlie  apex,  where  Lu- 
cifer sits,  and,  climbing  by  the  .shaggy  hair  of  the 
fiend  round  his  haunch,  they  pass  the  centre  of 
gravity,  and  make  their  way  to  the  shores  of  I'ur- 
gatory.  Ascending  the  terraces,  oU  the  sixth  of 
which  they  are  Joined  by  the  poet  Statins,  they 
reach  the  Earthly  Paradise,  where  A'irgil  leaves 
Dante  to  the  guidance  of  Beatrice,  in  whose  com- 
pany he  ascends  through  the  successive  heavens 
to  the  presence  of  the  Eternal. 

The  poem  is  written  in  the  terza  rimu.  the  lines 
being  hendecasyllabic.  The  scheme  of  rhyme 
consists  of  six  lines,  the  rhyme  falling  on  the  fir.st 
and  third,  the  second  and  fourth,  while  the  fifth 
introduces  the  basis  of  the  next  group  of  rhymes, 
interlocked  with  its  predecessor  by  the  sixth  line, 
W'hich  retains  the  rhyme  of  the  second  and  fourth. 
The  poem  is  a  pictiu'e  of  mediaeval  society  at  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  and  the  begininng  of  the 
fourteenth  century.  Its  range  of  allusion  is  en- 
cyclopaedic. Great  as  is  Dante's  pictorial  power, 
his  real  sublimity  is  moral.  He  rises  highest  in 
depicting  human  character  and  human  passion. 
The  intense  moral  purpo.se  of  the  Commcdia  divests 
even  the  hideous  details  of  the  Inferno  of  vulgarity. 
Under  his  pervading  conception  of  man  as  the 
inheritor  of  a  moral  destiny,  distinctions  of  time, 
race,  and  jjosition,  disajipear,  and  cla.ssic  heroes 
and  mytliological  creations  mingle  with  popes, 
martyrs,  and  Christian  emperors.  Ilis  terrible 
satire  respects  neither  civil  nor  ecclesiastical  dig- 
nity. The  poem  is  packed  witli  similes,  allegories, 
portraits,  historical  and  personal  references,  and 
theological  and  pliilo.sophical  disquisitions.  It  is 
intensely  per.sonal,  often  egotistic,  revealing  the 
poet's  consciousness  of  his  own  genius,  tingi^d  with 
the  bitterne.s.i  of  his  stern  and  deeply  wounded 
spirit,  and  recording  his  cruel  wrong  and  his  co- 
lossal scorn,  yet  revealing  also  the  sympathy  and 
tenderness  of  a  givat  soul.  No  work  "  more  faith- 
fully depicts  a  noble  character  in  its  .strength  and 
dignity."  Dante  is  impatient  of  vagueness.  He 
is  intensely  realistic.  In  his  pictures  every  space 
is  measm-ed,  every  region  majiped,  every  dimension 
noted  as  in  a  sciiedule.  Ilis  very  teiliousness  in 
certain  |>laces  grows  out  of  his  determination  to 
express  his  thought  on  all  sides.  In  his  sublimest 
passages  he  is  attentive  to  <letails.  His  similes 
are  cho.sen  without  regard  to  their  .source,  with 
the  single  view  of  illustrating  his  thought ;  and 
the  most  grotesque  images  apj)ear  amid  the  very 
Mubliinities  of  heaven.  I  h-  unites  a  delicate  sen.se 
of  color  and  .sound  to  his  wonderful  .sense  of  form. 
The  qualities  of  hia  genius  are  <lefinitene.ss,  inten- 


sity, sincerity,  and  brevity.  The  faults  of  the 
poem  are  grotesqueness  and  obscurity. 

Dante  as  a  figure  of  history  is  many-sided. 
As  a  politician,  he  represents  the  ideal  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Enqiire,  a  universal  Christian  monarchy, 
consisting  of  the  Roman  Enquire  and  the  Roman 
Churcli.  As  a  theoldtjian,  he  is  the  voice  of  medi- 
aeval faith,  "the  painter  of  its  visions,"  and  the 
exponent  of  the  law  of  man's  moral  being  in  the 
light  of  mediaeval  creeds  and  in  the'  terms  of 
the  scholastic  philosophy. 

As  a  man  of  letters:,  he  is  the  founder  of  modem 
literature,  and  the  creator  of  Italian  poetry.  He 
broke  loose  from  the  scholastic  Latin  of  literary 
Europe,  and  out  of  the  mass  of  Italian  dialects 
created  a  noble,  pure,  uiuversal  Italian. 

He  is  the  Jirst  Cftrit^tian  poet.  Christianity  fur- 
nishes the  main  motive  of  the  Commedia.  The 
poem  is  the  first  great  exponent  of  the  struggle 
of  the  human  will  and  the  aspiration  of  the  hu- 
man soul  toward  God.  Its  highest  ideal  of  beauty 
is  Christian :  it  is  pervaded  with  the  sense  of 
moral  responsibility,  moral  destiny,  and  the  sanc- 
tifying power  of  sorrow. 

The  literature  is  enormous.  Vid.  for  bililiof/raphi/ 
Fei{H.\zzi  B.\ss.\xo,  Mdiimilt  Dantesco  (1H(J5-71), 
and  CoL05in  de  B.^tixk.  JJibliographia  Dantesca, 
•2  vols.,  Prato,  1845-18. 

Illustrutice.  —  EitsCH  and  GrI'BEk's  Ettcyclo- 
piidie.  art.  Dante,  by  L.  G.  Blanc ;  Storia  della 
Vila  ili  Dante,  Fr.\ticei,li,  Firenze,  1801  ;  Dante 
Aliyhieri,  seine  Zeit,  sein  Lehen,  nnd  seine  Werke, 
Sc'AUT.AZZiNi,  Biel,  1860;  Dante  e  it  sua  Secolo, 
Firenze,  1865;  Dante  e  la  Philosophie  Catholique 
au  triezieme  .Siecle,  Oz.\xam,  Paris,  1845;  Ueber 
Dante,  C.\Ri.  WnrK,  Breslau,  18:31;  Quando  e 
da  chi  sia  Composto  I'Ottimo  Cominento  a  Dante, 
C'.\Ki.  AViTTE,  Leipzig,  1847  ;  Dante  und  die  ita- 
lienisch  Fraye,  C'.\i!L  Witte,  Halle,  1861  ;  Dante 
ForscUunipn,  C.\Ri.  AViTTE,  Halle,  1869;  Vita  di 
Dante,  Bai.bo,  2  vols.,  Turin,  1839  ;  Dante  Stitdien, 
ScHi.ossEk,  Leipzig,  1855;  Studien  iiber  Dante, 
Ruth,  Tiibingen,  185.3;  Ueber  die  Qnellen  zur  Le- 
bensc/eschichte  Dantes,  Pai'K,  (iorlitz,  1862. 

Po/ndar  Manuals. — J.  A.  Symoxds:  An  Intro- 
duiitiim  to  the  Sindi/  of  Dante,  London,  Smith  & 
Elder,  1872;  M.mua  Bossetti:  A  .Shadow  of 
Dante,  Boston,  Roberts  Brothers,  1872;  H.  C. 
Bari.ow:  Critical  (.'ontribuliuns  to  the  !>tudijofthe 
Divina  Commedia,  London,  1864;  Vincenzio 
BoT  r.\  :  Dante  as  Philosopher,  Patriot,  and  Poet, 
u-ith  an  Anah/sis  of  the  Dicina  Commeilia,  N.Y., 
1865;  James  Russei.l  Lowei.i,  :  E.ssay  on 
Dante,  in  Amony  mi/  Boohs,  Boston,  O.sgood  &  Co., 
1876. 

Editions  of  the  DIrina  Commedia.  — Over  three 
hun<lred.  Con  I'esposillone  di  Chr.  Landinu,  col. 
Comento  del  P.  Bai.hassarke  J^omhardi,  5  vols., 
Minerva  Press,  Padua,  1822;  Col.  Com.  di  Fi:. 
DA  BiiTE,  :i  vols.,  Pisa,  1858-62  ;  Hicorrelta  sopra 
quattro  del  pin  antorevole  Irsti  a  penna,  da  Carlo 
WiTTE,  Berlin,  1862;  Nuovamente  riredutn  nel  tcsto 
e  dichiarala,  da  BuiNON'E  BiANcni,  Firenze,  1863; 
Col.  Cum.  di  P.  FiiATlcEl.l.i.  Firenze,  1873,  the 
best  aiul  most  convenient  edition  for  the  ordinary 
student.  Col.  C(nn.  di  Antonio  Fiorento,  ed. 
1'.  Fanfani,  Bologna,  1S66.  Col.  Com.  di  (J.  A. 
ScAUTAZziNi,  Brockhais,  Leipzig,  "promises  to 
supersede  all  others." 

Enylish     Translations. — Rev.     Uemky    Boyi>, 


DANZ. 


609 


DATHE. 


1785-1802;  Rev.  Henry  Francis  Carey,  Lon- 
don, 1814,  new  ed.,  1844,  New  York,  Api)letons, 
1865;  IcHAiiDi)  WuKiiiT,  London,  184:!;  Day- 
man, 1843;  C.  15.  Caylev,  London,  1851-55;  J. 
A.  Carlyi-e  (Inferno),  in  prose,  London,  1848, 
reprinted  in  New  York  (Harjiers);  I^oncfellow, 
3  vols.,  Boston,  Ticknor  &  Fields,  18()7  ;  T.  W. 
]*.\i!soxs  {Infi'rno  iind  I'iir</alorio),  Boston,  1843, 
ISti"  ;  C.  E.  Norton,  \'ila  Nnoru,  with  essaj'S  and 
notes,  Boston,  Ticknor  &  Fields,  18Ci7. 

German  translations  are  nunierons.  Among 
the  best,  Phii.ai.etiies  (King  .John  of  Saxony), 
1839-77;  Witte,  Bi.anc,  Kaxneoiesser. 

Minor  Works.  —  Opere  Minuri,  con  le  Annolnz. 
di  A.  M.  Friscioni,  2  vols.,  Venet.,  1741;  the 
same  :  Con  note  e  illusf.  ili  P.  Fuaticei.i.i,  3  vols., 
Firenze,  1861-62 ;  Vila  Nuora  e  Canzoniere,  com- 
mentati  da  G.  R.  Giuliani,  Firenze,  1808;  Mon- 
archUi  Libr.  1  and  2,  Carl  Witte,  Halis,  1867; 
Epistole  ed.  e  ined.  per  Cura  di  Ai.ESs.  Touni, 
Livoriio,  1842;  Amori  e  Rime  di  Danle,  JIantiia, 
1823.  MARVIN"   R.   VINCENT. 

DANZ,  Johann  Andreas,  b.  at  Snndhausen,  near 
Gotha,  16.")4;  d.  at  Jena,  Dec.  22,  1727;  studied 
theology  at  'Wittenberg,  and  Hebrew  under  Ks- 
dras  Kdzardi,  at  Hamburg;  visited  Holland  and 
F>ngland.  and  was  made  professor  of  theology  at 
Jena  in  1713,  being  at  the  same  time  professor 
in  Oriental  languages.  He  wrote  a  Hebrew 
grammar,  —  Nucifranf/ilinlinn,  Jena,  1086,  called 
Lilerolor  Ehru'o-Chuldteaus  in  the  second  edition, 
Jena,  1000,  —  formed  a  school  of  Oriental  philolo- 
gists, and  was  himself  considered  the  greatest 
Orientalist  of  his  age.  Though  a  friend  of  Spener, 
his  private  life  does  not  seem  to  have  been  so  very 
edifying.  See  Tiioluck  :  Das  a/cademische  Lehen 
des  'l7.  Jahrhunderts,  Halle.  18.'53,  I.  p.  148,  and 
Das  kirrldirhe  Lehen  d.  17.  Jahr.,  1802,  II.  p.  183. 

DANZ,  Johann  Traugott  Leberecht,  b.  at  Wei- 
mar. Jlay  31,  1709;  d.  at  Jena,  May  15,  1851; 
studied  theology  at  Jena  and  Gottingen  ;  was  for 
some  years  rector  of  the  Latin  School  of  Jena; 
and  became  professor  of  theology  in  the  university 
there  in  1810,  from  which  position  he  retired  in 
1837.  He  was  an  exceedingly  prolific  writer. 
His  principal  theological  works  are;  Lehrburh  d. 
Christ.  K i rchen f/escli ichte,  Jena,  1818-20  ;  Lil/ri  Syni- 
holiei  Eccl.  ll.-C,  dedicated  to  Gregory  XVI., 
Weimar,  1830  ;  Unioersabcorterhuch  d.  Theol.  Lite- 
ratnr,  Leipzig,  1843,  etc.  But  besides  on  theology, 
he  wrote  also  on  the  history  of  hmnan  eating 
(18o0),  on  the  march  of  the  French  against  India 
(1808,  etc.),  and  translated  and  edited  jioems. 
His  theological  works  became  antiquated  during 
his  own  lifetime. 

DARBOY,  Georges,  Archbishop  of  Paris;  b.  at 
Fayl-Billot  in  Haute-ilariie,  Jan.  10,  1813;  mur- 
dered by  the  Communists  in  Paris,  May  27,  1871. 
His  brave  death  called  popular  attention  to  his 
noble  life.  He  was  a  bold,  independent  thinker, 
and  a  strenuous  opponent  of  Ultramontanism. 
He  endeavored  to  suppress  the  Jesuits  and  the 
religious  orders  within  his  diocese,  voted  against 
the  infallibility  dogma  in  the  Vatican  Council, 
yet,  like  many  another  opponent,  hastened  to  sub- 
mit to  the  decree.  By  his  energy,  measiu-es  tor 
the  relief  of  the  sick  and  wounded  in  the  Franco- 
Prussian  war  were  successfully  organized  and  sus- 
tained. He  braved  the  terrors  of  the  Comnmne, 
unwilling  to  leave  his  post.  On  April  4,  1871, 
40—1 


ho  was  arrested  by  the  Comnumists  as  a  liostage, 
and  confined  in  the  prison  at  Mazas,  and  then  in 
that  of  La  Koqnette,  wliere  he  was  brutally  .shot 
by  the  wretched  miscreants.  He  died  in  the 
attitude  of  blessing,  with  words  of  forgiveness  on 
his  lips.  He  was  made  Archbishop  of  Paris 
January,  1803.  His  works  were  numerous  :  chief 
were  a  translation  of  the  works  of  St.  Denis  the 
Areopagite,  1845,  2  vols.,  and  ]'ie  de  St.  Tliomas 
Becket,  18.59,  2  vols.  See,  also,  his  CEurres  pasto- 
j-(des  (posthumous),  Paris,  1870,  2  vols. 

DARBYITES.     See  Plymouth  Brethren. 

DAR'IC.     See  Money. 

DARi'US  (OT")7,  Greek  Aapelar^  Persian  Ddraja- 
wus,  Babylonian  cuneiform  Dariijarus,  meaning 
the  reslrainer,  which  was  an  epithet  applied  to  a 
god  or  mighty  king).  Several  kings  of  this  name 
are  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament. 

1.  Darius  the  Mede  (Dan.  v.  31,  etc.),  "the 
son  of  Ahasuerus"  (ix.  1).  There  is  no  mention 
of  this  character  in  jirofane  history ;  but  it  would 
be  rash  to  atfirm  that  tlierefore  he  did  not  exist, 
since  our  knowledge  of  Babylonian  aifairs  is  far 
too  defective.  The  Bible,  which  is  yet  unim- 
peached,  and  whose  marvellous  accuracy  is  at- 
tested by  recent  discoveries,  makes  him  the 
immediate  successor  of  Belshazzar,  whom  he  slew, 
and  king  of  the  Clialdccans  at  sixty-two  years  of 
age.  and  tlierefore  the  immediate  predecessor  of 
Cyrus.  But  no  satisfactory  explanation  of  this 
jNIedian  interregnum  has  yet  been  given.  Some 
would  identify  Darius  the  Mede  with  Cyaxares 
II.  of  Xenophon's  Ci/ropa-dia  (so  Josephus,  Antiq. 
x.  11,  4),  who  was  the  son  and  successor  of 
Astyages,  and  uncle  of  Cyrus.  If  this  identifica- 
tion, whicli  is  only  one  of  many,  stands,  the  notice 
of  Darius's  ascent  to  the  throne  is  compatible 
with  the  taking  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  who  acted 
really  as  his  lieutenant. 

2.  Darius,  son  of  Ilystaspes  (in  the  Babylonian 
cuneiform  Ustaas/ipi),  the  founder  of  the  Perso- 
Aryan  dynasty,  B.C.  521-480  (Ez.  iv.  5,24  ;  Hag. 
i.  1,  15;"Zech.  i.  1,  7,  vii.  1).  The  principal  of 
his  cuneiform  inscriptions  (mostly  trilingual)  is 
the  famous  one  at  Behistun,  which  relates  his 
dethronement  of  the  magician  Gaumata  (Pseudo- 
Smerdis)  and  his  six  allies,  and  the  overthrow  of 
other  rivals.  Darius  appears  in  these  inscriptions 
as  a  very  pious  man.  His  reign  was  very  pro.s- 
perous.  With  this  agrees  the  Bilile  record,  which 
relates,  that  in  the  second  year  of  his  reign,  —  the 
date  given  to  the  prophecies  of  Haggai  and  Zecha- 
I'iah,  —  Darius,  having  found  in  the  palace  at  Ec- 
batana  a  decree  of  Cyrus  ordering  the  building  of 
the  temple,  renewed  the  order;  and  the  work  was 
resumed,  money  supplied  for  it,  and  in  the  sixth 
year  it  was  finished  (Ez.  vi.).  The  Bible  record 
implies  piety,  generosity,  and  wealth. 

3.  Darius"  the  Persian  (Neh.  xii.  22).  usually 
identified  with  Darius  Codomannus,  the  antago- 
nist of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  who  reigned 
from  B.C.  330  to  330. 

See  the  commentaries  on  the  above-mentioned 
books,  and  also  the  article  Darius,  by  Kautzsch,  in 
Ilerzog's  Enri/ktopcidie,  2d  ed. 

DATARIUS.     See  Curia. 

DATHE,  Johann  August,  an  eminent  Oriental 
scholar  and  biblical  critic,  b.  at  Weissenfels, 
Saxony,  July  4,  1731 ;  d.  at  Leipzig,  March  17, 
1791.     He  became  professor  of  Oriental  literature 


DAUB. 


610 


DAVENPORT. 


at  Leipzig  in  1763.  His  chief  work  was  Libri 
V.  T.  ex  i-fceiisinne  lexlus  Hebra-i  el  i-ersionwn  an- 
ilquarmn  Latine  versi,  jiotisque  philologicis  et  crilicis 
illustrati.  Hallae,  1791,  6  vols.  :  besides  tliis  lie 
edited  Erpenius'  Syriac  Psalter  (Halle,  176S),  vol. 
1  of  Glassius'  Philologia  Sacra  (Leipzig,  1776),  and 
Walton's  Prolegomena  (Leipzig,  1777).  His  minor 
works  appeared  posthumously,  edited  by  E.  F.  \\. 
Rosermiuller,  Opuscula  ad  crisin  el  interpretalionem 
V.  T.  speclantia,  Leipzig,  1796. 

DAUB,  Karl,  b.  at  Cassel,  March  SO,  176.5; 
studied  at  ilarburg,  and  was  appointed  professor 
of  theologj'  in  1794,  at  Heidelberg,  where  he 
died  Kov.  22,  1836.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
speculative  school  of  theology.  But  though  the 
idea  he  pursued  —  a  scientific  argumentation  of 
the  Christian  dogma  as  a  necessary  part,  or,  in- 
deed, as  the  very  kernel,  of  philosophical  truth  — 
has  played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  history  of 
inodern  theology,  the  result  of  his  individual 
efforts  has  fallen  into  oblivion.  The  rapid  devel- 
opment of  the  German  philosophy  in  his  age 
compelled  him  to  change  basis  repeatedly,  —  in 
1801  (Lehrhuch  der  Katechelik)  he  is  still  with 
Kant;  but  in  180.3  (Orlhudorie  iind  Heterodoxie)  he 
has  left  for  Fichte,  and  in  1806  (I'heologiiviena), 
he  has  already  reached  Schelling.  Schelling  he 
then  follows  for  several  years  (Ein/citiing  in  ilas 
Stttdium  der  Dngmalik,  1810)  ;  but  in  1816  (Judas 
Jsckariolh)  it  is  evident  that  he  is  steering 
towards  Hegel,  and  in  the  Hegelian  philosophy 
he  finally  anchors  (Die  dogmatische  Theologie  jet- 
ziger  Zeit)  1833;  and  it  is  perhaps  this  circum- 
stance, which,  in  spite  of  his  great  talent  and 
genuine  piety,  gave  to  his  speculation  the  aspect 
of  a  brilliant  chimera.  See  Rosexkranz  : 
Erinnerungen  an  Dauh,  Berlin,  1837;  Strauss: 
Parallelen  zwisclien  Scldeiennacher  vnd  Daub,  in 
ClKtraili.risliktn  und  Kritiken,  Leipzig,  1839. 

D'AUBICNE.     See  Merle  D'Aubigne. 

DAUNT,  Achilles,  B.D.,  Dean  of  Cork;  b.  at 
Tractou  Abbey,  County  Cork,  Ireland,  Aug.  23, 
1832 ;  d.  at  St.  Anne's,  Blarney  (six  miles  from 
Cork),  Monday,  June  17,  1878.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Trinity  College,  entered  lioly  orders, 
and,  after  faithful  ser\-ice  elsewhere,  was  called  to 
be  rector  of  St.  Matthias',  Dublin,  a  most  imiwr- 
tant  post.  His  preaching  attracted  great  crowds, 
and  his  private  labors  drained  his  strength,  but 
blessed  many.  He  went  aliout  doing  good.  He 
was  made  Canon  of  St.  Patrick's,  and  in  1875  Dean 
of  Cork.  His  life  was  too  busy  for  authorship. 
After  his  death,  friends  issued  liis  .six  Donnellan 
Lectures,  delivered  in  Dublin  (The  Person  and 
OJfiers  of  the  Holt/  Spirit,  I.,ondon,  1879),  and  com- 
piled from  his  discourses  The  Morning  of  Life 
and  Other  Gleanings,  l^ublin,  1881.  See  F.  K. 
Wynne  :  Spent  in  the  Sen-Ice,  A  Memoir  of  the 
Very  Rev.  Achilles  Daunt,  D.D.,  London,  1879, 
3d  <-<\.,  ISSO. 

DAVENANT,  John,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Salisbury; 
b.  in  l^ondoii  about  lo70;  d.  at  Cambridge,  April 
20,  1641.  He  was  made  M.  A.  at  (jueen's  College 
Caml)ridge,  1.594,  professor  of  theology,  16t)9, 
master  of  )iis  college,  1014,  sent  by  James  L, 
with  three  other  divines,  to  the  svnod  of  Dort, 
1618,  raised  to  tlie  .see  of  Salisbi'iry,  l(i21.  Ik- 
was  a  divine  of  great  learning  anil  piety.  He 
wrote  Kxpositio  Epistoltc  D.  J'aiili  ad  Colosscnses, 
Cambridge,  1627,  trans.,  Loudon,  1831,  2  vols. ; 


Disserlationes  duce,  de  Morle  Chrisli,  et  de  Pradesti. 
natione,  Cambridge,  1630  :  Prrrlectiones,  etc.,  Cam- 
bridge, 1631,  trans.,  A  Treatise  on  Jnsiijicalion 
.  .  .  together  with  Translations  of  the  Determina- 
tions, London,  1844-46,  2  vols.;  .4;i  Exhorta- 
tion to  Brotherly  Communion  between  the  Protestant 
Churches,  Cambridge,  1641  (the  Latin  original 
appeared  1640).  Fuller  relates,  that,  when  he 
was  on  his  death-bed,  "he  thanked  God  for  this 
his  fatherly  correction,  because  in  all  his  lifetime 
he  never  had  one  heavy  affliction,  which  made 
him  often  much  suspect  with  himself  whetlier  he 
was  a  true  child  of  (iod  or  no,  until  this  his  last 
sickness.  Then  he  sweetly  fell  asleep  in  Christ, 
and  so  we  softly  draw  the  curtains  about  liim '' 
(Church  History  of  Britain,  Tegg's  ed.,  vol.  iii. 
p.  470). 

DAVENPORT,  Christopher  (known  as  Francis 
cus  a  Sancta  Clara),  an  English  Komanist ;  b.  in 
Coventry,  1598 ;  d.  IMay  31,  1680.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Oxford  and  Douay,  entered  the  order  of 
St.  Francis,  and  became  a  missionary  in  England, 
and  chaplain  to  Queen  Henrietta  Maria,  wife  of 
Charles  I.,  and  subsequently  to  Queen  Catharine 
of  Braganza,  wife  of  Charles  II.  He  was  repeat- 
edh'  chosen  provincial  of  his  order  in  England 
because  of  his  zeal  and  ability  in  furthering  the 
Roman-Catholic  cause.  His  works  were  published 
at  Douay,  1665.  2  vols.  fol. 

DAVENPORT,  John,  brother  of  the  preceding; 
b.  at  Coventry,  Eng.,  1597;  d.  at  Boston,  Mass., 
March  15,  1670.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and  when  nineteen  years  old  began  to  preach  in 
London,  and  eventiudly  became  rector  of  St. 
Stephen's,  Coleman  Street.  He  won  great  regard 
by  his  piety  and  learnmg.  In  1026  he  joined  in  a 
scheme  to  pui'chase  imjirojjriatlons  (church  lands 
in  the  hands  of  laymen),  and  "  with  the  jirofits 
thereof,"  says  Cotton  Mather,  ''to  maintain  a  con- 
stant, able,  and  painful  ministry  in  those  parts  of 
the  kingdom  where  there  was  most  want  of  such 
a  ministry.  But  Bislioji  Laud  looking  with  a 
jealous  eye  on  this  undertaking,  least  it  might  in 
time  give  a  secret  growth  to  nonconformity,  he 
olitained  a  bill  to  be  inhibited  in  the  exchequer- 
chamber  by  the  king's  attorney-general  against 
the  feoffees  that  had  the  management  of  it.  The 
issue  of  the  business  was  this:  the  court  con- 
denuied  their  proceedings  as  dangerous  to  the 
Church  and  .Stale,  pronuinicing  the  gifts,  ftojf- 
nicnts,  and  ronlrieances  made  to  be  uses  aforesaid, 
to  be  illegal,  and  so  dissolved  the  same,  conliscat- 
ing  their  money  unto  the  king's  u,se.  Yet  the 
criminal  jiart  referred  unto  was  never  jirosecuted 
in  the  star-chamher.  because  the  design  was  gener- 
ally approved,  and  niuHitud(>s  of  di.screet  and  de- 
vout men  extreamly  icsented  the  mine  of  it." 
Soon  after  this  he  was  converted  to  P\iritan  prin- 
ciples by  .John  Cotton,  and  hence  "fell  under  the 
notice  and  anger  "of  Laud;  to  avoid  which  in 
the  fall  of  1633  lie  went  to  Amsterdam,  and  be- 
came colleague  to  Mr.  Paget.  Here,  however, 
his  objection  to  the  ba]>tizing  of  children  of  non- 
profes.sors  was  used  against  him  ;  anil  in  1635  he 
ri'turned  to  London.  Having  l>een  one  of  tlie 
)>rocurers  of  the  )iatenl  for  the  JMassaehiisett.s 
Colony  (1628),  although  liis  name  was  not  men- 
tioned through  fear  of  Laud's  o)ii)osition,  he 
finally  set  sail  I  hither,  and  arrived  in  Boston 
June  26,  1637;  but  on  March  30,  1638,  he  .sailed 


DAVID. 


611 


DAVID. 


for  Quinniiiiack  (now  New  Haven),  where  lie 
started  a  new  colony.  For  thirty  years  he  .serv<>(l 
this  people  as  pastor.  With  Cotton  and  Hooker 
he  was  invited  to  sit  in  the  Westniinstci'  Ass(Mn- 
bly,  but  his  congregation  declined  to  allow  him 
to  go.  In  101)7  he  was  called  to  the  First  Church 
of  Boston,  and  there  died  of  apoplexy. 

John  Davenport  was  one  of  the  great  men  of 
early  New-lCngland  days  who  united  learning 
with  piety,  and  knowledge  of  men  with  kindness 
of  heart.  He  was  involved  in  all  the  general 
troubles  of  his  day,  compelled  by  his  position  to 
take  part  in  the  secular  government  no  less  than 
in  the  ecclesiastical.  Thus  in  the  beginning  of 
New  Haven  Colony  he  was  elected  one  of  the 
"  seven  pillars  "  to  support  the  civil  government. 
He  vigorously  opposed  the  "  Half-way  Covenant  " 
(see  CoNOKEGATiONALisM  ill  the  U.S.A.),  and  it 
was  as  the  great  champion  of  the  old  ideas  that  he 
was  called  to  Boston.  His  reputation  for  learn- 
ing caused  the  Indians  to  call  him  "  So  big  study 
man."  He  wrote,  however,  comparatively  little. 
See  list  in  Dexter  :  Conyreyal iduaUsm  n.t  sei'n  in 
its  Literature,  Appendix.  Of  most  interest  are  TIic 
Saints  Anchor-Hold  in  All  Storms  and  Tempests 
(1661,  24mo,  pp.  viii,  232),  and  Tlie  Power  of 
Congrerjational  Churches  A.^serted  and  Vindicated 
(1672,  i6mo,  pp.  x,  164).  See  Cotton  Matiiei:  : 
Magnolia  Christi  Americana,  Bk.  HI.  chap,  iv., 
ed.  Hartford,  1855,  vol.  i.  pp.  321-331. 

DA'VID  (beloved),  the  youngest  son  of  Jes.se,  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah ;  b.  in  Bethlehem,  according 
to  the  common  reckoning,  B.C.  1085;  d.  in  Jeru- 
salem B.C.  1015.  While  a  fugitive  from  Saul, 
he  headed  a  band  of  freebooters  (1  Sam.  xxii. 
1,  2),  whose  centre  of  operation  was  the  cave,  or, 
if  we  read  niXO  for  ^'I'i;?,  the  stronghold  of  Adul- 
1am,  either  near  the  city  of  Adullam,  in  the  low- 
country  of  Judsea,  about  ten  miles  south-west 
from  Jerusalem,  or,  accoriling  to  tradition,  in  the 
Wady  Khuritun,  amid  the  movmtains  of  Jud<ea, 
near  Bethlehem.  On  the  death  of  Saul,  the  tribe 
of  Judah  chose  David  king,  and  he  reigned  for 
seven  years  at  Hebron,  while  Ishbaal  (Ishbo- 
sheth)  had  his  capital  at  ISIahanaim.  The  son  of 
Saul  gradually  lost  his  hold  on  the  allegiance  of 
the  ten  tribes.  The  desertion  of  Abner  brought 
matters  to  a  climax,  and  after  the  murder  of  Ish- 
baal the  twelve  tribes  came  under  David's  sway 
(2  Sam.  v.)  Jerusalem  was  captured,  and  made 
the  capital  of  the  united  kingdom.  David  was 
king  in  all  forty  years  (B.C.  1055-15).  His 
reigu  was  prosperous  and  memorable.  Israel 
possessed  the  Pronused  Land  well  nigh  entirely. 
David  gave  them  their  iirst  military  organization 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  1  sqq.). 

As  a  Psalmist.  —  Later  Jewish  tradition,  as  re- 
corded in  the  Talnuul,  ascribes  the  entire  book  of 
the  Psalms  to  David :  modern  critical  scepticism 
denies  that  he  MTote  a  single  one.  The  truth  lies 
between  these  extremes.  The  Hebrew  titles  in 
the  Psalter  ascribe  to  David  seventy-three  Psalms 
out  of  the  hundred  and  fifty;  the  Septuagint, 
eighty-eight.  Of  these,  many,  no  doubt,  are  not 
his  ;  how  many  cannot  be  accurately  determined. 
Ewald  allows  him  to  have  written  Ps.  iii.,  iv.,  vii., 
viii.,  xi.,  XV.,  xviii.,xix.,  xxiv.,  xxix.,  xxxii..  ci. 
To  those  in  the  Psalter  should  be  added  his  dirge 
over  Saul  and  Jonathan  (2  Sam.  i.  19-27)  and 
the  two  psalms  in  2  Sam.  xxii.,  xxiii.,  of  which 


the  first  re-appears  in  a  slightly  altered  form  as 
Ps.  xviii.  The  uncertainty  as  to  the  authorship 
of  the  different  psalms  neces.sitates  their  very 
cautious  use  as  sources  of  his  biography.  He  re- 
mains, however,  the  "  Sweet  Singer  of  Israel,"  and 
the  "  Father  of  Hebrew  Psalmody."    See  Psai.ms. 

Character.  —  The  character  of  David  has  been 
very  differently  judged.  In  his  own  day  he  was 
the  idol  of  his  people ;  to  the  subsequent  pi'ophets 
and  priests  he  was  the  njodel  king ;  to  the  later 
Jews,  his  kingdom  typified  the  kingdom  of  the 
Messiah,  of  whom  he  was  himself  a  type.  Hi.s 
piety,  his  zeal  for  Jehovah,  his  tender  compassion, 
his  generous  sympathy,  his  bold  enterpri.se,  his 
dauntless  courage,  entitle  him  to  admiration.  He 
is  recognized  as  the  worthy  leader  of  the  chosen 
jjeople,  and,  next  to  Abraham,  the  Father  of  the 
Faithful,  comes  David,  the  man  after  God's  own 
heai-t.  Some  writers,  such  as  Bayle,  Voltaire, 
and,  in  our  day,  Kuenen,  have  slighted  David's 
claims  upon  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Church,  and 
sought  to  emiihasize  his  faults  so  that  they  might 
sneer  at  his  religion.  But  the  best  refutation  of 
this  detraction  is  the  Bible  record,  so  free  from 
flattery,  so  candid  and  comprehensive,  and  yet 
leaving  the  impression  that  its  subject  was  a  hero, 
a  man  cast  in  a  rare  mould.  It  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  his  likeness  is  sketched  with  a  hdelity 
unrivalled  in  antiquity.  His  sayings  and  doings 
fill  well-nigh  three  entire  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, while  references  to  him  are  found  upon 
almost  every  page  of  the  Bible.  He  comes  before 
us  in  every  light,  —  as  shepherd,  musician,  cham- 
pion, courtier,  fugitive,  chief,  warrior,  king  :  what 
life  could  be  more  varied?  In  a  more  domestic 
way  he  appears  as  obedient  son,  respectful  youn- 
ger brother,  modest  youth,  ardent  lover,  faithful 
friend,  tender  husband,  and  indulgent  father.  AH 
along  the  line  of  his  development,  private  and 
public,  his  piety  is  marked.  The  psalms  he  wi'ote 
attest  the  depth  of  his  love  for  God,  and  his  un- 
wavering confidence.  His  character  was  essen- 
tially the  same  from  the  days  when  under  the 
glistering  stars,  as  boyish  poet,  he  sang,  '•  The 
heavens  declare  the  glory  of  Jehovah"  (Ps.  xix.), 
until  the  day  when  as  aged  monarch  it  was  said 
of  him,  "  The  prayers  of  David,  the  son  of  Jesse, 
are  ended"  (Ps.  Ixxii.).  He  was  by  no  means 
perfect.  He  was  compassed  with  infirmities  ;  but 
he  mourned  his  defections,  and  was  pardoned. 
The  struggle  with  his  passionate  nature,  strong 
and  proud,  was  kept  up  incessantly,  and.  though 
oft  defeated,  he  conquered  at  last.  The  sins  for 
which  he  is  to-day  mocked  were  precisely  those 
of  an  Oriental  king.  He  was  the  man  after  God's 
own  heart,  not  in  his  sins,  but  in  his  repentance 
and  in  his  earnest  effort  after  a  higher  and  purer 
life. 

Criticism  of  the  Te.rt.- — The  narrative  in  the 
Books  of  Samuel,  tha  Kings,  and  the  Chronicles, 
is  derived  from  different  sources,  official  and 
traditional.  Much  attention  has  been  given, 
especially  of  late,  to  the  text;  and,  according  to 
the  critics,  several  errors  of  arrangement,  and  a 
few  interpolations,  are  discoverable.  But  the 
changes  demanded  in  the  Hebrew  text,  so  far  as 
the  history  of  David  is  concerned,  are  neither 
numerous  nor  important.  In  only  one  case  does 
this  criticism  merit  particular  notice  here.  All 
students  of  David's  life  are  aware,  that,  in  tbe 


DAVID. 


612 


DAVIES. 


story  of  Goliath  (1  Sara,  xvii.),  the  common 
text" represents  Saul  as  ignorant  of  David  (xvii. 
55-58)  ;  whereas,  according  to  xvi.  19-23,  David 
played  before  him,  and  was  his  armor-bearer. 
The  best  explanation  of  this  difficulty  is  that 
David  had  grown  out  of  Saul's  recognition.  But 
a  comparison  of  the  Hebrew  and  the  Septuagint 
shows  that  the  latter  omits  xvii  12—31,  55-xviii. 
5.  These  verses  read  together  like  parts  of  an 
independent  narrative  of  the  same  event.  Ac- 
cordinglv.  those  who  consider  the  Septuagint  text 
purer  than  the  Masoretic  remove  all  difficulties  in 
tliis  narrative  by  omitting  the  verses  referred  to. 
It  should,  however,  be  remarked  tliat  such  emi- 
nent Hebrew  scholars  as  De  Wette,  Ewald,  and 
Bleek,  consider  tiiat  the  Hebrew  text  of  the 
Goliath  episode  "  has  not  been  corrupted  or  inter- 
polated, but  tliat  the  two  sections  (from  whatever 
source  originally  derived)  form  an  integral  part 
of  the  work  as  it  came  from  the  hand  of  the 
writer  or  compiler;  "  and  also  that  we  should  be 
cautious  in  accepting  the  authority  of  the  Septua- 
gint upon  any  point ;  for  we  do  not  know  what 
manuscripts  lay  before  the  Alexandrine  trans- 
lators, nor  whether  they  were  not  willing,  as  in 
this  case,  to  omit  a  portion  of  the  original  He- 
brew text  to  secure  a  more  consistent  narrative. 
At  tlie  same  time,  reverence  for  the  word  of  God 
compels  honest  endeavor  to  obtain  a  pure  text. 

Lit.  —  H-  Ewald:  Gesch.  d.  V.  Isr.,  3d  ed., 
Gbttingen,  1866,  III.  76  sq.,  Eng.  trans.,  III. 
54—202;  Stanley:  Lectures  on  the  Jewish  Church, 
2d  series,  London,  1865 :  Hitzig  ■  Gesch.  d.  V. 
Isr..,  Leipzig,  1869,  I.  135  sqq  •  Guatz  •  Gesch.  d. 
Juden,  Leipzig,  1874,  vol.  i  ;  Seixecke:  Gesch. 
d.  V.  Isr.,  Gbttingen,  1876,  I.  283  .sqq.  —  Special 
biographies  — S  Chandler:  A  Critical  History 
of  the  Life  of  David,  London,  1766,  reprinted, 
Oxford,  1853,  2  vols.;  F.  W  Kimmmachek: 
David,  der  Kiinii/  von  Israel,  Berlin,  1866  (Eng. 
trans.,  David,  the  King  of  Israel,  Edinburgh,  1867, 
and  N.y.,  1868);  J.  J.  .Stahklin:  Das  Lchen 
Davids,  Basel,  1866;  W.  M.  Tavloi;  :  David, 
King  of  Israel,  X.Y.,  1875;  Bii.-i.vxcirET :  I'he 
Man  after  God's  own  Heart ;  Chapters  on  the 
Life  of  David,  London,  1877 ;  A.  Maclarex  : 
The  Life  of  David  as  reflected  in  his  Psalms,  Lon- 
don, 1880.  SAMUEL  SI.  JACKSON. 

DAVID  (Welsh  Deivi),  St.,  d.  601;  the  most 
eniiiii-iit  of  Welsh  saints,  a  semi-mytliical  per.son- 
age,  about  whom  nothing  can  be  definitely  as- 
serted. Rev.  Charles  Hole,  in  Smith  and  Waoe, 
Diet.  Christ.  Biogr.,  relates  the  story  of  his  life, 
leaving  out  the  fabulous  element,  tinis  :  He  s])ent 
ten  years  of  his  youth  in  the  .study  of  the  Bible, 
and  afterwards  founded  a  monastery,  which  in 
memory  of  him  is  now  called  St.  David's.  He 
won  .so  high  a  re]nitation  for  tlieological  learning, 
that  the  orthodox  compelled  him  to  leave  his 
retirement  to  defend  tlieir  side  againsl  tlie  I'ela- 
gians  in  the  synod  of  Brefi.  His  wonderful  suc- 
cess led  to  his  election  to  tlie  primacy  of  the 
British  Church.  .Sliortly  after,  hi;  convened 
another  .synod  for  the  same  purpo.se,  —  to  destroy 
Pelagianism,  —  and  succeeded  -so  grandly  tliat  the 
synod  bore  the  name,  "Synod  of  Victory."  I'p 
to  this  time  tlie  archie])iseopal  city  was  tlie  fa- 
mous Koman  fortress  on  the  L'sk,  Caerleon ;  but 
T)avid  removed  to  Meiievia,  "one  of  the  |)orts 
from    which   Mhi]>s    jja.ssed    over    hito    Ireland," 


probably  because  "the  tide  of  the  Saxon  con- 
quest drove  the  British  Church  to  cultivate  closer 
relations  with  their  Celtic  brethren  opposite." 
His  primacy  was  marked  by  tlie  division  of  Wales 
into  dioceses.  Personally  saintly  and  zealous, 
liis  rule  was  apostolic  in  character  and  results. 

DAVID,  Christian.     See  Moravians. 

DAVID-HA-COHEN,  a  learned  rabbin;  b.  at 
Lara.  Spain,  about  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century ;  d.  at  Hamburg,  1674.  He  was 
successively  cliief  of  the  synagogues  at  Amster- 
dam and  Hamburg.  Suspicion  —  it  would  seem 
unfounded  —  of  his  being  a  Christian  led  to  his 
deposition  from  the  latter  post.  His  title  to 
fame  rests  upon  his  Corona  Sacerdotum,  a  Tal- 
mudical  and  rabbinical  dictionary,  finished  down 
to  liesh,  but  only  printed  to  Yod,  Hamburg,  1667. 
It  cost  the  author  forty  years  of  labor.  In  Am- 
sterdam, 1648,  a  specimen  was  published,  under 
tlie  title  Civitas  David. 

DAVID  GEORGE,  or  JORIS.     See  Joris. 

DAVID  NICETAS.     See  Nketas. 

DAVIDISTS,    followers  of   David  Joris.      See 

JOKLS. 

DAVID  OF  DINANTO  (so  called  from  Dinant, 
a  town  ill  Belgium,  on  the  Meuse)  lived  in  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century;  was  Magis- 
ter  Artium  and  Theologice  from  the  University  of 
Paris,  and  stands  as  one  of  the  most  prominent 
representatives  of  that  pantheistic  tendency  which 
now  and  then  became  very  apparent  during  the 
middle  ages.  He  is  by  some  called  a  disciple  of 
Amalric  of  Bena,  and  by  others,  his  teacher. 
The  truth  seems  to  be.  that  the  two  systems,  in 
spite  of  their  internal  resemblance,  originated 
independently  of  each  other.  That  of  David  is 
imperfectly  known,  however.  His  work.  Quaterni, 
or  Quaternuli,  is  lost :  only  fragments  of  it  have 
come  down  to  us  through  Albertus  Magnus  and 
Thomas  Aquinas.  It  was  condemned  by  the 
synod  of  Paris  (1209),  and  burnt  (JMartexe, 
ilies.  Nov.  Anecd.,  IV.  163).  The  author  him- 
self escaped  the  stake  only  by  rapid  flight.  See 
KuiixLElx:  Amalrich  von  Bena  tind  D.  v.  D.,  in 
Studien  und  Kritiken,  1847,  I.  2;  Haureau:  De 
la  pliil.  .'icholast.,  Paris,  18.j0,  I.  p.  414;  Jundt; 
HIstoire  du  panthe'isme  pojndaire,  Paris,  1875,  p. 
14.  A.  .lUNDT. 

DAVIES,  David,  a  distinguished  Independent 
I5re;ulirr  of  A\'ali's;  b.  in  Carmarlliensliire,  .lune, 
176i!,  d.  at  Swansea,  Dec.  16,  1816.  After  a 
short  ministry  at  Trefacli  lie  went  to  Swansea, 
where  his  preaching  revolutionized  the  morals  of 
the  town.  He  was  a  fertile  hymn-writer,  and 
.seventy  of  his  hymns  have  passed  into  Welsh 
hymn-books.  E  I'axtox  \U>or>  [I'hrislmas  Evans, 
London,  ISSl)  di'Vcites  a  ehajiter  to  Davies. 

DAVIES,  Samuel,  an  elixpient  Presbyterian 
preaclici-,  and  president  of  Princeton  College;  b. 
of  Welsh  ancestry,  in  New  Castle  County.  Dehi- 
ware,  Nov.  3,  1724  ;  d  at  Princeton,  Feb.  4,  1761. 
His  mother,  to  use  liis  own  words,  was  "  one  of 
the  most  eminent  saints  he  ever  knew  upon 
eartli."  He  pursued  cla.ssical  .studies  under  a 
minister,  and  subsequently  in  the  seliool  .at  Fagg's 
Manor.  In  1716  he  entered  upon  liis  ministry 
at  Hanover,  A'a.,  having  received  a  governmental 
license  to  "officiate  in  and  around  Hanover  at 
four  meeting-hou.ses."  His  ministry  wa,s  very 
successful,  attracting  people  from  great  distances. 


DAY. 


Bib 


DEACON. 


In  1753  lie  was  depvited  to  go  to  Great  riritain 
with  Gilbert  Tennent,  to  solicit  funds  for  I'rince- 
ton  College.  The  effort  resulte<l  in  a  collection 
of  move  than  fonr  thousand  pomids.  During 
Mr.  Davies'  visit  abroad  lie  was  listened  to  by 
admiring  crowds  wherever  he  jireached.  In  1750 
he  succeeded  .lonatluui  Edwards  in  the  presidency 
of  the  institution  for  which  he  had  recently  done 
so  much.  lie  lies  liuried  at  Princeton.  Ilis  ser- 
mons were  elaborately  prepared,  and  are  among 
the  be.st  pi-oducts  of  the  American  pulpit,  as  re- 
gards both  their  tone  and  matter.  They  were 
first  printed  in  London,  1767-71,  5  vols.  The 
best  American  edition  appeared  in  New  York, 
1851,  3  vols.,  with  Bior/r.  Memoir  by  Alheut 
Barnes.  See  (iii.i.ETT:  Hixl.  Pres-li.  Chrirr/t, 
Philadelphia,  18(54,  vol.  I.,  chaps,  vii.,  viii. 

DAY,  AND  DIVISIONS  OF  TIME,  AMONG 
THE  HEBREWS.  The  Jewish  day  was  reckoned 
from  evening  to  evening,  probably  because  of  the 
use  of  a  lunar  calendar.  The  sabbath  was  the 
only  day  with  a  name  :  the  others  were  simply 
numbered.  The  day  was  divided  into  morninr/, 
noon,  and  night  (Ps.  Iv.  17),  and  also  into  six 
unequal  parts,  which  were  again  stibdivided :  1. 
Dawn,  subdivided  into  (iray  dawn  and  rosi/  dawn ; 
2.  Sunrise ;  3.  The  heal  of  the  /lay,  about  nine 
o'clock  (1  Sam.  xi.  11 ;  Xeh.  vii.  3,  etc.);  4.  The  two 
noons  (Gen.  xliii.  16 ;  Deut.  xxviii.  29)  ;  5.  The 
cool  (lit.  wind)  of  the  day,  before  sunset  ((jen.  iii. 
8);  6.  Eveniti;/.  The  phrase  "between  the  two 
evenings,"  of  Exod.  xii.  6,  xxx.  8,  probably  means 
"between  the  beginning  and  end  of  sunset." 
Hours  are  first  mentioned  in  the  Bible  in  Dan.  iii. 
6,  and  hence  were  probably  of  Babylonian  origin. 
The  .lews  got  their  first  sun-djal  from  Babylon 
(2  Kings  XX.  11).  In  our  Lord's  time  the  division 
was  common  (John  xi.  9).  The  third,  sixth,  and 
ninth  hours  were  devoted  to  prayer.  The  Jews, 
before  the  captivity,  divided  the  night  into  three 
watches,  from  sunset  to  midnight  (Lam.  ii.  19), 
from  midnight  to  cock-crow  (Judg.  vii.  19),  from 
cock-crow  to  sunrise  (Exod.  xiv.  24).  In  the 
New  Testament,  mention  is  made  oifour  watches, 
because  the  Greek  and  Roman  division  was  then 
adopted. 

The  word  "  day "  is  used  figuratively,  and 
rather  for  a  period  than  for  a  set  time ;  thus,  a 
day  of  ruin  (.lob  xviii.  20),  the  day  of  Christ 
(John  viii.  56),  tlie  judgment-day  (Joel  i.  15). 
The  days  of  creation  were  creative  days,  stages  in 
the  process,  but  not  days  of  twenty-four  hours 
each. 

A  day's  journey  (Gen.  xxxi.  23 ;  Exod.  iii.  18) 
was  not  a  definite  stretch,  but  the  distance  trav- 
elled in  a  day,  yet  this  ordinarily  would  be  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  miles. 

Day  of  the  Preparation  is  the  synagogue  name 
for  the  day  on  whose  evening  a  sabbath  or  a  fes- 
tival began.  On  it  the  necessary  preparations 
were  made ;  as,  on  Friday  the  food  was  cooked, 
or  on  the  day  before  the  Day  of  Atonement,  which 
was  a  strict  fast-day,  enough  food  was  eaten  to 
satisfy  for  the  ensuing  twenty-four  hours.  Ac- 
cording to  Exod.  xii.  3-6,  the  preparations  for 
the  Passover  were  appointed  to  last  four  days. 
On  the  last  day  a  strict  inquiry  was  instituted 
■whether  any  leaven  was  in  their  dwellings. 

The  "  Preparation  of  the  Passover "  in  John 
xix.  14  means  the  Paschal  Friday,  or  the  Friday 


occurring  during  the  week  of  the  Pa-ssover,  as  in 
vers.  31,  42.  On  that  Friday  (the  15th  of  Nisan) 
Christ  was  cru<'ilied. 

DAY,  Jeremiah,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  president  of 
Yale  ('ollege;  b.  at  New  I'reston,  Conn.,  Aug.  3, 
1773;  d.  at  New  Il.aven,  Conn.,  Aug.  22,  1867. 
He  was  graduated  from  Yale  College,  1795;  be- 
came professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  phi- 
lo.sophy  there  1801,  and  president,  1817.  He 
resigned,  1846.  Besides  a  sei'ies  of  mathematical 
te.xt-books,  he  wrote,  A  n  Inquiry  respeetini/  the  setf- 
determminy  Power  of  the  Will',  1838,  2d  ed.  1849 
(a  refutation  of  Cousin),  and  An  Examination  of 
President  Edwards  on  the  Will,  1841  (a  co!icilia- 
torv  :ind  apologetic  defence  of  Edwards). 

DEACON  (I'/uAOTOf,  diaconus,  also  i^mkuv,  diacones, 
in  ('yjirian's  works,  and  in  synodical  decree.s), 
i.e.,  minister,  helper. 

1.  In  the  New  Testament.  The  term  in  its 
generic  sen.se  is  used  of  all  ministers  of  the  gos- 
pel as  servants  of  God  or  Christ  (1  Thess.  iii.  2 ; 
1  Cor.  iii.  5;  2  Cor.  vi.  4,  xi.  23;  Col.  i.  7,  iv.  7; 
1  Tim.  iv.  5),  also  of  magistrates  (Rom.  xiii.  4). 
In  a  technical  .sense  it  tlenotes  the  second  and 
lower  class  of  congregational  officers;  the  other 
class  being  the  presliyters  (elders)  or  bishops 
(overseers).  Deacons  first  appear  in  the  sixth 
chapter  of  Acts  (under  the  name  of  the  "seven  "), 
and  afterwards  repeatedly  in  Phil.  i.  1 ;  1  Tim. 
iii.  2,  8,  12. 

(1)  Oriyin  of  the  Diaconate.  This  is  related 
Acts  vi.  1-7.  It  had,  like  the  presbyterate,  a  pre- 
cedent in  the  Jewish  synagogue,  which  usually 
employed  three  officers  for  the  care  of  the  poor 
(see  Lightfoot,  Hor.  Ilehr.  ad  Act.,  VI.  3).  W- 
tringa  and  some  other  writers  (also  Plumptre  in 
Smith's  Diet.)  wrongly  derive  it  from  the  office 
of  the  Chazzan  (vnrnii-tK,  Luke  iv.  20  ;  .John  vii. 
32),  which  was  merely  that  of  a  sexton  or  beadle. 
The  diaconate  grew  out  of  a  special  emergency 
in  the  congregation  of  Jerusalem,  in  consequence 
of  the  complaint  of  the  Hellenists,  or  Greek  Jews, 
against  the  Hebrews,  or  Palestinian  Jews,  that 
their  vvidows  were  neglected  in  the  daily  ministra- 
tion (jv  Tj)  Sianovia  ry  KaHii/i^pwrj)  at  the  common 
love-feasts  (Agape).  Hence  the  apo.stles,  who 
had  hitherto  themselves  attended  to  this  duty, 
caused  the  congregation  to  elect  from  their  midst 
seven  brethren,  and  ordained  them  by  prayer  and 
the  laying-on  of  hands.  The  congregation,  in  a 
spirit  of  impartiality,  and  consideration  for  the 
minority,  chose  seven  Hellenists,  if  we  are  to 
judge  from  their  Greek  names ;  namely  Stephen 
(the  protomartyr,  and  forerunner  of  Paid),  Philip, 
Prochorus,  Nicanor,  Timon,  Parmenas,  and  Nico- 
las. Greek  names,  however,  were  not  luicommon 
among  the  Jews  at  that  time.  The  diaconate, 
therefore,  like  the  presbytero-episcopate.  grew  out 
of  the  apostolic  office,  which  at  first  embraced  all 
the  ministerial  functions  and  duties  (the  hanovia 
Tuiv  Tpajie^Civ,  as  well  as  the  imKOvia  tov  /joyov). 
Christ  chose  apostles  only,  and  left  them  to  divide 
their  lalior  under  the  guidance  of  his  Spirit,  with 
lu'oper  regard  to  times  and  circumstances,  and  to 
found  such  additional  offices  in  the  church  as 
were  useful  and  necessary. 

The  seven  (ol  eiTTd)  elected  on  the  occasion  re- 
ferred to  (Acts  vi.  3,  cf.  xxi.  8)  were  not  extraor- 
dinary commissioners  or  superintendents  (Stanley, 
Plumptre,  W.  L.  Alexander),  but  deacons  in  the 


DEACON. 


614 


DEACON. 


primitive  sense  of  the  term ;  for,  altkough  they 
are  not  called  '•  deacons  "  in  the  Acts  (which  never 
uses  this  term),  tlieir  office  is  expressly  described 
as  an  office  of  help  {iianovia),  or  serving  at  the  tables 
(iioKovciv  7paT7e;at(.  Acts  vi.  1.  2).  p:xegetical 
tradition  is  almost  unanimously  in  favor  of  this 
view,  and  the  latest  and  best  commentators  sus- 
tain it  (comp.  Meyer,  Alford,  Hackett,  Lange- 
Lechler.  .Jacobson.  Ilowson  and  Spence,  on  Acts 
vi.  3;  also  Lightfoot,  Philippians,  ip)^.  185  sqq.). 
In  the  ancient  church  the  number  seven  was  con- 
sidered binding;  and  at  Rome,  for  example,  as 
late  as  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  there  were 
only  seven  deacons,  though  the  number  of  pres- 
byters amounted  to  forty-six  (Euseb.,  Hist.  EccL, 
vi.  43).  There  is  indeed  a  difference  between  the 
apostolic  and  the  ecclesiastical  deacons,  a  differ- 
ence which  is  acknowledged  by  Chrysostom,  fficu- 
menius,  and  others ;  but  the  latter  were  univer- 
sally regarded  as  the  legitimate  successors  of  the 
former,  —  as  much  so  as  the  presbyters  were  the 
successors  of  the  presbyter-bishops  of  the  New 
Testament,  —  notwithstanding  the  changes  in 
their  duties  and  relations.  '•  In  these  eai-ly  days," 
says  Alford,  on  Acts  vi.  3,  '•  titles  sprung  out  of 
realities,  and  were  not  mere  hierarchical  classifi- 
cations." 

(2)  The  Duties.  The  diaconate  was  instituted 
first  for  the  care  of  the  poor  and  the  sick.  Those 
who  held  the  office  were  alms-distributers  and 
nurses ;  the  deacons  for  the  male  portion  of  the 
congregation,  the  deaconesses  for  the  female.  But 
this  care  was  spiritual  as  well  as  temporal,  and 
implied  instruction  and  consolation  as  well  as 
bodily  relief;  for  Christian  charity  uses  poverty 
and  affliction  as  occasions  for  leading  the  soul  to 
the  source  of  all  comfort.  Hence  Paul  counts  the 
helps  and  ministrations  (^uvri?jiipcir)  among  the 
spiritual  gifts  (1  Cor.  xii.  28).  Hence  the  ajv 
pointment  of  such  men  for  the  office  of  deacons 
as  were  of  strong  faith  and  exemplary  piety  (.\cts 
vi.  3;  1  Tim.  iii.  8  sqq.).  The  moral  qualifications 
prescribed  by  Taul  are  essentially  the  same  as 
those  for  the  bishop  (presbyter).  Hence  the 
transition  from  the  diaconate  to  tlie  jiresbyterate 
was  easy  and  natural.  Stephen  jireached,  and 
prepared  the  way  for  Paul's  ministry  of  the  Gen- 
tiles; and  Philip,  another  of  the  seven  deacons  of 
Jerusalem,  subsequently  labored  as  an  evangelist 
(Acts  viii.  5-40,  xxi.  8).  But  they  did  this  in 
the  exercise  of  a  special  gift  of  preaching,  which 
in  the  afKJstolic  age  was  not  confined  to  any  par- 
ticular office.  Tlie  patristic  interpreters  under- 
.stand  the  passage  in  1  Tim.  iii.  13,  of  promotion 
from  the  office  of  deacon  to  that  of  presbyter ; 
but  '•  the  good  standing  "  («nX()f  jia^/^uc)  which  is 
gained  by  those  who  "liave  served  well  as  deacons  '" 
refers  to  the  honor  rather  than  to  the  promotion 
(See  Wiesinger,  JCllicott,  i'lunqitre,  and  Speaker's 
Com.  on  1  Tim.  iii.  13.)  We  should  not  con- 
found the  liberty  of  the  apostolic  clinrch  with  the 
fixed  ecclesiastical  order  of  a  later  age.  In  the 
fulness  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  ami  under  the  guid- 
ance of  inspired  apostles,  tlie  church  of  the  first 
century  stood  above  the  need  of  the  mechanism 
of  office,  and  divine  charity  was  the  leveller  and 
equalizer  of  all  class  distinctions. 

Lit.  —  Commentaries  on  Acts  vi.  1-G,  and  1 
Tim.  iii.;  ItoTiri: :  Aufdnqe  der  chrisll.  KIrche 
(1837),  pp.  lOa  sqq. ;  Soil  At  i' :  Ilislurij  of  the  Apust. 


Church,  §  134,  pp.  532  sqq. ;  Lightfoot  :  The 
Christian  Ministry,  in  his  Com.  on  Philippians.  pp. 
179  sqq.  ;  E.  Hatch:  The  Organization  of  the  Early 
Christian  Church  (Oxford,  1881),  pp.  2ti  sqq. 

II.  Deacons  in  the  Catholic  Chi-rch.  After 
the  departure  of  the  apostles,  during  the  mysteri- 
ous period  between  A.D.  70  and  150,  of  which 
we  have  so  little  information,  that  change  in  the 
ecclesiastical  organization  must  have  taken  place 
which  we  find  pretty  generally  established  towards 
the  close  of  the  second  century.  The  bishops 
were  raised  above  their  fellow-presbyters,  and  re- 
garded as  successors  of  the  apostles ;  the  presby- 
ters, at  first  simply  pastors  and  teachers,  were 
clothed  with  sacerdotal  dignity  ('•  prie.sts  "),  which 
in  the  Xew  Testament  appears  as  the  common 
property  of  all  Christians ;  and  the  deacons  became 
Levites,  subject  to  the  priests.  They  are  often 
compared  to  the  Levites  of  the  Old  Testament. 
These  three  officers  constituted  the  three  clerical 
orders  (ordines  majores)  in  distinction  from  the 
laity.  An  act  of  ordination  marked  the  entrance. 
No  one  could  become  a  bishop  without  passing 
first  through  the  two  lower  orders ;  but  in  some 
ca.ses  a  distingiiished  layman,  as  Cyprian  and 
Ambrose,  was  elected  bishop  by  the  voice  of  the 
people,  and  hiu-ried  through  three  ordinations. 

The  deacons  continued  to  be  what  they  were  in 
the  apostolic  age,  —  the  almoners  of  the  charitable 
funds  of  the  congregation.  Jerome  calls  them 
"ministers  of  the  tables,  and  of  widows."  They 
liad  to  find  out  and  to  visit  the  aged,  the  widows, 
the  sick  and  afliicted,  the  confessors  in  prison, 
and  to  administer  relief  to  them  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  bishop.  But  in  the  course  of  time 
this  primary  function  became  secondary,  or  passed 
out  of  sight,  as  the  sick  and  the  poor  were  gath- 
ered together  into  hospitals  and  almshouses,  the 
orphans  into  orphan-asylums,  and  as  each  of  these 
institutions  was  managed  by  an  appropriate  officer. 

The  other  duty  of  tlie  deacons  was  to  assist  m 
public  worship,  especially  at  baptism  and  the  holy 
comuumion.  They  arranged  the  altar,  presented 
the  offerings  of  the  people,  read  the  gospel,  gave 
the  signal  for  the  departure  of  the  unbelievers 
and  catechumens,  recited  some  prayers,  and  dis- 
tributed the  consecrated  cup  (in  the  absence  of 
the  priest,  the  bread  also),  but  were  forbidden  to 
offer  the  sacrifice.  Preaching  is  occasionally  men- 
tioned among  tlieir  privileges,  after  the  examples 
of  Stephen  and  Philip,  but  veiy  rarely  in  the  West. 
Hilary  the  Deacon  (Pseudo-.Vmbrose),  in  his  com- 
mentary on  Eph.  iv.  11,  says  that  originally  all 
the  faithful  jireached  and  baptized,  but  that  in 
his  day  the  deacons  did  not  jireach.  In  .some 
cases  they  were  forbidden,  in  others  authorized, 
to  preach.  The  I'ontificale  Romanum,  however, 
defines  their  duties  and  privileges  with  the  words, 
"  JJiaconiini  opportct  minislrare  ad  allare,  haplizare, 
et  prwdicare."  They  stood  near  the  bishops  and 
presbyters,  who  were  seated  on  their  thrones  in 
the  church  ;  but  they  were  dejiuties  and  confiden- 
tial advisers  of  the  bishops,  and  often  sent  on 
important  mi.s.sions.  This  intimacy  gave  them 
an  advantage,  and  roused  the  jealousy  of  the  pres- 
byters. The  archdeacon  (see  that  art.)  occupied 
a  position  hardly  inferior  to  that  of  the  bisliop, 
and  hence  he  is  called  ocnlus  episcoj>i.  lie  trans- 
acted the  greater  part  of  the  business  of  the  dio- 
cese.    The  canonical  age  for  deacon's  order  was 


DEACON. 


61/ 


DEACONESS. 


twenty-five,  according  to  Num.  viii.  24;  but  the 
Council  of  Trent  reduced  it  to  twenty-three  (Sess. 
xxiii.  cap.  12). 

The  diaconate  was  the  necessary  step  to  the 
priesthood,  "2ix  iliacnno  ordinatur  preshijlur"  (Je- 
ronie) ;  but  not  all  deacons  were  promoted  to  tlie 
second  order.  In  the  West  they  could  not  become 
priests  if  they  continued  in  the  marriage  relation. 
The  Council  of  Trent  forbids  marriage  to  all  the 
clergy ;  the  Greek  Cliurch,  only  to  bishops. 

Lit.  —  TiiOMASSiN  :  Veins  ac  Nava  Eccleske 
Disciplina,  Pars  I.  lib.  i.  cap.  51-53 ;  lib.  ii.  cap. 
29-33 ;  BiNTERiM  :  Denkwiirdigkeiten,  etc.,  I. 
335-386;  Suicer:  Tliesaiirus,s.y.,  iiannvoi;  C\s,l'. 
ZiEGLER ;  De  diaconiti  et  diaconissis  Veteris  Eccle- 
si(e,  Viteb.,  1678;  Bingham:  Antiqu.  1.  ii.  c.  20; 
AuGUSTi:  Denktourdigkeilen^  Bd.  xi.  194  sqq.;  art. 
Deacon,  in  Smith  and  Cheetam,  I.,  .526-532 ;  Ja- 
eOBSON  (Mejer)  :  Diakon,  in  Herzog. 

III.  Deacons  in  the  Protestant  Churches 
have  different  meanings  and  functions. 

(1)  In  the  Cliurch  of  England  and  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Cliurch  of  the  United  States  they  form 
one  of  the  three  sacred  orders,  as  in  the  Greek 
and  Roman  churches.  The  canons  require  tlie 
age  of  twenty-three  years  (as  tlie  Council  of  Trent) 
before  ordination.  The  deacons  are  permitted  to 
perform  any  of  the  divine  offices  except  pronoun- 
oing  the  absolution,  and  consecrating  the  elements 
of  the  Lord's  Supper.  In  practice  the  diaconate 
is  merely  a  stepping-stone  to  the  presbyterate. 
The  Episcopal  deacons  are  what  in  other  churches 
are  called  candidates  or  licentiates  of  the  ministry. 
The  archdeacon  in  England  is  a  priest,  and  a  per- 
manent officer  next  after  the  bishop,  with  a  part 
of  the  episcopal  power  and  jurisdiction :  he  is  ex 
officio  examiner  of  candidates  for  holy  orders,  and 
has  a  seat  in  convocation.  The  institution  dates 
from  Lanfranc,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the  first 
prelate  who  appointed  an  archdeacon  in  )iis  dio- 
cese (A.I).  1075). 

(2)  In  the  Lutheran  Church  the  "  diaconus  "  is 
merely  a  title,  inherited  from  the  Roman  Church, 
of  certain  assistant  clergymen  and  chaplains  of 
svibordinate  rank,  but  equal  standing  with  or- 
dained ministers.  In  recent  times  they  are  often 
called  second  or  third  i^reacher  or  pastor.  Luther 
desired  the  restoration  of  tlie  apostolic  deacons 
for  the  care  of  the  poor  and  the  church  property 
(Works,  XIII.  2464,  ed.  Walcli).  But  in  Ger- 
many the  civil  government  has  assumed  the  control 
of  the  ecclesiastical  funds. 

(3)  In  the  Reformed  Churches  the  apostolic 
diaconate  was  revived,  as  far  as  circumstances 
would  permit,  with  different  degrees  of  success. 
In  the  Reformation  of  the  Church  of  Hessia 
(1526)  it  was  prescribed  that  each  pastor  (episco- 
pus)  should  have  at  least  three  deacons  as  assist- 
ants in  the  care  of  the  poor.  Tlie  Church  of 
Basel  in  1529  made  a  similar  provision.  Calvin 
regards  the  diaconate  as  one  of  the  indispensable 
offices  of  the  church,  and  the  care  of  the  poor 
{cum  paupcrum)  as  their  proper  duty  (Instil.  1. 
iy.  c>  o,  9).  The  Reformed  Confessions  acknowl- 
edge this  office  (Conf.  Gallicana,  art.  XXIX.  ; 
Cu7if.  Belgica,  Art.  XXX.  and  XXXI.).  In  the 
Dutcli  and  German  Reformed  Churches  the  dea- 
cons are  "  to  collect  and  to  distribute  the  alms  and 
other  contributions  for  the  relief  of  the  poor,  or 
the  necessities  of  the  congregation,  and  to  provide 


for  the  support  of  the  ministry  of  the  go.spel." 
The  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States  of 
America  teaclies,  in  its  form  of  government  (chap. 
vi.),  "The  Scriptures  clearly  point  out  deacons  as 
distinct  officers  in  the  church,  whose  business  it  i.s 
to  take  care  of  the  poor,  and  to  distribute  among 
them  the  collections  which  may  be  raised  for  their 
use.  'I'o  them,  also,  may  be  properly  committed 
the  nianagemeiit  of  tlie  temporal  affairs  of  the 
church."  But  in  practice  this  article  is  much 
disregarded ;  and  many  Presbyterian  congrega- 
tions have  no  deacons  at  all,  and  leave  tlie  charge 
of  the  temporalities  of  the  church  either  to  the 
lay  elders,  or  to  a  board  of  trustees,  who  need  not 
be  communicant  members,  but  simply  pew-holders. 

(4)  In  the  Congregational  or  Indejiendentchmchea 
the  deacons  are  veiy  important  officers,  and  take 
the  place  of  the  lay-elders  in  the  Presbyterian 
churches.  At  first  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  of  New 
England  elected  ruling  elders ;  but  the  custom 
went  into  disuse,  and  their  duties  were  divided  be- 
tween the  pastor  and  the  deacons.  See  II.  M.  Dex- 
ter, Congregationalism,  Boston,  1876,  pp.  131  sqq. 

(5)  In  the  Methodist-Episcopal  Church  the  dea- 
cons constitute  an  order  in  the  ministry,  as  in  the 
Episcopal  Church,  but  without  the  jure  divino 
theory  of  apostolical  succession.  They  are  elect- 
ed by  the  annual  conference,  and  ordained  by  the 
bishop.  Their  duties  are,  "  1.  To  administer 
baptism,  and  to  solemnize  matrimony;  2.  To  as- 
sist the  elder  in  administering  the  Lord's  Supper; 
3.  To  do  all  the  duties  of  a  travelling  preacher." 
Travelling  deacons  must  exercise  their  office  for 
two  years  before  they  are  eligible  to  the  office  of 
elder.  Local  deacons  are  eligible  to  the  office 
of  elder  after  preaching  four  years.  See  The  Doc- 
trines and  Discipline  of  the  Meth.  Episc.  Church, 
ed.  hji  Bishop  Harris,  New  York,  Section  xv.  246, 
xvi.  248-251,  xx.  302-304.  PHILIP  schaff. 

DEACONESS  (')  Ad/coi'of,  dcaKoviaaa,  diaconissa, 
diacona),  a  female  church-officer.  The  office 
dates  from  the  apostolic  era;  but  the  official 
term  does  not  occur  till  after  the  apostles'  time. 
Phoebe  was  a  deaconess  (Rom.  xvi.  1,  servattt) 
in  the  Church  of  Cenchrea,  and  had  lent  assist- 
ance, amongst  many  others,  to  the  Apostle  Paul. 
The  women  whose  names  are  given  in  Rom.  xvi. 
12  were  probably  deaconesses.  No  other  traces 
of  the  office  are  found  in  the  New  Testament. 
The  other  passages  usually  adduced  (Tit.  ii.  3; 
1  Tim.  iii.  11,  v.  9  .sqq.)  are  not  to  the  point. 
The  opinion  that  the  last  passage  (Schaff  : 
Gesch.  der  apost.  Kirche)  refers  to  deaconesses 
is  without  sufficient  foundation.  It  would,  in- 
deed, be  surprising  if  Paul  had  fixed  the  sixtieth 
year  for  entering  upon  an  office  which  must  have 
demanded  much  labor  and  hardship.  Nor  can 
we  agree  with  Neander,  who  finds  here  only  a 
reference  to  the  widows  to  be  supported;  for 
widows  of  a  younger  age  might  be  Just  as  deserv- 
ing of  support.  'The  reference  is  rather  to  admis- 
sion to  that  which  was  subsequently  known  as  the 
Order  of  Widows  {rayiia  xnp"^)-  They  held  among 
their  sex  a  relation  something  like  that  of  the 
presbyters.  (See  Tit.  ii.  3.)  This  order  is  at- 
tested by  Chrysostom  (Ho7n.  39),  Epiphanius 
(Hxr.  79,  4),  Tertulliau  (De  Virg.  Velandis,  9), 
etc.  The  eleventh  canon  of  the  synod  of  Laodi- 
cea,  which  abolished  the  office,  calls  them  "  Elder 
Widows  "  (viduK  seniores)  in  distinction  from  the 


DEACONESSES. 


616 


DEACONESSES. 


deaconesses,  who  also  soon  received  the  name  of 
widows.  This  interchange  of  appellations  is  ac- 
counted for  by  the  fact  that  deaconesses  were  at 
first  selected  from  the  widows.  But  they  were 
not  drawn  exclusively  from  this  class,  much  less 
from  aged  widows.  Tertullian  speaks  of  a  girl 
of  twenty  years  being  admitted  to  the  order  of 
widows  (m  vuluatuni).  They  were  consecrated  to 
their  office  by  the  laying-on  of  hands  of  the  bishop 
and  his  blessing.  The  Nicene  Council  forbade 
this  consecration  in  order  to  avoid  giving  the  ap- 
pearance as  if  the  deaconess  was  consecrated  to 
perform  priestly  functions  (Epiphan.,  Har.  90,  ?>). 

Their  duties  consisted  in  the  care  of  the  poor, 
sick,  and  imprisoned.  In  some  churches  they 
prepared  the  female  catechumens  for  baptism 
(4th  Council  of  Carthage,  xii.)  and  assisted  in 
the  immersion  of  female  believers  (Const.  Ap. 
viii.  28).  The  order  of  deaconesses,  however,  had 
not  a  protracted  existence.  The  first  synod  of 
Orange  (-l-tl)  and  that  of  Epaon  (517),  abolished 
it  in  France.  The  names  "  deaconess  "  and  "  arch- 
deaconess"  continued  to  be  used,  but,  as  in  the 
Greek  Church,  only  as  designations  of  officers  in 
convents.  They  are  still  found  at  Constantinople 
at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century,  aiding  at  tlie 
communion.  The  total  disappearance  of  the  dea- 
coness is,  to  a  large  extent,  due  to  the  State's 
having  assumed  the  care  of  the  poor  and  the  sick, 
as  also  to  the  gradual  introduction  of  infant 
baptism,  and  the  administration  of  the  rite  by 
sprinkling,  which  made  the  assistance  of  women 
unnecessary.  HERZOQ. 

Lit.  —  See  the  Church  Histories  of  Neander, 
ScHAFF,  etc. ;  J.  S.  HowsON  :  Deaconesses,  Lon- 
don, 1860,  2d  ed.,  1862;  G.  Uhlhorn  (Eng. 
trans..  Christian  Charily  in  the  Ancient  Church, 
New  York,  1883);  Schafer  :  Die  weibliche  Dia- 
konie  in  ihrem  ganzen  Umfange  dargestellt,  Ham- 
burg, 1879-83,  3  vols. 

DEACONESSES,  Institution  of,  is  of  recent 
origin  in  tlie  Protestant  Cluach.  Among  the  rare 
notices  of  the  existence  of  deaconesses  since  the 
Reformation  are  those  in  connection  with  the 
church  of  Wesel  from  \i>7o  to  1610,  and  the  Piiri- 
tan  clmrch  of  Amsterdam.  In  Gov.  Bradford's 
Dialogue  it  is  stated  that  there  was  one  deaconess 
"  who  visited  the  sick,  relieved  the  poor,  and  sat 
in  a  convenient  jilace  in  the  congregation,  with  a 
little  birchen  rod  in  lier  hand,  and  kept  little  chil- 
dren in  great  awe  from  disturbing  the  congrega- 
tion "  (  You.NG  :  ( 'hronicles  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  of 
I'll/mouth  [16()2-lf!2o],  Boston,  1841,  pp.  44.5  sq.). 

The  organization  of  a  Protestant  female  diaco- 
nate  was  accomplished  in  1830,  \inder  Pastor 
Fliedner,  in  Kaiserswerth-on-tlic-Khiue.  The 
movement  was  not  in  the  interest  of  a  mere 
revival  of  an  ancient  chnrchly  order,  nor  meant 
to  be  a  copy  of  tlie  Roman  Catholic  sisterhoods. 
It  grew  out  of  a  deeply-felt  need  of  trained  nurses 
for  hospitals.  Pastor  Fliedner,  who  had  already 
been  very  active  in  providing  reli(!f  for  the  poor 
and  criminal  classes,  was  stnick  willi  the  con- 
trast in  Englnnd  between  the  fine  architecture  of 
the  hospital  buildings  and  the  incompetency  of  tlie 
attendants  within.  He  proposed  to  remedy  the 
defect  by  training  nurses,  atul  in  1836  organized 
"  The  Order  of  Deaconesses  for  the  Rhenish  Prov- 
inces of  Westphalia,"  and  opened  a  hos]iital  and 
training  institution  at  Kaiscrswcrth.     This  insti- 


tution, which  has  grown  to  large  proportions,  edu- 
cates three  kinds  of  deaconesses.  'The  first  class 
are  nurses,  and  devote  themselves  to  the  care  of 
the  sick,  the  poor,  and  the  fallen  in  Jlagdalen 
asylums.  The  second  dedicate  themselves  to 
teaching;  and  the  third  class,  the  parochial  dea- 
conesses, aid  nunisters  in  parish-work.  The 
fundamental  conditions  of  admittance  to  the 
diaconate  (after  the  regular  course  of  training) 
are  Christian  character  and  a  strong  constitution. 
Among  the  others  are  these :  the  candidate  must 
be  between  eighteen  and  forty  years  of  age,  nmst 
be  unmarried  (or  a  widow),  and  must  consecrate 
herself  for  five  years  to  the  office.  The  Kaiser.s- 
werth  deaconesses  take  no  vows,  wear  no  cruci- 
fixes, and  are  distingiiished  by  simplicity,  but  not 
necessarily  uniformity,  of  dress.  One  of  the  chief 
characteristics  of  the  order  is,  that,  unlike  the  sis- 
terhoods of  charity  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
they  are  presided  over  by  men. 

Besides  supplying  many  institutions  in  Ger- 
many, this  institution  on  the  Rhine  has  under  its 
control  in  foreign  lands  the  Protestant  hospitals 
in  Constantinople  (since  1852),  Jerusalem  (1851), 
Alexandria  (since  1857),  and  the  deaconess  .semi- 
naries of  Smyrna  (18.53),  Florence  (1860),  etc. 
It  has,  moreover,  become  the  mother  of  many 
similar  training  institutions  in  difierent  parts 
of  the  world,  —  in  Paris  (1841),  Strassburg  and 
St.  Loup  (1842),  Dresden  and  Utrecht  (1844), 
Berne  (1845),  Stockholm  and  Berlin  (1847),  etc. 
!Miss  Florence  Jsightingale  went  through  a  thor- 
ough course  of  training  under  Pastor  Fliedner 
before  taking  charge  of  the  Female  Sanitarium  in 
London ;  and  Mrs.  Fry,  after  a  visit  to  Kaiser.s- 
werth,  established  the  first  English  institution  of 
the  kind  in  Devonshire  Square,  London.  The 
large  North  London  Deaconesses'  Institute  was 
formed  on  the  Continental  plan  in  1861.  In  1849 
Pastor  Fliedner  brought  w  ith  him  to  America  four 
nurses,  who  became  the  nucleus,  under  tiie  du'ec- 
tion  of  Dr.  Passavant,  of  an  institution  for  deacon- 
esses at  Pittsburg.  The  statistics  of  1881  for  the 
whole  order  are  53  homes  and  4,748  deaconesses 
at  work  in  1,436  stations. 

The  sisterhoods  of  the  Church  of  England  and 
the  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States  are 
to  some  extent  independent  (though  subsequent) 
in  origin  and  in  practice  from  the  order  of  dea- 
conesses which  liail  its  origin  at  Kaiserswerth. 
The  fir.st  was  the  Sisterhood  of  Mercy,  organized 
in  1848  by  Miss  Sellon.  Dr.  Gooch  (an  eminent 
physician)  and  Southey  liad  before  urged  organi- 
zations in  the  Protestant  Church  similar  to  the 
Bdgnines;  but  nothing  came  of  it.  Mi.ss  Sellon 
and  three  other  ladies  were  led  to  bind  tiu-in- 
selves  in  an  .association  for  the  relief  of  the  suf- 
ferings of  the  ]ioor  which  came  under  their 
observation  in  l)evon])ort  and  Plymouth.  They 
adopted  a  uniform  dress,  the  use  of  the  eroRs, 
etc.  They  gradually  gathered  around  them  at 
Devonpori.  a  House  for  Destitute  Children,  a 
House  of  Peace  for  Elder  Girls,  and  an  Industrial 
School.  Miss  Sellon  was  known  as  Mollier  Su))e- 
rior.  The  leaning  towards  the  Roman  idea  of 
the  nun  was  so  strong,  that  Dean  Howson  pa.sses 
them  by  in  his  work.  In  this  connection  he  ex- 
])res.ses  himself  in  "  favor  of  a  free  and  flexible 
parochial  diaconate,  but  not  of  a  strictly  organized 
sy.stem  of  the  conventual  kind"  (Deaconesses,  p. 


DEAD. 


617 


DEATH. 


xii).  —  The  Sisterhood  of  St.  John  the  Baj)tist  at 
C'lewer  was  t'ounded  in  1849,  and  devoted  itself 
more  especially  to  the  reformation  of  fallen 
women.  In  his  charge  May  2,  1S50,  tlie  Bisliop 
of  Lon<lon  emphatically  coinniended  the  Kaisers- 
werth  institution.  Since  that  time,  many  sister- 
hood.s,  with  varions  names,  have  been  formed  in 
England,  and  in  IS.jS-Gl  woman's  work  was  a 
special  subject  of  consideration  iji  the  convocation 
of  Canterbury.  The  late  Sister  Dora  belonged 
to  the  sisterhood  of  the  Good  Samaritans,  but 
subsequently  withdrew.  The  Sisterhood  of  the 
Holy  Communion  was  organized  by  the  late  Dr. 
Muhlenberg  in  jSTew-York  City  in  184.5.  The 
results  have  been  excellent.  Since  1858  they 
have  been  in  charge  of  St.  Luke's  Hospital,  since 
1866  of  St.  Johnland,  and  more  recently  have 
labored  effectively  in  the  so-called  midnight  mis- 
sion, etc.  In  1863  the  Sisterhood  of  St.  jMary 
was  organized  in  New  York,  in  18.5.5  the  Order  of 
Deaconesses  for  the  diocese  of  Maryland,  etc. 

Lit. — Mrs.  Jamieson:  Sisterhoods  of  Charity, 
Lend.,  1855;  IIowson  :  Deaconesses,  Lond.,  2d  ed., 
1862;  Miss  Goodm.\n:  Sisterhoods  in  the  Church 
of  Eni/land,  Lond.,  1863;  Ludlow:  Woman's 
Work 'in  the  Church,  Lond.,  1866;  Henry  C. 
PoTTEll :  Sisterhoods  and  Deaconesses,  New  York, 
1873  ;  TiiDii.  ScHAFEK  :  Geschichte  der  iceiblichen 
Diakunie,  Hamburg,  1879.  D,  S.  .SCIIAFF. 

DEAD,  Communion  of.  In  the  ancient  church 
the  custom  existed  of  putting  a  piece  of  the  eucha- 
ristic  bread  as  viaticum  into  the  mouth  of  Chris- 
tians who  by  sudden  death  had  been  prevented 
from  communing.  The  proof  of  this  statement 
is  the  prohibition  of  the  practice  by  the  following 
councils, — Hippo,  A.D.  393  (Ilefele,  Concilien- 
geschichte,  vo\.  ii.  p.  52);  CV(/-//(fi(/e  (third),  A.D. 
397;  Auxerre,  A.D.,  578,  "one  nuist  not  give  the 
dead  either  the  eucharist  or  the  kiss,  nor  cover  the 
body  with  the  velum  or  the  altar-cloth  "  (Hefele, 
vol.  iii.  p.  41)  ;  Quinisexta  or  Trullan  Synod  of 
Constantinople,  can.  83  (Hefele,  vol.  iii.  p.  311); 
to  which  Balsamon  adds,  the  bishojis  were  given 
the  eucharist  after  their  death,  to  protect  them 
from  demons  while  on  their  way  to  heaven.  This 
idea  was  at  the  bottom  of  the  custom.  Later,  a 
piece  of  the  consecrated  bread,  instead  of  being 
put  in  the  mouth  of  the  corpse,  was  simply  laid 
upon  the  breast,  and  buried  with  it.  Gregory  the 
Great  tells,  in  the  second  book  of  his  Dialogues, 
how  Benedict  of  Nursia  did  this  in  the  case  of  a 
young  monk  who  had  left  his  monastery  and  gone 
home  without  permission,  but  in  consequence  had 
died  on  his  return-journey,  lest  the  earth  should 
refuse  to  harbor  his  dead  body.  Another  trace 
of  the  custom  is  found  in  the  ninth  century.  The 
monk  Yso  relates  that  when  the  body  of  Othmar, 
Abbot  of  St.  (iallen,  was  moved,  under  his  head 
and  upon  his  breast  were  found  round  pieces  of 
bread.  Some  of  these  were  replaced,  others  pre- 
served in  a  box  as  witness  of  the  holiness  of  the 
man.  Yso  himself  was  ignorant  of  the  object  of 
the  bread,  —  a  proof  how  entirely  the  early  custom 
liad  vanished  even  from  memory.  See  C.  .1.  W. 
AuGUSTi:  Christliche  Archdolot/ie,  VIII.  231  sqq., 
IX.  566,  567;  Joseph  Bixoha.m  :  Anti<iuities,  VI. 
425-427.  OEORG  eduaud  steitz. 

DEAD,  Prayers  for  the.     See  Purgatory. 

DEAN,  from  the  Latin  decanus,  originally  a 
military  term  designating  the  leader  of  a  decania, 


or  body  of  ten  Roman  soldiers.  The  woid  early 
acquin^l  the  more  general  meaning  of  overseer 
of  a  small  number  of  inferiors.  It  was  used  in 
households  for  the  over.seers  of  slaves,  and  sub- 
sequently in  Constantinople  for  police  otticials. 
The  term,  jiassing  over  into  ecclesiastical  usage, 
has  had  different  applications.  (1)  Monastic 
deans,  \\  hose  authority  extended  over  ten  novices 
(Augustine,  l)e  Mor'  Eccl.  I.  31).  (2)  A  pres- 
byter appointed  by  the  bishop  to  visit  and  oversee 
a  part  of  his  diocese.  He  had  su]>ervision  of  the 
official  and  private  conduct  of  tlie  priests,  presided 
(from  the  ninth  century  on)  at  their  district  con- 
ventions, etc.  His  title  was  archipreshi/ter,  and 
liis  office  is  generally  held  to  correspond  to  that 
of  rural  dean  (Kichter,  Kirchenrecht,  p.  234).  (3) 
The  dean  of  a  cathedral.  He  is  a  recognized 
cathedral  officer  as  early  as  the  eighth  century ; 
and  the  Council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (817)  subor- 
dinated the  provost  to  the  dean.  In  the  English 
Church  the  dean  is  the  next  ecclesiastic  to  the 
bishop.  In  general  they  are  divided  into  deans 
of  cathedrals  and  rural  deans.  The  bishoprics  of 
Sodor  and  Man,  Liverpool,  St.  Allians,  and  Truro 
have  no  deans.  The  deaneries  of  the  "  Old  Founda- 
tion," i.e.,  tho.se  of  date  prior  to  the  Reformation, 
are  elective :  those  of  the  "  New  Foundation," 
i.e.,  created  by  Hem-y  VIII.,  are  appointed  by 
the  crown.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  dean  is 
supreme  in  his  cathedral  in  all  matters  except 
those  which  affect  doctrine.  The  deans  of  West- 
minster and  Windsor  are  independent  of  all 
superior  ecclesiastical  authority.  (4)  The  rural 
deans  of  England  are  clergynien  appointed  by  the 
bishop  "to  execute  the  bishop's  processes,  and 
inspect  the  lives  and  manners  of  the  clergy  and 
people  within  their  jurisdiction"  (Phillemore, 
Eccles.  Law).  The  guilds  of  the  middle  ages 
had  their  deans,  and  the  title  is  still  given  to  an 
officer  in  some  universities.  The  oldest  cardinal 
is  the  dean  of  the  Sacred  College,  and  has  an 
authority  second  only  to  the  Pope. 

Lit.  —  Du  Caxge  :  G/ossarium  :  Smith  and 
Cheetham  :  Dictionary  of  Christian  Anti(/Hities ; 
J.  GuiL.  HoFMANX :  De  Decanis  el  Deconissis, 
Wittenberg,  1739  ;  Phillimore  :  Ecclesiastical 
Law. 

DEATH.  1.  Definition.  —  Death  stands  in 
direct  contrast  to  life.  As  an  event,  it  is  inipos- 
silile  to  God,  who  is  absolute  Life  (Ps.  xxxvi.  9; 
John  V.  26)  ;  but  it  happens  to  all  men  (Heb.  ix. 
27),  there  having  been  only  two  exceptions  in 
human  history,  —  Enoch  (Heb.  xi.  5)  and  Elijah 
(2  Kings  ii.  11).  Among  the  Greeks,  Thanatos, 
or  death,  was  represented  as  a  god,  and  the  twin- 
brother  of  sleep  (Ilesiod  and  Homer).  They 
endeavored  to  exclude  all  that  is  revolting  from 
the  idea.  The  representation  of  it,  however,  at  a 
later  period,  under  the  figure  of  a  priest  in  sable 
garments,  cutting  the  hair  from  the  heads  of  the 
dying  to  offer  it  to  the  gods  of  the  under-world, 
betrays  the  natural  dread  of  death  conunon  to 
the  race.  The  Romans  brought  forward  promi- 
nently the  awful  features,  describing  death  as  a 
pitiless  divinity,  pale,  and  haggard  of  aspect,  fur- 
nished with  black  wings,  etc.  The  mythologies 
of  northern  nations  presented  him  under  the 
figures  of  a  fowler  spreading  his  net,  or  a  reaper 
with  sickle  in  hand,  or  a  .skeleton.  Jlilton's 
descriptions,  as  might  be  expected,  are  grand  but 


DEATH. 


618 


DEATH. 


terrible.  The  '■  Porti-ess  of  Hell-gate,"  who  gave 
Death  birth,  says,  — 

..."  I  fled,  and  cried  out,  '  Death! ' 
Hell  trembled  at  the  hideous  name,  and  sighed 
From  all  her  caves,  and  back  resounded,  •  Death! '  " 

Par.  Lust,  ii.  785. 

And  again,  at  hearing  Satan's  plan  of  tempting 
the  race.  — 

.  .  .  "And  Death 
Grinned  horrible  a  ghastly  smile,  to  hear 
His  famine  should  be  tiUed,"  etc. 

Par.  Lost,  ii.  845. 

In  the  Scriptures  death  is  also  personified,  and 
described  as  intelligent  (Job  xxviii.  22),  as  sitting 
on  a  pale  horse  (Rev.  vi.  S),  or  cast  with  hell 
into  the  lake  of  fire  (Rev.  xx.  14).  It  has  always 
excited  man's  fears.  The  very  thought  he  has 
endeavored  to  banisli  from  his  mind.  The  Ro- 
mans did  not  even  write  in  their  epitaphs  the 
words,  '•  he  died,"  but  only  indicated  the  years  of 
the  departed's  life.  Scripture  likewise  expresses 
this  universal  sentiment  of  mankind,  when  it 
calls  death  the  king  of  terrors  (Job  xviii.  14), 
and  an  occasion  of  suffering  and  fear  (Ps.  Iv.  4 ; 
Heb.  ii.  15).  But  it  also  speaks  of  it  as  a  relea.se 
from  pain  (Job  iii.  17),  the  passage  to  a  better 
life  (2  Cor.  v.  4),  as  "being  gathered  to  his  peo- 
ple "  (Gen.  XXV.  8),  a  taking-down  of  the  pilgrim's 
temporary  tent  (2  Cor.  v.  1),  a  slee{:>ing  with  the 
fathers  (1  Kings  ii.  10),  or  with  Christ  (1  Cor. 
XV.  18 ;  1  Thess.  iv.  13-15),  and  a  departure  into 
lieavenly  mansions  (John  xiv.  2). 

There  are  three  kinds  of  death  mentioned  iu 
the  Scriptures,  —  physical  death,  spiritual  death, 
and  the  second  or  eternal  death.  Plti/sicat  death 
is  the  dissolution  of  the  body  into  its  component 
]iarts.  The  spirit  takes  its  flight  (Kccles.  xii.  7), 
and  the  body  passes  back  into  the  dust  from 
-which  it  was  taken  (Gen.  iii.  19;  Eccles.  iii.  20). 
In  tills  respect  man  resembles  the  brute,  which, 
however,  lias  no  fear  or  terror  in  the  presence  of 
death.  The  time  of  this  dissolution  is  known  to 
God  only  (Ps.  xxxi.  15;  Matt.  x.w.  13).  It  must 
be  regarded  as  a  benignity  for  the  righleous  man 
(Xuni.  xxiii.  10;  Rom.  vii.  24),  but  as  a  dread 
calamity  to  the  impenitent,  whom  it  ushers  to  his 
own  place  (Acts  i.  25).  —  Lijiirilual  deatli  is  a 
state  of  sin  and  darkness,  in  which  we  are  alien- 
ated from  God,  who  is  the  fountain  of  life  and 
light  (1  John  i.  5),  and  are  con.sequently  destitute 
of  true  spiritual  life.  The  whole  world,  at  the 
coming  of  Christ,  W'as  sitting  in  the  shadow  of 
this  death  (Luke  i.  79).  All  men,  without  excep- 
tion, are  dead  in  trespasses  and  sins  (Ki)h.  ii.  1, 
5;  Col.  ii.  13;  comp.  Luke  xv.  32).  Our  Lord 
became  subject  unto  the  death  of  the  body,  but 
was  always  in  communion  with  the  Father,  and 
free  from  sin.  Tlie  entrance  u|)on  a  life;  of  faith 
is  called  ari.sing  from  the  dead  (Kpli.  v.  14),  or 
Leconiing  alive  unto  God  (Rom.  vi.  11).  Spir- 
itual death  is  not  a  stagnant  condition,  but  a 
jirogre.ssive  slate,  the  heart  becoming  more  liar- 
dened,  the  eyes  more  blind  (John  xii.  49;  Rom. 
i.  21),  the  coiisciiince  seared  a-s  with  a  hot  inni 
{1  Tim.  iv.  2),  and  the  ])leasure  in  lust  and 
iiatred  of  God  incii-iised  (Rom.  i.  20-31).. —  The 
stcuiiil  or  i:li:rii(il  death  signifies  tlie  complete 
ruin  of  tlie  individual  from  the  stand-jioint  of 
<iod.  The  per.Honalily  is  not  destroyed;  but 
Ood's   image    ia   wholly   defaced,   and    heavenly 


blessedness  forfeited.  The  soul  suffers  final  ship- 
wreck. This  terrible  doom  of  the  second  death 
is  described  under  the  figure  of  a  lake  burning 
with  fire  and  brimstone,  into  which  tlie  finally 
impenitent  are  ca.st  (Rev.  xx.  14,  xxi.  8).  Those 
who  overcome  (Rev.  ii.  11),  and  are  partakers  of 
the  "  first  resurrection "  (regeneration,  comp. 
Eph.  V.  11,  etc.),  shall  in  no  wise  be  hurt  of  it 
(Rev.  XX.  6).  The  same  idea  is  expressed  by 
the  expressions  "perishing"  (John  iii.  15),  and 
"eternal  punishment"  (Matt.  xxv.  46). 

2.  Orit/in  of  death.  Sin  and  death  are  indis- 
.solubly  associated  together  in  the  Old  and  Xew 
Testaments.  Death  is  not  merely  the  natural 
fruit  of  sin  (Jas.  i.  15),  but  its  ju.st  punishmeut 
or  wages  (Gen.  ii.  17 ;  Rom.  vi.  23),  and  expre.s- 
sion  of  the  divine  wrath  (Ps.  xc.  7-lU ;  Rom.  ii. 
5-8).  V,'e  are  subject  to  it  because  we  are  sub- 
ject to  tlie  law  of  sin,  and  in  virtue  of  our  union 
with  Adam  (Rom.  v.  17;  1  Cor.  xv.  22). — It 
lias  been  denied  by  some  (Pelagius,  the  Socinians, 
etc.)  that  [ihysical  death  was  included  in  this 
penalty.  The  body  is  regarded  as  having  been 
mortal  before  the  fall.  This  view  is  in  contradic- 
tion of  what  seems  to  be  the  plain  meaning  of 
the  words,  ••  In  the  day  thou  eatest  thereof  thou 
shalt  surely  die  "  (i.e.,  begin  to  die,  or  become 
mortal  —  Gen.  ii.  17),  when  read  in  the  light 
of  the  curse  in  Gen.  iii.  19,  "  Unto  dust  thou 
shalt  return."  Although  our  first  parents  did  not 
actually  return  to  dust  the  very  day  they  sinned, 
nevertheless,  the  principle  of  death  then  began  to 
work  in  them  (Augustine,  J)e  Pecc.  Mer.,  1.  21). 
Nor  is  it  necessarily  true  tliat  the  body  is  mortal, 
especially  when  we  consider  its  union  with  (he 
soul.  ]\Ian  was  created  in  the  image  of  God,  and 
this  might  have  kept  him  from  the  fate  of  the 
brutes  (Dorner,  Theolfigij;  Oehler,  T/ieol.  nf  the 
0.  T.,  sect.  39).  Tliis  physical  immortality  was, 
however,  conditional  upon  his  maintaining  the 
state  of  iniiocenc)'. 

3.  Abolition  of  death.  Christ  has  abolished 
death  (2  Tim.  i.  10).  This  lias  been  accom- 
plished by  the  defeat  of  him  who  had  the  power 
of  death  (Ileb.  ii.  14),  and  the  spoliation  of  the 
kingdom  of  darkness  (Epli.  iv.  S;  Col.  ii.  15). 
Clirist  could  not  be  holden  of  deatli  (.\cts  ii.  24), 
and  triumphantly  ro.se  from  the  grave.  Tlie 
ilead  were  raised  by  his  word  of  ])o\vei'  ( Mark  v. 
41;  Luke  vii.  15;  John  xi.  44).  He  ([iiickens 
with  new  spiritual  life  whom  he  will  (J<iliii  v.  21 ; 
E]ih.  ii.  5)  ;  so  that  moral  death  has  no  more 
dominion  over  us  (Rom.  vi.  9).  Ex)>re,ssed  from 
the  stand-point  ot  human  activity,  he  that  be- 
licveth  is  "  ]ias.sed  from  deatli  unto  lift?  "  (John  v. 
24).  The  death  of  the  body  becomes,  for  those 
thus  spiritually  revived,  a  sleep  (1  Tliess.  iv.  14) 
and  a  rest  from  labor  (I!ev.  xiv.  13),  from  wliicli 
thev  shall  be  rai.sedto  an  estate  of  eternal  ble.s.sed- 
iiess  (1  Cor.  XV.  21,  22;  1  Thess.  iv.  13-16).  Tlie 
.sea,  then  (Rev.  xx.  13),  as  well  as  all  earthly 
graves,  shall  give  up  their  dead.  And  .so  effec- 
tive is  tills  (piiek"ning  jiower  of  Christ,  that  tliey 
who  are  raised  by  liim  can  nevermore  die  (I.,nke 
XX.  36);  and  .so  perfect  is  the  lif(^  in  heaven  that 
there  is  no  death  there  (Rev.  xxi.  4). 

Lit. — Sc-iit  iiKitr  :  I'criiunflli/e  ii.  Sclirl/if/c- 
wrt.s-.ve  Gcdunken  r.  7'o(/(',  2d  ed.,  Jena,  1749;  Dodd: 
Ilijluctlons  on  Deatli,  Lonil.,  1763  (many  editions) ; 
Kicvuuii ;    Lchrc   v.    d.    Sundc   it.  d.    Tode,  etc., 


DEATH. 


619 


DECALOGUE. 


Ilaiiib.,  1836;  Mai':  Tom  Tode,iL  Solde  d.  Siin- 
</t'H,  etc.,  Kiel,  1841;  Waonku:  D.  Tod  hclfitch- 
iel  V.  Sliindjiunklr  d.  Niilurtriasoifi-linflcii,  'id  fd., 
liit'lcf.  I'So.'i;  FK|-Kitl!ACll :  (Icdanken  Ub.  Toil  n. 
UiislerbUchkiil.  Leipz.,  1847;  Ai,(;ei!:  Crilical 
llisl.  of  llic  Ddclriiii'  of  a  Future  Life  (fliaii.  ii.). 
18f)4,  "loth  fcL,  with  six  new  chapti'i-s,  Boston, 
1878;  .SriEss:  Enlirirkliiiiiixiifxrii.  d .  VorsUUiniijini 
i:  Zuxliinde  n.  d.  Tiidf  (cliap.  iii.),  .Icna,  1877. 
For  i'ullci-  literature  see  EzitA  Ahhott's  A/.s7  of 
Workf.  in  Ai,(;eii.  U.  S.  BCIIAFF. 

DEATH,  Dance  of.  A  famous  subject  of  art 
in  tlie  fiftcfiith  century.  Deatli,  in  the  figure  of 
a  skeleton,  is  depicted  in  tlie  company  of  repre- 
sentatives of  every  class  of  society.  None  are  too 
Iioly,  none  too  rich,  none  too  powerful,  to  evade 
his  presence.  The  artists  introduced  jiope  anil 
clei'gy,  emperor  and  aristocracy,  as  well  as  the 
artisan  and  beggar,  into  their  pictures.  The  fell 
enemy  is  represented  in  the  most  various  attitu<les  ; 
now  harshly  tugging  at  the  victim,  and  now  gently 
leading  him;  now  walking  arm  in  arm,  and  now, 
beating  him ;  now  smiling  as  he  jiolitely  guides 
the  bfind  man,  now  gloating,  as  with  spear  he 
transfixes  the  knight.  An  hour-glass  is  very 
generally  found  somewhere  in  the  pictures.  The 
IJance  of  Death  w^as  painted  on  tlie  walls  and 
windows  of  churches,  on  house-fronts,  in  illumi- 
nated books,  and  on  Ijridges.  The  oldest  .are 
those  of  Minden  (lo83),  Dijon  (143G),  and  Basel 
(1141)  ;  the  iirincipal  ones,  those  of  Basel,  Berne, 
and  Erfurt.  Moral  and  descripti\-e  verses  were 
frequently  printed  below  the  pictures,  and  usually 
closed  with  such  sentences  as,  "  Death  awaits  all," 
*'  Death  awaits  thee  also,"  "  Cruel  Death  is  near," 
etc.  Hans  Holbein  is  the  only  painter  of  fame 
associated  with  these  curious  works  of  art.  He, 
however,  never  went  fartherthan  to  make  sketches. 
These  were  engraved  on  wood  by  Liitzelburger, 
and  appeared  at  Lyons  (1.5.'S8),  but,  as  Peignot 
says,  are  totally  different  in  sjiirit  from  the  repre- 
sentations in  Basel.  As  might  be  expected,  they 
were  cliaracterized  by  humor  and  poetic  imagina- 
tion. 

Lit.  — Peignot  :  Ilechcrchcs  .shc  Ux  Dunnes  des 
Moris,  Dijon  et  Paris,  1826;  Doice:  The  Dance 
of  Death,  Loud.,  1833;  Massmanx  :  Literatur  d. 
Todtentdiizc,  etc.,  Leipz.,  1841;  FouToui. :  La 
Danse  des  Moris,  Paris,  1844 ;  Smith  :  Holbein's 
Dance  of  Death,  Loud.,  1840.  D.  S.  SCHAFF. 

DEB''ORAl^(ni3-|,  a  bee).  (1)  The  nur.se  of 
llebekali  (Tien.  xxxv.  8).  (2)  Judge  and  prophet- 
<>ss.  She  judged  Israel  from  under  a  palm-tree 
in  Mount  Ephraim.  All  that  we  know  of  her  is 
given  in  .ludges  (iv.,  v.).  By  her  heroic  example 
iind  suggestion  she  became  the  savior  of  her  coun- 
try from  the  yoke  ot  .Jabin,  the  Canaaniti,sh  king. 
With  great  boldness  she  summoned  Barak  to 
.strike  against  the  oppres.sor.  After  securing  her 
]iromi.se  to  go  with  him  (iv.  8)  to  battle,  he  gath- 
<'red  togetlier  ten  thousand  men  from  the  tribes  of 
Zebulon  and  Xaphtali.  The  battle  was  fought  on 
the  banks  of  the  Kishon,  and  the  Canaauites  were 
completely  routed.  Their  captain,  Si.sera,  leap- 
ing from  his  chariot,  fled  on  foot.  He  was  exe- 
cuted while  asleep  in  the  tent  of  Jael.  In  chap. 
V.  Deborah  sings  an  impassioned  and  splendid 
]ia>an  over  the  victory.  She  blesses  God  for  liis 
lielp,  describes  in  vivid  colors  the  preparations  for 
tlie  battle,  taunts  the  tribes  that  timidlv  remained 


behind,  praises  the  two  which  went,  describes  the 
battle-.scene,  "the  stars  in  their  courses  fighting 
again.st  Si.sera"  (v.  20),  exalts  the  deed  of  .Jael, 
"  bles.sed  above  women  "  (v.  24),  .and  ])ortrays  with 
keen  inmy  the  exjiect.ation  among  the  women  of 
Si.sera's  palace,  and  the  anxiety  of  his  mother  at 
the  delay  in  his  return.  Sec  Gessnek  :  Das  Lied 
ilrr  Ihlinriili  iiliirsitzt  und  erliiutert,  (iuakenbrtick, 
1n70  (21  ]ip.)  ;  also  the  Com.  on  Judij.   V. 

DECALOGUE  (Cireek  ten  vords),  the  more  ex- 
act designation  of  the  Ten  Commaudnients,  which 
in  Hebrew  are  called  "  Ten  Words  "  (Exod.  xxxiv. 
28;  Deut.  x.  4,  etc.).  It  is  recorded  in  Exod. 
XX.  2-17  and  Deut.  v.  6-21.  The  only  important 
variation  in  these  accounts  is  the  motive  urged 
for  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath.  The  account 
in  Exodus  recalls  God's  rest  after  the  six  days  of 
creation ;  th.at  of  Deuteronomy  falls  back  upon  the 
bondage  in  Egypt.  This  variation  in  the  letter  is 
easily  exjilained  on  tlie  hypothesis  that  the  same 
author  wrote  both  records.  There  have  been  three 
arrangements  of  the  Decalogue,  —  the  Talmudic, 
the  Augustinian  (adopted  by  the  Roman-Catholic 
and  Lutheran  churches),  and  the  Hellenistic,  the 
view  of  Philo,  .Tosephus,  Origeu,  the  Greek  and 
Reformed  cliurches,  etc.  The  following  table 
exhibits  the  differences,  the  record  in  Exod.  xx. 
being  used  :  — 

AUUUBTIMA.N. 

A;;ainst  iduls  and  im- 

OgCB  (.^-6). 
Blasphemy. 

The  Snhbath. 

Filial  ubcdience. 

Murder. 

Adultery. 

Tlieft. 

False  witness. 

"Thouslialt  not  covet 
thy  neighbor's  house 
(17,  a). 
Coveting.  Thereatof  V.  17. 

The  Ten  Commandments  were  inscribed  on  two 
tables  of  stone  (ICxod.  xxxii.  1.5).  IIow  were  they 
distributed?  The  Paraschim,  or  divisions  for 
public  reading  in  the  Ilelirew  Bible,  favor  the 
division  of  three  for  the  first  table,  seven  for  tlie 
second.  This  arrangement  would  give  .seventy- 
six  words  for  the  first,  and  ninety-six  for  the 
second.  Tlie  contents,  however,  of  the  Command- 
ments, outweigh  this  consideration,  and  favor  five 
for  each  of  the  tallies.  The  first  table  would  then 
contain  our  duties  to  God,  parents  being  repre- 
sented as  his  representatives,  or  the  so-called  duties 
oi  pielij ;  and  the  second  table  our  duties  to  our 
neighbor,  or  the  duties  of  jirobitij.  Paul's  group- 
ing (Rom.  xiii.  0)  seems  to  favor  this  division. 

The  Decalogue  is  the  summary  of  God's  will  to 
Israel.  Although  its  injunctions  are  negative 
rather  than  positive,  and  social  rather  than  per- 
sonal, yet  they  contain  the  whole  duty  of  man  in 
his  double  relation  to  his  Maker  and  his  fellow, 
as  our  Lord  affirmed  (Luke  x.  27,  28).  Its  rno- 
tives  are  dr.awn  exclusively  from  this  life,  and  its 
threats  and  promises  re.ach  no  farther.  This  is 
sufficieiitly  explained  by  the  circumstance  that 
the  Decalogue  was  primarily  meant  for  the  nation 
of  Israel.  But  God's  law"  for  a  nation  cannot 
contradict  his  law  for  the  individual  man  as  such. 
Even  in  the  Tenth  Commandment,  although  the 
reference  is  principally  to  the  external  act,  there 
seems  also  to  be  an  allusion  to  the  thought  of 
sin.  P.aul  is  right  therefore  in  calling  lust  (Rom. 
vii.  7)  a  violation  of  this  Coniinandmeiit.     I«i:t 


TALMUDIU. 

1.  "I  am  the  Lord," 

etc.  (V.  2) 
-.  Against  idols   and 

images  (3-6). 
."J.  Blasphemy. 

4.  TheSobbotli. 

5.  Filial  obedience, 
t).  Murder. 

7.  Adultery. 

8.  Theft. 

'J.  False  witness. 


HELLENISTIO. 

Against  idols  (v.  3). 

Against  images  (4-(J). 

Blasphemy. 

The  Sabbath. 

Filial  obedience. 

Murder. 

Adultery. 

Tlieft. 

False  witness. 


I 


DECAPOLIS. 


620 


DEDICATION. 


ill  the  code  of  the  khigdoni  of  God  (ilatt.  v.  'Ii- 
32)  Christ  made  no  distinction  between  commit- 
ting adultery,  and  coveting  a  neighbor's  wife. 
Tlie  law  for  "a  j")eople  concerns  the  outward  com- 
mission of  sin :  the  law-  for  the  individual  deals 
with  it  at  its  roots.  The  Commandment  for  the 
observance  of  the  Sabbath,  like  the  other  Com- 
mandments, is  a  part  of  the  eternal  law  of  Cjod. 
The  life  of  man  is  to  be  an  alternation  between 
labor  and  rest,  and  he  should  set  apart  one  day 
out  of  the  .seven  for  hi.s  spiritual  interests,  and  to 
recruit  Ins  physical  strength.     FUZ.  HEUTZSCH. 

The  circumstances  under  which  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments were  sjioken  give  to  them  a  unique  and 
solemn  authority  above  all  the  other  legislation 
of  the  Mosaic  code.  Thunderiugs  and  lightnings 
attended  their  transmission  (Exod.  xix.  16);  and 
they  alone  were  preserved  upon  tablets  of  stone, 
which  were  inscribed  by  the  very  hnger  of  the 
Almighty  (Exod.  xxxi.  18).  There  is  a  striking 
contrast  between  the  contents  of  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments and  the.  Sermon  on  tlie  Mount.  The 
former  issue  forth  from  the  holiness  and  majesty 
of  Jehovah,  which  cannot  tolerate  sin  ;  the  latter, 
from  the  love  of  Christ,  who  pities  the  sinner.  The 
former  address  a  sinful  world,  and  demand  abso- 
lute obedience  :  the  latter  are  gracious  and  merci- 
ful in  tone.  The  very  surroundings  in  which  the 
Commandments  and  the  .Sermon  on  the  Mount 
were  .spoken  bring  out  this  contrast.  Siiuii  itself 
is  a  silent  tho\igh  powerful  sermon,  jireacliing  the 
terrible  majesty  of  .Teho\ah.  Its  stern,  lonely, 
and  awful  scenery  was  no  less  fit  a  place  for  the 
jiromulgation  of  the  Law  than  the  green  banks 
and  the  smiling  waters  of  Galilee  were  for  the 
preaching  of  the  Beatitudes.  But  the  gospel  has 
iKjt  sujierseded  the  Ten  Words  of  Sinai,  nor  abol- 
islied  their  authority.  "They  are  endiedde<l," 
.says  Dean  Stanley,  "  in  the  heart  of  the  Christian 
religion.  Side  by  side  with  the  Prayer  of  our 
Lord  and  with  the  Creed  of  his  churcli,  tlun'  ap- 
pear inscrilxMl  on  our  churches,  read  from  our 
altars,  taught  to  our  children  as  the  foundation 
of  all  morality"  (Jiivish  Churcli,  Lect.  vii.). 

Lit. — See  the  Commentaries  on  Exodus. 
Kurtz:  Hist,  of  (he  0.  Curttiianl ;  Ewali)  :  Hist, 
of  Israel  (vol.  ii.)  ;  .Sr.\xi,KY  :  ///.</.  of  the  Jewhh 
Ch.  (cliap.  vii.)  ;  Gkfkckk.n  :  IJeber  d.  vcrschied. 
Eintheiiunqen  d.  lJcl,alo(/.i,  eti-.  ;  Okiileu  :  Theol. 
of  the  O.  T.,  Edinb.,  1875;  L.  I-kmmi::  D.  reli- 
t/ionsi/eKch.  Bedeutuuf)  d.  Del'(do(j.i,  Breslau,  1880; 
IC.  A.  Wasiiiilkn  :  The  Social  Lair  if  (lod,  Seniious 
on  the  Ten  (.'rjiiiiniinihiienls,  \.Y.,  1875,  new  ed., 
1881;  Smith:  Jiili.  Did.,  urt.  Ten  Coniinniidmenl.i 
(hy  Trofcssor  I'mmptui;)  ;  Enc>/c.  lira.,  Deca- 
lo(jn<-  (l'ri)IVssor  ^V.  !{.  S.mitii).      D.  S.  SCIIAFF. 

DECAP'OLIS,  tlie  region  of  tlie  ten  cities, 
wIkjsc  names  were,  .says  I'liny,  Scythojiolis,  Ilip- 
pds,  Gadara,  Bella,  l'liila<lel)>iiia,  tierasa,  Dion, 
Canalha,  Kaphana.  Damascus.  Six  are  now 
deserted,  and  th<'  last  is  tlii!  only  one  deserving 
the  ('liithet  '•city."  Thev  were  first  built  by  tlie 
followers  of  Alexander  l.lie  Great,  and  were  re- 
l)iiilt  by  the  Itomans  B.C.  Ii.").  The  n'gion  was 
near  the  Sea  of  (ialilee,  ])robably  on  \nM\  sides  of 
the  .Jordan.  It  is  three  times  refeiied  to  ill  the 
Bible  (.Matt.  iv.  L'o ;   Mark  v.  20,  vii.  111). 

DECIUS,  Cajus  Messius  Ouintus  Trajanus,  was 
b.  Iiiu:iiil>  till'  r\ii>i-  lit  llie  seciiiid  ceMliny  at  Ibi- 
d.'dia,  near  Sirmiiim,  in   Lowi'i'  I'aiiiiuuia;  distin- 


guislied  himself  in  the  army,  and  was  made  ai 
senator  under  Philip  the  Arab.  When  (in  249)- 
the  legions  rebelled  in  ^Ia;sia  and  Pannonia,  lie 
was  sent  to  siqipress  the  insurrection ;  but  the 
soldiers  compelled  him  to  place  liimself  at  their 
head.  He  assumed  the  imperial  .title,  defeated 
Philip  at  Verona,  and  ascended  the  throne.  lie 
was  a  man  of  great  plans.  He  wanted  once  more 
to  make  the  Roman  Empire  one  compact  mass, 
governed  from  Rome ;  and  he  was  as  successful 
as  energetic  in  suppressing  internal  wars,  throw- 
ing back  foreign  invaders,  and  establishing  gen- 

i  eral  peace.  But,  in  his  attempt  to  re\ive  the 
old  Roman  spirit  and  institutions,  he  met  with  a 

I  formidable  adversary,  Christianity.  Like  Trajan 
he  considered  the  Christians  as  merely  forming 
a  Icind  of  secret  society ;  but  he  hated  them  be- 
cause he  feared  them.  They  were  a  power,  and 
he  determined  to  destroy  them.  In  250  the  edicts 
purporting  the  complete  eradication  of  Christi- 
anity appeared,  and  the  persecution  began.  Ac- 
cording   to    the   old   manner   of    counting,   this 

I  persecution  is  reckoned  as  the  seventh ;  but   in 

I  reality  it  w.as  the  first  general  attack.  It  took  the 
Christians  by  surprise.  Horror  spread  every- 
where through  the  congreg.ations;  and  the  number 
of  la])xi  of  e\ery  description  {Ihurificati,  nacri/tcufi, 
tihellalici,  actafacientes,  etc.)  was  enormous.  There 
was  no  lack,  however,  of  such  as  remained  firm, 
and  suffered  martyrdom  rather  than  yielding;, 
and,  as  the  persecution  grew  w  ider  and  more  in- 
tense, the  enthusiasm  of  the  Christians  and  their 
power  of  resistance  grew  stronger  and  strongi>r. 
The  edicts  were  originally  directed  against  the 
officers  of  the  Church.  Origen  was  martyred, 
C^ljrian  fled ;  but  the  persecution  had  in  many 
places  reached  the  humblest  members  of  the  con- 
gregation, when  the  movement  suddenly  collapsed 
by  the  emperor's  death :  he  fell  (in  252)  in  a 
battle  against  the  Goths  on  the  Lower  Danube. 
The  sutferings  which  the  Christians  luul  under- 
gone were  terrible;  but  tlu;  history  of  the  Church 
proves,  that,  if  not  necessary,  they  were  certainly 
not  superfluous.  The  .sources  to  tlu^  history  of 
the  Decian  jier.secution  are  Euskbu's  :  Ilixl.  Eccl. 
VI.,  -10-42  :  and  Cyi'iuaxis  :  De  Lajit:is  and  E/jis- 
lola  .  ALBHECIIT   VOGEL. 

DECREE,  DECRETAL.  In  the  canonical  seii.se- 
the  latter  is  an  authoritative  rescript  of  a  ]ioi>e  in 
reply  to  .some  <|ueslioiis.  The  original  name  was 
decretale  conslilidnin.  or  decrclalls  tfislola ;  after- 
wards dccrelalis.  A  decree  is  a  pa]ial  ordinance 
enacted  with  the  advice  (jf  the  cardinals,  but  not 
as  respoii.se  to  au  iiuiuirv;  while  a  canon  is  a  law 
ordained  by  a  general  or  ]irovincial  synod. 

DECRETALS,   Isidorian.     See    PsKiDo-lsiDd- 

UIA.N    Dl'CKl    1  AI.S. 

DECRETUM,   Gratiani.     See  Canon  Law. 

DEDICATION,  Feast  of  the,  instituted  to  com- 
memorate the  imrgiiig  of  the  teinjile,  and  the  re- 
building of  the  altar  under  .ludas  Maccaba'us. 
Cliisleii  (Dee.  25),  P,.C.  111.5,  after  the  iiollution 
and  sacrilege  of  Anticjchns  Epiphanes  (B.C.  lliS). 
The  feast  lasted  eight  days,  and  in  general  fea- 
tures, especially  in  joyfuhu'ss,  resembled  the  Feast 
of  Tabernacles  (during  which  the  dedication  of 
the  first  Temple  had  takcni  ]ilaco :  cf.  1  Kings 
viii.  2),  only  that  attendance   at  Jerusalem  was 


not  obligatory. 
wan  sung   every 


Ilallel   (Ps.   cxiii.-cxviii.) 
day.      The    iiKideni    .lews   keep 


DB  DIEU. 


621 


DEISM. 


it  on  Dec.  12.     The  feast  is  referred  to  in  Jolin 
X.  22,  also   1    Mace.    iv.    52-50,    and    Joseplius, 

Aniiij.  xii.  ^,  <i. 

DE  DIEU.     See  DiEli,  ni-.. 

DE  DOMINIS.     See  AxriioNV  i>K  Dominis. 

DEFECTUS  SACRAMENTI,  a  canonical  term 
for  otfence-s  against  the  marriage  ideal.  See  Hrco 
Saciisse:  Die  Lekre  vom  Defeclun  Sacrainaiifi,  Ber- 
lin u.  Leipzig,  1881. 

DEFENDER  OF  THE  FAITH  (Fii/ri  Defensor), 
a  title  borne  by  the  sovereigns  of  England.  It 
was  bestowed  upon  Henry  VIII.  by  Leo  X.,  in  a 
bull  Oct.  11,  15:21,  in  recognition  of  the  king's 
book  (De  Septem  SacrameidU)  against  Lnther,  and 
was  confirmed  by  Clement  ^'IL  Leo's  bull  is  in 
the  British  Museum.  The  Pope  subsequently, 
for  his  conduct  in  suppressing  the  religious 
houses,  deposed  Henry,  and  took  the  title  from 
liim;  but  by  35  Henry  VIIL,  cap.  3,  "An  act 
for  the  ratification  of  the  king's  styles  and 
titles,"  Parliament  restored  it  to  him,  and  made 
it  part  of  the  titles  of  the  sovereign  of  England 
forever. 

DEFENSOR  MATRIMONII  is  an  officer  in  every 
diocese  in  the  Koman-C'atholic  Church  deputed, 
according  to  the  bull  Dei  iiiiseraliuue  of  Benedict 
XIV.  (Nov.  3,  1741),  to  in-event  by  all  proper 
means  the  dissolution  of  the  marriage-tie  where 
any  proceedings  to  that  end  have  been  begun. 

DEGRADATION  denoted  in  the  ancient  church 
a  punishment  by  which  the  offender  was  moved 
from  a  higher  to  a  lower  grade  of  office  :  the  pres- 
byter became  a  deacon  ;  the  deacon,  a  sub-deacon, 
V.  s.  o.  Later  on,  but  before  the  twelfth  century, 
the  term  came  to  denote  the  severest  punish- 
ment which  could  be  inflicted  on  a  priest :  namely, 
tlie  deprivation  of  his  orders.  He  was  actually 
stripped,  —  the  bishop,  of  the  mitre,  crosier,  and 
ring ;  the  common  priest,  of  the  chasuble,  stole, 
chalice,  and  paten.  In  case  of  heresy  he  was  then 
surrendered  to  the  civil  authorities :  in  other 
cases  he  was  generally  shut  up  in  the  dungeon  of 
some  monastery  for  lifetime.     See  Deposition. 

DEGREES,  Songs  of.     See  Ps.^lms. 

DEGREES,  Academic.  The  bestowal  of  aca- 
demic degrees  is  an  ancient,  convenient,  and  much- 
perverted  method  of  publicly  proclaiming  the 
attainments  of  a  scholar.  It  is  a  usage  inlierited 
from  mediaeval  times,  and  fi'om  lands  where  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  titles  conveyed  important  rights 
and  privileges.  Originally  the  bestowal  of  aca- 
demic honors  was  so  carefully  guarded,  that  tlie 
recijiients  were  encouraged  and  aided  by  their 
possession  ;  and  this  is  still  true  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent. But  of  late,  and  especially  in  the  United 
States,  degrees  have  been  awarded  by  so  many 
feeble  institutions,  on  such  slight  pretexts,  and 
under  so  many  names,  that  their  value  is  much 
lessened,  and  the  honor  needs  to  be  defined  before 
its  worth,  or  want  of  worth,  can  be  known.  The 
idea  of  a  degree  was  substantially  this  :  After  the 
completion  of  a  novitiate,  or  course  of  fundamental 
studies,  the  student  was  graded  or  ranked  among 
those  who  were  devoting  their  lives  to  learning.  He 
reached  the  ''Commencement"  of  a  scholar's  life: 
lie  was  graduated  a  bachelor  of  arts.  By  pur,suing 
liis  studies  for  a  longer  period,  he  might  attain  to  a 
second  or  higher  degree,  —  that  of  master  or  doc- 
tor. From  having  a  right  to  interpi-et  a  text-book, 
he  advanced  to  the  right  of  speaking  or  teaching 


by  authority.  The  degree  of  doctor  might  thus 
be  reached  in  arts  or  iihilosophy,  in  theology,  in 
mediinne,  and  in  civil  or  cancin  law,  or  in  both, 
and  tlie  title  corresponding  miglit  bi'  indicated  Ijy 
the  abbreviation.s,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  M.I).,  S.T.D., 
D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  or  J.U.D.,  — the  usage  varying 
in  different  universities  and  at  different  times. 
From  time  to  time  those  who  did  not  come  for- 
ward by  regular  courses  to  these  degrees  were 
admitted  to  tliem  cau.sd  honoris,  and  sometimes 
the  gradiuite  of  one  university  received  honors 
from  aiKjther ;  and  thus  the  custom  of  academic 
compliment  grew  uj).  The  right  of  conferring 
degrees  was  usually,  though  not  exclusively,  re- 
stricted to  universities.  The  university  was  a 
corporation  of  gi-eat  dignity  and  weight,  quite 
transcending  in  its  powers  tlie  tributary  colleges. 
Its  rights  were  protected  by  civil  and  ecclesiasti- 
cal edicts,  carefully  considered.  In  the  L'nited 
States,  colleges  have  exercised  the  right  of  bestow- 
ing degrees ;  and  charters  for  colleges  and  universi- 
ties have  been  readily  obtained.  Academic  titles 
have  been  multiplied  needlessly ;  so  that  now  the 
L'nited-States  Bureau  of  Education  reports  eleven 
varieties  of  the  baccalaureate  degree,  and  enumer- 
ates .several  hundred  institutions  which  claim 
State  authority  for  their  diplomas.  It  is  not 
strange,  under  these  circumstances,  that  "  bogus  " 
degrees  have  been  offered  for  sale.  The  remedy 
for  this  state  of  affairs  seems  to  lie  in  an  absolute 
neglect  of  academic  titles,  or  a  limitation  of  their 
use  to  the  institution  which  confers  them,  or  an- 
nouncement of  the  source  from  which  they  are 
derived.  D.  C.  GILM.^N. 

DEI  GRATIA.  Following  the  example  of  Paul, 
who  protests  that  he  has  been  called  to  the  apos- 
tleship  by  the  "will  of  God,"  the  bishops,  as  the 
successors  of  the  apostles,  vei-y  early  began  to  use 
similar  designations  of  themselves.  Felix  of 
Rome  (356)  styled  himself  per  yraliam  Dei  episco- 
pns ;  and  similar  expressions  —  Dei  or  Christi  nom- 
ine, miseratione,  miserieordia,  etc. — soon  became 
common  among  ecclesiastics.  Afterwards  also 
secular  persons  of  high  rank,  kings,  and  dukes, 
adopted  this  style.  [Agilulf  (591)  called  himself 
Gratia  Domini  rex  totius  Italia';  Ethelbert  (605), 
Dei  (jratia  rex  Aitylorum  ;  Charlemagne,  Dei  r/ralia 
rex  reyniqiie  Francurum  rector,  etc.]  See  Geis- 
LER :  De  tilulo,  Nos  Dei  yratia,  Leipzig,  1677; 
TiLESius :  De  sensu  lituli  Nos  Dei  ijratia,  Regi- 
niont,  1723  ;  Heumann  :  De  litulo  Dei  yratia,  Got- 
tingen,  1727.  MEJEE. 

DEISM  designates  that  view  of  God,  which,  as 
against  atheism,  recognizes  his  real  existence ;  as 
against  pantheism,  his  distinctness  from  the 
world ;  and,  as  opposed  to  theism,  represents  him 
not  merely  as  transcendent  above  the  woi'ld,  and 
distinct  from  it,  but  also  separate,  in  the  sense, 
that,  having  once  created  the  world,  he  is  not 
immanent  in  it  as  its  providential  ruler  and 
guide,  but  allows  it  to  pursue  an  independent 
course.  This  philosophical  definition  is,  however, 
of  recent  date.  In  the  history  of  doctrine,  Deisni 
is  that  conception  of  Christianity  which  finds  in 
it  only  a  religion  of  nature,  accejiting  it  so  far  as 
it  agrees  with  reason,  and  discarding  from  it  as 
nngenuine  whatever  is  not  consonant  therewitli. 
It  is  on  the  one  hand  pure  naturalism,  declaring 
natural  religion  to  be  the  norm  and  sum  of  the 
Christian  religion,  and,  in  its  treatment  of  the 


DEISM. 


622 


DEISM. 


Uible,  rationalism,  in  that  it  accords  to  reason 
.mrestricted  authority  to  investigate  and  exphiin 
Christianity  and  its  records. 

Deism  tlourislied  in  England  in  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteentli  centuries,  and  was  an  indirect 
product  of  tlie  strife  of  parties  within  and  with- 
out the  pale  of  the  Anglican  Church.  In  this 
strife  was  engeiulered  the  impulse  to  find,  outside 
of  all,  religious  ground  upon  whicli  all  could 
unite.  The  principles  of  three  philosopliers  were 
also,  to  some  extent,  responsible  for  its  rise.  Ba- 
con (d.  1620)  laid  down  the  principles  of  empiri- 
cism as  tlie  gauge  of  knowledge ;  and  while  he 
himself  made  a  sharp  distinction  between  knowl- 
edge and  faith,  philosophy  and  theology,  others 
took  up  his  principle,  and  applied  it  to  theology 
as  well  as  to  philosophy.  Thomas  Hobbes  (15SS- 
1079)  derived  all  knowledge  from  sense-percejv 
tion  and  the  reason  (sensualism),  affirmed  that 
disinterested  affection  did  not  exist,  accorded  to 
the  sovereign  tlie  higliest  official  position  in  the 
Church,  and  denied  that  tlie  contents  of  God's 
Word  could  ever  be  contrary  to  reason,  though  they 
might  be  above  it.  Ilobbes  has  been  called  the 
"Grandfather  of  Kiiglish  freethinkers."  John 
Locke  (d.  1704)  likewise  affirmed  the  sovereign 
right  of  human  reason  to  determine  not  only  the 
reality,  but  the  true  meaning,  of  a  revelation. 
Revelation  cannot  teach  any  thing  contradictory 
of  reason,  but  such  things,  however,  as  reason 
may  not  have  itself  discovered.  That  Christianity 
is  not  a  product  of  reason,  but  in  agreement  with 
it,  is  the  fundamental  proposition  of  his  work, 
The  Reasonableness  of  C/irislianili/  (1605). 

Of  the  Deists,  properly  so  called,  the  first  is 
Lord  Herbert  of  CnERurRv  (1581-1648).  In 
Ills  two  principal  works,  De  Veritale  (1621)  and 
De  Reliyione  GenlUiiim  (1015),  he  assigns  to  reli- 
gion a  high  place,  and  designates  it  as  the  only 
distinguishing  characteristic  of  man.  He  laj"s 
down  five  fundamental  principles  {nolitke  com- 
munes), of  which  he  affirms  the  (jualities  of  having 
been  received  at  all  times  and  in  all  places  (^sem- 
per et  ubiijiie).  They  are,  (1)  The  existence  of 
God,  (2)  Obligation  to  worship,  (3)  Virtue,  the 
chief  concomitant  of  worship,  (1)  Repentance 
from  sin,  (5)  Rewards  and  punishments  in  this  life 
and  the  life  to  come.  These  five  [irinciples  are 
sufficient  for  salvation,  and  in<lependent  of  revela- 
tion (which  he  did  not  declare  to  be  impossible, 
only  not  needed).  The  obscuration  of  the  pure 
and  jirimitive  religion  based  upon  tliese  princi- 
ples, hi!  attributes  to  the  jiriests.  —  Lord  Herbert 
was  closely  followed  by  Cii.\iti.ES  Ui.ouXT  (1654- 
Oo),  in  liis  Anima  Muwli  (107!)),  and  iiis  post- 
liumous  work.  Oracles  of  Reason  (1695).  — John 
ToLA.ND  (1670-1722)  is  tlie  next  figure,  and  his 
Christianiiji  not  Mi/sterioiis  marks  an  eiioch.  He 
lays  down  the  propositions  that  the  teachings  of 
the  gosi)el  are  ncitlier  contrary  to  reason  nor 
above  it,  and  that  Christianity  contains  nothing 
really  niyst<;rious  (\.('..,  not  before  revealed).  Tlie 
mysteries  in  Scripture  wen;  not  a  part  of  Cliris- 
tianity  in  its  original  form,  l)ul  Jewish  and  hisi- 
tlien  excrescences.  In  liis  Aini/nlor  lie  suggests 
doubts  of  some  of  the  records  of  tlie  Xew  Testa- 
ment.—  Anthony  Coi-i.ins  (1676-1729)  defended, 
in  \n»  Discourse  of  Freelliinkiiiji  i\~V-\),  free  thought 
as  a  ])rivilege  wliicli  none  hail  a  right  to  suppress. 
Jle  afiirmcd  that  the  Scriptures  allowed  it,  the 


prophets  themselves  of  the  Old  Testament  were 
great  freethinkers,  Clirist  exhorted  to  search  tlie 
Scriptures,  and  I'aul  recognized  this  freedom  of 
.iudgment  by  the  use  of  arguments  and  jiroofs. 
This  book,  whicli  is  written  in  a  spirit  of  bitter 
hostility  to  the  Church,  called  forth  many  works 
in  reply,  of  which  the  most  powerfid  was  that  of 
Richard  Bentley.  In  his  Discourse  of  (lie  Grounds 
and  Reasons  of  the  Clirlstian  Retli/ion  (1724),  Col- 
lins again  attacked  Christianity  by  an  application 
of  Winston's  principle,  that  its  main  argument  is 
prophecy  and  prophecy  as  interpreted  allegori- 
cally.  lie  affirms  that  the  belief  that  Jesus  was 
the  Jlessiah  was  gotten,  not  from  Christ,  but 
based  upon  the  Old  Testament.  If  the  argu- 
ment from  prophecy,  so  he  reasoned,  \\"as  strong, 
Cliristianity  stood.  But  the  argument  depended 
upon  an  allegorical  interpretation  of  prophecj'. 
This  was  weak :  hence  the  conclusion,  which, 
however,  is  only  inferentially  found  in  this  work. 
This  attack  upon  the  projihetic  basis  of  Chris- 
tianity w<as  followed  by  an  assault  upon  the  mira- 
cles by  Thomas  Woolstox  (1669-1733).  In 
his  Discourses  on  ^Ilracles  (1727-30)  he  explains 
fifteen  miracles,  and  finds  in  the  suspicious  look 
of  the  narratives,  and  the  character  of  the  persons 
introduced,  grounds  for  the  conclusion,  that,  taken 
literally,  the  narratives  ai'e  absurd  ami  incredible, 
and  therefore  are  meant  to  liave  only  a  mystical 
sense.  His  ablest  opponent  was  Sherlock,  in  his 
Trial  of  the  Witnesses  (1744).  —  The  Karl  of 
Sn.irTESBi:KY  (d.  1713)  does  not  strictly  belong 
to  the  Deists,  but  leans  in  that  direction.  In  his 
Characteristics  (1711)  lie  attacked  Christianity 
covertly.  According  to  him,  its  purpose  was  to 
advance  morality.  But  Ma  ptiikw  Tinhai,  (1656- 
1733),  called  by  Skelton  the  •'  Great  Apostle  of 
Deism,"  represents  deism  in  its  highest  develop, 
ment.  In  his  Chrlsllanlli/  as  Old  as  the  Creation 
he  maintains  the  propositions  that  natural  religion 
is  absolutely  perfect,  and  that  Christianity  is 
genuine  only  so  far  as  it  agrees  with  natural 
religion.  In  this  sense  both  date  from  the  crea- 
tion. He  defines  religion  to  be  the  discipline  of 
morality  in  obedience  to  the  will  of  (iod,  or 
conduct  guided  by  the  reason  of  tilings.  This 
morality  is  perfect,  and  stands  not-  in  need  of  a 
revelation.  This  work  may  be  called  the  Deist's 
Primer. — Tiioma.s  Chuui!  (1679-1717),  a  glove- 
maker,  follows  next.  His  work.  The  True  Gospel 
of  J.  Christ  Asserted,  takes  up  the  discourses, 
works,  and  commandments  of  Christ.  Tlie  au- 
thor comes  to  the  conclusion  that  Christ  enjoined 
only  what  reason  commands ;  thai  his  mission 
was  to  restore  the  true  moral  conceiition  of  life 
which  Jewish  and  heathen  folly  had  blunted  ;  and 
that  Christianity  consists  not  of  confession  and 
assent,  but  of  active  morality.  He  reiterates  the 
projiosition  of  Tindal,  that  the  gospel  is  identical 
with  natural  religion. — Thomas  ."^IiutcAX  (d. 
1743),  in  his  Moral  Phlloso/dier,  cnrrwd  tliedeisti- 
cal  principle  to  the  extreme,  by  affirming  a  deep 
chasm  between  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
crilicising  the  Old  severely,  and  discarding  atone- 
ment and  other  doctrines  of  the  Xew  as  corrupt 
dregs  of  Judaism.  —  Lord  BoMNcnitoKE's  (1078- 
1751)  works  betray  a  low  view  of  religion,  which 
he  regards  purely  as  a  handmaid  of  llie  Stale. 
In  .spite  of  Ins  disclaimer  to  the  title  Deist,  lie,  too, 
identifies   Cliristianity   with   ualiu'al  religion.  — 


DE  KOVEN. 


623 


DEMON. 


Finally,  Dodwki.l  tuf.  Youngku,  in  his  C/irls- 
tiaiiili/  not  Foundeil  on  AiY/itmenl  (1712),  declares 
against  all  rational  faith,  ami  all  attempts  to 
ground  faith  in  reason,  and  ]iroves  that  it  is  not 
reasiin,  hut  the  gracions  ojieration  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  whieh  ean  lead  to  genuin(^  faith.  In  David 
Hume  (1711-7U),  Deism,  or  the  attempt  (o  identify 
Christianity  with  natural  religion,  ran  off  into 
scepticism.  Hut,  while  this  was  taking  place,  the 
Methodist  revival  came,  and  ushered  in  a  better 
era  of  faith.  (*.  V.  I.ECHLER. 

Lit. — JoHX  Lel.4Nd:  View  of  the  Principal 
Deistical  Writers,  2  vols.,  17.'54 ;  Thorschmidt  : 
Versuch  einer  rottst.  Enyl.  Freyitenk(r-Bibliothek\ 
1765-67  ;  Leciiler  :  Geschichte  d.  Etif/I.  Deismus, 
Stuttgart,  1841 ;  A.  S.  Farr.\k  ;  //(V/.  of  Free 
Tkouijht  (chap,  iii.),  Lond.,  186:!;  Kev.  Thomas 
Hunt:  lieliy.  Tliought  in  Enijland,  Lond.,  1S70- 
72,  3  vols.;  Leslie  Stepiie.v:  IIi.il.  of  Engl. 
Thought  in  the  18th  Cent.,  2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  ICew 
York",  1881;  ,I()HN  Caiuns:  Unbelief  in  the  ISth 
Cent.,  Edinl...  1881. 

DE  KOVEN,  James,  D.D.,  a  leader  of  the  High- 
Church  party  in  the  Episcopal  Church;  b.  at 
Middletown,  Conn.,  Sept.  19,  1831;  d.  at  Eacine, 
Wis.,  March  19,  1879.  He  wa.s  warden  of  Ka- 
cine  College  from  1859  to  his  death.  In  1875  he 
was  elected  Bishop  of  Illinois ;  but  his  extreme 
High-Church  views  prevented  his  confirmation. 
He  was  noted  for  elocjuence  of  speech,  and  ear- 
nestness of  manner.  See  the  posthumous  volume 
of  his  Sermons  Preached  on  Various  Occasions, 
with  an  Introduction  by  Morgan  Dix,  S.  T  D., 
N.Y.,  1880. 

DELUGE.     See  Noah. 

DEMETRIUS  is  the  name  of  three  kings  of 
Syria  noticeable  in  Jewish  history.  —  Demetrius  I., 
Soter  C^uTT/p  "the  savior"),  162-150  B.C.,  was 
educated  in  Rome,  whither  he  was  sent  as  a  hos- 
tage hy  his  father,  .Seleucus  IV.  When  Antiochus 
IV.  died  (164  BC  ),  Demetrius  claimed  the 
crown ;  and  when  the  Roman  Senate  jireferred 
his  cousin,  Antiochus  V.,  he  fled  from  Rome, 
landed  at  Tripolis  in  Phcenicia,  obtained  the  sup- 
port of  the  people  of  Syria,  put  Antiochus  V.  to 
death,  and  took  possession  of  the  country.  Once 
seated  on  the  throne,  he  was  recognized  by  the 
Romans  ;  but  difficulties  soon  arose.  In  the  con- 
test then  raging  in  Juda?a,  lie  took  the  side  of  the 
Greek  party  against  the  nationalists.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  Alcimus  as  high  priest  in 
Jerusalem ;  but  later  on  his  generals,  Nicanor  and 
Bacchides,  were  repeatedly  defeated  liy  Judas 
Maccabseus,  and  the  latter  finally  concluded  a 
treaty  with  Rome  which  expressly  forliade  Deme- 
trius to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  Juda>a.  In  other 
points,  too,  he  ran  counter  against  the  Roman 
interests ;  and  his  violence  and  extravagance 
gradually  turned  the  hearts  of  his  own  subjects 
away  from  him.  A\'hen  Alexander  Balas  stepped 
forward  as  pretender  to  the  throne,  Demetrius 
looked  in  vain  around  to  find  allies.  Jonathan, 
the  successor  of  .ludas  Maccabfeus,  the  Romans, 
etc.,  espoused  the  cause  of  Alexander;  and  Deme- 
trius fell  in  the  battle  against  him.  —  Demetrius 
II.,  Nicator  (NwuTijp,  •'  the  victor  "),  147-127  B.C., 
a  son  of  Demetrius  Soter ;  escajied  to  Cnidus 
under  the  usurpation  of  Alexandei',  but  returned 
in  148,  and  defeated  the  usurper,  though  he  was 
still  supported  by  Jonathan.     The  relation  be- 


tween Demetrius  and  Jonathan,  and  Jonathan '.<5 
succe.ssor,  Simon,  was  always  uncertain,  IVjr  De- 
metrius was  false  and  faithless:  nevertheless, 
the  Jews  sided  with  liim,  and  aided  him  mate- 
rially (luring  the  rebellion  of  Tryphon.  In  138 
B.C.  ho  invaded  I'ai'tliia,  but  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  kept  in  captivity  for  nearly  ten  years.  .Anti- 
ochus Sidete.s,  who  in  the  mean  time  occupied  the 
throne  of  Syria,  also  invaded  Parthia ;  and,  w  hen 
Demetrius  succeeded  in  defeating  him,  lie  returned 
to  Syi'ia,  but  was  assassinated  sliortly  aftei',  per- 
hajis  by  his  wife  Cleopatra.. —  Demetrius  I  IT., 
Euccerus  (Evtmpof),  94-88  B.C.,  a  grandson  of 
Demetrius  Nicator ;  became  King  of  Syria,  to- 
gether with  his  brother  Philip,  after  the  death  of 
Antiochus  Eu.sebes.  He  defeated  Alexander  Jan- 
nseus,  but  was  prevented  from  any  further  inter- 
ference in  Jewish  politics  liy  the  breaking-out  of 
a  war  between  him  and  his  brother.  He  was 
defeated,  and  sent  to  Parthia,  where  he  was  de- 
tained in  captivity  till  his  death.  —  The  history  of 
Demetrius  1.  and  II.  is  told  in  the  Books  of  the 
^Maccabees  ;  that  of  Demetrius  III.,  in  JosephuS-' 
Ant.  XIII. 

DEMETRIUS,  Bishop  of  Alexandria  from  18& 
to  231  ;  took  a  vivid  interest  in  the  catechetical 
school,  and  ajipointed  Origen  teacher  when  Clem- 
ent left  (203).  Afterwards  he  .sent  Origen  on 
an  important  mission  to  the  Roman  governor  of 
Arabia ;  but  the  friendship  between  them  was 
finally  transformed  into  open  opposition.  In  228 
Origen  was  ordained  presbyter  at  Ca'sarea;  but 
in  231  Demetrius  excommunicated  him.  .See 
Orioex. 

DEMETRIUS  CYDONIUS,  a  Greek  theologiah 
of  the  fourteenth  century  ;  was  b.  at  Thessalonica 
or  Constantinople;  occujiied  a  prominent  position 
at  the  court  of  John  Cantacuzeiuis,  and  retired 
with  him  from  public  life,  and  became  monk  in 
1355.  Afterwards  he  went  to  !Milan  to  .study  the 
Latin  language  and  theology,  and  spent  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  at  Cydoiie  in  Crete ;  d.  after  1384. 
He  has  written  and  translated  much  ;  liut  most  of 
his  works  remain  in  manuscript.  Of  his  Greek 
translation  of  the  Summa  of  Thomas  Aquinas, 
one  part,  De  contemncnda  morle,  has  been  edited 
by  R.  Seii.er,  Basel,  15.53,  and  Kuixoel,  Leip- 
zig, 1786.  His  Monodia  was  published  in  Latin 
and  Cireek  bj-  Combefis,  in  Scriptores  post  The- 
ojihanem  ;  and  his  De  processione  Sjtiritus  Sancli 
was  translated  into  Latin  by  C'.\nisius,  in  his 
Lerliones  Antiquce,  Ingolstadt,  1604. 

DEMISSION,  The  name,  in  Scotch  Presby- 
terian churches,  for  the  act  whereby  a  minister 
resigns  his  charge. 

DEMIURGE.     See  Gnosticism. 

DEMME,  Charles  Rudolph,  D.D.,  an  eminent 
Lutlieran  minister;  b.  at  IMulilliausen,  Thuringia, 
April  10,  1795;  d.  in  Philadephia.  i^ept.  1,  1863. 
He  was  severely  wounded  in  the  battle  of  Water- 
loo; on  recovery  he  studied  theology;  emigrated 
to  America  (1818),  rose  to  distinction,  and  from 
1825  to  18.59  he  was  chief  pastor  of  St.  Mi- 
chael's and  .St.  Zion's  churches,  Philadelphia.  He 
edited  a  German  translation  of  Jo.seplius,  adding 
numerous  and  valuable  notes. 

DEMON  (Greek  Ciaifiuv),  improperly  rendered 
deril  in  King  .James's  version,  is  one  of  the  .spirits 
of  the  kingdom  of  darkne.ss.  There  are  many 
demons,  but  only  one  devil    (Satan).     In  early 


DEMONIACS. 


G24 


DEMONIACS. 


Greek,  Homer  (//.,  xvii.  98,  99)  uses  the  term  iii- 
terchangeably  with  iJfof,  a  god.  Somewhat  later 
ill  Ilesiod  the  demons  are  beings  intermediate 
between  the  gods  and  men  (Oil  121).  Plato  I 
(Symp.,  p.  202)  fixes  the  term  in  this  sense,  and 
enumerates  as  among  their  number  the  departed 
spii-its  of  good  men.  It  was  believed  that  the}' 
became  tutelary  genii,  who  presided  over  indi- 
vidual destiny.  Socrates  speaks  constantly  of  his 
demon.  In  the  Septuagiiit  the  word  is  employed 
to  represent  the  Hebrew  words  "gods"  (Ps.  xcv. 
.3),  "devils"  (Deut.  xxxii.  17),  "pestilence"  (Ps. 
xci.  6),  etc.  In  Joseplius  it  is  always  used  of  evil 
spirits.  He  defines  demons  to  be  the  spirits  of 
the  wicked  (De  Bell.  Jud.,  vii.  6,  3).  In  the  Xew 
Testament  the  term  is  employed  several  times  in 
the  general  sense  of  heathen  deities  (Acts  xvii. 
IS ;  1  Cor.  X.  20)  ;  but  as  a  rule  the  term  is  used 
for  evil  spirits  who  believe  and  tremble  (Jas.  ii. 
19),  recognize  Jesus  to  be  the  .Son  of  God  (^latt. 
viii.  29),  and  are  the  agents  of  Satan  (jMatt.  xii. 
24).     See  Demoxi.\cs. 

Lit.  —  YouxG  :  Demonology,  or  Ihc  Scripture 
Doctrine  of  Devih,  ISoG  ;  R.  Gilpin  :  Damonolo- 
f/ia  Sacra,  new  ed.  by  A.  Grosart,  Edinburgh, 
1867 ;  il.  D.  C'oxwAY :  Demonolor/i/  and  Devil 
Lore,  London  and  N.  Y.,  1878,  2  vols. ;  Dk  Visser  : 
De  Diemonologie  ran  het  Oude  Testament,  Utrecht, 
1880.  See,  also,  Faumeu  :  Denwniacs  of  the  New 
Testament,  London,  1775 ;  and  Fell  :  Demoniacs, 
London,  1779. 

DEMONIACS.  Among  the  most  striking  mi- 
racles (■!'  our  Lord  were  the  cm'es  of  those 
possessed  with  demons.  The  condition  of  these 
unfortunate  persons  calls  our  attention  to  the 
activity  of  the  j)Owers  of  darkness  in  the  world 
and  the  connection  of  human  life  with  a  terrible 
realm  of  fallen  si^irits.  This  class  of  cases  is 
known  neither  to  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  nor 
[with  some  doubtful  exceptions]  to  post-apostolic 
times. 

1.  The  representations  of  the  New  Testament. 
Persons  under  the  influence  of  demons  are  said 
to  be  "  po.sse.ssi'd  with  demons"  (Matt.  iv.  21, 
etc.,  Greek  t^ai/iovi^u/uvm),  or  "  vexed  with  un- 
clean spirits"  (Luke  vi.  18,  etc.,  ivox?.ovfiivoi,  etc.). 
The  spirits  which  produce  this  condition  are 
called  "demons"  (Matt.  x.  8,  etc.),  "spirits" 
(Matt.  viii.  l(i,  etc.),  and  "  unclean  .spirits  "  (Matt. 
X.  1).  The  cure,  with  allusion  to  the  demons,  is 
termed  "casting  out"  (Matt.  viii.  IG),  and,  with 
allusion  to  the  victims,  "healing"  (Luke  vi.  18, 
^epaTTtveiT&ai;  JIatt.  XV.  28,  (aoi^ni).  Tlic.se  various 
terms  are  of  thein.selves  a  sullicient  evidence  that 
the  Xew-Testaineiit  authors  did  not  intend  to 
designate  a  mere  bodily  disease.  The  demons 
are  the  bad  spirits  who  com|)0.se  the  realm  of 
darkness,  and  serve  Satan.  This  is  clearly  taught 
in  the  pa.ssage  (Matt.  xii.  21-29)  in  wliich  Hik-I- 
zebub  is  called  the  ])riiice  of  demons.  The  influ- 
ence of  the  demons  upon  their  victims  was  made 
evident  in  every  case  by  aiTections  of  the  body. 
The  .soul  ha.s  lost  its  control  of  the  body.  He- 
tweeu  the  two  a  foreign  influence  lias  injected 
it.self,  wliicli  acts  deleteriou.sly  upon  the  bodily 
orgaiLS  of  the  soul.  But  nowiiere  does  the  ilemon 
take  the  ])lace  of  the  .soul.  It  does  not  take  up 
its  habitation  in  the  soul,  nor  exert  its  iiiflueiiec 
directhi  ui)on  the  spiritual  nature.  It  attacks 
lirst  the  nervous  system,  and  works  through  it, 


producing  the  same  symptoms  as  are  produced 
by  other  agencies  distui'biug  the  bodily  organism. 
Demoniacal  agency  is  not  exerted  through  the 
.spii'itual  upon  the  moral  nature  (this  was  the 
way  in  which  Judas  was  aiiected,  who,  however, 
was  not  possessed  with  a  demon,  —  John  xiii. 
27),  but  through  the  physical  upon  the  rational 
nature.  The  demonized  state  showed  itself  in  a 
kind  of  clainoyance,  the  demons  recognizing 
Christ  to  be  tlie  Son  of  God  (Luke  iv.  31),  in  in- 
sanity (Jlark  V.  3  sqq. ;  Luke  viii.  27),  epilep.sy 
(Luke  ix.  9).  dumbness  (!Matt.  ix.  32,  xii.  22), 
lamene.ss  (Luke  xiii.  11),  and  blindness  (Matt, 
xii.  22).  Ill  all  these  cases  the  victim,  as  well  as 
his  acquaintances,  attributes  the  unnatm'al  state 
to  demonic  agency.  If  the  demonic  influence  was 
in  the  first  instance  physical,  the  question  arises, 
whether,  perchance,  the  cause  of  the  infirmity  is 
not  to  be  looked  for  in  moral  offences.  The  case 
of  the  lunatic  boy  settles  the  question  in  the  nega- 
tive, and  shows  that  the  two  were  not  necessarily 
connected.  He  was  possessed  from  childliood. 
Demonic  possession  is,  therefore,  a  misfortune 
w  hicli  results  from  the  fall  and  sinful  condition  of 
the  race,  and  originates  in  the  disturbing  agency 
of  dark  powers  upon  a  soul  which  is  jxiwerless  to 
resist.  Our  Lord's  cures  of  this  intirmity  were 
effected  by  a  cominand  directed  to  the  demon 
(Matt.  viii.  10).  He  gave  the  disciples  po^\er  to 
do  the  same  (Matt.  x.  1)  ;  and  even  Jews  who 
did  not  belie\-e  in  him  seem  to  have  exercised  it 
(JIatt.  xii.  27).  Joseplius  {De  Dell.  J.,  vii.  6,  3) 
mentions  the  formulas  and  roots  which  were  used 
by  the  Jews,  and  which  were  reported  to  have 
come  down  from  Solomon.  In  this  connection 
it  is  well  to  notice  that  the  demons  usually  tore 
their  victims  as  they  were  about  to  be  cast  out 
(Mark  ix.  20),  and  the  victims  trembled  for  fear 
of  the  cure  (JMark  v.  7). 

2.  Down  to  the  eighteenth  century  the  view 
prevailed  ^lni^"el•sally  that  satanic  agency  was  ex- 
ercised, and  jiroducedtho  infirmities  attributed  to 
demons  in  the  New  Testament.  There  was  a  dif- 
ference of  o]iinioii  about  the  origin  of  the  demons, 
.some  holding  that  they  were  the  souls  of  departed 
men  (Philostratus,  ApolL,  I.  18) ;  others,  that 
they  were  tin.'  spirits  of  the  giants  who  perislied 
in  the  flood  (Pseudo-Clementines,  viii.  18) ;  and 
still  others,  that  they  were  fallen  angels.  In  the 
middle  ages  it  was  held  that  they  still  pursued 
and  po.sses.sed  men ;  and  the  great  question  w  as 
upon  the  power  of  exorcism.  In  the  eighteenth 
century  there  came  a  violent  change,  which  can 
hardly  excite  surprise  when  the  trials  of  tlie 
witches  of  the  preceding  two  centuries  are  remem- 
bered. Ilobbes  (Leviutlian)  was  the  first  to  express 
doubts.  He  was  followed  by  Lardner  (17'i8)  and 
Farmer  (177."i)  in  Kngland,  and  Sender  (17()0)  in 
Germany.  The  latter  made  the  express  statement, 
that  demoniacal  possession  was  nothing  more 
than  in.sanity,  or  some  other  natural  di.sease. 
From  him  tlut  view  )iassed  into  all  ralionali.slic 
commentaries.  That  disea.ses  accomjianied  demo- 
niacal possession  there  can  be  no  doubt ;  but  the 
question  is,  whether  the  diseases  are  to  be  attrib- 
uted to  ii;itnral  causes  or  to  demonic  agency. 
Keference  has  been  made  to  the  belief  in  demonic 
possession  prevalent  in  the  heathen  \\(irld  before 
and  at  the  time  of  Clirist,  and  the  conchisiou  draw  n 
that  it  was  a  mere  superstition  of  the  time.    JIany 


DEMONIACS. 


625 


DENIS. 


■of  the  instances  referred  to,  as  the  excitement  of 
the  Corybantes  and  Bacchanals  (Herodot.,  iv.  79, 
Etirip. ,  Bacch.,  29'i  »qq.)>  have  nothing  analogous 
to  the  possession  of  the  New  Testament,  which 
was  involuntary.  However,  it  is  plain  from  the 
above  reference  to  Joseplms,  that  the  .lews  knew 
of  persons  so  afflicted,  and  that  the  heathen  also 
attempted  to  expel  evil  spirits  with  fornndas  of 
exorcism  (Plutarch,  Sympos.,  vii.  5,  and  JiUcian, 
Philop.,  IG).  But,  even  if  these  were  not  real 
cases,  they  do  not  prove  those  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment to  be  false.  Alongside  of  the  light  of  reve- 
lation in  Isi'ael  vv'ent  the  twilight  of  heathendom, 
and  at  the  side  of  prophecy  those  human  antici- 
pations which  concealed  an  element  of  the  truth. 
On  the  otlier  hand,  if  it  be  granted  that  no  cases 
>of  the  kind  occur  now,  this  cannot  disprove 
their  real  existence.  Refuge  is  also  liad  to  the 
explanation  that  Christ  accommodated  himself  to 
the  view  current  in  his  day.  They  were  purely 
physical  jnaladies ;  but  they  were  popularly  held 
to  be  the  result  of  demonic  agency,  and  Jesus 
fell  in  with  the  belief.  But,  leaving  aside  the 
argument  that  such  a  method  of  procedure  is  at 
•discord  with  his  moral  character,  there  are  pas- 
sages which  are  wholly  inconsistent  with  this  ex- 
planation. In  Luke  xi.  17-2U  he  makes  demonic 
agency  the  subject  of  a  didactic  discourse.  And 
^gain :  he  not  only  never  speaks  a  word  to  dis- 
courage the  popular  belief,  but  repeatedly  speaks 
■on  the  presumption  that  such  agency  was  the 
immediate  cause  of  infirmities  (Matt.  x.  8,  xvii. 
21 ;  Luke  x.  17  sqq.).  Some,  feeling  the  force  of 
these  considerations,  have,  passing  beyond  the 
theory  of  accommodation,  affirmed  that  Jesus,  as 
well  as  his  contemporaries,  was  in  error  as  to  the 
•cause  of  the  diseases  (Paulus).  Christ,  who  is 
the  truth,  teaches  that  there  is  a  kingdom  of 
darkness.  On  rational  grounds  notliing  can  be 
said  in  objection  to  the  doctrine  promulgated  by 
him,  that  this  kingdom  is  composed  of  beings  of 
other  endowments  than  our  own,  who,  having 
fallen  into  sin,  now  employ  their  powers  against 
God  and  man.  Experience  confirms  what  Jesus 
has  taught,  that  they  influence  our  moral  free- 
dom. Passing  one  step  further,  it  can  hardly  be 
■contested,  that,  in  addition  to  this  agency  upon 
man's  spiritual  nature,  they  may  act  through  his 
physical  nature  upon  Ids  rational  soul. 

3.  The  teaching  of  the  New  Testament  about 
the  victims  of  demonic  possession  is  not  iu  con- 
tradiction to  the  principles  of  physiology.  It  is 
a  well-ascertained  fact  that  the  soul,  with  its 
desires,  and  power  of  volition,  exerts  its  influence 
on  the  body,  and  is  no  less  influenced  by  it.  A 
fever,  for  example,  attacking  the  body  of  a  pious 
man,  poisons  the  blood  of  the  brain,  and  thus 
affects  the  soul,  till  it  is  filled  with  the  most  insane 
fancies.  Through  dyspepsia  men  become  gloomy 
and  despondent.  Frequently  a  spiritual  malady  is 
removed  by  removing  a  bodily  complaint.  With 
these  facts,  and  the  well-known  facts  of  animal 
magnetism  before  us,  the  agency  of  demons  be- 
comes intelligible.  If  effects  between  man  and 
man  can  be  produced  by  animal  magnetism,  and 
the  diseases  of  the  body  can  produce  disturbances 
of  the  soul,  so  tlie  beings  of  another  world  may 
influence  and  disturb  botli  the  physical  and  ra- 
tional natures  of  man.  ebr.vrd. 

Lit. — Lardnek:  On  the  Case  of  the  Demoniacs 
41  —  1 


mentioned  in  the  N.  7'.,  London,  1758;  Skmlkr  : 
Commenliitio  de  Diemonicis,  etc.,  Halle,  1760; 
Hugh  Faumeu:  linsaij  on  the  Denions  of  The 
N.  7'.,  London,  1775;  W.  Wouthingto.n  :  An 
Impartial  liupdri/  into  the  Case  of  the  Gospel  Demoni- 
acs, London,  177'S  (llugli  Farmer  replied,  1778, 
and  W'orthington  made  rejoinder,  1779)  ;  Xka.n- 
DER :  Life  of  Christ  (Am.  trans,  pp.  145-157)  ; 
Trench  :  Miracles  (Am.  ed.,  pp.  160  sqq.) ; 
Enci/cl.  liritan.,  art.  Dentonolor/y. 

DEMPSTER,  John,  an  eminent  Methodist  edu- 
cator; b.  in  Florida,  Fulton  County,  X.Y.,  Jan. 
2,  17!)1 ;  d.  at  Kvanston,  111.,  Xov.  L'8,  1803.  He 
was  admitted  into  the  Methodist  Uenesee  Con- 
ference in  1816.  From  1847  to  18.54  he  was  pro- 
fessor in  the  Biblical  Institute,  which  he  founded, 
first  at  Xewbury,  Vt.,  soon  afterwards  removed 
to  Concord,  X.IL,  and  now  at  Boston  as  the 
School  of  Theology,  Boston  University.  From 
1855  till  his  death,  he  was  professor  in  the  Garrett 
Biblical  Institute,  Evanston,  111.  "  The  great 
work  of  his  life  was  the  organization  of  theologi- 
cal seminaries  in  the  ]\Iethodist-Episcopal  Church. 
After  eighteen  years  of  labor  he  saw  two  of  these 
(Concord  and  I^vanston)  in  full  operation,  largely 
as  the  fruit  of  his  own  industry,  energy,  and  per- 
severance." The  only  volume  of  his  published  is 
Lectures  and  Addresses,  Cincinnati,  1864. 

DEMPSTER,  Thomas,  a  Scotch  writer,  b.  at 
Cliftbog,  Aberdeenshire,  Aug.  23,  1579 ;  d.  near 
Bologna,  Sept.  6,  1625.  He  studied  at  Cambridge 
and  Paris,  and  was  professor  at  Pisa  and  Bologna. 
He  stood  high  in  papal  favor,  and  was  remarkably 
gifted.  His  chief  work  is  Hisloria  Ecclesiaslica 
Gentix  Scotorum,  a  biogTaphical  dictionary  of 
Scotchmen,  —  a  very  curious  book,  more  remarka- 
ble for  its  fictions  than  for  its  facts ;  for  he  has 
not  liesitated  to  claim  as  Scotchmen  authors  who 
never  saw  Scotland,  and  to  describe  minutely  the 
lives  of  imaginary  persons. 

DENA'RIUS.     See  Money. 

DENCK,  Johann,  or  Hans,  one  of  the  unruly 
elements  which  disturbed  and  impeded  the  move- 
ment of  the  Reformation ;  is  first  known  as  rector 
of  a  .school  in  Basel,  whence  he  moved,  in  1523,  to 
Xm-emberg,  on  the  recommendation  of  CEcolam- 
padius,  as  rector  of  the  school  of  St.  Sebaldus. 
In  Nuremberg,  however,  he  inunediately  began 
to  preach  openly  the  wild  ideas  he  had  adopted 
from  Thomas  Miinzer  and  the  Anabaptists;  and 
in  1524  he  was  expelled  from  the  city.  In  1525 
he  was  also  expelled  from  Augsliurg,  in  1526  from 
Strassburg,  in  1527  from  Worms.  By  the  influ- 
ence of  (Ecolamjiadius  he  was  allowed  to  return 
to  Basel ;  and  there  he  died,  from  the  plague,  in 
November,  1527.  In  connection  with  L.  Ilaetzer 
he  translated  the  prophetical  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  Worms,  1527;  and  the  translation 
has  its  value.  See  L.  Keller  :  Ein  Aposlel  der 
Wiedertdufer  (Denk),  Leipzig,  1882. 

DENIS,  St.,  the  first  bishop  of  Paris,  the  apostle 
of  the  Franks,  and  the  patron-saint  of  France ; 
came  to  Gaul  about  250,  —  according  to  Gregor'v 
of  Toiu-s  (d.  595),  Hist.  Frank.  I.  28,  — and  died 
by  the  sword,  in  Paris,  probably  under  Aurelian 
(272).  According  to  the  Acts  of  the  martjT,  also 
dating  from  the  sixth  century  {Act.  Sanct.,  Oct.  9). 
he  was  sent  into  the  country  by  Bishop  Clement 
of  Rome,  and  was  accompanied  by  Rusticus,  a 
priest,  and  Eleutherius,  a  deacon.     In  Paris  they 


DENMARK. 


626 


DENMARK. 


were  all  three  torturei.1  and  beheaileJ,  and  thrown 
into  the  Seine ;  but  tlieir  corpses  were  rescued  by 
a  pious  woman,  and  interred  in  a  church  near  by, 
on  the  Montniartre  (Miiitx  Marti/rum,  as  tradition 
has  it ;  though  .l/o».v  j/ecc«r/iwas  the  original  name 
of  the  place).  See  Davix,  La  Tradition  sur  le 
premier  Tombeau  de  St.  Deiii/s,  Paris,  1876.  Thence 
the  relics  were  brought  to  the  afterwards  so  famous 
Abbey  of  St.  Denis,  founded  in  tlie  middle  of  tlie 
seventh  century  by  Dagobert  I.,  and  consecrated 
to  the  memory  6i  the  apostle  of  the  nation  over 
which  he  ruled,  —  the  Franks.  In  the  first  half 
of  the  ninth  century,  Ililduin,  Abbot  of  St.  Denis, 
wrote,  at  the  request  of  Louis  the  Pious,  a  life  of 
the  saint  (Patrol.  Latina,  cvi.  'J'-i) ;  and  here,  for 
the  first  time,  St.  Denis  is  identified  with  Diony- 
sius  the  Areopagite.  But  all  that  great  and 
admirable  activity  which  the  Abbey  of  St.  Denis 
developed  in  the  field  of  French  hi.story  from  the 
ninth  to  the  fourteenth  century  is  concentrated 
upon  the  idea  that  Dionysius  the  Areopagite  is 
the  patron-saint  of  France,  the  star  of  French  his- 
tory. Abelard  had  his  doubts,  but  was  whipped 
into  silence;  and  it  was  not  until  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century  that  Lauuoy  (De  Areopa- 
giticis  Hllduiiii,  Paris,  1041,  and  De  Duobus  Di- 
ony.siis,  Paris,  1010)  and  Sirmond  (Diss,  in  qua 
ostenditur  D.  p.  et  D.  a.  discrinten,  Paris,  lOll) 
succeeded  in  exploding  the  more  than  audacious 
hypothesis.  On  account  of  the  prominent  part 
which  St.  Denis  played  in  French  life  (the  soldiers 
charged  with  his  name  on  their  lips),  his  shrine 
grew  innnensely  rich,  and  the  abbey  became  a 
storehouse,  crowded  and  crammed  with  invaluable 
historical  memorials.  See  Felibien:  Histoire  de 
i'Abb.  de  S.  D.,  Paris,  1706.  But  during  the 
Revolution  it  was  most  barbarously  and  shame- 
fully plundered  (Nov.  Vi,  ITM)  by  a  mob  led  by 
one  of  its  own  priests ;  and  its  relics,  jewelry, 
etc.,  were  carried  on  six  carts  into  the  Convention, 
where  they  disappeared. 

DENMARK.  The  Christianizationof  Denmark 
began  in  thf  eightli  century,  and  was  completed 
in  the  elevi'uth.  Willibrord  was  the  first  Chris- 
tian missionary  wlio  visited  the  country  (about 
700).  Ansgar"(8()0-8()."))  became  its  apostle.  But 
it  was  in  Ireland  that  tlie  Danish  vikings  fir.st 
heard  tlie  tales  about  the  "  White  Clirist;  "  and  it 
was  Knglish  priests  and  monks,  who,  in  the  reign 
of  Canute  the  Great  (lOPl-:!.")),  finally  converted 
the  Danish  people,  and  organized  the  Danish 
Churcli.  The  Anglo-.Saxon  missionary  under- 
.stood  the  Danes,  and  was  understood  by  them ; 
wliile  the  Frankisli  or  Franco-Saxon  was  com- 
pelled to  use  interpreter.s,  or  learn  a  foreign  lan- 
guage. 

Denmark  belonged  originally  to  the  archi-opis- 
copal  .see  of  Ilaniburg-BremiMi,  and  the  relation 
was  generally  very  pleasant.  It  was  purely  po- 
litical rea.sonswhicn  made  the  Danish  kings  lianker 
aftt^ran  iiide])eiiileiit  Danish  archbishop.  In  1101 
tliey  got  liim  settled  at  l-uiid  ;  and  in  110.')  began 
the  contest  between  the  royal  power  and  the 
liierarchy.  In  the  latter  jiart  of  the  thirteeiitli 
century  the  contest  reacli(-d  its  climax  ;  Imt  the 
liierarchy  was  utterly  vaii<|nislied.  It  f<juglit  in 
Denmark  at  many  disadvantages.  The  Konian 
law  never  cro.s.sed  the  Kider.  The  law  of  tlie 
land  wii.H  a  national  growth,  on  which  it  proved 
impossible   to    ingraft    the   canon    law.       Tints 


the  Koman  Church  remained  an  institution  with- 
out any  basis.  It  had  no  head,  either.  The  Pope 
was  too  far  away.  Even  among  the  clergy  he 
could  not  enforce  his  decrees  without  the  aid  of 
the  king,  which,  however,  the  king  often  was- 
foolish  enough  to  give  hiin,  as,  for  instance, 
in  the  case  of  celibacy;  but  the  Peter's-Pence 
was  never  paid,  and  the  appeals  were  rare.  On 
the  whole,  the  temperature  was  too  low  for  the 
Roman  Church.  Tlie  papal  lightning  froze  before 
it  struck.  When  an  archbishop  was  killed,  he 
made  no  miracles.  Tlie  Inquisition  was  sonie- 
tliing  entirely  unknown.  The  Koman  Church  was 
rich ;  liut  it  had,  comparatively,  no  power,  and 
when  the  Reformation  came  it  could  make  no 
resistance.  There  .seems  to  have  been  no  spon- 
taneous reformatory  impulse  among  the  Danes. 
The  movement  came  from  Germany  ;  but  it  spread 
instantaneously  through  the  whole  people,  and. 
at  the  Diet  of  Copenhagen  (1.536),  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Church  was  quietly  abolished;  its  whole 
authority,  spiiritual  and  secular,  was  abrogated, 
and  ^•ested  in  the  crown ;  all  its  property  was  con- 
fiscated, and  divided  between  the  king  and  tlie 
nobility ;  and  the  bishops  themselves,  all  but  one. 
signed  the  instrument  of  the  transaction. 

In  Denmark  the  period  of  the  Reformation  was 
one  of  new  beginnings  in  almost  every  field  of 
human  life.  But  the  spring  was  very  short,  and 
there  came  no  summer.  A  fiendish  current  of 
intolerance  set  in.  Protestants  of  the  French  Re- 
formed Church,  who  sought  refuge  in  the  country, 
weie  rudely  dri\en  away ;  and  a  royal  ordinance 
of  15S0  made  death  the  penalty  for  introducing 
a  copy  of  the  Formula  Concordia  into  the  realm. 
But  in  the  seventeenth  century  the  Danish  Church 
developed  one  of  the  strictest  forms  of  ortho- 
dox Lutheranism :  also  one  of  the  most  barren. 
There  was  a  church,  but  hardly  any  religion; 
formulas  enough, 'but  no  life;  much  di.sputation, 
but  without  ideas  ;  and  the  learned  parson,  who 
often  played  the  part  of  the  court-fool  in  the 
mansion  of  the  nobleman,  was  generally,  by  his 
peasant  Hock,  considered  a  kind  of  magician. 

Ill  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
pietists  came,  in  the  train  of  a  German  princess 
who  became  Queen  of  Denmark.  There  was  a 
little  too  much  "blood  "  and  "wounds"  in  their 
preaching,  and  a  little  too  much  prohiliition  ami 
punishment  in  their  disciiiline  ;  but  thev  brought 
life.  'I'hey  clo.sed  the  theatres,  tethered  literature, 
put  ])Oor  people  in  the  stocks,  and  fined  the  rich 
ones,  when  they  did  not  go  to  church  twice  every 
Sunday,  etc.  But  they  brought  With  them  the 
Confirm.atioii,  which  jnoved  one  of  the  noblest 
moral  agencies  in  Danish  society,  and  a  new  kind 
of  hymns,  which  melted  the  indifference  of  the 
preceding  century  into  enthusiasm,  thougli  of  a 
somewhat  sentimental  descrii)tion.  How  deep  an 
imi>ri'ssion  the  jiietists  made  became  apjiareiit 
from  their  encounter  with  the  rationalists.  Ra- 
tionalism was  also  a  foreign  importation,  but  from 
France,  rather  tlian  from  (iermany,  and  reached 
Denmark  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fighteeiith  cen- 
tury. The  radicals  among  the  ]iarty  pro|iosed  to 
use  the  churches  as  ))iiblic  warehou.ses,  and  employ 
the  ministers  as  lecturers  on  agriculture  and  po- 
litical economy ;  but  such  proiiositions  had,  of 
cour.se,  no  other  effect  than  producing  some  scan- 
dal   and    laughter.      (iuito   otherwise   with    tin? 


DENMARK. 


627 


DBRESER. 


milder,  moi'c  cautious,  ami  more  dignifieJ  form 
of  rationali.sm,  with  its  fin«  artistic  taste,  ami 
broad  sciciilitic  sense.  It  took  possession  of  tlie 
cliuirli  and  tlie  school;  and,  wlieresoever  it  came 
in  contiict  with  the  pietism  of  tlie  peasants,  it  used 
force.     See  article  on  Bai.lk. 

The  overthrow  of  rationalism  in  Denmark,  in 
the  tlurd  decade  of  tlie  present  century,  took 
place  with  an  almost  dramatic  effect.  Its  chief 
representative,  II.  N.  Clausen,  a  young  man,  but 
a  man  of  great  ability,  was  professor  of  tlieology 
in  the  university,  ami  stood  as  the  acknowledged 
teacher  of  the  Danish  Church.  Suddenly  he  was 
most  violently  attacked  by  X.  F.  S.  Grundtvig, 
then  a  minister  in  the  church.  Grundtvig  was 
an  offshoot  of  the  pietists;  but  the  old,  narrow, 
and  somewhat  low-bred  pietism  was  here  trans- 
fused wdth  the  young  enthusia-sm  of  the  Konian- 
tic  school,  and  connected  with  a  strong,  practical 
instinct  of  liberty  and  democracy.  It  was  not 
the  old  family  pietism,  whose  exclusiveness  was 
almost  sure  to  run  counter  to  any  form  of  an 
established  church,  but  a  grand  idea  of  the  will 
of  God,  which  demanded  a  whole  people  for  its 
realization.  See  article  on  Guuxdtvig.  The  con- 
troversy ended  with  a  lawsuit  (1827).  Grundt- 
vig was  suspended,  forbidden  to  perform  any  of 
the  offices  of  the  Christian  ministry,  put  under 
royal  censorship,  etc.  Then  the  contest  began. 
Clausen's  victory  produced  just  lieat  enough  in 
the  hearts  of  his  adversaries  to  allow  Gruudtvig's 
ideas  to  germinate ;  and  a  party  began  immedi- 
ately to  form.  In  1840  it  was  necessary  to  re- 
instate Grundtvig  in  his  office.  In  1850  it  was 
evident  that  the  Danisli  people  was  going  to  be- 
long to  him,  whatsoever  might  become  of  the  Dan- 
ish Church.  Before  lie  died,  his  pupils  held  the 
most  prominent  places  both  in  the  church  and  the 
school,  and  were  numerous  enough  in  the  constitu- 
tional representation  of  the  people  to  turn  the 
scales  the  way  they  wanted.  There  is  now  hardly 
a  mouse-hole  in  the  Danish  Church  in  wdiich  the 
influence  of  N.  F.  S.  (irundtvig  is  not  visible; 
while  the  influence  of  II.  !Martensen  and  Soren 
Kierkeguard  has  hitherto  hardly  penetrated  be- 
yond the  literature. 

During  all  these  vicissitudes  the  constitution  of 
the  Danish  Church  has  remained  almost  unaltered 
for  three  centuries.  It  was  established  by  the 
diet  of  Copenhagen  in  153G.  The  "  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Church  "  was  then  called  tlie  "  Church 
of  the  Country,"  and  no  other  denomination  was 
tolerated.  Tlie  legislation  of  the  absolute  mon- 
archy, under  Christian  V.  (1070-09),  confirmed 
this  constitution,  and  it  was  not  abrogated  by 
the  freer  constitution  of  June  ■>,  18i!).  The 
"  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church "  is  here  called 
the  "  Church  of  the  People,"  and  is,  as  such,  en- 
titled to  the  support  of  the  .State ;  but  other  de- 
nominations were  allowed  free  exercise  of  their 
religions,  and  all  social  or  political  disqualifica- 
tions or  restrictions  attached  to  religion  were 
abolished.  The  changes  w^hicli  have  taken  place 
sdiice  1819  all  point  in  the  direction  of  greater 
freedom.  A  law  of  April  4,  185.5,  dissolved  the 
parochial  bound  so  far  as  to  allow  any  member 
of  a  parish  to  join  the  congregation  of  a  neigh- 
boring minister.  The  law  of  May  15,  1868,  al- 
lowed the  establishment  of  free  congregations 
within  the  Established  Church,  that  is,  of  congre- 


gations that  choose  and  pay  tlieir  ministers  them- 
selves. The  sabbath-law  of  April  7,  1870,  forbids 
all  business,  "  inside  and  outside  the  house,"  be- 
tween nine  a.m.  and  four  I'.M.  on  Sundays  and 
holidays,  but  does  not  interfi-re  with  the  old  cus- 
tom, according  to  which  Sunday  evening  is  consid- 
ered the  most  proper  time  for  social  gathering.s 
and  merry-making.  Of  the  iuliabitants  of  the 
country,  1,709,583  ai'e  Lutherans,  4,290  Jews, 
0,223  Baptists,  1,707  belong  to  the  Reformed 
Church,  etc.  ;  and  these  figures,  taken  from  the 
census  of  1870,  are  nearly  identical  with  those  of 
the  census  of  1800.  CLEMENS  PETERSEN- 

DENS,  Peter,  b.  at  Boom  in  Belgium,  1090;  d. 
at  Maliiii's  as  archpriest  of  St.  Rumold's  Cliurch, 
Feb.  1.5,  1775;  was  tlie  author  of  a  TheoliKjia  Mo- 
rails  et  Do(/matica,  which  was  often  reprinted  (e.g. 
Dublin,  1832,  4  vols.),  and  much  u.sed  as  a  text- 
book in  Iioman-Catholic  seminaries.  .See  J.  F. 
ISeik;  :  Si/nopxix  of  llie  TIk nloqii  of  Peter  Dens, 
Philadelphia,  181(i,  4tli  ed.  ISliii. 

DENUNCIATIO  EVANGELICA,  a  term  of 
canon  law  and  Roman-Catholic  morals,  means 
the  denunciation  of  sin  before  an  ecclesiastical 
authority.  But  as  every  civil  case  —  for  instance, 
the  non-payment  of  a  debt  —  may  be  conceived  of 
as  a  sin,  it  may,  according  to  the  principle  in- 
volved in  the  dciiunciatio  ecanyelica,  be  drawn 
into  an  ecclesiastical  court. 

DEPOSITION,  a  term  of  canon  law,  wlilch,  in 
the  ancient  chui'ch,  meant  the  deprivation  not 
only  of  benefice  and  office,  but  also  of  orders, 
but  which,  from  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, came  to  mean,  in  contradistinction  to  degi'a- 
dation,  a  simple  deprivation  of  benefice  and  office, 
but  not  of  orders.  .Vfter  deposition,  re-instate- 
inent  is  possible,  but  after  degradation  not.  In 
some  free  Protestant  churches,  however,  not  de- 
pendent on  .State  .authority,  degradation  and  depo- 
sition are  synonymous.     See  Degrad.\tion. 

DEPRIVATION  "the  taking-away"  (deprivatiu), 
for  cause,  of  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land from  his  preferment.  There  are  two  sorts 
of  deprivations,  —  dejirivalio  a  benejicia,  when  the 
deprivation  is  from  the  living  simply,  in  punish- 
ment of  an  atrocious  offence ;  and  depricalio  ah 
officio,  deprivation  of  clerical  standing,  or  degi-Or 
dation  (which  see). 

DEPUTATUS,  in  the  Greek  Church  ((!E7r6ra7  0(), 
means  a  lower  class  of  ecclesiastics,  who,  on 
solemn  occasions,  accompany  the  bishops  or  dea- 
cons with  lighted  tapers,  but  form  no  special  order 
themselves.  In  tlie  Roman  Church,  deputali 
occur  as  directors  of  reyiunculw.  As  the  diocese 
is  divided  into  deaneries,  so  the  larger  deaneries 
are  sometimes  divided  into  regiuncula: :  and  the 
director  or  superintendent  of  sucli  a  division,  the 
df'pu/nliis,  is  generally  subject  to  the  authority 
of  the  dean,  though,  in  some  cases,  he  ranks  im- 
mediately under  the  bishop,  and  the  dean  is 
simph'  jiri/tiii.i  iiiler pores. 

DERESER,  Thaddaus  Anton,  b.  Feb.  9,  1757, 
at  Fahr  in  Franconia;  d.  July  10,  1827,  at  Bres- 
lau;  studied  philosophy  and  theology  at  AViirz- 
burg  and  Heidelberg;  was  ordained  a  priest 
(1780),  and  appointed  professor  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages in  the  I'niversity  of  Bonn  (1783)  ;  moved 
in  1790  to  Strassburg,  in  1797  to  Heidelberg,  and 
in  1807  to  Freiburg.  In  1810  he  was  made  par- 
ish  priest   at   Carlsruhe,   but  was   dismissed   in 


DBRHAM. 


628 


DESCARTES. 


ISll,  on  account  of  a  funeral  sermon  over  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Bade;  became  professor  at  the 
Lyceum  of  Luzerii  in  1811,  but  was  suddenly 
discharged  in  1S14,  and  was  in  1815  made  pro- 
fessor in  Breslau.  He  belonged  to  the  liberal 
wing  of  the  lloman  Church,  and  his  Tu  es  Ptlrus 
(1790)  was  put  on  the  Index.  He  published 
commentaries,  and  a  translation  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. 

DERHAM,  William,  b.  at  Stowton,  near  Worces- 
ter, Kng.,  Xov.  27,  1657 ;  d.  at  Upminster,  where 
he  had  been  rector  since  1689,  April  5,  1735.  lie 
was  graduated  from  Oxford,  1675,  made  F.Iv.S., 
1702,  canon  of  AVindsor,  1716,  D.D.,  Oxford, 
1730.  He  was  the  author  of  tlie  once  famous 
Phijsko-lheology,  London,  1713  (the  substance  of 
his  Boyle  Lectures  for  1711,  1712),  new  ed.,  1798,  2 
vols.,  French  trans.,  Rotterdam.  1726,  German 
trans.,  Hamburg,  1730;  Astro-theology,  London, 
1714,  4th  ed.,  1726,  French  trans.,  Paris,  1729, 
German  trans.,  Ilambiu'g,  1765 :  Christo-theology 
(a  sermon  on  Acts  xxvi.  28),  London,  1730 ;  and  I 
A  Defence  of  the  Church's  Right  in  Leasehold  Estate, 
London,  1731.  See  Account  of  his  Life  and  Writ- 
ings, in  last  edition  of  his  Pliysico-theoiogy. 

DERVISH,  or  DERVISE,  a' Persian  word,  signi- 
fying '■  tlie  sill  of  the  door,"  or  those  who  beg 
from  door  to  door.  Dervishes  are  a  Mohamme- 
dan approach  to  Christian  monks,  while  tlie 
ulemas  are  the  secular  clergy.  They  are  bound 
by  oaths  of  poverty,  cliastity,  and  liumility,  and 
live  together  in  comnumities,  under  the  headship 
of  a  sheik.  But,  unlike  monks,  some  of  them 
are  allowed  to  marry,  and  live  outside  of  the 
convent,  although  they  must  pass  at  least  two 
nights  of  every  week  within.  There  are  numer- 
ous orders  of  dervishes,  the  largest  and  most 
popular  being  the  Mederis  (from  ]Mevlevi  Jelal 
ed-Din  cl-Kumi,  a  Persian  poet  of  the  thirteentli 
century)  and  the  Rufais  (from  .Sheik  Alimed 
Rufai,  who  dates  from  11S2),  called  by  travellers 
tlie  •'  whirlers  "  or  ••  dancers,"  and  the  "  howlers," 
respectively.  The  former  is  joined  by  persons  of 
the  highest  I'ank ;  Imt,  if  they  do  not  go  beyond 
the  first  stage,  they  may  meet  all  requirennMits 
by  saying  a  few  prayers  at  lioiiie,  and  wearing 
for  a  lew  minutes  every  day  the  sacred  cap.  Rut 
he  who  sets  out  seriously  to  win  the  goal  of  full 
membership  must  undergo  one  thousand  and  one 
days  of  menial  labor,  during  whicli  he  is  called 
"jackal."  Then  lie  is  given  tlie  woollen  belt  with 
its  cabalistic  "stone  of  contentment,"  the  ear- 
rings .shaped  liki!  the  horseshoe  of  All,  the  mantle, 
the  rosary  with  the  ninety-nine  names  of  (iod, 
and  the  laj,  or  white  cap.  The  public  .services 
they  conduct  are  certainly  fanatical,  and  yet  wit- 
nessed by  the  i)eople  with  the  utmost  decorum  and 
solemnity.  The  Dancing  Dervishes,  dies.s('d  in 
white  flowing  gowns,  and  with  high  white  hats 
of  stiff  woollen  stuff,  after  ineliminaiy  exercises 
of  prayer  and  prostration,  whirl  around  u|u)n  the 
left  heel  to  the  music  of  flutes  ami  tambourines, 
ring  within  ring,  without  touching  each  oIIum', 
their  hands  outstretched,  their  eyes  half  clo.sed, 
and  their  faces  fanatically  illumined,  all  the  time 
quietly  liut  clo.sely  watched  by  the  sheik.  'I'liev 
keeji  up  this  extraordinary  performance,  willi 
brief  intervals  of  rest,  for  an  hour,  and  give  a 
performance  once  a  week.  'I'lie  Howling  Der- 
vishes, either  in  line  or  a  ring,  sway  themselves 


backward  and  forward,  crying  incessantly  and 
with  all  their  might,  "Xa  ilahd  ill' Allah"  ("  Xo 
(jod  but  Allah "),  until  they  drop  from  sheer 
exhaustion.  It  is  a  wild  sjiectacle,  which,  to  a 
European,  has  neither  dignity  nor  sense,  but  im- 
presses one  with  the  tremendous  power  of  fanati- 
cism. 

Besides  the  members  of  the  regular  orders, 
there  are  many  dervishes  in  the  ^lohammedan 
world  who  wander  about  and  sujjport  themselves, 
and  even  acquii'e  great  wealth,  by  their  incanta- 
tions, feats  of  legerdemain,  and  other  kinds  of 
more  or  less  conscious  impostiu'e.  The  dervishes 
as  a  class  have  great  power  among  the  people, 
but  are  dreaded  by  the  sultans,  because  they  do 
not  recognize  the  legal  exposition  of  the  Koran, 
nor  acknowledge  the  authority  of  any  other  than 
their  spiritual  chief,  or  of  Allah  himself  speaking 
directly  to  them.  See  J.  P.  Brown:  History  of 
the  Dervishes,  Philadelphia,  18G8 ;  Osman-Bev  : 
Lcs  Imams  et  les  Derciches,  pratiques,  superstitions  et 
mcLurs  (Its  Inures,  Paris,  1881. 

DE  SACY.     See  Sacy,  De. 

DE  SALES.     See  Sales,  De. 

DESCARTES,  Rene  (Renatus  Cartesius)  was  b. 
at  La  Haye  in  Touraine,  March  30,  1596,  and  d. 
in  Stockholm,  Feb.  11,  16.50.  lie  received  his 
first  education  in  the  College  of  the  Jesuits,  at  La 
Fleche,  and  served  afterwards  (1617-22),  first 
under  Maurice  of  Nassau,  then  under  Maximilian 
of  Bavaria,  and  finally  under  Tilly,  noi.  from  any 
passion  for  war,  but  in  order  to  gather  knowledge 
of  men  and  manners.  In  the  latter  part  of  liis 
life  he  travelled  much,  for  the  same  purpose. 
He  visited  Italy  and  Denmark,  England  and 
Hungary.  His  home  he  fixed  in  lloUand  (from 
1629),  for  the  sake,  he  says  himself,  of  that  quiet 
and  seclusion  which  he  found  necessary  for  a 
meditative  life,  but  more  probably  in  order  to  be 
safely  out  of  the  reacli  of  the  Roman-Catholic 
Church.  In  1649  he  went  to  .Stockholm  on  the 
invitation  of  Queen  Christina,  the  eccentric 
daughter  of  Gustavus  Adolphus. 

In  pursuance  of  the  principle  de  omnibus  est  dti- 
bitandum  ("you  shall  doubt  about  every  thing"), 
Descartes  arrived  at  his  cogito  ergo  sum  ("  I  am, 
because  I  think ")  as  an  ultimate  fact  of  con- 
sciousness whicli  cannot  be  doubted.  From  this 
point  of  primary  unity  between  thought  and 
l)eing,  —  the  corner-stone  of  the  ontological  evi- 
dence of  the  existence  of  (iod.  —  he  developed  a 
system  of  unmitigated  dualism.  In  man,  for 
instance,  soul  and  Isody  toiu'li  each  other  only  at 
one  single  point,  the  pineal  gland  of  the  brain, 
and  animals  are  mere  machines  ;  a  doctrine  which, 
with  some  of  his  disciples,  —  the  physician  I)(?la- 
forge,  the  theologian  ^lalebranche,  etc.,  —  gave 
rise  to  very  singular  conceptions.  In  the  social 
circles  of  Paris  his  jihilosoiihy  was  received  with 
great  enthusiasm.  The  Duke  de  Luynes  trans- 
lated his  Latin  writings  into  French,  and  Ro- 
hant's  lectures  were  frequented  by  ladies  and 
gentlemen  of  the  highest  rank.  The  congrega- 
tions also  accepted  it ;  that  of  the  Oratory,  IJe- 
ruUe,  Malebranche,  etc. ;  that  of  Port  Royal, 
Arnauld,  Xicole,  etc.  The  Jesuits,  howmer, 
proved  averse ;  and  at  their  instance  the  Roman 
curia  forbade  the  printing  and  reading  of  Des- 
cartes' writings.  In  France  the  prohibition  wa.s- 
enforced  by  a  royal  decree ;  but  it  fell  soon  into 


DESERT. 


629 


DETERMINISM. 


desuetude,  as  many  of  the  most  promiiieiit  char- 
acters of  the  Galilean  Church,  Bussuot,  F(!nelon, 
etc.,  were  Cartesians.  In  llollauil,  too,  llescartes' 
philosophy  exercised  consideralile  inrtaence  on 
theology;  though  at  one  time  it  was  accused  of 
being  atheistic,  and  generally  was  confounded 
with  the  views  of  Cocceius.  When,  however, 
Descartes'  doctrine  of  vortices  had  been  com- 
pletely superseded  by  Newton,  and  his  views  of 
innate  ideas  were  abandoned  for  those  of  Ilobbes 
and  Locke,  Cartesianisni  gradually  lost  all  direct 
influence,  and  lived  on  oidy  through  its  con- 
tinuators,  Leibnitz,  Wolff,  etc. 

The  principal  works  of  Descartes  are,  D!scours 
tie  la  Melhode  (Leyden,  1637),  Medilatimies  de 
Prima  Philusopliia,  Paris  (1041),  Princijjia  P/iiloso- 
phiie  (Amsterdam,  1044),  of  wliich  three  works  an 
Englisli  translation  was  published  in  Edinburgh, 
1858.  A  collected  edition  of  his  works  appeared 
at  Amsterdam,  1092-1701,  in  8  vols. ;  another 
was  given  by  V.  Cousin,  Paris,  1824-20,  11  vols., 
to  which  were  added  some  (Eueres  Incdites,  Paris, 
1859-60  ;  (JEucres  pldlosophiques  de  Descartes,  Paris, 
1835,  4  vols.,  ed.  by  Garnier,  with  life  and  analy- 
sis. See,  also,  A.  Kocii .  Die  Psychologie  Descartes', 
si/stemalisch  u.  historisch-h-itisch  bearbeitet,  Miin- 
chen,  1881.  His  life  was  written  by  A.  Baillet  : 
La  Vie  de  M.  des  Carles,  Paris,  1091,  2  vols.  The 
principal  works  on  Descartes  are,  Bouii.lier  : 
Histoire  de  la  PIdlosophie  Carte'sienne,  Paris,  1854 ; 
S.\ISSET :  Pre'cursettrs  et  Disciples  de  D.,  Paris, 
1802 ;  Millet  :  Descartes,  sa  vie,  ses  travaux,  ses 
decouvertes  avant  1637,  Paris,  1867;  Jeaunel: 
D.  et  la  princesse  palatine,  Paris,  1S69 ;  Boudas- 
Demoulin  :  Le  Cartesianisme,Va.ris,lS7i;  J.  P. 
Mahaffy  :  Descartes,  London,  1880.  A  new  Eng. 
trans,  of  the  Meditations,  by  Richard  Lowndes, 
London,  1878.     See,  also,  art.  God. 

DESERT  is  the  English  equivalent  in  tlie  Au- 
thorized Version  for  four  Hebrew  words,  no  one 
of  which  means  "a  sandy  waste,"  but,  on  the 
contrary,  simply  "unfilled  pasture-land,  which 
may  be  covered  with  a  luxuriant  vegetation." 
The  four  words  are :  1.  Arahah  (n3"li^,),  the  name 
of  the  remarkable  depression  which  runs  from 
the  Sea  of  Galilee  to  the  Gulf  of  Akabah  ;  this 
tract,  though  now  waste  and  parched,  is  capable 
of  culti>'ation  (the  Hebrew  word  occurs  only  in 
tlie  propliets  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel) ;  2. 
Midbar^^y}^,  "pasture-land");  3.  Horbah  (n3-in) 
occurs  only  three  times  in  the  Hebrew  (Ps.  cii.  6; 
Isa.  xlviii.  21  ;  Ezek.  xiii.4);  4.  Yeshimon  (pO'C/'). 
See  Young's  Concordance  under  Desert,  for  the 
151  ble   )iassages. 

DESERT,  Church  of  the.  See  Camisards, 
Huguenots. 

DES  MARETS,  Samuel  (Latin,  Maresius),  b. 
at  Oisi'niont,  Picardy.  Aug.  9,  1.599;  d.  at  Gron- 
ingen.  May  IS,  1073  ;  studied  theology  at  Saunuir 
and  Geneva ;  and  was  appointed  jjastor  at  Laon 
(1020),  professor  at  Sedan  (1024),  pastor  at  Maes- 
tricht  (1032),  and  at  Bois-le-Duc  (1030),  and 
professor  at  Groningen  (1043).  Though  up  to  his 
twelfth  year  he  took  no  otlier  food  than  milk,  and 
though,  in  his  very  first  controversy  with  the 
Jesuits  at  Laon,  he  was  stabbed  in  t)ie  chest  by 
way  of  argumentation,  he  was  one  of  the  most 
jirolitic  and  most  rabid  polemics  of  tlie  Reformed 
Churcli,  pursuing  with  equal  zest  the  liberal  ten- 
dency represented  by   tlie   Academy  of  Saumur 


(AmjTaut),  the  Socinians,  and  the  Jesuits.  He 
wrote  more  than  a  hundred  works,  of  which  a  list 
is  given  in  La  France  Protestante ;  but  they  ai'e 
now  all  foi-giitti-n. 

DESMARETS  DE  SAINT-SORLIN,  Jean,  1). 
in  Paris,  1595;  d.  there  l(i70 ;  began  his  public 
career  as  a  debaucluMl  fool,  and  ended  it  as  a 
hypocritical  rascal,  equally  ridiculous  and  equally 
vicious  in  both  characters.  Before  his  conversion, 
he  manufactured  poetry  of  all  descriptions :  after 
his  conversion,  he  nuinufactured  visions  of  the 
worst  kind.  His  Les  Dclices  de  I'espril,  l^ai-is, 
1058,  fob,  pretends  to  be  a  connnentary  on  the 
Revelation,  by  which  he  felt  authorized  to  promise 
Louis  XIV.  and  the  Pope  an  army  of  one  hun- 
dred thousand  faithful  to  destroy  the  Turks  and 
the  Jansenists.  He  is  now  known  only  from  the 
infamous  manner  in  which  he  brought  Simon 
jMorin  to  the  stake,  and  from  Nicole's  Lettres 
imayinaires,  Paris,  1604-66. 

d'ESSERVANT,  in  the  Galilean  Church,  means, 
first,  a  priest  ajipointed  by  the  bishop  to  perform 
all  ecclesiastical  functions  in  a  parish  during  a 
vacancy;  second,  a  priest  occupying  an  ecclesia 
succnrsalis.  In  contradistinction  to  the  ecclesia 
parochialis  (the  true  parish-church),  there  are 
in  France,  Belgium,  and  the  Rhenish  Provinces, 
a  great  number  of  auxiliary  churches  (ecclesice 
succursales),  organized  in  places  where  the  congre- 
gation was  found  too  large  for  the  parish-church, 
whose  occupants,  the  desservants,  differ  from  the 
curates  only  by  having  a  smaller  salary,  and  by 
standing  more  directly  under  the  control  of  the 
bishop. 

DESUBAS  (Mathieu  Majal),  a  pastor  of  the 
Desert,  so  called  from  his  birthplace ;  b.  at 
Desubas,  1720 ;  d.  as  a  martyr,  at  Montpellier, 
Feb.  2, 1746.  As  pastor  of  Vivarais  he  sat  in  the 
National  Synod  of  Bas  Languedoe,  Aug.  18,  1744, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  wisdom  and 
patriotism.  He  was  arrested  April  0,  1745,  and 
taken  to  Vernoux.  The  supplications  of  a  throng 
of  his  parishioners  were  answered  by  a  round  of 
musketry,  and  so  the  "  massacre  of  Vernoux " 
took  place.  He  was  tried,  condemned  to  die,  and 
accordingly  executed,  at  the  age  of  twenty-six. 
See  D.  Benoit  :  Une  rictime  de  l' intolerance  au 
X  VIII.  sibcle.  Desubas,  son  ministtre,  son  martyre 
(1720-46),  d'apr'es  des  documents  inedits,  Toulouse, 
1879. 

DETERMINISM  is  the  common  name  for  all 
those  theories  of  the  human  will  which  represent 
it  as  absolutely  determined  by  motives  which  lie 
entirely  outside  of  it,  thereby  reducing  its  free- 
dom to  a  mere  delusion.  Tliere  is  a  dogmatic  de- 
terminism, which,  in  order  to  glorify  the  majesty 
of  (iod,  excludes  all  other  causality  from  human 
action  but  God  himself  (Luther,  De  servo  arbitrio); 
and  there  is  a  philosophical  determinism,  which 
explains  all  human  actions  as  residts  of  surround- 
ing circumstances  (La  Mettrie).  There  is  a 
fatalistic  determinism,  which  places  God  himself 
in  the  grip  of  an  iron  necessity  (the  ancient  idea 
of  Nemesis,  Islam)  ;  and  there  is  a  pantheistic  de- 
terminism, which  makes  even  the  faintest  gleam 
of  human  freedom  vanish  into  the  darkness  of  a 
natural  process  (the  Hindoos,  Stoicism,  Spinoza). 
Indeed,  like  the  chameleon,  determinism  is  capa- 
ble of  assuming  the  color  of  any  thing  which 
happens  to  be  next  to  it,  and  fanaticism  is  as  apt 


DEUTSCHMANN. 


630 


DEVAY. 


to  produce  it  as  indifference ;  but  it  is  always 
characterized  by  placing  freedom  and  necessity  in 
such  an  opposition  to  each  other  that  the  former 
disappears.  One  of  the  most  interesting  forms 
under  which  determinism  lias  appeared  in  theolo- 
gy is  that  which  it  received  from  Schleiermacher 
and  his  school.  See  I.  P.  Komaxg  :  Ueher  Willens- 
freihed  und  Delenninhmus,  Bern,  1S35. 

DEURHOFF,  William,  b.  in  Amsterdam,  1050; 
d.  thfre  1717;  was  a  basket-maker  by  profession, 
but  a  speculative  genius  by  nature ;  studied  the- 
olog\-  and  philosophy,  tliough  in  a  desidtory  and  j 
uus\"stematic  way ;  lectured  in  the  evenings,  often  I 
to  large  audiences ;  wrote  books,  which  were  pub- 
lished in  a  collected  edition  (171o),  and  caused 
considerable  stir  in  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church. 
His  special  study  was  Descartes;  and  the  Cartesian 
occasionalism  found  great  favor  with  him.  Still, 
his  ideas  of  God  as  a  mere  force  pervading  the 
universe,  and  of  the  individual  human  soul  as  a 
mere  modification  of  the  one  thinking  substance, 
show  his  affinity  to  Spinoza. 

DEUSDEOIT,  also  called  Deodatus,  Adeodatus, 
sometimes  Adeodatus  I,,  in  opposition  to  the 
usual  bearer  of  tliat  name  (see  title) ;  b.  in  Kome, 
according  to  one  report ;  the  son  of  a  sub-deacon, 
Stephanus ;  and  chosen  Pope  in  61.5,  after  the 
death  of  Boniface  IV. ;  d.  618.  His  life  is  con- 
nected with  legends,  and  his  pontificate  with  false 
decretals ;  but  he  has  passed  into  the  galaxy  of 
Roman-Catholic  saints,  and  is  commemorated 
Xov.  0.  IIEKZOG. 

DEUSINC,  Herman,  b.  at  Oroningen,  JIarch 
14,  Hl.'il;  (1.  there  Jan  3,  17-J2 ;  studied,  first 
mathematics  and  medicine,  but  afterwards  the- 
ologj',  and  made  himself  known  as  one  of  the  most 
extreme  representatives  of  tlie  typical  school  of 
.scriptural  interpreters,  by  his  Ilisturiti  Al!ei/<irica 
V.  et  N.  Testamenli  (1690),  Commenlnrhis  MijMi- 
cus  in  Dcraloijum  (1700),  and  j\li/xlcrium  S. 
Triadas  (1712).  Having  been  accused  of  heresy, 
and  excounnunieated  by  the  Dutch  Reformed 
Church,  he  jninccl  thi'  AValloon  Church. 

DEUTERO-CANONICAL.     Si^e  .ArocKVi-iiA. 

DEUTERON'OMY.     See  Pi;m  ATircii. 

DEUTSCH,  Emanuel  Oscar  Menahem,  an  emi- 
nent Oriental  .schiilar;  b.  of  Jewish  jjurenls,  Oct. 
28,  18'20,  at  Neis.se,  Prussian  Silesia;  d.  at  Alex- 
andria, Egypt,  May  V2,  187.!.  His  uncle,  a  learned 
rabbi,  gave  him  his  early  education,  and  he 
studied  at  Berlin.  From  18.").5  to  his  death  he  was 
assistant  in  the  library  of  tlie  British  Museum. 
He  contributed  articles  to  (,'hamliers's  Kncyflo- 
pcrdia,  Kitto's  and  .Smitli's  Bibh;  dictionaries, 
and  to  various  periodicals.  Prom  childhood  Ik; 
was  a  student  of  the  Talmud,  and  inteiuled  to 
write  an  elaborate  volume  upon  it.  In  October, 
1867,  he  jiublished  an  article  on  The  Tiihnud,  in 
The  QiHirterlji  He.iiiir.  By  it  he  became  famous. 
The  article  was  translateil  within  a  year  into 
French,  fieruian,  Russian,  .Swedish,  Dutch,  and 
Danish.  But  hard  work  induced  di.sease,  and 
deatli  drew  on  apace.  Twice  he  visited  the  Fast, — 
in  I860  and  1.S72.  Besides  in  Ib.'brew,  Deutsch 
made  remarkable  attainments  in  Sanscrit,  Chal- 
dee,  Aramaic,  ami  Pluenician.  Ills  Remainn, 
edited  by  Laily  .Strangford,  with  a  brief  sketch, 
appeared,  London  and  New  York,  1871. 

DEUTSCHMANN,  Johann,  b.  at  Wittenberg, 
Aug.  10,  162.J;  d.  there  Aug.  12,  1706;  waa  pro- 


fessor of  theology  from  1G57,  and  was  one  of  the 
most  curious  representatives  of  the  orthodoxy  of 
that  time.  A\'ith  an  almost  furious  hatred  of  the 
younger  Calixtus  and  Spener,  he  connected  an 
almost  ridiculous  love  of  the  so-called  Theoloqia 
paradifiaca,  and  was  very  busy  in  pi-oving  tliat 
not  only  the  Old  Testament,  but  also  the  faith  of 
the  patriarchs,  and  even  of  Adam,  harmonized 
with  the  Confcsaio  Aiu/ustana  and  the  Formula 
Cuncordice.  i>i/7nI>olum  Aposlolicuiu  Adami  is  the 
title  of  one  of  his  works.  THOLUCK. 

D^VAY,  Mityas  Biro,  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent of  the  Hungarian  Reformers;  was  born  in 
the  village  of  Deva  in  Tran.sylvania,  towards  the 
close  of  the  fifteentli  or  in  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteentli  century  ;  and  died,  jirobably  in  Debrec- 
zin,  about  1.517.  In  luL'3  he  studied  "in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cracow,  where  the  Hungarians  from 
Transylvania  and  the  Theiss  Valley  formed  a 
peculiar  nation.  In  1527  he  was  active  in  his 
home  as  a  Roman-Catholic  priest;  but  in  1529 
he  went  to  AVittenberg,  where  he  staid,  for  one 
year  and  a  half,  in  the  house  of  Luther.  After 
returning  home,  he  preached  the  new  doctrines, 
first  in  Ofen,  then  at  Kaschau,  and  published  two 
pamphlets,  De  fiinrtormn  dornulunie,  against  the 
worship  of  saints,  and  a  more  systematical  repre- 
sentation of  the  theology  of  the  Reformers,  in 
fifty-two  )iropositions ;  which  two  pamphlets,  how- 
ever, circulated  only  in  manuscript  copies,  because 
as  yet  there  was  no  printing-press  in  Hungary. 
At  the  instance  of  Thomas  .Szal.iLiizy,  Bishop  of 
Erlau,  he  was  arrested,  and  kept  in  prison,  first 
at  Likava,  then  at  I'ressburg,  and  finally  in 
Vienna.  He  was  soon  released,  liowever  ;  but 
when,  immediately  after  his  release,  he  took  up 
again  his  former  business  as  a  preacher  of  the 
new  doctrines,  he  was  arrested  once  more,  and 
kept  in  prison  for  nearly  three  years  (1532-31). 
Released  a  second  time,  he  settled  at  Sarvar,  in 
the  county  of  AVasch,  mider  the  protection  of 
Count  Xiidasdy,  a  jiowerful  Hungarian  magnate, 
who  flad  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Reformation. 
In  1537  he  again  visited  AVittenberg,  and  went 
thence  to  Basel,  where  he  published  his  J)i.ijiiilalio, 
etc.,  a  refutation  of  the  ( '(ii.iur(r,  etc.,  w hich  Gre- 
gdr  Szegedy,  the  provincial  of  the  Franciscans  in 
Hungary,  and  mi^nber  of  the  .Sorbonne,  had 
written  against  liis  fifty-two  projiusilions.  On  his 
return  to  .Siirviir  he  put  up  a  jirinting-press  there, 
and  published  his  Orlhoi/ni/i/iia  l.'n(/<irira,thii  first 
book  printed  in  Hungary,  and  containing  a  gram- 
mar of  the  Hungarian  language,  and  extracts  of 
Luther's  minor  catechism,  written  in  Hungarian. 
Justly  realizing  with  what  kind  of  weapons  the 
Reformation  was  most  likely  to  win  in  the  contest, 
lie  was  also  a  zealous  teacher  in  the  school  which 
Johannes  Sylvester,  another  Ilnngariaii  Uelormer, 
had  founded  at  SiSrvar.  But  this  noble  activity 
came  to  a  sudden  stop  by  th<!  invasion  of  the 
Turks  in  1510.  Devay  fled  to  Switzerland,  and 
did  not  return  until  1512,  when  he  settle<l  at  De- 
breczin,  under  tlie  ]irotection  of  (!(>unt  Valentin 
Tiirok,  a  relative  of  Niida.sdy,  and,  like  him,  a 
Protestant.  In  Switzerland  h(^  liad  become 
acquainted  with  Zwingli's  views  of  the  l^onl's 
Supper,  and  a<lopted  them;  and  he  now  preached 
them  openly  in  Debreczin,  to  the  disgust  and 
scandal  of  Lutlierand  tlie  Wittenberg  Reformers. 
In  one  of  the  last  years  of  his  life  he  published 


DEVELOPMENT. 


631 


DEVIL. 


a  text-book  for  use  in  tlie  religious  instruction  in 
the  scliools.  It  was  wiittrii  in  Hungarian,  and 
jirobably  printed  in  Cracuw.  Jle  was  also  tlie 
author  of  a  very  popular  hymn,  in  which  the 
principal  articles  of  the  Protestant  faith  were 
given  in  substance.  UKVKCZ. 

DEVELOPMENT,  Theological  and  Historical, 
is  held  in  ditt'erent  shapes.  (1)  Tlie  evangelical 
I'rotestant  theory  maintains  that  Christianity 
objectively  considered  is  ])erfect  in  Christ  and 
the  New  Testament,  V>ut  that  its  understanding 
and  application  is  gradual,  an<I  jirogressiug  from 
age  to  age.  In  this  sense  there  can  be  no  his- 
tory -without  motion  and  development.  (2)  The 
rationalistic  theory  holds  that  Christianity  itself 
is  imperfect,  and  will  ultimately  be  superseded 
by  philosophy  or  a  humanitarian  religion,  or  that 
reason  will  take  the  place  of  the  Bible  as  a  rule 
of  faith  and  action.  {'■>)  Tlie  Iloman-Catholic 
theory,  as  advocated  by  Cardinal  Newman,  in  his 
Decehpiiient  of  C/iriglian  Doclrine,  London,  184.3, 
written  just  before  he  went  over  to  Rome,  but 
never  indorsed  by  the  Roman  Church,  is  that  the 
New  Testament  contained  the  germs  of  certain 
doctrines,  i.e.,  those  distinctive  to  the  Roman  and 
Greek  Catholic  Churches,  which,  under  divine 
care,  have  been  developed  into  their  present  shape. 
It  is  true  that  the  doctrines  and  practices  of  these 
churches  can  be  traced  to  very  early  times ;  but 
that  is  quite  a  different  thing  from  allowing  that 
such  development  was  always  in  the  way  of  truth 
and  purity.  One  of  the  most  vigorous  replies  to 
Dr.  New-man  was  W.  A.  Butler's  Letlcrs  on  the 
Decelopinent  of  Chrisi'ntn  Doctrine,  in  rej/li/  to  Mr. 
Newman's  Essay,  Dublin,  18.50.  See,  also,  1'iiilip 
Schaff:  W/ial  is  Cliurch  Ilislori/?  A  Vindication 
of  the  Idea  of  Historical  Deoelopmcnt,  Phila.,  184G. 

DEVELOPMENT,  Scientific.    See  Evolution-. 

DEVIL,  an  apostate  angel,  the  ruler  of  the 
kingdom  of  darkness,  the  enemy  of  all  good,  and 
the  source  and  promoter  of  all  evil.  Ilis  chief 
designations  ai-e  Satan  (!'?'?),  meaning  adrersuri/, 
and  Devil  (iSmJoAof ) ,  calumniator.  Ma  shall  treat 
the  subject  by  giving  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment doctrine,  and  by  presenting  the  views  that 
have  prevailed  at  various  periods  of  the  church. 

1.  Tlie  Old  Testament  does  not  contain  the 
fully-developed  doctrine  of  Satan  tliatis  presented 
in  the  New  Testament.  It  does  not  portray  him 
as  at  the  head  of  a  kingdom,  ruling  over  kindred 
natures,  and  an  apostate  from  the  family  of  God. 
The  belief  in  evil  spirits,  the  Slierim  and  Sedim 
(Dent,  xxxii.  17;  Isa.  xiii.  '21,  xxxiv.  11,  etc.), 
is  distinctly  alluded  to.  Their  element  is  the 
night,  and  their  habitation  w^aste  places.  It  was 
forbidden  to  offer  sacrifices  to  them  (Deut.  xxxii. 
17;  Ps.  cvi.  37,  etc.).  In  the  older  books,  God 
is  described  as  the  .source  from  which  come  in- 
fluences no.\ious  to  man,  such  as  hardening  Pha- 
raoh's heart  (Exod.  viii.,  etc.),  smiting  the  first 
born  (Exod.  xii.  20) ;  but  there  are  not  want- 
ing references  to  evil  spirits,  to  whom  are  at- 
tributed evil  agencies,  as  the  evil  spirit  which 
troubled  Saul  (1  Sam.  xvi.  1-1),  and  the  lying 
spirit  among  the  jirophets  of  Ahab  (1  Kings  xxii. 
20  sqq.)  In  this  connection  the  two  parallel 
statements  of  2  .Sam.  xxiv.  1  and  1  Chron.  xxi. 
I,  should  be  compared,  and  it  will  be  found  that 
the  same  event  is  attriliuted  in  the  first  ]iassage 
ti-)  God  as  its  author,  which  in  the  second  is  at- 


tributed to  Satan  (comp.  in  the  New  Testament 
Euke  xii.  .^  and  lleb.  ii.  H).  The  rare  mention 
of  evil  sjiirits  in  the  Hebrew  .Scriptures  is  to  be 
explained,  on  the  one  hand,  tiy  the  jealous  mono- 
tlK'ism  of  the  Hebrews;  and.  on  the  other,  the 
subordiuatiun  of  evil  to  (iod's  supreme  power  and 
jmrpose  agrees  exactly  with  the  more  definite 
statements  of  our  Eord  and  his  apostles. 

The  term  "  Satan  "  is  used  in  the  general  sense 
of  adversary  (Ps.  cix.  6,  etc.),  but  more  particu- 
larly also  as  tlie  spirit  of  evil,  who  comes  in  collis- 
ion with  the  jilaus  of  God,  and  plots  the  hurt  of 
man.  It  is  not  definitely  stated,  in  the  account  of 
the  fall,  that  the  serpent  wlio  tempted  Eve  was  the 
Devil,  or  his  agent.  The  first  identification  of  the 
two  is  in  the  Book  of  AVisdom  (ii.  2'.'>  sq.),  and 
is  taken  for  granted  by  John  in  the  expression, 
••  that  old  serjient  called  the  Devil  "  (Rev.  xii.  9  ; 
eomii.  John  viii.  41).  This  inference  is  justified 
by  the  words  which  the  serpent  used,  and  agrees 
exactly  with  the  portrait  of  the  Devil  as  the 
tempter  (6  mi/miiuv).  The  only  other  reference  to 
Satan  in  the  Pentateuch  is  Lev.  xvi.  8.  Aaron 
is  there  instructed  to  cast  ui)on  each  of  two  goats, 
on  the  great  day  of  atonement,  a  lot,  "one  for 
the  Lord,  and  the  other  lot  for  A:a:el  "  (marg.).  -, 
This  certainly  means  an  evil  spirit,  if  not  Satan 
himself.  In  the  Book  of  Job  he  is  definitely  ' 
brought  out  as  a  distinct  jiersonality.  He  pre- 
sents himself  before  the  Lord  with  the  sons  of 
(iod  (i.  0),  and,  after  questioning  the  motives  of 
the  patriarch,  secures  permission  to  tempt  and 
torment  him,  but  not  to  kill  him  (i.  12).  The 
Ci/cl.  Brit,  assumes  too  much  when  it  says  (art. 
Dccil),  "  Satan  is  not  represented  as  the  imper- 
sonation of  evil  or  .as  a  spiritual  a.ssailant  of  the 
patriarch.  The  evils  with  which  he  assails  Job 
are  outward  evils."  This  is  in  the  line  of  Herder, 
Eichhorn,  and  others,  who  affirm  that  Satan  vi'as 
a  good  angel,  delegated  by  God  as  his  agent. 
But,  if  he  was  a  good  angel,  liow  could  the  evil 
design  originate  with  liiin  of  bringing  Job  by 
bodily  plagues,  and,  as  we  suppose,  spiritual 
doubts,  to  curse  God?  The  whole  conversation 
between  him  and  the  Almighty  (i.  7-12)  leaves 
the  impression  that  he  was  the  restless  (ver.  7) 
agent  of  evil.  In  Zech.  iii.  1  he  is  jiortrayed  as 
standing  at  the  side  of  Joshua  the  high  priest 
to  assail  him.  These  descriptions  complete  the 
jiortraiture  of  the  Old  Testament,  which,  if  it  is 
far  from  being  as  full  as  that  of  the  New,  lias  no 
traits  di.ssonant  with  it. 

2.  The  New  Testament  is  full  of  allusions  tc 
the  personality  and  agency  of  the  Evil  One. 
His  character  is  drawn  in  strong  colors,  because 
he  is  the  adversary  of  the  kingdum  of  grace 
which  Christ  came  to  establish,  and  rules  over 
the  kingdom  of  darkness  with  which  thi.s"  shall 
be  engaged  in  a  life-and-death-struggle.  He 
bears  tlie  titles  of  Tempter  (1  Thess.  iii.  5),  Beel- 
zebub and  Prince  of  devils  (Matt.  xii.  24),  the 
Evil  One  (JIatt.  vi.  1:3,  xiii.  19,  etc.).  Prince  of 
this  world  (John  xii.  31,  xiv.  30,  xvi.  11),  God 
of  this  world  (2  Cor.  iv.  4),  Prince  of  the  power 
of  the  air  (Ejih.  ii.  2),  the  dragon  and  the  ser- 
pent (Rev.  xii.  9,  xx.  2).  He  has  a  kingdom 
(Matt.  xii.  20)  which  i.5  hostile  to  the  kingdom 
of  Christ  (.Vets  xxvi.  1  ;),  and  dominates  over  a 
realm  of  demons  (Matt.  ix.  34).  Created  one 
of  the  angels,  he  became  an  apostate  (John  viii. 


DEVIL. 


632 


DEVIL. 


44),  and  fell  from  heaven  (Luke  x.  18;  Jude  6). 
He  is  the  bitter  and  indefatigable  adversary  of 
the  kingdom  of  grace,  but  will  ultimately  be 
overthrown,  and  cast  into  everlasting  punishment 
(Matt.  XXV.  46;  Rev.  xxi.  10).  ife  endeavoreil 
to  traduce  Clirist  himself  (Matt.  iv.  1),  worked 
among  the  apostles  (John  xiii.  2),  and  worketh 
in  the  children  of  disobedience  (Eph.  ii.  2). 
Conversion  is  the  passage  and  deliverance  from 
his  kingdom  of  darkness  to  the  kingdom  of  light 
(Col.  i.  13).  He  is  restlessly  sowing  seeds  of 
error  and  doubt  in  the  chui-ch  (Matt.  xiii.  39), 
blinding  the  eyes  of  thein  that  believe  not  (2  Cor. 
iv.  4),  goes  about  as  a  roaring  lion  (1  Pet.  v.  8), 
and  has  the  power  of  death  (Heb.  ii.  14).  Chri.st 
has  given  a  more  definite  description  of  him 
(John  viii.  44)  as  a  "murderer  and  liar."  Ilis 
chief  characteristics  are  power  and  craft.  He  is 
as  a  "strong  man  "  (Matt.  xii.  29),  and  his  subtle- 
ty (corap.  Gen.  iii.  1)  is  exhibited  in  treacher- 
ous snares  (2  Tim.  ii.  26),  wiles  (Eph.  vi.  11), 
and  devices  (2  Cor.  ii.  11),  and  the  delusive  shift 
of  transforming  himself  into  an  angel  of  light 
(2  Cor.  xi.  14). 

It  was  to  undo  the  desolation,  and  destroy  the 
works  of  this  Satan,  that  the  Sou  of  God  w;is 
manifested  (1  John  iii.  8).  It  has  been  attempted 
to  make  liim  out  to  be  a  mere  personification  of 
evil,  and  to  show  that  evil  exists  only  as  it  is 
found  in  the  human  heart.  .Schleiermacher 
thinks  that  Jesus  accommodated  himself  to  the 
ideas  and  language  that  then  jirevailed  in  Judaea, 
but  did  not  himself  regard  Satan  as  a  real  and 
living  person.  But  certainly  this  is  beneath  tlie 
dignity  of  Christ.  He  would  hardly,  in  speak- 
ing of  him,  make  use  of  such  strong  language, 
and  bid  the  disciples  beware  of  liis  craft  and 
power.  In  the  exposition  of  the  parable  of  the 
tares  he  makes  the  didactic  statement  tliat  the 
enemy  who  sowed  them  was  the  Devil  (Matt. 
xiii.  39). 

The  .Satan  of  the  Scriptures  is  a  portrait  inde- 
pendent of  Persian  mythology.  lie  and  -Vhriman 
agree  only  in  this,  that  they  are  alike  spirits  of 
evil.  In  suboidinate  i)articulars  they  are  dispar- 
ate. Alirinian  rules  over  oue-luilf  the  world,  and 
is  independent  of  Onnuzd.  .Satan's  dominion  is 
limited,  and  subject  to  the  supreme  authority  of 
God.  Ahriman  is  co-eternal  with  Ormuzd,  .Satan 
is  a  creature  who  apostatized  from  the  trutli. 

3.  The  church  fatliers  agreed  in  reiiresenting 
Satan  as  an  apostate,  and  the  inveterate  enemy 
of  the  Church  and  the  believer.  Tlie  work  of 
the  atonement  was  regarded  by  Irenanis,  Origen, 
etc.,  as  a  price  paid  to  .Satan.  During  tlio  nuddle 
ages  the  belief  in  the  Devil  took  the  wildest 
shapes.  He  was  represented  w  ith  lioriis  and  lioofs, 
painted  on  bridges  and  canvas,  regarded  as  liv- 
ing in  witches  and  gliouls  ;  and  Luther  afterw  ards 
found  an  ea.sy  explanation  of  mosquitoes,  mice, 
and  similar  troublesome  creatures,  in  his  creative 
agency.  The  liogoinili  went  so  far  as  to  call 
him  the  elder  brother  of  Christ,  .so  great  was  the 
dread  of  his  power.  The  Keformers  clung  with 
tlieir  deep  con.sciousness  of  sin  also  to  tlie  belief 
in  Satan.  The  strong  individuality  of  Luther  is 
nowhere  more  clearly  ajiparent  than  in  Ids  ima- 
gined visions  of  the  Evil  One;,  at  whom  he  once 
threw  his  ink-bottle.  On  another  occasion  lie 
said,  "I  heard  some  one   walking   on   the  floor 


above  my  head  ;  but,  as  I  knew  it  was  only  the 

Devil,  I  went  quietly  to  sleep."     The  rationalists 

deny  the  existence  of  Satan  as  a  mere  superstition. 

Even  .Schleiermacher  with  great  ability  combats 

the  view  of  a  personal   .Satan  ;  but   later  theolo- 

,  gians,  like  Martensen,  Nitzsch,  Twesten,  Julius 

1  iliiller,  Dorner,  etc.,  hold  firmly  to  his  person- 

I  ality.       Three   of    the   greatest'  poets   of    three 

languages    have    given    pictures   of    Satan,    his 

i  rebellion,  and   his  realm,  —  Dante,  Jlilton,  and 

Goethe. 

How  Satan  came  to  fall  is  a  deep  question 
which  has  been  differently  answered,  but  can 
hardly  be  settled.  Milton,  following  the  ancient 
fathers,  represents  (i.  37)  pride  as  the  motive. 

.  .  .  "His  iirkle 
Had  cast  him  out  from  lieaven  witli  all  his  host 
Of  rebel  angels." 

And  again  (i.  261),— 

..."  My  choice 
To  reign  is  worth  aiubitiou,  though  in  hell." 

]Martensen  says  he  was  "  Christ's  yovmger 
brother,  and  became  (iod's  adversary,  because 
he  was  not  content  to  be  second,  but  wanted  to 
!  be  first ;  because  he  was  unw  illing  to  bear  the 
!  light  of  another,  and  wanted  to  be  the  light 
I  itself."  Jacob  Bohme:  "  Lucifer  envied  the  Son 
I  his  glory;  his  own  beauty  deceived  him,  and 
he  wanted  to  place  himself  on  the  throne  of  the 
.Son."  An  attempt  has  even  been  made  to  fix  the 
date  of  that  apostasy.  Lange  thinks  it  occurred 
on  one  of  the  days  of  the  creative  week ;  while 
Kurtz  and  others  hold  that  the  formless  and  void 
chaos  of  the  world  (Gen.  i.  2)  w.as  the  result  of 
Satan's  fall.  In  connection  with  these  views  it 
is  not  irrelevant  to  quote  the  words  of  Hugh  Miller 
(^Text.  of  lite  Rods,  p.  112)  :  "  The  reptile  selected 
as  typical  of  the  gre.at  fallen  spirit  that  kept  not 
his  first  estate  is  at  once  the  reptile  of  latest  ap- 
pearance in  creation,  and  the  one  selected  by 
[ihilosophical  naturalists  as  representative  of  a 
reversed  process  in  the  order  of  being."  What- 
ever may  be  said  of  these  theories,  three  things 
may  be  stated  as  fixed  :  1.  The  possibility  of  Sa- 
tan's apostasy  is  as  conceivable  as  the  fall  of 
man;  2.  The  inveterate  and  undying  hostility  of 
Satan  to  tin'  kingdom  of  Christ  makes  the  denial 
of  eternal  punishment  on  the  gnnnid  of  the  di- 
vine compa.ssion  untenable;  3.  In  jwoportion  as 
the  Christian  consciousness  of  sin  is  deeii  does 
the  belief  in  the  jier.sonal  agency  of  Satan  pre- 
vail. The  denial  of  the  personal  Satan  is  the 
first  ste]>  in  the  denial  of  the  sinfulness  of  sin. 
In  the  Xew  Testament  it  is  thi?  struggle  between 
the  kingdom  of  Christ  and  the  kingdom  of  Satan 
which  causes  ajiostlcs  to  glow  in  the  description, 
and  draws  forth  the  vivid  exhortations  to  fight 
manfully  and  w  ith  the  armor  of  God,  and  to  re- 
sist by  prayer  and  vigilance.  We  may  say  with 
Dorner,  that  the  conviction  of  a  great  struggle 
going  on  between  the  two  kingdoms  of  darkness 
and  light,  a  struggle  in  which  we  all  may  take 
liart,  is  adapted  to  jiroduce  an  earnest  conception 
of  evil,  and  develop  watchfulness  and  tension  of 
the  moral  energies.     .*^ee  art.  Dkmox. 

Lit.  —  Works  on  Dogmatics  (English  systems 
do  not  treat  the  subject  at  length)  :  Schi.kiek- 
MAcni-.ii  (§§  44,  4.5) ;  Mahtknsk.n  (pp.  213-231); 
LA.NiiK  (ii.  569  sijq.)  ;  Van  Ostkrzee,  vol.  ii.  pp. 


DEVOTION. 


633 


DIATBSSARON. 


413-422  (Am.  trans.,  New  York,  1S74),  and 
especially  Dorner  :  Ckrisll.  Glauhcn.itehrc  (vol. 
ii.  pp.  1S8-217);  Lf.cky  :  Hixl.  lidlioticiliam  in 
Europe,  vol.  i.  —  Special  work.s  :  Anski.m  :  De 
Caxn  Dinboli ;  Mayer:  Ifisfnr.  Dialmli,  Tuhing., 
1780,  2d  ed.  ;  Daub  :  ./ii(/a.i  Ischnriol,  ISIO  ; 
G.  liosKOi'-F  :  Oi:iclt.  d.  Tenfcis,  18(J!»,  2  vols.  ;  two 
powerfid  .sermons  of  Roukkt  South  :  The  De- 
nipn  of  ('Itrisl's  liicaniation  lo  DeMroi)  the  Worku 
of  the  Deoil,  and  Satan  Himself  Trnnsformed  into 
an  Anqel  of  Lii/hl :  IlilLEM.VNN  :  He/len  </.  Satan, 
Leipzig,  1^75.  '  i>^  s.  .'^cilAFF. 

DEVOTION,  DEVOTIONAL  EXERCISES,  and 
BOOKS  OF  DEVOTION.  By  devotion  we  mean 
every  sort  of  exerci.se  of  the  soul,  prayer  and 
meditation,  whether  public  or  private,  free  or  set. 
Devotional  exercises  include  two  distinct  ele- 
ments :  the  fir.st  consists  in  the  more  or  less  self- 
conscious  determination  to  turn  the  attention  to 
things  divine ;  the  second,  the  exaltation  of  the 
soul  to  God.  To  these  exercises  belong  public, 
family,  and  private  worship,  consisting  in  reading 
of  the  Bible,  prayer,  praise,  meditation,  and  ex- 
hortation. There  is  danger  of  viewing  devotions 
as  purely  external  matters,  and  therefore  in  per- 
forming them  perfunctorily,  as  a  mere  matter  of 
duty.  But,  the  closer  one  walks  with  God,  the 
less  constraint  will  one  feel.  Devotional  exercises 
will  be  privileges  most  highly  valued.  But, 
whatever  the  feeling  in  respect  to  them,  they 
should  be  carefully  maintained,  as  habits  of 
prayer  will  produce  praying  habits.  By  services 
at  stated  times  we  are  far  more  likely  to  see  God 
at  last  than  if  we  postponed  them  until  we  "felt 
like  it." 

Books  of  devotion  characterize  every  phase  of 
church  life  and  history.  The  temper  of  the  times 
is  reflected  by  them.  Such  books  as  T/ie  Shep- 
herd of  Hennas,  Augiistine's  Confessions,  Thomas 
A  Kempis'  Imitation  of  Christ,  Tauler's  Sermons, 
the  Theolor/ia  Germanica,  mark  the  pulse  of  an 
ascetic  though  sjiiritual  life.  Those  written  by 
Protestants  breathe  an  altogether  different  spirit. 
Jeremy  Taylor's  Holi/  Livinij  and  Hob/  Di/inif, 
Baxter's  Saints'  Evertastinr/  Rest,  Bohme's  Wai/ 
to  Christ,  Arndt's  True  Christianity,  Bunyan's  Pil- 
grim's Progress,  Doddridge's  Rise  and  Progress  of 
Religion  in  the  Soul,  are  books  addressed  to  those 
who  live  in  homes,  not  to  those  in  cloisters.  In 
the  Roman-Catholic  Church  the  writings  of  Fran- 
cis de  Sales,  Fenelon.  Molinos,  and  others,  though 
full  of  heavenly  piety,  are  not  so  well  adapted 
to  men  and  women  tossed  to  and  fro  by  worldly 
cares  and  business.  These  books,  and  many 
others,  are  gifts  from  God  of  inestimable  worth. 
Their  perusal  has  been  of  saving  efficacy  unto 
many,  and  cannot  be  too  strongly  recommended. 
At  the  same  time,  devotional  reading  must  be 
mingled  with  Scripture  and  prayer,  and  followed 
by  direct  effort  in  practical  Christian  work.  Tlie 
defect  of  present-day  Protestantism  is  that  it  is 
too  active  and  too  little  meditative.  It  needs  to 
be  recalled  to  the  duty  of  acquainting  itself  with 
the  devotional  thoughts  of  the  ages,  and  of 
spending  time  in  devotion. 

No  devotional  volume  should  be  suffered  to 
usurp  the  place  of  the  Bible.  Only  from  it  do 
■we  receive  the  rays  of  divine  light  unrefracted. 
The  devotions  of  the  church  in  public  and  pri- 
Tate  should  make  more  of  Scripture  reading.     In 


non-liturgical  churches  it  is  too  commonly  cur- 
tailed. If  the  words  of  (Jod  were  heard  more, 
and  the  wonls  of  man  less,  in  our  churches,  it 
would  be  better  for  us. 

DEWID,  St.     See  D.wiD,  St. 

DE  WETTE,  W.  M.  L.  See  AVettk,  De,  W. 
M.  L. 

DE  WITT,  Thomas,  D.D.,  b.  at  Kingston.  X.Y., 
Sept.  li:!,  17!ll  ;  d.  in  Xew  York  City,  May  18, 
1874.  lie  was  graduated  at  Union  College,  181)8, 
and  at  the  New  Brunswick  Theological  Seminary, 
1812;  pastor  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  churches  of 
Hopewell  and  New  Ilackensack,  N.Y.,  1812-2.5; 
of  Hopewell  alone,  1825-27;  and  one  of  the  Col- 
legiate Church  pastors.  New  York  City,  from  1827 
till  his  death.  He  edited  The  Christian  Intellii/en- 
cer.  1831-43  ;  was  vice-president  of  the  New  York 
Historical  Society  for  thirty  years,  and  its  presi- 
dent from  1870  to  1.S72.  He  was  an  honored  citi- 
zen of  New  York,  and  for  many  years  one  of  its 
favorite  preachers  and  jiastors.  By  all  who  knew 
him  esteemed  for  his  manj' virtues,  pre-eminently 
for  his  humility  and  simplicity.  Ilis  writings 
consisted,  for  the  most  part,  of  occasional  sermons 
and  translations  from  the  Dutch,  relating  to 
ecclesiastical  history.  The  latter  are  found  in 
The  Christian  Intelligencer  (ISHO-Ti),  The  Historical 
Collections  of  the  State  of  New  York;  and  in  7'he 
Docninriilari/  History  of  the  Slate  of  Neic  York. 

DIABOLUS.     See  Devil. 

DIACONIGUM  means,  in  ecclesiastical  writings, 
sometimes  a  text-book  for  the  duties  and  func- 
tions of  a  deacon,  but  more  often  a  separate 
building  of  apsidal  form,  adjoining  the  basilica, 
just  south  of  the  bema,  and  communicating  with 
it  through  a  door  in  the  side- wall.  In  this  build- 
ing, the  modern  vestry  or  .sacristy  of  the  church, 
the  deacons  kept  the  holy  vessels  and  vestments, 
prepared  and  lighted  the  incense,  etc.  No  priest 
of  a  lower  order  was  allowed  to  enter  it. 

DIA'NA  OF  THE  EPHESIANS.  In  the  city  of 
Ephesus  was  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world. — 
the  Temple  to  Diana.  But  this  goddess  is  not  to 
be  confounded  with  tlie  Artemis  of  the  Greeks, 
or  the  Diana  of  the  Latins.  She  was  a  nature 
goddess,  and  the  point  of  similarity  is  in  her 
nourishing  power  over  all  life.  She  was  not,  like 
Artemis,  the  goddess  of  the  chase,  the  chaste  and 
virgin  sister  of  Apollo.  For  a  description  of  her 
temple  and  her  image,  see  Ephesus.  See,  also, 
A.  Claus  :  De  Diance  antiquissima  apud  Grcecos 
natura,  Breslau,  1881. 

DIASPORA,  a  term  applied  to  the  Jews  who 
were  scattered  through  the  Roman  world  (Jas. 
i.  1;  1  Pet.  i.  1).  See  Captivity.  On  the 
Moravian  diaspora,  see  Moravians. 

DIATESSARON  (literally,  through  four)  is  ap- 
plied to  the  combination  of  the  four  Gospels  in 
one  consecutive  narrative.  While  the  harmony 
of  the  accounts  is  thus  brought  out,  the  individu- 
ality of  the  writers  is  lost.  The  eaidiest  diates- 
saron  was  Tatian's,  in  the  second  century.  See 
Theodor  Zahn,  on  Tatian's  Diatessaron,  in  the  First 
Part  of  his  Forschungen  zur  Gesch.  des  neulcs- 
tament.  Kanons,  Erlangen,  1881.  Tregelles  says 
that  this  work  "led  to  a  confusion  and  intermin- 
gling, on  the  part  of  transcribers,  of  the  words 
and  expressions  of  one  Gospel  with  that  which 
was  found  in  another,"  and  thus  "  had  more  effect 
i  apparently  on  the   text  of   the  Gospels   in  us« 


DIAZ. 


634 


DICKINSON. 


throughout  the  church  than  all  the  designed 
falsifications  of  Marcion  and  every  scion  of  the 
Gnostic  blood  "  (Home's  Introduction,  vol.  iv.  p. 
40j.  Tatian  has  had  many  followers.  A  few- 
are,  to  mention  only  modern  English  works,  W. 
Greenwood,  London",  1765 ;  J.  White  (with  Greek 
text),  Oxford,  1799,  new  ed.,  1856;  T.  Thirlwall, 
3d  ed.,  London,  ISOi;  J.  D.  Macbride,  Oxford, 
1837;  John  Forster,  3d  ed.,  London,  1847;  W. 
Stroud  (with  Greek  text),  London,  1853;  7"he 
Gospels  Consolidated,  London  (Bagster's) ;  F.  Gar- 
diner, Audover,  1871 ;  T/ie  Life  of  our  Lord  in  the 
Words  of  the  Four  Ecamjelists,  N.Y.,  1877.  See 
list  in  Dakling,  Cyclopcndia  BibUographica,  also 
Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  Tatian. 

DIAZ,  Francisco,  a  Dominican  monk ;  born  at 
S.  Cebriau  de  Maynelas  in  Castile;  went  as  a 
missionary  to  the  Philippine  Islands  in  1G32,  and 
in  1635  to  China,  where  he  was  killed  during  a 
persecution,  Nov.  1,  1646.  He  wrote  a  catechism 
in  Chinese  and  a  Chinese-Spanish  dictionary. 

DIAZ,  Juan,  b.  at  Cueu9a,  in  Castile;  studied 
in  the  University  of  Paris,  and  was  converted  to 
the  Protestant  faith  in  1540.  He  was  present  at 
the  diet  of  Ratisbon,  December,  1544,  aud  his 
conversations  with  Pietro  Malvenda  and  the  other 
Spanish  priests  stirred  up  the  Spanish  fanaticism 
and  jiride  to  the  highest  pitch.  His  brother, 
Alphonzo,  who  was  an  officer  at  the  papal  court, 
hastened  to  Germany  with  the  fixed  purpose  to 
kill  him ;  and  March  27,  1546,  he  perpetrated  the 
foul  deed,  at  Neuburg-on-the-Dauube.  In  Ger- 
many this  fratricide  produced  general  horror ; 
but  the  emperor  and  the  Pope  approved  of  it,  and 
the  murderer  was  not  punished.  He  committed 
suicide,  however,  in  1551.  Juan  Diaz  wrote  a 
confession  of  faith,  Christiance  Religionis  Sunnna, 
which  was  published  at  Neuburg,  1546,  put  on 
the  ludex  by  Pius  IV.,  1564,  and  translated  into 
French,  1565,  and  into  Spanish,  1865.  In  tlie 
epistolary  part  of  Opera  Calvini  are  found  several 
letters  of  Diaz.  SeeHoKHMKu:  Spanish  Reform- 
ers of  Two  Centuries,  from  1520,  Lond.,  1874. 

DI'BON,  in  Moab,  now  called  Dhiban,  about 
twelve  miles  east  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  three 
miles  north  of  the  Anion,  is  now  an  extensive 
ruins,  covering  the  tops  of  two  adjacent  hills. 
It  is  referred  to  several  times  in  the  Bible  (Num. 
xxi.  30,  xxxii.  34;  Josh.  xiii.  9,  17;  Isa.  xv.  2; 
Jer.  xlviii.  18,  22  ;  called  Dimon,  Isa.  xv.  9).  The 
famous  MoAitiTE  .Stone  was  found  liere(see title). 

DICK,  John,  D,D.,  an  eminent  Scotcli  theo- 
logian, son  of  a  clergyman;  b.  in  Aberdeen,  Oct. 
10,  1761;  d.  in  Glasgow,  Jan.  25,  1833.  He 
belonged  to  tlie  Secession  Church ;  was  settled 
first  at  Slateford,  near  Kdinburgh,  and  in  1801 
over  Greyfriars  Cliurch,  (ilasgow.  He  received 
his  title  of  D.D.  from  Princeton,  1815.  In  1819 
he  became  j)rofes.-ior  of  theology  in  the  Tlicologi- 
cal  Seminary  of  the  Secession  Church.  His 
principal  woric  is  his  Lectures  on  TlieoUxjij  (2d 
ed.,  Kdinburgh,  1834,  4  vols),  which  was  for 
many  years  used  as  a  text-book  in  theological 
seminaries.  Besides  the  usual  topics,  he  takes 
up  the  evidences  of  Christiauity,  and  gives  an 
exposition  of  the  Decalogue,  llis  other  works 
are,  An  Essay  on  Inspiration  (1800)  and  Lectures 
on  the  Acts  (Glasgow,  1805-08,  2  vols.,  3d  ed., 
1848).  Sec  American  edition  of  liis  Lectures, 
New  York,  1830,  2  vols.,  with  a  biography. 


DICK,  Thomas,  LL.D.,  a  Christian  philosopher; 
b.  at  Dundee,  Scotland,  Nov.  24,  1774;  d.  at 
Edinburgh,  July  29,  1857.  He  was  for  two 
years  (1803-05)  in  the  ministry  of  the  Secession 
(United  Presbyterian)  Church  of  Scotland,  but 
spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  teaching  and  in 
literary  labor.  His  first  work  appeared  in  1824, 
The  Christian  Philosopher,  or  the  Connection  oj 
Science  with  Religion.  It  was  a  great  success, 
and  determined  him  to  follow  still  farther  the 
line  of  combined  instruction  and  edification. 
Perhaps  the  best  know-n  of  his  works  are,  The 
Philosophy  of  a  Future  State  (1828),  Celestial 
Scenery  (183'8),  The  Sidereal  Ilearens  (1840),  The 
Solar  System  (1840),  The  Practical  Astronomer 
(1845).  Their  circulation  lias  been  very  large. 
Several  of  his  books  have  been  translated  into 
different  languages,  the  last-mentioned  even  into 
Chinese.  They  are  written  in  a  simple  aud 
admirable  style,  and  present  the  result  of  much 
study  in  an  interesting  form  ;  while  the  religious 
reflections  attest  the  piety  of  the  author,  and 
edify  the  reader.  Shortly  before  his  death  the 
government  granted  him  a  pension,  in  recogni- 
tion of  his  great  services.  There  are  two  Ameri- 
can editions  of  his  works,  both  in  print,  Cincin- 
nati, 2  vols.  Svo,  and  Phila.,  10  vols,  in  5,  12mo. 

DICKINSON,  Jonathan,  a  prominent  Presby- 
terian divine,  and  first  president  of  Princeton 
College;  b.  at  Hatfield,  Mass.,  April  22,  1688; 
d.  at  Elizabeth,  N.J.,  Oct.  7,  1747.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College,  1706,  and  in  1708  settled 
at  Elizabeth.  He  covered  an  extensive  area, 
preaching  regularly  to  six  or  seven  congregations. 
He  not  only  exerted  a  permanent  influence  in 
building  up  churches,  but  was  an  acknowledged 
leader  in  tlie  old  synod  of  Philadelphia,  and  sub- 
sequently in  the  synod  of  New  York.  Although 
a  strong  Calvinist,  and  sound  in  the  doctrines 
of  the  Westminster  Confession,  he  nevertheless 
firmly  opposed  the  binding  authority  of  creeds 
and  confessions  drawn  up  by  uninspired  men, 
when  the  question  of  subscription  was  brought 
up  before  synod  in  1727. 

Dickinson  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  meas- 
ures which  led  to  the  formation  of  the  synod  of 
New  York  (1745),  the  second  of  tlie  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  United  States.  David  Brainerd 
and  Indian  missions  found  in  him  a  warm  friend. 
He  also  took  a  deep  interest  in  education,  and 
was  the  most  jironiinent  among  tlie  founders  of 
Nassau  Hall  (Princeton  College).  Under  his 
counsel  a  charier  was  received  for  the  institution 
in  October,  1746.  He  was  elected  president,  but 
only  lived  to  perform  the  duties  a  single  year. 
Dr.  Gillett  (Jlist.  Presh.  Ch.,  I.  40)  characterizes 
him  as  a  man  of  "  rare  sagacity,  calm  judgment, 
and  unshrinking  firmness."  Dickin.son's  writings 
are  considered  to  be  among  the  soundest  esjxisi- 
tions  of  Calvinism  that  America  has  produced. 
Dr.  John  Krskiue  said  that  the  Briti.sh  Isles  had 
not  ]iioduced  any  writers  on  divinity  in  tlie  eigh- 
teenth century  equal  to  Dickinson  and  Jonathan 
Edwards.  His  works  arc.  Four  Sermons  on  tlie 
Reasonableness  of  Christianity,  Bost. ,  1732;  Dis- 
play of  God's  Special  Grace,  Bost.,  1742 ;  Familiar 
Letters  itpon  Subjects  in  Religion,  Boat.,  1745  ; 
Vindication  of  God's  Saving  Free  Grace,  Bost., 
1748 ;  True  Scripture  Doctrine  conce7-ning  Some 
Important  Points  in  Christian  Faith  (an  able  dis- 


DICKSON. 


635 


DICTIONARIES, 


cussion  of  the  five  points  of  Calvinism),  Phila- 
delphia, 1841  ;  complete  edition  of  his  Sermons 
and  Tractf,  Edinburgh,  1793.  See  Sprague's 
Annah,  III.  11. 

DICKSON,  David,  a  commentator;  b.  at  Glas- 
gow, 158.3;  d.  in  1602-63.  He  was  professor  of 
philosophy  in  (jlasgow  after  his  graduation;  from 
1618  to  1641  he  was  minister  in  Irvine,  after 
which  he  was  professor  of  divinity  at  Glasgow 
and  Edinburgh,  and  was  ejected  at  the  Restora- 
tion in  1662.  lie  wrote  A  sliort  Explanation  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (Aberdeen,  1631,  re- 
printed London,  1839),  A  brief  Exposition  of  the 
Gospel  of  Matthew  (London,  1651),  A  brief  Expla- 
nation of  the  Psalms  (London,  1655,  3  vols,  re- 
printed Glasgow,  1834,  2  vols),  IVierapeutica 
Sacra  (in  Latin,  Edinburgh,  1656,  in  English, 
2d  ed.,  1697),  Exposition  of  all  the  Epistles  (f659). 
See  WoDRO\v'.s  A  short  Account  of  the  Life  of  the 
Rev.  Dacid  Diel:son,  in  vol.  ii.  Select  Biographies, 
edited  for  the  Wodrow  Soeieli/,  Edin.,  1847. 

DICTATES  OF  POPE  GREGORY  (Dictatus 
Papa',  Dictatus  Grei/orii  VII.,  Dictatus  Hilde- 
brandini)  consist  of  twenty-seven  short  proposi- 
tions relating  to  the  supreme  power  of  the  Pope, 
and  are  fouud  among  the  works  of  Gregory  VII., 
inserted  between  the  fifty-fifth  and  fifty-sixth  of 
his  epistles.  By  modern  critics  they  are  generally 
considered  spurious.  See  Moshkim  :  Church- 
Hislon/,  English  translation,  1854,  vol.  ii.  p.  161. 

DICTIONARIES  AND  CYCLOP/EDIAS,  Bibli- 
cal, Ecclesiastical,  and  Theological.  I.  The 
following  are  the  best  known  and  most  useful 
Bible  Dictionarie.s.  —  Augustine  Calmet  : 
Diclionnaire  historiquc,  critique,  chronologiqiie,  e/e'o- 
graphique  et  litte'ral  de  la  Bible,  Paris,  1722,  with  a 
supplement,  1728,  4  vols.  fol.  This  work  was 
the  first  of  its  kind,  and  has  been  often  reprinted, 
translated,  and  abridged.  It  is  now  superseded. 
The  best  reproduction  of  it  is  by  Dr.  E.  Robin- 
son, Boston,  1832.  Georg  Benedict  Winer: 
Biblisches  Real-Worterbuch  zuni  Ilandgebrauch  fiir 
Studirende,  Candidaten,  Ggmnasiallehrer  u.  Predi- 
ger  ausgearbeitet,  Leipzig,  1820,  2  vols.  8vo;  3d 
ed.,  enlarged  and  much  improved,  1847,  1848. 
Still  valuable  ;  it  lias  never  been  translated. 
John  Kitto:  Cyclopedia  of  BibHc<d  Literature, 
Edinburgh,  1845, 2  vols.  8vo,  3(1  ed.,  thoroughly  re- 
vised, much  enlarged  and  improved  by  Dr.  W.  L. 
Alexander  and  a  staff  of  contributors,  Edinburgh, 
1862-66,  3  vols,  royal  Svo ;  the  first  to  combine 
the  labors  of  specialists  under  editorial  manage- 
ment. H.  Zeller  (ed):  Biblisches  ]]'(n-terbuch, 
Stuttgart,  1857,  2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  Karlsruhe,  1884; 
William  Smith:  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  London, 
1860-64,  3  vols.  Svo,  a  monument  of  British  bib- 
lical scholarship;  American  edition  by  II.  B. 
Hackett  and  Ezra  Abbot,  with  the  co-operation 
of  a  number  of  American  scholars,  N.Y.,  1868- 
70,  4  vols.  8vo.  The  American  edition  is  an 
improvement  upon  the  English  original,  in  cor- 
rectness, fulness,  and  usefulness  (e.g.,  by  means 
of  cross  references).  Patrick  Fairb.^irn:  The 
Imperial  Bible  Dictionary,  Edinburgh,  1865,  2 
vols,  royal  8vo.  Like  Smith's,  it  is  a  composite 
work,  but  of  a  more  popular  character.  John 
Ayre  :  The  Treasury  of  Bible  Knowledge,  London, 
1866,  2d  ed.,  1868,  small  8vo,  943  pp.,  double 
column  ;  excellent,  an  immense  amount  of  well- 
digested  iuformatioii  packed   into   a  very  small 


space.  Daniel  Schenkel  :  Bibel-Lexikon,  Leiii- 
zig,  1869-7.'5,  5  vols.  Svo  ;  written  by  a  number 
of  scholars  of  the  liberal  (i.e.,  more  or  less 
sceptical)  school.  E.  G.  A.  Rieiim:  Ilandwiirter- 
buck  des  biblischen  Altertnms,  Bielefeld,  1877-84, 
repre.sents  the  conservative  biblical  scholarship  of 
(iermany.  Si-ol  :  Dictionnaire  de  la  Bible,  Paris, 
1S77.  A.  R.  Fausset:  The  Englishman  s  Bible 
Cyclopaedia,  London  and  N.Y.,  1878,  2d  ed.,  1881. 
Unlike  the  last  two  mentioned,  this  work  is  of 
single  authorship.  Its  plan  is  peculiar  in  that 
it  is  expository  as  well  as  critical,  and  therefore 
a  partial  substitute  for  a  commentary  on  the 
whole  Bible.  —  Among  the  smaller  Bible  diction- 
aries two  claim  mention,  — that  published  by  the 
American  Ti-act  Society,  A  Dictionary  of  the  Holy 
Bible,  for  General  Use  in  the  Study  tf  the  Scriptures, 
N.Y.,  1859,  pp.  534,  and  that  published  by  the 
American  Sunday  School  Union,  A  Dictionary  of 
the  Holy  Bible,  including  Biography,  Natural  His- 
tory, Geograpihq,  Topoqraphq,  Arcltnology  and  Litera- 
ture, Phila.,  1880,  3d  ed.,  1885,  pp.  960.  The 
first  was  originally  prepared  by  Dr.  Edward  Rob- 
inson, and  is  a  model  of  condensation,  accuracy, 
and  felicity  of  expression,  but  is  now  a  little 
antiquated.  The  second  was  edited  by  Dr.  Schaff, 
and  is  more  comprehensive,  embracing  every  name 
in  the  Bible,  and  utilizing  the  most  recent  discov- 
eries and  researches  of  the  Palestine  Exploration 
Societies.  Both  these  dictionaries  are  copious- 
ly illustrated,  and  contain  maps.  Of  quite  difl'er- 
entaim  is  J.  Hamburger  :  Iteal-Encyclojmdie  des 
Judenthums.  Wiirterbuch  fiir  Gemeindi,  Schule  vnd 
Ilaus,  Neustrelitz,  1874-83,  2  parts,  2d  ed.,  1884 
sqq.  It  is  recommended  in  emphatic  terms  by 
Dr.  Franz  Delitzsch.  The  object  of  the  author 
is  to  treat  alphabetically  not  only  these  historical, 
geographical,  and  natural-history  articles,  but 
also  those  ethical,  dogmatical,  and  juridical  arti- 
cles which  require  explanation  to  the  reader  of 
the  Bible  or  the  Talumd.  It  is  written  by  a  Jew 
for  Jews. 

II.  Dictionaries  of  the  Bible  Languages. 
—  Hebrew  and  Chaldee.  —  The  standard  source  of 
Hebrew  lexicogi-aphy  is  still  Gesenius:  Novus 
Thesaurus  phitologicus  critictis  Lingua;  Hebrcece  et 
Chaldace  Veteris  Teslamenti,  Leipzig,  1829-5S, 
3  vols.  But  besides  this,  there  are  immerous 
manuals.  The  best  is  Gesenius:  Ilebrdisches  und 
Chalddisches  Handworterbuch  iiber  das  Alte  Testa- 
ment, Leipzig,  1812,  2  vols. ;  10th  revised  ed.  by 
Jliihlau  and  ^'oIck,  1S86,  1  vol.,  with  improve- 
ments which  should  be  incorporated  in  the  Eng- 
lish translations  by  Edward  Robinson  (Boston, 
1836;  revised,  1854;  20th  edition,  1872),  Samuel 
Prideaux  Tregelles  (London,  1847;  newed.,  1857). 
Much  used,  but,  because  of  its  philological  theo- 
ries, considered  by  competent  critics  inferior  to 
Gesenius,  is  Furst:  Hebrdisches  und  Chalddisches 
HanilwOrterbuch  iiber  das  Alte  Testament,  Leipzig, 
1857-61,  2  vols.;  3d  ed.,  completed  by  V.  Ryssel, 
1876.  The  English  translation  is  by  Samuel 
Davidson,  Leipzig,  1865,  1866;  4th  ed.,  1871.  A 
third  dictionary  is  B.  Davies  :  Compendious  and 
Complete  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicon  to  the  Old 
Testament;  with  English-IIebreiv  Index  Revised, 
ivith  Statements  of  Principles  of  Hebrew  Grammar, 
by  E.  C.  Mitchell,  D.D.,  Andover,  1879  (re- 
printed from  the  third  Eng.  edition).  The 
German  originals  of   Gesenius  and  Fiirst  have 


DICTIONARIES. 


636 


DICTIONARIES. 


German-Hebrew  indexes;  but  these  have  been 
dropped  in  their  translation.  An  index  to  Gese- 
nius  has  appeared  separately.  J.  L.  Potter  : 
Englisk-Hehrew  Lexicon ;  Index  to  Gesenius's  He- 
brew Lexicon,  Boston,  1872.  A  more  elaborate 
work  is  M.  Schulbaum  :  Neue^,  voUstaniUges 
deutsch-Ziehraisches  Wbrterhuch  mil  Beriicksichligung 
der  lalmudischen  imd  neiihebrdischen  Literalur,  Lem- 
berg,  18S1.  Besides  these  large  works,  there  are 
many  small,  handy  volumes,  of  which  the  best 
probably  is  Bagster's  Pocket  Hebrew-Enylish  Lexi- 
con, containing  all  the  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Words 
in  the  Old  Testament,  London  [n.d.],  pp.  287.  — 
A  work  sui  generis  is  B.  Davidson  :  The  Anabjt- 
ical  Hebrew  Lexicon,  London.  In  it  every  sepa- 
rate word  in  the  original  Old  Testament  is  parsed, 
and  referred  to  its  proper  conjugation  or  declen- 
sion, primitive  form  or  root.  Thus  every  gram- 
matical difficulty  is  solved,  and  anybody  who 
knows  the  Hebrew  letters  can  by  the  use  of  this 
volume  read  the  Hebrew  Old  Testament. 

Greek.  —  The  best  is  C.  L.  W.  Grimm:  iexi'- 
con  Grceco-Latinum  in  Libros  Novi  Testamenti, 
Leipzig,  1867,  2d  ed.,  1879,  which  entirely  super- 
sedes the  work  upon  which  it  is  based,  Wilke  : 
Ctavis  Novi  Testamenti,  Dresden,  1839,  2d  ed., 
1850.  Professor  J.  H.  Thayek  of  Andover  has 
in  press  (1882)  a  translation  of  Grimm,  with  im- 
provements. Li  English  the  best  is  E.  Robin- 
son :  A  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  of  the  New 
Testament,  New  York,  1836;  new  ed.  revised  and 
in  great  part  rewritten,  1850.  There  is  also 
E.  W.  BuLLiNGEK ;  Critical  I^exicon  and  Concord- 
ance to  the  Engli.ih  and  Greek  New  Testament,  Lon- 
don, 1877.  There  are  numerous  abridged  and 
condensed  New-Testament  Greek  Dictionaries, 
among  them  Greenfield  :  Polymicrian  Greek 
Lexicon  (32mo),  and  T.  .S.  Green  :  Pocket  Greek- 
English  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament,  both  pub- 
lished by  .S.  Bagster  and  Sons,  London.  This 
firm  also  publishes  The  Analytical  Greek  Lexicon 
to  the  New  Testament,  which  is  upon  the  same  plan 
as  that  of  the  Analytical  Hebrew  Lexicon  men- 
tioned above,  and  similarly  facilitates  the  acqui- 
sition of  the  original.  —  On  a  different  plan  from 
any  of  the  above,  not  a  complete  dictionary,  but 
very  vahiable  for  exegesis,  is  H.  (kemek:  Bib. 
Theol.  Wiirterbnch,  Gotha.  1867;  2d  ed.,  1872;  4d 
ed.,  1886;  English  trans,  by  Kev.  William  Ur- 
wick  (Biblico-Theoloi/ical  Lexicon  of  N.T.  Greek), 
Edinb.,  1878;  .'Jd  ed.,  1886. 

in.  Dictionaries  ok  Particular  Bible 
Topics.  —  On  the  proper  names  of  the  Bible.  — 
A  List  of  the  Proper  Names  occun-ing  in  the  Old 
Testament,  London,  1841  (anonymous,  a  professed 
compilation  from  (Jesenius  and  Simonis,  and 
therefore  in  many  cases  needing  revision);  Al- 
fred ■Ione.s:  The  J'roper  Names  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, Exjjoundcd  and  Illustrntcd,  London,  n.d. 
(Bagster'.s)  ;  The  Proper  Names  of  the  Old  'Tes- 
tament, 7t'ilh  an  Appendix  of  the  Hebrew  and  Ara- 
maic A^ames  ni  the  New  Testament,  London,  1859 ; 
W.  I".  Wilkinson  :  Personal  Names  in  the  Bible 
Inlerpreteil  and  Illustrated,  fjOndon,  1865;  T.  G. 
Bkiiarrkll:  A  Complete  .Alphabeticidly  Arranged 
Biblical  Biography,  Indianapolis,  1867;  William 
Henderson:  A  Dictionary  and  Concordance  of 
the  Names  of  Persotis  anil  I'laces  .  .  .  in  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  Edinburgh,  1860  (a  very 
Keritorious  work).     On  the  geographicai  names. 


—  G.  H.  Whitney:  Handbook  of  Bible  Geography, 
N.Y.,  1875;  revised  ed.,  1870; 'DeSaulcy:  Dic- 
tionnaire  topographique  abrc'ge  de  la  Terre  Sainte, 
Paris,  1877. 

IV.  General  Biblical,  Ecclesiastical, 
AND  Theological  Dictionaries. — J.  New- 
ton Brown:  Encyclopeedia  of  Religious  Knowl- 
edge, Brattleborough  (N.H.),  1835;  revised  by 
Rev.  G.  P.  Tyler,  1858;  reprinted  in  Philadel- 
phia, 1875.  The  book  in  matter  and  illustrations 
belongs  to  a  former  generation.  J.  Aschbach  : 
AllgemeinesKirchen-Leiikon,  Frankfurt  a-M.,  1846- 
50.  A  useful  and  reliable  work ;  written  by 
Roman-Catholic  scholars.  AVetzer  und  Welte: 
Kirchen-Lexikon.  Freiburg-im-Breisgau,  1847-56, 
12  vols,  (the  12th  is  supplementary) :  2d  ed. 
begun  by  Cardinal  Hergenrothei-,  continued  by 
Dr.  Franz  Kaulen,  1880  sqq.  (to  be  completed  in 
ten  vols.).  The  best  Uoman-Catholic  cyclopaedia. 
The  first  edition  was  moderately  liberal ;  the 
second  is  in  the  hands  of  Ultraniontanists.  J.  J. 
Herzog  :  Heal-Encyklopadie  fiir  proteslantische 
Theologie  und  I\irche,  published  by  Rudolph  Bes- 
ser,  vol.  1,  Hamburg,  1854,  vols.  2-9,  Stuttgart 
u.  Hamburg,  1854-o8,  vols.  10-21,  Gotha,  1858- 
66,  in  all  22  vols.;  2d  ed.  revised  au<l  j'artly  re- 
written, Leipzig  (Ilinrichs),  1877  sqq.,  vols.  1-7 
by  J.  J.  Herzog  and  G.  L.  Plitt  (d.  Sept.  10, 
1880),  vols.  8  sqq.  by  J.  J.  Herzog  and  A.  Hauck. 
This  is  the  great  storehouse  of  German  theology 
in  all  its  branches,  and  is  the  basis  of  the  present 
work.  J.  H.  A.  Bomberger:  The  Protestant 
Theological  and  Ecclesiastical  Encyclopiedin.  beinff 
a  Condensed  Trunslation  of  Herzug^s  lieul-Ency- 
clopcedia,  tcith  Additions  from  other  Sources.  Phila., 
1860,  2  vols.,  begun  in  1856,  but  never  complet- 
ed, and  now  superseded  by  the  new  Herzog. 
McCuNTOCK  AND  STRONG:  Cyclopccdia  of  Bibli- 
cal, Theological,  and  Ecclesiastical  Literal  are, 'N.Y., 
1867-81,  10  vols. :  two  supplementary  volumes 
were  published  1884  and  1886.  The  work  was 
begun  in  1853.  It  is  the  most  complete  religious 
cyclopaedia  in  the  English  language.  Its  vocab- 
ulary is  said  to  embrace  about  50,000  titles. 
The  literature,  given  under  each  article,  has  been 
brought  down  to  date.  The  work  is  profusely 
illustrated  throughout,  and  contains  several  new 
maps.  In  tlie  original  distribution  of  tlie  work 
Dr.  Strong  had  charge  of  the  biblical  depart- 
ment; but  after  Dr.  McClintock's  lamented 
doatli,  in  1870,  the  heavy  burden  of  the  wliole 
work  fell  upon  him.  Different  occa.sional  con- 
tributors and  several  persons  constantly  employed 
have  materially  aided  in  carrying  out  tlie  exten- 
sive scheme.  In  each  department,  dictionaries 
and  text-books  have  been  freely  and  often  liter- 
ally u.sed,  especially  Smith,  Kitto,  and  Herzog  ; 
but  this  was  in  accordance  witli  the  announce- 
ment of  the  editors,  and  many  additions  liave 
been  made  from  less  accessible  .sources.  The 
editors  have  .secured  a  noteworthy  freeilom  from 
theological  bias  by  employing  persons  of  the 
various  denominations  to  write  regarding  their 
respective  interestji,  tlieological  and  biographical. 
The  Cyclopirdia  h:is  many  defects,  ty]ingraphical 
and  otherwise,  especially  in  the  earlier  volumes. 
Not  a  few  articles  bear  nnirks  of  mechanical 
compilation,  and  undue  prominence  is  given  to 
minor  biographies ;  nevertheless,  it  is  a  most 
useful  coLIectiuu   of    iuiormatiou  upon  a  very 


DIDEROT. 


637 


DIDIMUS. 


wide  range  of  topics,  and  a  monumental  work  of 
American  industry  and  perseverance.  F.  Licii- 
TENBERGEK:  Enryclopc'ilif  (lex  sciences  religie.uises, 
Paris,  1877-82,  13  vols.  Scholarly,  clear,  and 
concise,  designed  to  meet  the  wants  of  French 
Protestants,  as  Herzog  meets  those  of  the  German 
Protestants.  Joseph  Schaklek  :  llanillexikon 
der  kalholischen  Theologie,  Regensburg,  188U  sqq. 
First  volume  finished  1881,  to  be  completed  in 
4  vols.  ;  quite  full,  very  well  done. 

V.  Special  Ecclesiastical  ok  Theologi- 
cal Dictionaries.  —  C.  Buck:  A  TheoUxjiral 
Dictionary,  London,  1802,  2  vols.  8vo.,  1821,  1  vol., 
edited  and  much  improved  by  Rev.  Dr.  E.  Hen- 
derson, London,  1847,  reprinted,  Phila.,  18(59  (a 
book  of  permanent  value,  noted  for  its  conciseness 
and  fairness) ;  William  Staunton  :  Diclionary 
of  the  Church,  N.l'.,  1839,  enlarged  ed.  under  title 
An  Ecclesiastical  Dictionarij,  N.Y.,  1804;  Wil- 
liam Farquhar  Hook  :  .4  Church  Dictionary, 
London,  8tli  ed.,  1859,  reprinted,  Phila.,  1854; 
John  Eadie:  The  Ecclesiastical  CyclojHe(lia,hon- 
don,  1861;  John  Henry  Blunt:  Dictionary  of 
Doctrinal  and  Historical  Theoloyy,  London,  1870, 
2d  ed.,  1872  ;  the  same  :  Dictionary  of  Sects,  Here- 
sies, and  Schools  of  Thought,  London,  1874  (two 
excellent  volumes,  written  from  the  High-Cliurch 
.stand-point);  Dictionary  of  the  Eui/lish  Church, 
Ancient  and  Modern,  London  and  N.Y.,  1881; 
Addis  and  Arnold:  Catholic  Dictionary.  1884; 
Benton  :   Church  Cyclopcedia,  Phila.,  1884. 

VI.  Dictionaries  of  Christian  History, 
Antiquities,  or  Biography.  —  Siegel:  Hand- 
ibuch  der  christlich-kircldichen  Alterthiimer,  Leipzig, 
1836-38, 4  vols. ;  Chekuel:  Dictionnaire  historique, 
Paris,  1855;  W.  D.  Fuhrm.4NN:  Handioiirterbuch 
derchristlichen  Religions-  u.  Kircliengeschichte,  Halle, 
1826-29,  3  vols. ;  Neudecker  :  All gemeines  Lexi- 
con der  Religions-  ii.  christlichen  Kirchengeschichte, 
Weimar,  1834-37,  5  vols. ;  Martigny  :  Diction- 
naire des  antiquites  chretiennes,  Paris,  1865;  J. 
CoRBLET  :  Vocahidaire  des  symholes  et  des  attributes 
employes  dans  I'iconographie  chrc'tienne,  Paris,  1877; 
Smith  and  Cheetham  :  Dictionary  of  Christian 
Antiquities,  London,  1875,  1880,  2  vols. ;  S.mith 
AND  Wace  :  Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography, 
Literature,  Sects,  and  Doctrines,  London,  vol.  i., 
1877,  vol.  ii.,  1880,  vol.  iii.,  1882,  vol.  iv.,  1886. 
The  two  works  just  mentioned  are  wonderfully 
comprehensive  in  their  respective  fields,  embra- 
cing every  proper  and  descriptive  name  of  their 
period,  but  cover  only  the  first  eight  Christian 
centuries.  It  is  intended  to  follow  them  with 
other  volumes  which  shall  continue  this  system- 
atic analysis  oi  <;hurch  characters  and  life  to 
modern  times.  F.  X.  Kraus  :  Real-Encyklopddie 
der  christlichen  Alterthiimer,  Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 
1880  sqq.  The  illustrations  are  professedly  taken 
from  Martigny,  but  the  letterpress  is  original  and 
excellent.  Samuel  m.  jackson. 

DIDACHE.    See  end  of  voL  L 

DIDEROT,  Denys,  b.  at  Langres,  in  Cham- 
pagne, Oct.  5,  1713 ;  d.  in  Paris,  July  30,  1784 ; 
was  educated  in  the  Jesuit  college  of  his  native 
city;  studied  law  for  a  short  time,  and  tlien  en- 
gaged in  literature  in  general.  He  began  with 
translations  of  the  English  deists,  and  then  be- 
came a  preacher  of  deism  himself.  In  1746  he 
published  his  Pensees  Philosophiques ;  but  the  first 
work    in  which  he  proved   himself   an   original 


thinker  was  his  Letter  on  the  Blind,  1749.  It 
was,  however,  a  little  too  sharp  for  the  taste  of 
the  time :  he  was  prosecuted,  and  put  in  the 
dungeon  of  Vincennes  for  three  months.  Here 
he  conceived  the  idea  of  the  great  work  of  his 
life,  the  Enci/clopedie,  of  which  the  first  volume 
appeared  in  1751,  the  last  in  1772.  In  1759  its 
publication  was  forbidden;  and  D'Alembert,  Tur- 
got,  and  others  of  his  most  brilliant  collaborators, 
left  him.  Aided  only  by  mediocrities,  and  com- 
pelled to  employ  all  kinds  of  shifts  in  order  to 
avoid  the  interference  of  the  police,  he  finished 
the  work  alone  and  with  enormous  toil.  He  was 
not  exhausted,  however.  Besides  the  Encyclo- 
pedic, he  has  written  a  multitude  of  comedies, 
criticisms,  spirited  improniiitus  {Regrets  on  my 
old  Dressing-goicn),  philosophical  controversies 
(D'Alemhert's  Dream),  etc.  The  collected  edition 
of  his  works,  by  Asse'zat  and  Tourneux,  Paris, 
1877,  comprises  twenty  volumes  ;  his  correspond- 
ence with  Grimm,  Paris,  1829,  fifteen  volumes. 
Diderot  was  not  a  dogmatical  philosopher,  but  a 
critic;  and  his  criticism,  though  in  many  respects 
excellent,  whether  it  treats  of  art  or  science,  has 
often  an  aphoristic  character.  But,  in  spite  of  the 
almost  total  absence  of  positive  propositions,  the 
informing  tendency  of  this  criticism  is  nowhere 
doubtful :  it  is  a  somewhat  coarse  materialism, 
tinged  with  a  very  prosaic  sentimentalism  and  a 
rather  low-bred  humor,  —  a  character  very  fre- 
quently met  with  among  the  philanthropic  athe- 
ists or  atheistic  philanthropists  of  the  eighteenth 
century. 

DlDYMUS.called "the Blind," b.  in  Alexandria, 
308;  d.  there  395;  became  blind  in  the  fourth 
or  fifth  year  of  his  age,  according  to  Jerome  and 
Palladius,  but  became,  nevertheless,  one  of  the 
most  learned  men  of  his  time.  He  was  one  of 
the  last  directors  of  the  catechetical  school  of 
Alexandria,  laboring  there  for  more  than  fifty 
years.  Jerome,  Palladius,  Ambrose  of  Alexandria, 
Evagrius,  Isidore  of  Pelusium,  etc.,  were  among 
his  pupils.  Though  he  fought  with  great  zeal 
against  the  Arians,  he  was  condemned  as  a  heretic 
by  the  second  council  of  Nice,  because  he  defended 
the  Xlspi  upxCii'  of  Origen.  Of  his  many  writings, 
—  of  which  a  complete  list  is  given  by  Jerome,  De 
Vir.  III.,  and  by  Fabricus,  BiUioth.  Grceca,  v., 
viii.,  —  only  the  following  have  come  down  to  us. 

I.  A  work  on  the  Trinity,  translated  by  Jerome, 
and  found  among  his  works,  and  published  sep- 
arately at  Cologne,  lool,  and  at  Ilelmstadt,  1614. 
See  J.    Basnage:    Animadcersiones    in.    Didymum. 

II.  A  short  commentary  on  the  canonical  and 
Catholic  epistles,  translated  into  Latin  by  Epi- 
phanius  Scholasticus,  and  found  in  Max.  Bibt. 
Pair.,  Lyons,  1677,  Tom.  iv.  p.  319.  III.  Frag- 
ments of  a  Greek  work  against  the  Manicheans, 
given  by  Basnage,  I.e.  IV.  Three  books  on  the 
Trinity,  discovered  by  Aloysius  Mingarelli,  and 
published  by  his  brother,  Rome,  1764.  See 
GuERicKE : /)e  Schola  Alexandrina,  i.  92-97;  ii. 
83-96,  332-377.  herzog. 

DIDYMUS,  Gabriel,  b.  at  Joachimsthal,  in  Bo- 
hemia, 1487;  d.  1558.  He  studied  in  Prague  and 
Wittenberg;  entered  the  order  of  the  Augustines 
in  1502,  and  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1513,  but 
embraced  the  Reformation  in  1521.  He  was  one 
of  those  vehement  characters  which  it  often 
proved  difficult  for  Luther  to  manage.     He  fol- 


DIEPENBROCK. 


638 


DIETRICH. 


lowed  Carlstadt  in  his  eccentric  attack  on  the 
schools  and  universities  ;  and,  though  he  after- 
wards was  brought  to  repentance  by  Luther,  he 
left  Wittenberg,  and  was  minister,  first  at  Alten- 
burg,  then  at  Torgau,  from  which  latter  position 
he  was  dischai-ged  by  ^laurice  of  Saxony,  on 
account  of  his  opposition  to  the  Interim  of  Leip- 
zig, in  1549.  He  afterwards  lived  in  retirement. 
See  Terxe  :  Nachi-ichl  von  des  G.  Didi/mus  fatalem 
Leben,  Leipzig.  1737.  '  HERZOG. 

DIEPENBROCK,  Melchior,  b.  Jan.  6,  1798,  at 
Bocholt,  in  the  principality  of  Salm-Salm  ;  d.  at 
Johannesberg,  in  Austrian  Silesia,  Jan.  20,  1853. 
As  a  boy  he  was  remarkable  for  the  exuberance 
of  his  spirits.  lie  was  sent  from  one  educational 
institution  to  another,  no  teacher  being  able  to 
curb  his  feeling  of  independence.  Even  from 
the  military  scliool  of  Bonn  he  was  dismissed  for 
insubordination,  and,  after  serving  for  some  time 
as  a  lieutenant  iu  the  Prussian  army,  he  was 
advised  by  his  superiors  to  resign  his  position. 
But  an  incidental  meeting  with  Sailer,  in  1817, 
changed  his  character  at  once  and  completely. 
He  began  to  study  theology ;  was  ordained  priest 
in  1823;  and  lived  for  several  years  with  Sailer, 
as  his  secretary.  He  studied  especially  the  medi- 
eval mystics,  gave  out  an  edition  of  the  works 
of  Suso  (1829),  and  published  a  volume  of  reli- 
gious poetry,  Geistiit-her  Bliilhenstrauss.  In  1815  he 
was  elected  Prince-bishop  of  Breslau.  The  rela- 
tion between  the  Prussian  Government  and  the 
Roman-Catholic  Church  was  at  that  period  very 
cordial.  The  government  found  a  valuable  aid 
in  the  church  against  the  liberal  aspirations  of 
the  people ;  and  more  than  once  it  was  Diepen- 
brock  who  finally  carried  tlirough  the  govern- 
ment's schemes  of  taxation  and  other  measures 
by  his  pastoral  letters  to  his  flock.  In  18.50  he 
was  made  a  cardinal.  See  his  Life  by  FoERSTKn, 
Breslau,  1859,  and  J.  H.  Reixkexs,  Leipzig,  1881. 

DIES  IR/t.  The  opening  words  of  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  Latin  liynnis  from  the  middle 
ages,  still  used  in  the  Rouian-Catholic  Church 
at  funeral  services.  It  was  probably  written  by 
Thomas  of  Celano  iu  the  miildleof  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  sprung  from  Zejih.  i.  15  (see  the 
Vulgate),  and  Ps.  xcvi.  13,  xcvii.  3,  cii.  20,  etc. 
Suggestions  from  earlier  judgment-hymns  seem 
also  to  have  been  worked  into  the  fabric.  Trans- 
lations of  it  in  all  civilized  languages  may  be 
counted  by  the  hundreds ;  bnt  none  equals  the 
original.  Dr.  Schaff  {Clirhl  in  iiunr/,  Loudon  ed., 
1870,  p.  290)  tlius  characterizes  this  remarkable 
hymn  :  "  The  secret  of  the  irresistible  power  of  the 
Dies  Irie  lies  in  the  awful  grandeur  of  the  theme, 
the  intense  earnestness  and  pathos  of  the  poet,  the 
simple  majesty  and  solemn  nnisic  of  its  language, 
the  stately  metre,  tlie  triple  rhyme,  and  the  vowel 
assonances  chosen  in  striking  adaptation  to  the 
sense,  all  combining  to  produce  an  overwhelm- 
ing effect,  as  if  we  lieard  tlie  final  crash  of  the 
universe,  the  commotion  of  the  opening  graves, 
the  trumpet  of  the  archangel  that  summons  the 
quick  and  the  dead,  and  iis  if  we  saw  the  '  King 
of  tremendous  majesty'  seated  on  the  throne  of 
justice  and  mercy,  and  ready  to  dispense  ever- 
lasting life  or  everla.sting  woe." 

See  V.  G.  Li.soo ;  Vie.i  Ira:,  Berlin,  1810;  H.  A. 
Daniel:  T/ienuurus  Ili/mnoloyicus,  Leipzig,  18.55, 
JI.  1U3-131,  V.  110-110;  AuKAUAM  Colk:  Diet 


IrcE  in  Thirteen  Orir/inal  Vejsions,  New  York,  4th  ed. . 
1866  ;  77(e  Secen  Great  Ilijmns  of  the  Meili(eval 
C/i  iirrJ>,  New  York,  3d  ed.,  1867.  1'he  best  English 
translations  are  by  Irons,  Alford,  Trench,  Cole, 
and  Dix,  the  latest  is  by  Charles  Elliott.  D.D., 
published  in  The  Standard,  Chicago,  Feb.  24,  1881. 

DIESTEL,  Ludwig  von,  a  German  theologian 
of  the  liberal  school  in  Old-Testament  exegesis ; 
b.  Sept.  28, 1825;  d.  May  1.5,  1879.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Konigsberg,  Berlin,  and  Bonn ;  in  the 
latter  university  he  was  privatdoceut  (1851),  aud 
then  extraordinary  professor  of  theology  (1858) 
until  1862,  when  he  went  to  Greifswald  as  ordi- 
nary professor.  He  subsequently  was  called  to 
Jena,  1867,  and  to  Tiibingen,  1872,  where  he  died. 
His  best  work  is  the  Geachichte  des  Alten  Testa- 
ments in  der  christlichen  Kirche,  Jena,  1868,  a  full 
history  of  Old-Testament  exegesis  down  to  the 
present  time. 

DIET  (Latin  dies,  day).  The  earliest  diets  of 
the  German  or  Holy  Roman  Empire  were  assem- 
blies in  which  the  emperor  discussed  with  his 
subjects  the  common  interests  of  the  empire. 
Originally  all  members  were  bound  by  their 
feudal  tenure  to  be  present :  absence  cost  them 
not  only  their  votes,  but  also  rendered  them  liable 
to  fine.  Thus  the  diet  was  a  feudal,  not  a  repre- 
sentative, parliament.  But,  since  gradually  the 
feudatories  of  the  emperor  became  independent 
sovereigns,  the  diet  was  at  last  a  mere  congress 
of  princes,  in  which  the  emperor,  instead  of  pre- 
siding in  person,  was  represented  by  a  delegate, 
called  "principal  commissarius,"and  to  which  the 
princes  sent  envoys;  the  right  of  suffrage  belong- 
ing, not  to  individuals,  but  to  certain  territories 
or  districts.  The  diets  consisted  of  three  bodies, 
who  met  and  voted  in  separate  colleges  :  (1)  The 
electoral  college;  (2)  The  princes  of  the  empire, 
spiritual  and  temporal;  (3)  The  free  imperial 
cities.  When  the  three  colleges  agreed,  the  de- 
cree, or  recess  as  it  was  called,  was  submitted  to- 
the  imperial  sanction ;  but  the  emperor  had  no 
power  to  modify  it.  The  diet  met  regularly  twice 
a  year,  —  in  the  spring,  to  discuss  general  matters ; 
in  the  autumn,  finance.  From  1663  it  met  in 
Regensburg.  The  power  of  the  dii't  steadily  de- 
clined after  the  Thirti,-- Years'  War  (1018-48). 
The  diets  of  great  religious  importance  —  for  re- 
ligion, of  course,  was  a  topic  of  discu.ssion — are 
Worms  (1.521),  which  issued  an  edict  of  outlawry 
against  Lutlier  ;  Spires  (1520),  which  allowed 
choice  of  religion  to  the  several  states;  Spires 
(1529),  at  which  the  name  "Protestant"  origi- 
nated; Augsburg  (1530),  where  the  famous  Con- 
fession was  presented;  Augsburg  (1555),  famous 
for  the  "  Religious  I'eace  of  Augsburg,"  which 
regulated  thi'  civil  relations  of  the  Lutherans. 

DIETRICH,  Veit  (  Vitus  Theodorus,  or  Theo- 
doricus),  b.  at  Nuremberg,  1500;  d.  there  March 
24,  1.519;  studied  theology  at  Wittenberg,  and 
became  the  amanuensis  of  l^uther  in  1527,  and 
preacher  to  the  Church  of  St.  Sebaldus  in  Nurem- 
berg, in  15.30.  He  translated  into  (Jernian,  aiul 
edited,  a  number  of  Luther's  and  IMclanchthon's 
minor  writings;  wrote  sermons  and  hynnis  and 
iin  Ai/nidltiic/dcin  f'iir  die  I'farrherrn  an  (I  d  em  Land 
(1513)  ;  and  maintained  a  lively  correspondence 
with  all  the  most  i>rominent  of  the  Reformers. 
See  SriionEi, :  yuchric/Uen  von  Uem  Leben  vnd 
Hchri/len,  V.  D.,  Niiruberg,  1772. 


DIETRICH. 


639 


DIOCESE. 


DIETRICH  OF  NIEM,  b.  at  Niem,  or  Niehoim, 
in  Westphalia,  between  1338  and  1348 ;  became 
Scriptor  AiiDalfilifua  in  the  papal  cliancelry  in 
Avignon,  1371  ;  followed  Gregory  XI.  to  Rome 
in  1377,  and  held  the  position  there  of  papal 
prothonotary  and  abbreviator,  until  1118,  after 
'S'hich  time  nothing  is  known  abont  him.  See 
H.  V.  Saukrland:  Lcben  des  Die/rich  von  Nie- 
heim,  Gdttingen,  1875 ;  Lenz  :  Drei  Traklate, 
Marburg,  1870.  According  to  Lenz,  tlie  follow- 
ing works  are  by  Dietrich  of  Niem  :  De  modia 
uniendi  ac  refoniiandi  eccleaiam  in  concllio  un'wer- 
sali,  though  it  is  printed  by  Hardt,  in  ISUujnum 
CEc.  Concilium  ConsUint.  II.,  as  a  work  of  Ger- 
son  ;  and  Aoisamenta  pulcherrima  de  necessita/e  ref- 
ormationis  in  capite  el  in  membris,  printed  by  Hardt, 
I.e.,  as  a  work  of  Ailli.  P.  tsch.vckert. 

DIEU,  Louis  de  (Lodewyk),  b.  at  VUessingen, 
April  7,  1590 ;  d.  at  Leyden,  Dec.  22,  1012 ;  was 
appointed  pastor  at  Middelburg  in  1613,  and  at 
VUessingen  in  1617,  and  professor  at  the  A\'al- 
loon  College,  in  Leyden,  in  1619.  He  was  a 
distinguished  Orientalist,  and  published  a  Com- 
pendium HebneiccE  Gnnnmalica:,  Leyden,  1626 ; 
Grammatica  Trilinguis,  Hehraica,  Syriacci,  el  Chal- 
daica,  Leyden,  1628 ;  and  a  Persian  grammar, 
1639.  His  extensive  knowledge  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages and  history  he  applied  with  success  to  the 
exegesis  of  the  Bible.  Hi.s  exegetical  writings 
were  published  in  Amsterdam,  1693,  collected 
under  the  title  of  Critica  Sacra. 

DIQBY,  Sir  Kenelm,  b.  at  Gothurst,  Bucking- 
hamshire, Eng.,  June  11,  1603;  d.  in  London, 
June  11,  1665.  Educated  in  the  Protestant  reli- 
gion, in  Paris  he  became  (1636)  a  Roman  Catho- 
lic, as  his  father  had  been,  after  he  had  been 
graduated  from  Oxford  (1621),  been  knighted  by 
Charles  I.,  and  given  various  high  positions.  On 
his  return  to  England  (1638),  he  joined  the  Royal- 
ist side ;  was  imprisoned  by  order  of  Parliament ; 
was  released  by  request  of  the  French  queen- 
dowager,  and  in  1043  retired  to  France,  where  he 
formed  an  intimacy  with  Descartes,  and  wrote  his 
Treatise  on  the  Nature  of  Bodies  (London,  1644), 
Peripatelick  Institutions  (London,  1646),  Treatise  on 
the  Soul  (London,  1669).  By  the  friendship  of 
Cromwell  he  was  permitted  to  live  in  England. 
At  the  Restoration  he  returned  to  London;  was 
one  of  the  first  council  of  the  Royal  Society.  His 
other  works  are  :  A  Conference  about  a  Choice  of 
Religion,  Paris,  1636,  London,  16.54  (justifying 
his  conversion);  Letters  (on  the  same  subject), 
London,  1651;  Obserrations  on  licligio  Medici,  Lon- 
don, 1643  ;  ^-1  Treatise  of  Adhering  to  God,  London, 
1654 ;  On  the  Cure  of  Wounds  bg  the  Powder  of 
Sgmpathg,  London,  1658  (one  of  liis  curious  hob- 
bies), bee  I'/ie  Private  Memoirs  of  Sir  K.  Digbg, 
written  bg  himself,  London,  1827. 

DIMAN,  Jeremiah  Lewis,  D.D.,  b.  at  Bristol, 
R.I.,  May  1,  1831;  d.  at  Providence,  R.I.,  Feb. 
3,  1881.  He  was  graduated  from  Brown  Lhii- 
versity.  Providence,  R.I.,  1851 ;  studied  privately 
for  a  year;  entered  the  Theological  Seminary  at 
Andover,  Mass.,  completed  the  junior  and  middle 
years;  went  to  Europe,  1854;  studied  in  Halle 
and  Berlin  ;  returned,  1856  ;  was  ordained  in  the 
Congregational  Church  ;  pastor,  first  at  Fall  River, 
Mass.,  1856-60,  and  then  at  Brookline,  Mass., 
1860-64.  In  1864  he  was  inaugurated  professor 
of  history  and  political  economy  in  Brown  Uni- 


versity, and  held  the  position  at  his  death.  Pro- 
fessor Diman  was  a  ripe  scholar  and  a  most 
catholic  Christian.  After  his  death,  two  books, 
made  up  of  his  lectures  and  sermons,  appeared ; 
The  Thcistic  Argument,  and  Orations  and  Essags 
[and  sermons],  with  Memorial  Discourse,  hy  J.  0. 
Murray,  D.D.,  both  Boston,  1881. 

DIMISSORY  LETTERS  (litcrte  dimis.wria;  or 
ditnissorialis)  is  the  name  of  a  kind  of  documents 
by  which  a  person  belonging  to  the  jurisdiction 
(diocese,  congregation)  of  a  certain  ecclesiastic 
is  by  him  formally  permitted  to  withdraw  from 
his  authority,  either  forever  (litene  dimissoriw 
perpetu(e),  or  for  a  particular  purpose,  such  as 
ordination  (lilcra:  dimissorim  temporales). 

DIMCZRITES  (from  iiiioipia,  two-thirds)  is  the 
name  of  the  adherents  of  Apollinaris  the  Youngei', 
so  called,  because,  in  the  person  of  Christ,  they 
recognized  oidy  two  human  elements,  —  the  i'f tv 
uloyoc,  and  the  body;  the  divine  Logos  taking  the 
place  of  the  vov^,  tlie  'ivxn  AoyiKii.  Sozomen  (Hist. 
EccL,  VI.  25)  calls  them  Vitalians  from  Vitalis, 
their  bishop  in  Antioch;  and  Facundus  of  Iler- 
mione  (Pro  Defensione  trium  Capilulorum,  Paris, 
1079),  Synousiastes,  because  they  taught  that  the 
flesh  of  Christ  was  of  an  eternal  and  heavenly 
nature,  forming  one  substance  with  his  godhead'. 
The  last  name,  howevei',  is  applicable  only  to  one 
of  the  two  parties  of  Apollinarists,  the  Polenii- 
ans,  thus  called  from  their  leader  Polemo,  \\ho, 
according  to  Photius  (^Bibl.  Cod.,  CCXXX.),  de- 
clared that  the  doctrine  of  two  natures  in  Christ 
wa.s  a  mere  invention  by  Athanasius,  the  two 
Gregories,  Basil  the  Great,  and  the  Italian  bish- 
ops. The  other  party,  the  Valentinians,  tlius 
called  from  Valentinus,  who  is  said  to  have  kept 
very  closely  to  the  doctrines  of  Apollinaris  (Theo- 
doret.,  Hcer.,  IV.  8,  9),  held  the  very  opposite 
views.  Augustine's  division  of  the  sect  (De  dono 
perseverantice,  69)  —  into  those  who  recognize  no 
soul  in  Christ,  those  who  recognize  no  rational 
soul,  and  those  wlio  consider  the  divine  Logos 
itself  transformed  into  flesh  —  is  consequently 
not  fully  correct.  nKRZOG. 

DINANT,  or  DINANTO,  David  of.  See  David 
OF  Dinanto. 

DINTER,  Gustav  Friedrich,  b.  at  Borna,  in 
Saxony,  Feb.  29,  1760;  d.  at  Konigsberg,  May 
29,  1831;  studied  theology  and  philosophy  at 
Leipzig,  and  was  appointed  pastor  of  Kitscher 
(1787),  and  director  of  the  normal  college  of  Dres- 
den, in  1797.  For  the  sake  of  his  health  he  left 
Dresden  in  1807,  and  settled  as  pastor  of  Gornitz, 
where  he  founded  a  normal  school  and  business 
college.  The  school  was  very  successful ;  and  in 
1816  he  was  called  to  Konigsberg  as  professor  of 
theology,  and  president  of  the  board  of  education. 
He  was  a  very  prolific  writer,  and  a  rationalist 
every  inch ;  but  he  was  a  man  of  great  tact,  and 
never  touched  the  vulgar,  or  made  fuss  about  the 
unnecessary.  His  Schullehrerbibel  (Bible  for  the 
Schoolmasters)  is  the  most  widely  known  of  his 
productions,  and  caused  much  controversy.  See 
ScHW.\BE :  Zur  Geschichte  der  Schidlehrerbibel, 
etc.,  Xeustadt-on-the-Oder,  1826;  Hoffmann: 
Uber  Werth  und  Brauchbarkeil  d.  D.  Schullehrer- 
bibel, Bunzlau,  1828.  His  Autobiography  (Neu- 
stadt-on-the-Oder,  1829)  gives  insight  both  into 
his  character  and  his  system. 

DIOCESE  ((iioifc7/(7if).    It  was  quite  natural  that 


DIOCLETIAN. 


640 


DIODORUS. 


the  civil  division  of  the  empire,  which  Constan- 
tine  undertook,  into  dioceses,  and  the  dioceses 
again  into  provinces,  shoidd  be  transferred  to  the 
church,  so  that  each  diocese  was  placed  under  an 
exarch  or  patriarch,  and  each  province  under  a 
metropolitan.  In  the  course  of  time,  however,  the 
name  "diocese"  changed  its  meaning,  and  was 
applied,  from  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century, 
to  any  territorial  circumscription  of  ecclesiastical 
authority,  but  more  especially  to  the  episcopal. 
The  earliest  name  for  a  bishop's  see  was  parish 
(jTa(ioih.ia).  The  right  of  founding  or  changing 
dioceses  belonged,  after  the  fourth  century,  to 
the  metropolitan  and  the  provincial  synod  (f.  50, 
Can.  XVI.  qu.  I.  [Cone.  Carthag.,  II.  o.  390,  c.  5] 
c.  51,  ead.  \_Conc.  Cart/tar/.,  III.  a.  397,  c.  20]); 
but  in  the  Western  Church  it  was,  after  the 
eleventh  century,  reserved  to  the  Pope,  like  all 
other  causce  episcopates  (c.  1.  X.  de  Ininslatiune 
episcopi.  I.  7,  Innocent.  III.  a.  llliS). 

DIOCLETIAN,  or  DIOCLETIANUS,  Caius  Au- 
relius  Valerius,  Roman  emperor,  284-305;  was 
b.  at  Salona,  in  Dalmatia,  245  (the  son  of  a 
freedman),  and  d.  there  313,  having  committed 
suicide  by  poison.  He  entered  the  army  as  a 
simple  soldier,  but  rose  rapidly,  and  was  elected 
emperor  at  Chalcedon.  after  the  assassination 
of  Cams  and  Xumerianus.  lie  took  up  his  resi- 
dence at  Nicomedia,  and  appointed  JIaximian 
co-eraperor  (Augustus)  in  280,  and  Galerius  and 
Constantius  Chlorus,  Caesars  in  292.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  his  reign  he  paid  no  particular  atten- 
tion to  the  Cliristians :  they  were  found  in  the 
army,  the  administration,  and  in  the  very  palace. 
But  Galerius,  who  was  wholly  in  the  hands  of 
the  Pagan  priests,  persuaded  liim  that  the  total 
destruction  of  Christianity  was  necessai'y  to  the 
preservation  of  the  empire  ;  and  in  303  the  per- 
secution began  suddenly  and  violently.  An 
imperial  edict  of  Feb.  24  ordered  the  Cliristian 
service  to  cease,  all  copies  of  the  Bible  to  be  sur- 
rendered and  burnt,  and  all  Cliristian  church- 
buildings  to  lie  jiulled  down.  Another  edict 
ordered  all  Cliristians  who  held  offices  in  the 
administration  or  in  the  army  to  sacriftce  to  the 
gods  under  penalty  of  discharge ;  and  it  declared 
that  a  Christian  had  no  rights  as  a  citizen  or  free 
man,  tliata  Cliristian  slave  could  never  be  manu- 
mitted, etc.  A  third  edict  of  the  same  year 
ordered,  that,  of  the  Christians  who  had  been 
imprisoned,  those  who  were  willing  to  sacri- 
fice should  be  released,  while  those  who  refused 
should  be  compelled  by  force.  Finally,  a  fourth 
edict  of  304  ordered  that  all  Christians,  without 
any  exceptions,  should  be  compelled  to  sacrifice ; 
and  the  employment  of  tortures  of  all  kinds  was 
allowed.  The  effect  of  these  edicts  was  really 
startling.  Among  the  Christians  a  great  num- 
ber hastened  to  surrender  their  books,  to  deny 
their  faith,  and  sacrifice  to  the.  idols ;  but  a  still 
greater  mmibcr  remained  firm  and  faithful  in 
spile  of  the  nick,  even  in  spite  of  death.  Among 
tlie  I'agans  many  magistrates  were  very  lenic-nt, 
conniving  at  the  various  artifices  which  some 
Christians  employed,  and  looking  with  disgust 
at  the  strange  excitement  uiuh^r  which  others 
pressed  towards  martyrdom,  lint  in  other  places 
the  wildest  fanaticrism  ami  the  basest  forms  of 
hatred  and  revenge  were  let  loose,  and  the  Chris- 
tians   suffered    unspeakably.      The    persecution 


spreail  over  the  whole  empire,  with  the  exception 
of  the  north-western  part,  where  Constantius 
Chlorus  contented  himself  with  the  destruction 
of  the  church-buildings ;  and  it  continued  un- 
abated, also,  after  the  abdication  of  Diocletian 
and  Maximian  in  3u5.  Towards  the  close  of  his 
life  (311)  Galerius  issued  an  edict  in  which  he 
confessed  tliat  his  whole  policy  with  respect  to 
the  Christians  had  been  a  failure,  that  he  had 
decided  to  give  it  up,  and  to  return  to  status  quo 
ante,  etc.  But  Maximinus  and  Maxentius,  the 
son  of  JIaximianus,  renewed  the  persecution ; 
and  it  was  onlj'  the  victories  of  Constantine,  the 
son  of  Constantius  Chlorus,  which  finally  brought 
it  to  an  end. 

Lit.  —  EusEBics  :  Hist.  Eccl.,  chap.  VUI. ; 
Lactaxtius  :  De  Morlihus  Persecutorum,  chap. 
VH.  sqq. ;  Gibbon:  Decline  and  Fall,  etc.,  chap. 
XIII. ;  A.  VoGEi, :  Der  Kaiser  Diokietian,  Gotha, 
1857 ;  [Mason  :  The  Persecution  of  Diocletian, 
Cambridge,  1870].  ALBRECIIT  VOGEL. 

DIODATI,  Giovanni,  b.  at  Geneva,  June  6, 
1.370  ;  d.  there  Oct.  3,  1649';  was  made  professor 
of  Hebrew,  in  Geneva,  1597,  in  160!)  professor  of 
theology,  succeeding  Beza,  and  resigned  in  1645. 
He  attended  the  synod  of  Dort  as  a  delegate  from 
Geneva,  and  was  one  of  the  committee  of  six 
ajipointed  to  draw  up  the  account  of  its  proceed- 
ings. He  translated  Sarpi's  History  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent  into  French,  and  ahso  published  an 
Italian  translation  of  the  Bible  (1603)  which  is 
still  much  used  in  Italy,  though  it  is  a  paraphrase 
rather  than  a  translation  ;  and  a  French  transla- 
tion (1644).  Of  his  va^-ious  theological  works 
tiie  best  known  is  Annotattones  in  Biblia  (1607), 
translated  into  English,  Pious  and  Learned  Anno- 
tations upon  the  Holy  Bible,  plainly  Expounding  the 
7nost  Difficult  Places  thereof  London,  1648,  3d  ed. 
(and  best),  1651,  folio.  See  ScnoxKi. :  .T.  Diodafi, 
1844 ;  E.  DE  Bi'DE  ;  /.  D.,  Lausanne,  1879. 

DIODORUS,  Presbyter  of  Antioch.  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Tarsus  378 ;  d.  in  394 :  was.  as  an 
exegetist,  one  of  the  masters  of  the  .\ntiochian 
school,  and  in  dogmatic  re.spects  its  founder.  He 
descended  from  a  distinguished  family  in  An- 
tioch, and  studied  classical  literature  in  Athens, 
and  Christian  lore  under  Eusebius  of  Emesa 
(Jeuome:  Vir.  III.,  c.  119).  Thus  equipped,  he 
commenced  on  the  great  work  of  his  life,  —  to 
defend  the  faith  of  the  ortliodox  church,  and  to 
reali/.e  the  ascetic  ideal  of  Christian  virtue.  A 
walking  skeleton,  looking  more  like  a  shadow 
than  a  man,  lie  moved  around  among  the  tumul- 
tuous stir  of  Antioch,  where  Pagans  and  Jews 
and  Christian  lieretics  of  every  descri]>tion  met 
and  mixed  together,  fighting  each  other  at  all 
other  points,  but  ]>erfectly  agn^ed  in  their  attacks 
on  th(^  orthodo.x  church.  He  had,  however,  vigor 
and  strength  enough  to  take  it  up  witli  them  all; 
and  the  zeal  and  success  wilh  which  he  combated 
I'latonists  and  Porphyriaiis,  Manicha-ans  and 
ApoUinarists,  etc.,  made  his  name  one  of  the 
most  revered  and  most  feared  in  the  Eastern 
Church. 

Curiously  enough,  however,  although  during 
the  ascendency  of  the.  .\rians  in  Antioch  hewrought 
persistently  to  keep  together  the  remnants  of  the 
orthodox  churcli,  assembling  with  them  for  wor- 
ship in  all  kinds  of  secret  i>laces,  and,  when  even 
that  became  impossible,  visiting  them  one  by  one 


DIOGNBTUS. 


641 


DIONYSIUS  AREOPAGITA. 


in  their  houses ;  although  the  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople (•581)  appointed  him  who  was  only 
Bisliop  o£  Tarsus  Metropolitan  of  Cilicia  (So- 
CRAT. :  IliM.  JCcc/.,  5,  8),  and  an  imperial  ediot 
{Cod.  T/ieos.,  I.  XVI.,  tit.  1,  I.  3)  mentions  him  a.s 
the  fourth  of  those  bishops  who  were  to  give  judg- 
ment in  any  question  of  orthodoxy ;  although  he 
■was  a  friend  of  Basil  the  Great,  and  numbered 
Chrysostom  among  his  pupils,  —  hardly  fifty  years 
elapsed  after  his  death  before  tlie  .shadow  of 
heresy  fell  upon  his  own  name.  Tlie  Nestorian 
controversy  was  the  cause.  In  harmony  with  the 
whole  tendency  of  the  Autiochian  school,  and 
eager  to  emphasize  every  thing  human  in  Christ 
in  opposition  to  the  strained  idealism  of  the 
Alexandrian  school,  he  developed,  in  his  contro- 
versy with  Apollinaris,  a  theory  of  the  relation 
between  the  two  natures  in  Christ  which  sjilit 
the  God-Man  into  two  persons,  the  Son  of  God 
dwelling  in  the  son  of  David  as  in  a  house  or  in 
a  garment.  The  two  works  of  his  relating  to  this 
subject  are  Tlpdc  tovc  avvmctaaTu;  and  Uepl  lov  dyimi 
■mev/iaTo;  (Phot.  :  Bibl.  Cud.,  102)  ;  fragments  of 
the  former  work  in  Marius  Mercator  (ed.  Baluze, 
p.  349)  and  Leontius  Byzantinus  (Neslor.  el 
Eutych.,  1,  3,  in  Canis.  lectiones  antiques,  edit. 
Basnage,  I.  p.  591).  A  view  so  singularly  me- 
chanical could,  of  course,  not  satisfy  the  more 
daveloped  christological  demands.  Already 
Cyril  of  Alexandria  (432)  tried  to  have  the 
■writings  of  Diodorus  and  his  pupil  Theodore 
of  Mopsuestia  condemned;  and  the  condemna- 
tion actually  took  place  in  499. 

Diodorus'  works  have  dogmatic  interest  also 
on  other  points.  He  is  the  founder  of  the  cosmo- 
logical  argument  for  the  existence  of  God  (Jlepi 
cifiapfiii'ric,  Phot.:  Bibl.  Cud.,  228);  he  opposed 
the  doctrine  of  everlasting  punishment  (IIcp; 
oi/iomfilas,  in  AssEMANi :  BihI.  Orient.,  III.  1, 
p.  324),  etc.  As  an  exegete  he  followed  and 
further  developed  the  principle  of  the  Antiochian 
school ;  which  article  see.  The  twenty-three 
fragments  on  Exodus,  published  by  Pitra,  Spici- 
leg.  Solesmeni,  Paris,  1852,  I.  p.  269,  are  not  of 
any  great  interest.  A  complete  list  of  the  works 
■of  Diodorus  has  been  given  by  Suidas  (ed.  Bern- 
hardy,  I.  p.  1379),  by  the  Nestorian  metropolitan, 
Ebed  Jesu  (Assemax.  :  Biil.  Orient.,  III.  l,p.  28), 
and  by  Fabricius  (BiOl.  Grcec,  ed.  Harles.,  IX. 
p.  277).  SEMISCH. 

DIOGNETUS,  The  Epistle  to,  one  of  the  most 
precious  relics  from  Christian  antiquity,  hardly 
equalled,  either  in  spirit  or  form,  by  any  other 
work  from  the  post-apostolic  age.  It  is  not  the 
novelty,  however,  nor  the  richness  of  its  ideas, 
nor  the  depith  of  its  dogmatic  expositions,  nor 
the  acuteness  of  its  apologetic  argumentation, 
which  secures  this  prominent  place  to  it.  In  all 
these  respects  it  is  not  beyond  the  average,  and 
in  man}'  points  it  approaches  very  near  to  heresy. 
The  extraordinary  charm  which  it  exercises 
springs  from  the  noble  simplicity  of  a  faith 
which  grasps  the  divine  truth  of  Christianity  as 
an  inner  experience,  and  from  the  perfect,  clas- 
sical education,  which,  in  bold  and  striking  but 
fully  harmonious  expressions,  bears  witness  to 
this  fact.  The  author  does  not  share  in  the  nairete 
of  the  faith  of  the  apostolic  fathers,  nor  has  he 
any  interest  in  an  elaborate  speculation.  His 
theological  stand-point  is  that  of  the  transition 
42-1 


when  faith  and  knowledge,  though  still  essen- 
tially one,  are  just  about  to  break  away  from 
each  other. 

With  respect  to  its  form,  the  epistle  is  an 
answer  to  a  series  of  questions  put  forward  by 
Diognetus,  a  distinguished  and  educated  I'agan, 
concerning  Christianity  and  the  Christians ;  but, 
in  his  rapid  sketch  of  Christian  life  and  doctrine, 
the  author  makes  no  pretension  to  reveal  the 
deeper  Christian  mysteries.  The  author  himself 
is  unknown.  In  the  oldest  nianu.script,  from  the 
thirteenth  century,  t)ut  destroyed  by  the  conflagra- 
tion of  Strassburg  in  1870,  the  epistle  was  placed 
with  several  (pretended)  works  of  Justin,  and 
blunderingly  ascribed  to  him.  But  tliat  is  impos- 
sible. The  style  of  the  epistle  and  the  style  of 
the  genuine  works  of  Justin  cannot  belong  to 
the  same  person.  Still  greater,  perhaps,  is  the 
discrepancy  of  ideas.  The  epistle  speaks  of  the 
Pagan  gods  as  mere  idols  made  by  human  hands; 
while  Justin  considers  them  as  symbols,  or  even 
real  apparitions,  of  demonic  powers.  The  epistle 
gives  a  very  harsh  and  sweeping  verdict  on  Juda- 
ism, denying  its  divine  origin,  its  character  of 
revelation,  and  the  ethical  worth  of  its  institu- 
tions ;  while  Justin  places  the  Old  and  the  New 
Testament  in  providential  connection  with  each 
other.  The  date  of  the  epistle  is  undoubtedly 
the  second  century,  though  no  external  witnesses 
bear  testimony.  The  newness  of  Christianity, 
and  the  ignorance  of  it  among  educated  Pagans ; 
the  predominant  feeling  among  the  Christians  of 
being  strangers  in  this  world,  and  the  passionate 
hatred  to  them  among  the  Jews  and  the  lower 
classes  of  the  Pagans ;  the  steadily  growing 
church,  and  the  increasing  self-consciousness 
among  the  Christians  of  being  the  leaven  of  the 
world,  —  all  the  most  prominent  features  of  the 
sketch  pioint  to  the  second  century. 

Lit.  —  The  epistle  was  first  published  by 
H.  Stephanus,  Strassburg,  1592,  and  recently  by 
Otto,  in  Opera  Justini,  1843,  2d  ed.,  1849,  and 
with  annotations  separately,  Jena,  1845,  2d  ed., 
Leipzig,  1852.  New  contributions  to  a  critical 
revision  of  the  text  have  been  given  by  IIollen- 
liERG:  Der  Brief  an  Diognet,  Berlin,  1853;  Hefe- 
le:  Patr.  Apust.  Opp.,  ed.  4,  Tubingen,  1855; 
and  Krenkel  :  Ep.  ad  Diognet,  Leijizig,  lb60. 
—  See,  also,  Grossheim  :  De  Ep.  ad  Diog., 
1828;  Semisch:  Justin  d.  jl/art.,  Breslau,  1840, 
1842,  2  parts,  I.  p.  172 ;  Snock  :  Intr.  in  ep.  ad. 
Diog.,  Leyden,  1861 ;  Harnack  :  Patr.  Aposl. 
Opp.,  Leipzig,  1875,  I.  p.  214 ;  [J.  Dkaseke  :  Der 
Brief  an  Diognetos,  Leipzig,  1881.  —  An  English 
translation  of  the  epistle  is  in  the  Ante-Nicent 
Library,  I.  p.  303,  Ediu.,  1867.]  SEMISCH. 

DIONYSIUS  AREOPAGITA,  citizen  of  Athens, 
and  member  of  the  Areopagus,  was  converted  to 
Christianity  by  Paul  (Acts  xvii.  34).  According 
to  f^usebius  {Hist.  Ecd..  3.  9,  and  Const.  Apost., 
7,  46),  he  was  the  first  bishop  of  Athens;  and  a 
later  tradition  tells  us  that  he  suffered  martyr- 
dom there. 

At  the  conference  held  in  Constantinople  (533), 
at  the  instance  of  Justinian,  between  the  Ortho- 
dox and  the  Severians,  the  latter  quoted,  among 
other  ecclesiastical  authorities,  also  Dionysius 
the  Areopagite  against  the  synod  of  Chalcedon; 
and  when  the  former  objected  that  Athanasius 
and  Cyril    certainly  would   have  used   such    an 


DIONYSIUS  AREOPAGITA.  642      DIONYSIUS  OF  ALEXANDRIA. 


authority  against  Nestorius,  if  he  had  existed 
and  been  kno-mi  to  them,  the  Severians  asserted 
that  Cyril  had  actually  quoted  the  works  of 
Dionysius  in  his  books  against  Diodorus  of  Tar- 
sus and  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  as  might  have 
been  seen  from  the  copies  of  those  books  in  the 
libraries  of  Alexandria.  The  -works  here  referred 
to  are:  I.  Ufp'  "/f  oipavian  kpacix'ia^  ("On  the 
Heavenly  Hierarchy  ")  ;  H.  Ilfpi  -w  cKKAriaiaaTiKiK 
iepapxiag'("  On   the   Ecclesiastical    Hierarchy"); 

III.  Utpi  -Snuv  bvofiuTuv  (■'  On  the  Xames  of  God  "); 

IV.  rifpi  iniarmrj^  -d^oTioyia^  ("  On  Mystic  Theolo- 
gy ")  ;  and  v.,  —  ten  letters  (the  eleventh  is  spu- 
rious), all  evidently  belonging  to  the  same  author. 
They  are  mentioned  for  the  first  time  in  the 
records  of  the  above  conference ;  but  after  that 
time  they  are  very  frequently  spoken  of.  Severus 
himself,  mouophysite  patriarch  of  Antioch  from 
51-3,  often  quotes  them,  and  so  does  Ephraim, 
orthodox  patriarch  of  Antioch  from  T:>2Q.  Com- 
mentaries upon  them  were  written  by  Joannes 
Scythopolitanus  in  the  sixth  century,  and  by 
Maximus  Confessor  in  the  seventh.  Pachymeres 
paraphrased  them  in  the  thirteenth.  In  the 
Greek  Church  they  enjoyed,  on  the  whole,  a 
great  reputation,  though  the  genuineness  of  their 
authorship  was  not  altogether  undoubted. 

In  the  Western  Churcli,  Gi'egory  the  Great  is 
the  first  who  refers  to  these  writings  (Horn.,  34, 
in  Ev.  Luc);  but  when  the  Byzantine  emperor, 
Michael  the  Stammerer,  sent  a  copy  of  them  to 
Louis  the  Pious  in  827,  they  soon  became  better 
known ;  and  after  the  invention  of  Abbot  Hil- 
duin,  combining  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  and 
St.  Denis  the  patron  saint  of  the  Franks,  in  one 
person,  they  became  quite  celebrated.  Joannes 
Scotus  Erigena  translated  them  into  Latin  at  the 
instance  of  Charles  the  Bald,  and  he  was  him- 
self deeply  influenced  by  them.  In  the  Western 
Church,  among  the  schoolmen,  the  Areopagite 
became  a  leader  towards  mysticism,  a  teacher  of 
mystical  theology.  Hugo  of  St.  Victor,  .\lbertus 
Magnus,  Thomas  Aquinas,  Dionysius  Carthu- 
sianus,  etc.,  drew  their  inspiratiou  from  him. 
C'orderius  has  shown  how  much,  for  instance, 
Thomas  Aquinas  owes  to  the  Areopagite.  The 
Platouisls  of  tlie  Italian  renascence  also  appre- 
ciated him  very  much,  as  did  other  humanists, 
for  instance,  Jolm  Colet,  Dean  of  St.  Paul's  in 
London,  who  were  swayed  by  Dionysius"  angelol- 
ogy,  not  to  speak  of  the  poets,  Dante,  Milton, 
etc.  (Cf.  Jo.  Colclus  super  opera  Dinni/sii.  Two 
Treatises  on  the  llicrnrcliies  nf  Dioni/sius  by  Dean 
Colet.  Now  Jir.ll  pulitislifd  with  a  Irnnslalion,  intro- 
duction anil  tiolrs  lnj  ./.  //.  /.ujiton,  London,  1SG9.) 

The  devclopuu^nt,  liowever,  of  literary  criti- 
cism (Laurentius  Valla,  Erasmus,  etc.),  one  of 
the  most  prominent  features  of  the  period  of  the 
renascence,  could  not  help  destroying,  first  the 
invention  of  llilduin  (the  identification  of  Diony- 
sius the  Areopagite  and  St.  Denis),  and  then  the 
glory  of  the  apostolic  date  of  the  authorship. 
Tlie  internal  evidences  of  a  later  date,  besides 
tlie  total  absence  of  mention  or  quotation  up  to 
the  conference  of  Constantinople  (■"'•'}■(),  were  too 
.striking  and  too  strong,  —  the  difference  lictween 
the  pompous  and  infiated  style  of  the  writings 
and  the  simjilicity  of  the  apostolic  ago;  the  use 
of  theological  terms  which  were  not  formed  until 
the  fourth  century ;  references  to  an  elaborately 


developed  church  ritual  and  church  government; 
allusions  to  later  persons  and  events,  as,  for 
instance,  to  the  martyrdom  of  Ignatius,  and  to 
"  Clement  the  Pliilosopher "  (Clemens  Alexan- 
drinus) :  appeals  to  "  ancient  traditions,"  etc. 
Even  Roman-Catholic  theologians  (Sirmond, 
Launoi,  Jlorinus)  gave  in ;  and  the  attempts  of 
the  Jesuits  (Halloix,  Delrio,  Xatalis  Alexander, 
Schelstrate,  etc.)  to  vindicate  the  authorship  of 
Dionysius  the  Areopagite  -nere  easilj'  met  and 
I'educed  by  Dallaeus,  Le  Nourry,  etc. 

The  non-authorship  of  Dionysius  the  Areopa- 
gite once  agreed  upon,  the  question  arose,  by 
whom,  then,  and  at  what  time,  these  works  were 
written ;  and  a  number  of  hypotheses  were  prof- 
fered, from  that  of  Baumgarten-Crusius,  placing 
the  author  at  Alexandria,  in  the  third  century,  to 
that  of  Westcott,  placing  him  at  Edessa,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sixth  century.  The  general 
outcome,  however,  of  the  critical  researches  is, 
that  the  philosophical,  and  more  especially  the 
mystical,  ideas  expounded  in  these  books  pre- 
suppose that  later  development  of  Neo-platonism 
which  was  due  to  Proclus  ;  and.  as  Proclus  died 
485,  the  date  of  the  authorsliip  of  the  books 
seems  to  coincide  with  the  date  of  their  first 
notice. 

Lit.  —  The  works  were  first  printed  at  Basel, 
1539  (Greek).  By  P.  Lansselius  they  were 
edited  (Greek  and  Latin),  Paris,  1615.  Tne  best 
edition  is  that  by  the  Jesuit,  Balthasar  Corderius, 
Antwerp,  1034  (containing  the  commentaries  of 
Maximus  and  the  paraphrase  of  Pachymeres), 
whicli  was  reprinted  at  Paris,  1(J44,  Venice,  1755 
(with  augmented  apparatus),  Brixia;,  1854,  and 
by  Migne. — Comp.  L.  G.  V.  Engeliiaedt  :  Die 
angebl.  Schriften  d.  A.  D.,  Sulzbach,  1823,  De  Dion. 
J'lotini:.,  Erlangen,  1820,  and  De  On'yin  Script. 
Dion.,  Erlangen,  1823;  B.4UMG.\UTE.N-CRrsu'S : 
De  Dion.  A reopa//.,  Jena.,  1S2'3;  D.^mioY:  CEuvres 
de  St.  Deiiys,  Paris,  1845;  G.  A.  Meyeu  :  Dion. 
.4reo;)a5.,  lialle,  1845;  Biekm.\nn:  De  Christolog. 
Dion.  Arcopag.,  Vratisl.,  1848;  F.  Hipler  : 
Dionys.  der  Areopag.,  1861;  [Westcott:  Dion. 
Areopag.,  in  Contemporary  Review,  May,  1867]; 
Joii.  NiEMEYEU :  Dion.  Areop.,  Halle,  1869; 
[Fowi.er:  Dion.,  in  Relation  to  Art,  in  the  Sacristy, 
February,  1872  ;  J.  K.\nakis  :  Dionysius  der  Are- 
opagite nacli  seinem  Character  als  J'hilosoph  ilar- 
gestelll,  Leipzig,  1881  (35  pp.)]         W.  MOLLER. 

DIONYSIUS  OF  ALEXANDRIA,  also  called 
//(('  d'rtal,  a  pupil  of  Origen,  succeeded  Heraclas 
in  232  as  director  of  the  catechetical  school,  and 
in  247  as  bishoji.  \  few  years  later  on  (250)  he 
was  overtaken  by  the  Decian  persecution.  He 
fled,  as  did  Cyprian;  but,  unlike  him,  he  did 
not  afterwards  assume  a  severe  attitude  towards 
those  who  liad  become  lapsi  during  the  persecu- 
tion. On  the  contrary,  the  mild  discipline  which 
he  exercised  he  defended  both  in  letters  to  his 
friends  and  colleagues,  and,  according  to  Ense- 
bius  (Ili.1t.  ICcct.,  VL  46),  in  a  separate  book. 
He  was  a  man  of  a  mild  and  kind  temper;  aiul 
the  position  he  occupied  in  the  schism  of  Nova- 
tian,  in  the  controversy  concerning  heretical  bap- 
tism, etc.,  was  th:it  of  a  mediator.  Dnring  the 
persecution  of  A'alerian  he  was  banished  (2.57), 
first  to  Kephron  in  Litiya,  and  then  to  Kolhithian 
in  the  Mareotis  ;  but  the  edict  of  (Jalienus  (260) 
allowed    liini    to   return   to   Alexandria.     In   the 


DIONYSIUS  OF  CORINTH. 


643 


DISCALCEATI. 


last  part  of  his  episcopacy  the  city  was  fearfully 
devastated  by  uin'oar,  murder,  plague,  and  fam- 
ine, of  which  a  striking  pictui-e  is  found  in  Euse- 
bius,  lli^t.  EecL,  Vn.'_>l2. 

Dionysius  is  generally  considered  the  most 
prominent  of  Origen's  pupils.  lie  opposed  suc- 
cessfully the  chiliastic  views  revived  by  Nepos ; 
and  his  critical  comparison  between  the  Gospel 
and  the  Revelation  by  St.  John  is  a  model  pro- 
duction of  the  older  Alexandrian  school.  His 
opposition  to  Sabellianism  was  less  successful : 
he  stood  on  the  very  verge  of  heresy,  but  re- 
treated safely  through  a  liook  dedicated  to  Diony- 
sius of  Rome.  Of  his  many  works,  polemical, 
ascetic,  exegetical,  and  apologetical,  only  frag- 
ments have  come  down  to  us.  Most  of  these  are 
found  in  Euskbius  :  Ilis/.  Eccl.,  VII.  They  have 
been  collected  by  (iALlandi:  Bibl.  Vet.  Pair.,  111. 
p.  481,  by  KouTii ;  Rillqnm  Sacra,  Oxford,  1814, 
II.  and  IV.  Cf.  FIIrstku  :  De  doclrina  D.  M.,  Ber- 
lin,lS65;  Dittkicii:  Dionysius,Vve\h.,  1867;  Roch: 
D."iiU'rilie  Nalur,"  Leipzig,  lSH-2.  WEIZSACKER. 

DIONYSIUS  OF  CORINTH  became  bishop  of 
that  city  in  170,  and  wrote  eight  letters,  — to  the 
Lacediemoniaus,  Athenians,  Nicomedians,  etc., — 
which  enjoyed  a  great  reputation  in  tlieir  time, 
and  are  greatly  praised  by  Jerome.  They  are 
lost,  however ;  and  only  fragments  of  them  have 
been  preserved  by  Eusebius :  Hist.  Eccl.,  iv.  23. 

DIONYSIUS  OF  ROME,  bishop,  259-269,  suc- 
ceeded Xystus,  having  been  presbyter  of  the 
Roman  Church  under  Stephen.  He  was  a 
Greek  by  birth,  and  maintained  a  lively  connec- 
tion with  the  Greek  Church.  When  Dionysius 
of  Alexandria,  in  his  controversy  with  the  Sabel- 
lians,  went  too  far  in  the  opposite  direction,  and 
defined  the  nature  of  the  Son  as  a  mere  creation, 
Dionysius  of  Rome  stepped  forward,  and  com- 
pelled him  to  retract.  Afterwards  the  two 
Dionysii,  of  Rome  and  Alexandria,  acted  in  uni- 
son against  Paul  of  Samosata  in  the  councils  of 
Constantinople  (264  and  269). 

DIONYSIUS  EXIGUUS  ("  the  Little  "),  a  Scythi- 
an by  birth,  but  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  and 
influential  men  of  the  Latin  Church  in  the  sixth 
century ;  acquired  his  vast  learning  in  Rome,  and 
d.  there,  ;is  abbot  of  a  monastery,  556.  He  trans- 
lated a  number  of  Greek  works  into  Latin  :  Ra- 
TERius :  EpiKtola  Pcuschalis,  Vita  St.  Packomii; 
Proclus  :  Laudatlonem  in  Murium,  and  his  epistle 
to  the  Armenian  clergy;  Gregouy  of  Nyss.\ : 
De  condidone  hominia,  etc.  But  that  which  has 
made  his  name  most  famous  is  his  collection  of 
canons  and  decretals  (see  Canon  Luw),  and  his 
Ci/clus  Puschalis,  which  forms  the  basis  of  the 
Christian  or  Diouysian  era.     See  Era. 

DIONYSIUS  THE  CARTHUSIAN,  also  called 
Rickil,  from  his  birthplace,  or  Leniris,  the  name 
of  his  family,  was  b.  in  1403,  in  the  diocese  of 
Liege,  the  present  Belgian  Limburg ;  studied 
theology  and  philosophy  in  Cologne,  and  entered 
in  1423  the  Carthusian  Monastery  of  Roerraonde, 
where  he  d.  in  1471.  He  boasted  of  his  iron 
stomach,  which  allowed  him  to  practise  the 
severest  ascetical  exercises,  and  of  his  iron  head, 
which  enabled  him  to  write  more  than  one  hun- 
dred works.  He  also  boasted  of  receiving  divine 
inspirations  and  revelations,  on  account  of  which 
he  enjoyed  a  great  reputation,  obtained  the  title 
of   Doctor  Ecstaticu.<i,   and   was   taken    into    the 


intimacy  of  kings  and  kaisers.  But  when  his 
chief  work  — Enarrutiones,  or  Cummenlurii  on  the 
whole  Bible,  a  heap  of  quotations  from  the 
Fatliers  and  mystico-allegorical  trifles  —  was 
printed  at  Cologne  (in  7  vols.,  1530-36),  in  order 
to  be  used  as  a  thunderbolt  against  the  Re- 
formers, it  proved  entirely  ineffectual.  His  Life, 
written  by  a  brother  Carthusian,  Theodorich 
Loer,  was  published  at  Cologne  (1532),  and  is 
found  in  Act.  Sanct.,  March  12,  Tom.  II.  p.  275. 
Some  information  about  his  ecstasies  is  given  by 
Dorlaudus  in  his  Chronicon  Carthusiense,  Cologne, 
1608.  nERZOG. 

DIOSCUROS  succeeded  Cyril,  in  444,  as  Bishop 
of  Alexandria,  and  presided  in  449  over  the  so- 
called  Robber  synod  at  Ephesus,  which  deposed 
Flavian,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  but  was 
himself  condemned  and  deposed  by  the  cecumeni- 
cal  council  of  Chalcedon  (457),  and  banished  to 
Gangra,  Paphlagonia,  where  he  died,  4.54.  See 
EuTYCiiES  and  EriiESus. 

DIPPEL,  Johann  Konrad  (C/iristianus  Deinocri- 
/!«),  b.  at  Frankenstein,  Aug.  10,  1673;  d.  at 
Witgenstein,  April  25,  1734;  represents  a  curious 
mixture  of  rationalism  and  mysticism,  frivolity 
and  pietism.  After  studying  at  Giessen,  he  went, 
in  1693,  first  to  Wittenberg,  and  thence  to  Strass- 
burg,  where  he  lectured  on  alchemy  and  chiro- 
mancy, and  preached  against  the  pietists,  but 
was  expelled  on  account  of  debt  and  disorderly 
conduct.  In  1677  he  published,  under  the  pseudo- 
nyme  of  Christianus  Democritiis,  his  Orthodoxia  Or- 
thudoxorum,  in  1698  his  Pupimnus  Protestanlium 
vaputans,  and  in  1699  his  Wein  uitd  Oel  in  die 
Wunden  dcs  (/estuubten  Papstthuins ;  but  these 
books  in  which  he  rejected  the  doctrines  of  in- 
spiration, atonement,  etc.,  were  suppressed  by 
the  censor.  After  practising  in  Berlin  as  an 
alchemist,  inventing  the  oleum  Dippelii,  the  Berlin- 
blue,  etc.,  and  in  Amsterdam  as  a  physician,  he 
settled  at  Altona,  but  was  arrested  on  account 
of  some  incautious  remark  on  the  Danish  Gov- 
ernment, and  imprisoned  in  Bornholm  from  1719 
till  1725.  After  his  release  he  went  to  Stockholm, 
where  he  found  a  flattering  reception,  and  was 
about  to  be  made  Bishop  of  Upsala,  when,  for  the 
second  time,  some  incautious  remarks  interfered 
with  his  career.  He  was  banished,  but  found  a 
refuge  at  the  castle  of  Witgenstein,  the  home  of 
all  religious  enthusiasts  and  philosophical  curi- 
osities. See  his  Life  by  II.  V.  Hoffmann,  Darm- 
stadt, 1783 ;  and  W.  Bender,  Bonn,  1882. 
.  DIPTYCHS  (dtTT-vxa  tabuke  hipartita),  a  buok 
or  tablet,  consisting  of  two  leaves  folded  together, 
and  made  of  gold,  silver,  ivory,  or  some  kind  of 
fine  wood.  On  these  tablets  were  written  down 
the  names  of  such  persons,  living  or  dead,  as 
were  to  be  specially  mentioned  in  the  prayer 
preceding  the  consecration,  —  benefactors  of  the 
church,  teachers,  popes,  patriarchs,  metropolitans, 
and  bishops.  To  have  one's  name  registered  in 
the  diptychs  was  considered  a  great  honor,  and 
to  have  it  struck  out  was  synonymous  with  ex- 
communication. In  the  twelfth  century  the  dip- 
tychs fell  out  of  use  in  the  Latin  Church ;  but 
they  are  still  in  use  in  the  Greek  and  Armenian 
churches. 

DIRECTORY  OF  WORSHIP.     See  WoR^^mr. 

DISCALCEATI,  or  BAREFOOTED  MONKS 
and  NUNS,  is  the  common  name  of  all  such  reli- 


DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST. 


644 


DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST. 


gious  orders,  or  branches  of  religious  orders,  as 
wear  saudals,  or  nothing,  instead  of  shoes.  There 
are  Barefooted  Augustines,  Carmelites,  Capu- 
chins, Franciscans,"  etc.  It  is  generally  the 
strictest  divisions  of  the  orders  which  adopt  this 
feature. 

DISCIPLES   OF    CHRIST,   or   CHRISTIANS. 

A'ame.  —  This  religious  people,  sometimes  called 
"  Campbellites,"  or  "  Campbellite  Baptists,"  in 
accordance  with  their  cherished  principles  of 
union  and  apostolic  simplicity,  wish  to  be  known 
only  by  the  names  applied  to  followers  of  Clirist 
in  the  inspired  Word.  They  reason  from  1  Cor. 
iii.  4,  and  kindred  passages,  that  sectarian  names 
are  unscriptural,  and  causes  of  division;  and  in 
harmony  with  Acts  xi.  26,  xxvi.  28;  1  Pet.  iv. 
IG;  and  Rev.  xxi.  9,  as  individuals  and  as  a 
people,  call  themselves  simply  '•  Disciples  of 
Christ,"  or  "  Christians,"  and  their  churches, 
"  Churches  of  Christ,"  or.  using  the  adjective, 
"Christian  Churches."  Under  this  title  they 
plead  for  the  union  of  all  lovers  of  Christ. 

History.  —  As  a  distinct  body  of  believers  they 
date  from  the  early  part  of  the  present  century. 
Simultaneously,  in  different  parts  of  the  United 
States,  arose  teachers  among  the  religious  de- 
nominations, who  pleaded  for  the  Bible  alone, 
without  auy  huuiaa  addition  in  form  of  creeds  or 
formulas  of  faith,  and  the  union  of  Christians  of 
every  name  upon  the  basis  of  the  ajiostles'  teach- 
ing. This  movement  assumed  most  notable  pro- 
portions in  Virginia,  Ohio,  and  Kentucky.  In 
1823  Alexander  Campbell  (see  title)  of  Bethany, 
Va.,  began  to  set  forth  with  great  vigor  and 
learning,  in  a  periodical  entitled  T/ie  Christian 
Baptist,  the  plea  for  a  restoration  of  the  original 
gospel  and  primitive  order  of  things,  as  under 
the  apostles.  It  was  not  a  reformation  tiiat  was 
sought,  but  a  restoration,  a  renewal  of  the  ancient 
landmarks  of  the  Christian  religion.  But,  as  long 
before  as  1811,  he  had  publicly  advocated  the 
principles  already  stated,  and  had  organized  the 
first  regular  organization  at  Brush  Hun,  Penn., 
May  4,  1811,  with  thirty  members.  Tiie  Camp- 
bells, father  and  son,  having  been  convinced  of  the 
Scripture  necessity  of  immersion,  were  themselves 
immersed,  and  imjnvssed  the  doctrine  and  prac- 
tice upon  theirfollowers.  From  that  hour  Thomas 
Campbell  gave  place  to  his  sou  Alexander,  who 
was  afterwards  the  soul  of  the  niovemeiit.  In 
1813  the  Brush  Run  Church  united  with  the  Red- 
stone Baptist  Association,  and  ten  years  later  with 
the  Mahoning  .\ssociatioii  in  tlie  \\'cslern  Reserve 
of  Ohio.  In  1827  the  liajitist  cluirchi'S  withdrew 
fellowship  from  those  who  contended  fortlie  Bible 
alone,  and  the  followers  of  Campbell  organized 
themselves  anew.  Since  the  death  of  Alexan- 
der Camjibell  (18UG),  the  religious  people  known 
as  "  Cliristians,"  or  "Disciples  of  Christ,"  liave 
made  their  niiglitiest  strides.  They  number  now 
in  the  United  .Stati-s  six  liundred  tiiousand  com- 
municants, fifty-one  liuiulred  churches,  and  tliirty- 
eight  hundred  ministers,  besides  having  many 
churches  in  JCngland  and  Australia,  and  missions 
in  France,  Denmark,  Turkey,  and  Jamaica. 
Their  .strength  in  this  country  lies  chiefly  in  tlie 
West  and  iSoulh-west;  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Ken- 
tucky liaving  the  largest  bodies. 

EiJucaliijiKil  Enterprises.  —  'I'hey  are  active  in 
the  work  of  education,  supporting  two  universi- 


ties (the  North- Western  Christian  University, 
Indianapolis,  Ind.,  and  Kentucky  University, 
Lexington,  Ky.)  and  thirty-two  colleges  and 
seminaries  of  high  grade,  the  best  known  of 
which  are  Bethany  College  in  West  Virginia, 
founded  in  1840  by  Alexander  Campbell,  and 
presided  over  b}'  him  until  his  death;  and  Iliram 
College,  Iliram,  O.,  of  which  James  A.  Garfield 
was  for  a  time  president.  They  publisli  forty 
religious  periodicals. 

The  most  jnominent  man  among  them  was  the 
late  President,  James  A.  Garfield,  who  was  an 
active  member  of  this  body,  and,  by  his  elevation 
to  the  chief  m.agistracy  of  the  United  States,  did 
nuich  to  bring  the  principles  of  the  disciples  into 
notice.  He  was  baptized  liy  Elder  William  A. 
Lillie,  IMarcli  4,  1850.  For  five  years,  while  a 
teacher  at  Iliram  College,  he  preached  the  doc- 
trines of  the  cliurch  with  great  eloquence  and 
success,  until  1850,  when  his  political  career 
began.  During  all  his  subsequent  life,  until  his 
death,  Sept.  19, 1881,  he  was  devoted  to  the  church 
of  his  choice,  a  trustee  of  Iliram  and  Bethany 
Colleges,  and  actively  interested  in  the  local 
churches  at  Washington  and  Mentor,  and  the 
general  missionary  enterprises  of  his  brethren. 

Doctrine  and  Practice.  —  The  Disciples  endeavor 
to  follow  closely  New-Testament  models.  In 
agreement  with  what  are  termed  Evangelical 
Christian?,  they  accept  the  divine  inspiration  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures;  the  revelation  of  God  in  the 
tri-personah'ty  of  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit; 
the  all-sufficiencj'  and  alone-sufficiency  of  the 
Bible  as  tlie  revelation  of  God's  will  and  a  rule 
of  faith  and  pr.actice  to  his  creatures;  the  divine 
excellency  of  Jesus  as  the  Clirist  the  Son  of  God, 
—  his  incarnation,  doctrines,  miracles,  death  as  a 
sin-offering,  resurrection,  ascension,  and  invest- 
ment with  supreme  authority ;  the  per.sonal  mis- 
sion of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  convict  the  world  of 
sin,  and  to  comfort  and  sanctify  Christians;  the 
alienation  of  man  from  God,  and  his  dependence 
upon  the  divine  mercy  in  Christ ;  the  necessity 
of  faith  and  repentance  to  salvation  ;  the  im- 
portance of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  as 
divine  ordinances;  the  duty  of  observing  the 
Lord's  Day  in  memory  of  the  de.ath  and  i-esurrec- 
tion  of  Jesus  Christ;  the  necessity  of  righteous- 
ness, holiness,  and  benevolence  in  Christians; 
the  divine  appointment  of  the  Church  of  Christ, 
composed  of  all  who  by  faith  and  obedience  con- 
fess his  name,  with  its  ministry  and  .services  for 
the  edification  of  tlie  church  and  conversion  of 
the  world;  the  fulness  and  freeness  of  the  gospel 
to  all  wlio  will  accept  it  on  the  New-Testament 
coiulitioiis;  the  final  judgment,  with  the  reward 
of  the  righteous,  and  the  punislinieiit  of  the  un- 
godly. 

The  Disciples  hold,  that,  while  both  Old  and 
New  Testaments  are  equally  inspired,  lioth  are 
not  e(]iially  binding  upon  Christians.  Tlie  Old 
Testament  was  (iod's  will  with  reference  to  the 
Jews;  the  New,  (iod's  with  reference  to  us,  God 
having  spoken  unto  us  by  a  Son.  Accepting  fully 
the  Sori|iture  statements  concerning  the  Godhead, 
they  repudiate  all  jiliilosophical  speculations,  both 
of  Trinitarians  and  Unitarians.  They  do  not 
u.se  the  theological  terms  common  to  the  schools, 
but  insist  on  "the  form  of  .sound  words  "given 
in  the  Scriptures.      Accepting  the  Bible  as  the 


DISCIPLES  OP  CHRIST. 


645 


DISCIPLINE. 


all-sufficient  revelation  of  the  divine  will,  they 
repudiate  all  authoritative  creeds  and  human 
bases  of  fellowship.  Receiving  .lesus  in  all  his 
divinity  and  Christhood,  they  accept  the  trutli 
that  he  is  the  Christ,  as  the  one  article  of  faith, 
the  creed  of  the  cliurch.  the  fundamental  fact  of 
the  Christian  religion  and  belief ;  faith  in  that, 
with  all  the  heart,  being  all  they  ask  in  order  to 
baptism  and  church-membership.  Recognizing 
the  agency  of  the  Holy  .Spirit  in  conversion,  they 
repudiate  all  theories  of  special  spiritual  opera- 
tions outside  of  the  Word,  but  demand  that  the 
sinner  shall  hear,  believe,  repent,  and  obey  the 
gospel,  trusting  God  to  do  the  rest.  Admitting 
the  necessity  of  faith  and  repentance,  they  sub- 
mit no  other  tests,  no  human  formula  of  belief ; 
but  on  a  confession  of  Christ,  and  assurance  of 
heartfelt  desire  to  abandon  sin,  and  work  right- 
eousness, men  are  baptized,  and  received  into  the 
church.  Accepting  baptism  as  a  divine  ordinance, 
they  insist  that  "he  that  believeth  and  is  bap- 
tized shall  be  saved."  They  bid  men  "  Repent, 
and  be  baptized  for  the  remission  of  sins,"  and 
claim  that  the  evidence  of  pardon  and  of  the  gift 
of  the  Spirit  is  not  in  dreams  or  visions,  but  in 
the  sinner's  knowledge  of  his  heartfelt  acceptance 
of  the  terms  of  pardon,  and  his  assurance  of  the 
faithfulness  of  God.  Claiming  the  Lord's  Supper 
a  divine  ordinance,  they  consider  it  not  as  a 
sacrifice,  but  a  memorial  feast,  and  keep  it  on 
every  first  day  of  the  week,  meeting  as  the  Lord's 
people,  and  recognizing  neither  open  nor  close 
communion.  The  Lord's  Day  they  regard  not 
as  the  sabbath,  but  a  New-Testament  appoint- 
ment in  memory  of  the  resurrection.  The  Church 
of  Christ  with  them  is  not  a  sect,  liut  a  divine 
institution.  Sects  are  not  branches  of  the  church, 
but  are  unscriptural :  God's  people  are  to  be 
gathered  from  them,  and  united  in  the  "one 
body,"  of  which  Christ  is  the  Head. 

In  regai-d  to  the  action  of  baptism,  the  Disciples 
are  in  accord  with  the  Baptists.  Immersion  with 
them  is  the  only  baptism  that  is  scriptural,  and 
that  could  be  universally  accepted.  As  to  the 
subjects  of  baptism,  they  receive  to  th.at  ordinance 
only  believers  in  Christ.  With  respect  to  the 
design  of  baptism,  they  accord  more  with  Pedo- 
baptists.  They  baptize  '•  for  the  remission  of 
sins,"  and  claim  that  the  sinner,  in  obeying  this 
ordinance,  appropriates  God's  promise  of  pardon, 
relying  on  the  divine  testimony,  "  He  that  be- 
lieveth and  is  baptized  shall  be  saved,"  i.e., 
pardoned.  The  Disciples  date  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  institution  fi-om  Pentecost,  not  from 
Abraham,  Moses,  nor  John  the  Baptist.  The 
Jewish  institution,  they  claim,  passed  away  when 
Christ  exclaimed,  "It  is  finished."  All  things 
then  became  new  ;  and  the  New  Testament  con- 
tains the  history,  constitution,  and  laws  of  the 
Church  of  Christ.  In  church  government  they 
have  no  distinction  of  clergy  and  laity.  Their 
government  is  congregational,  with  evangelists, 
bishops  or  elders,  and  deacons.  The  Bible  is  their 
only  book  of  doctrine  and  discipline. 

The  special  plea  of  the  Disciples  is  the  restora- 
tion of  original  apostolic  Christianity,  and  the 
union  of  all  Christians.  They  insist,  that  as,  in 
the  beginning,  there  was  one  spiritual  brother- 
hood,—  one  body  with  one  Lord,  one  faith,  and 
ene  baptism,  —  Uiere  should  be  but  one  to-day; 


that  all  party  names,  creeds,  and  organizations 
shoulil  be  abandoned,  and  the  church  have  no 
creed  but  the  Bible,  no  law  but  the  Lord's,  no 
name  but  the  Master's ;  and  that,  as  the  l)asis  of 
that  primitive  union  w.as  the  common  teaching 
of  Christ  and  the  apostles,  nothing  is  now  essen- 
tial to  the  union  of  Cliristians  but  the  apostles' 
teaching,  and  nothing  is  essential  to  the  conversion 
of  the  world  l)ut  the  union  and  co-operation  of 
Christians  with  the  apostles'  teaching  or  testi- 
mony. 

Those  desiring  further  acquaintance  with  "  tha 
Disciples  of  Christ  "can  secure  all  information. 
fr6m  Central  Book  Concern,  180  Kim  St.,  Cincin- 
nati, O.  FREDERICK  D.   POWEK. 
(Ristor  Vermont-Ave.  Chrietian  Church,  Waphington,  D.C.^ 

DISCIPLINA  ARCANI.     See   Arcani    Disci- 

PLINA. 

DISCIPLINE.  Tlie  Christian  congregation, 
like  every  other  community,  needs  discipline  for 
the  sake  of  self-protection,  in  order  to  suppress 
or  eliminate  any  thing  that  might  impair  or 
destroy  its  life.  But,  as  the  Christian  congrega- 
tion is  a  community  of  the  faithful,  the  character 
of  its  discipline  is  purely  spiritual.  The  object 
of  all  church-discipline  is  to  prevent  scandal, 
with  a  further  view  to  retrieving  the  offender 
himself ;  and  the  only  means  which  can  be  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose  is,  properly  speaking, 
e.xclusion,  partial  or  total,  from  the  community. 
A  punishment  which  has  a  civil  effect  is  inad- 
missible. 

The  centre  of  the  whole  scriptural  doctrine  of 
ecclesiastical  discipline  is  tlie  passage  Matt,  xviii. 
15-18;  and  its  practical  application  in  the  apos- 
tolical church  we  learn  from  1  Cor.  v.  and  2  Cor. 
ii.  4-8.  A  member  of  the  Corinthian  congrega- 
tion had  taken  his  stepmother  for  a  wife,  and 
the  congregation  had  made  no  objection.  Paul 
then  wrote  to  the  Corinthi.ans,  that  he  who  had 
done  that  deed  should  be  excommunicated,  and 
"delivered  unto  Satan  ;  "  and  his  words  produced 
such  an  impression,  not  only  on  tlie  congregation, 
but  also  on  the  offender,  that,  when  he  wrote 
again  to  the  Corinthians,  Paul  could  recommend 
mercy.  It  is,  however,  not  only  for  such  flagrant 
offences  as  tlie  above  that  he  demands  punish- 
ment, but  also  for  such  minor  failings  as  idle- 
ness, by  which  a  man  is  made  a  burden  to  his 
fellow-men  ('2  Thess.  iii.  6) ;  and  the  danger 
against  wliich  he  warns  the  congregations  most 
urgently  is  heresy,  for  it  eats  like  a  canker  (2 
Tim.  ii.  17).  A  heretic,  after  admonishing  him 
once  or  twice  in  vain,  reject  (Tit.  iii.  10)  ;  do 
not  even  bid  him  God  speed  (2  John  10,  11). 
The  punishment,  however,  raust  never  be  ad- 
ministered in  a  spirit  of  retaliation.  Church 
discipline,  though  ever  bo  necessary  for  the  self- 
protection  of  the  church,  has  its  last  and  highest 
aim  in  the  reconciliation  of  the  offender;  and  in 
the  spirit  of  love  it  must  dictate  its  punishments 
(2  Cor.  ii.  6-8V 

The  apostolical  institutions  of  excommunicalion 
and  reconciliation  lived  on  in  the  post-apostolic 
church,  and  during  the  period  of  persecution 
became  even  more  peremptory  in  their  demands. 
Under  Decius,  whose  goal  seems  to  have  been 
the  total  destruction  of  Christianity,  there  oc- 
curred, by  the  side  of  the  most  admirable  exam- 
ples of  faithfulness,  so  frequent    instances    of 


DISCIPLINE. 


646 


DISCIPLINE. 


defection,  that  a  special  regulation  for  the  recon- 
ciliation of  the  lapsed  became  a  necessity.  This 
regulation,  which  continued  valid  down  to  the 
fifith  centur}',  established  a  course  of  penance 
(see  art.)  which  ran  through  various  stages,  and 
comprised  a  period  of  several  years;  but  its 
severity  naturally  called  forth  devices  of  evasion 
and  subterfuge,  such  as  the  libelli  of  the  con- 
fessors (see  art.);  and  at  various  times  and  in 
various  places  church-discipline  became  some- 
what lax.  A  re-action  towards  greater  severity 
followed,  and  the  Montanists  arose,  declaring 
that  the  excommunicated  ought  to  remain  for 
their  whole  life  in  a  state  of  penance,  and  the 
Novatians,  declaring  that  the  church  had  no 
right  at  all  to  forgive  the  laps!  their  sins,  though 
the  Lord  might  be  willing  to  do  so,  etc.  When 
the  persecutions  ceased,  and  the  Christian  Church 
became  the  Church  of  the  State,  great  numbers 
of  unconverted  and  thoroughh"  worldly  people 
entered  it  as  members,  and  thereby  discipline 
was  almost  lost.  It  became  not  only  laser,  but 
entirely  changed  character.  Already  in  the  sixth 
century  there  existed  casuistical  regulations  of 
penance-fines.  Tlie  first  book  of  penance  in  the 
Greek  Church  was  written  by  Johannes  Jejuna- 
tor.  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (d.  595).  A  new 
re-action  followed,  and  the  Donatists  arose,  de- 
manding that  the  church  should  be  kept  abso- 
lutely pure,  and  declaring  that  one  who  had  been 
excommunicated  could  never  administer  the  sac- 
raments. But  no  re-action  against  the  degene- 
ration of  the  discipline  of  the  church  was  of 
any  avail  from  the  moment  the  church  adopted 
the  theory  of  indulgences,  and  put  it  into  prac- 
tice. 

Under  Gregory  the  Great  the  doctrine  of  pur- 
gatory became  the  doctrine  of  the  church ;  and 
on  this  foundation  Peter  Lombard  reared  tlie 
theory  of  indulgence,  according  to  which  the 
church  has  tlie  power,  not  only  to  transform 
the  punishments  of  purgatory  into  earthly  pun- 
ishments, but  also  to  transform  tlie  latter  into 
simple  money-fines.  The  most  prominent  among 
the  schoolmen  followed  in  the  track  of  the 
Lombard ;  and  in  VHA  Clement  VL  solemnly 
confirmed  the  theory  of  the  dogmatists.  The 
punishments  wliich  the  church  inflicted  were 
generally  alms,  pilgrimages,  fasts,  participation 
in  a  crusade,  etc. ;  but,  if  any  of  these  forms  of 
punishment  was  found  too  inconvenient,  a  sum 
of  money  could  be  substituted  lor  it.  The  great- 
est ecclesiastical  punishments  which  the  middle 
ages  knew  were  the  great  ban  and  the  interdict; 
and,  so  far  as  they  consisted  in  exclusion  from 
communion  with  the  church,  they  both  presented 
the  true  character  of  church-discipline.  But  this 
character  of  pure  spirituality  they  entirely  lost; 
first  by  being  administered,  not  for  spiritual 
offences  against  the  Church,  but  for  secular  (juar- 
rels  with  the  Pope;  and  next  by  the  dclivering- 
up  of  the  victim  of  the  ban  by  the  Clinrch  to 
the  State,  for  civil  punishment;  which,  in  case 
of  heresy,  consisted  in  death.  Indeed,  it  is 
enough  to  mention  the  name  of  the  Inquisition 
in  order  to  show  what  the  apostolical  institution 
of  church-discij)linc  became  in  the  hands  of  the 
Koman-Catholic  hierarchy. 

From  these  aberrations  the  lleformation  re- 
turned to  the  priuciplcs  of  the  apostolic  church. 


Two  years  after  he  nailed  his  theses  on  the  church- 
door  of  Wittenberg,  Luther  published  his  Sermon 
vom  Bann  (1519),  in  which  he  rejects  the  great 
ban  and  the  surrender  of  the  victim  to  the  secu- 
lar authorities,  and  retains  only  the  minor  ban, 
in  the  sense  in  which  it  is  defined  in  Scripture. 
He  not  only  rejects  civil  punishment  in  every 
form,  but  he  also  insists  upon  the  just  motive, — 
the  reconciliation  of  the  offender.  At  first  he 
always  placed  the  congregation  in  the  foreground, 
and  the  office  in  the  background ;  but  after  the 
contest  with  the  enthusiasts,  and  the  dangerous 
crisis  into  which  they  threw  the  Reformation  in 
Germany,  he  began  to  change  his  views,  and  to 
emphasize  the  offices.  Church-discipline  became 
a  part  of  soul-cure.  Thus  it  is  treated  in  the 
symbolical  books  of  the  Lutheran  Church, — the 
Augsburg  Confession,  the  A]iology,  the  Articles 
of  Smalcald,  etc.  In  the  Lutheran  churches, 
however,  this  whole  side  of  the  life  of  the  church 
was  onlj'  very  feebly  developed,  and  not  always 
in  the  right  direction.  AV'here  the  Church  is  a 
State-establishment,  and  the  highest  episcopal 
authority  is  vested  in  the  head  of  the  State, 
church-discipline  is  apt  to  become  a  matter  of 
civil  legislation.  Thus  princes  ordered  their 
subjects,  under  heavy  penalties,  to  go  to  church 
thrice  every  Sunday;  if  not,  the  poor  were 
scourged,  or  put  in  the  stocks,  and  the  rich  were 
fined.  Very  often  no  distinction  can  be  made 
between  church-discipline  and  police-regulations. 
The  Rationalists,  of  course,  abolished  all  such 
laws ;  but  at  the  same  time  they  also  swept  away 
every  trace  of  church-discipline,  and  it  was  not 
until  after  1848  that  the  question  was  again 
mooted  within  the  Lutheran  Church. 

In  the  Reformed  Church,  with  its  strong  sym- 
pathy for  the  Old  Testament,  with  its  view  of 
the  congi-egation  as  the  chosen  flock  of  the  Lord, 
organized  as  it  was  under  the  form  of  a  theocracy, 
but  wholly  repudiating  the  private  confession,  it 
was  ijuite  natural  that  its  discipline  should  be 
estal)lished,  not  on  the  merely  negative  principle 
of  preventing  evil,  but  on  the  positive  principle 
of  producing  good  ;  as  a  kind  of  superintendence 
and  regulation,  not  only  of  the  life  of  the  congre- 
gation in  its  totality,  but  also  of  that  of  each 
individual  member.  In  Zurich,  Zwingli  trans- 
ferred the  whole  church-discipline  to  the  magis- 
trate ;  and  he  considered  it  right  that  a  meniber 
for  whose  improvement  simple  excommunication 
proved  insuflicient  should  be  further  prosecuted 
and  ]iunished.  In  (ieneva,  Calvin  formed  a  spe- 
cial consistory  for  church-discipline,  composed 
of  elders,  magistrates,  and  clergymen ;  but  this 
consistory,  too,  added  heavy  civil  penalties,  even 
death,  to  the  ban.  In  the  Reformed  Church 
discipline  became  a  social  institution,  whose  aim 
was  to  form  a  holy  congregation  by  superintend- 
ing the  moral  purity  of  the  members;  and,  thus 
organized,  it  was  exercLsed  with  much  greater 
vigor,  and  developed  much  fuitlicr,  than  in  the 
Lutheran  Church;  though  in  the  course  of  time 
it  was  much  modified  and  mitigated,  in  France, 
the  Netherlands,  Scotland,  and  America. 

Lit.  — lioKMNG  :  Grundsiilzc  cvanr/clisch-htlher- 
ischcr  Kirchenver/assunr/,  Erlangen,  1850,  3d  ed., 
1852.  See  IIaunack  :  I'raklisclie  T/ie<iloi/ir,  Krlan- 
gen,  1877,  1878,  vol.  II. ;  [.1.  J.  van  Oostkkzkk: 
Practical  Thcoluyy,  Loud,  and  N.Y.,  1878,  pp.  536 


DISCIPLINE. 


647 


DIVORCE. 


«qq.  ■,  Galli  :   Die  Lutherischen  und  Calvinischen 
Kirdienstrafen,  Breslau,  1879].      BUCHIlUCKER. 

Chukch-Disciplink  in  the  United  States. 
—  In  the  Episcopal  Church  the  disci  pHiie  is  laid 
down  ill  the  canons.  It  relates  mainly  to  the 
Allergy ;  but  laymen  can  be  kept  from  tiie  sacra- 
ment of  the  Lord's  Supper  on  conviction  of  seri- 
ous offences. 

In  the  Presbyterian  Church  discipline  is  in 
the  hands  of  the  session,  or  the  governing  board 
of  each  local  church,  consisting  of  the  pastor  and 
elder.s;  but,  if  the  party  feels  aggrieved,  an 
appeal  can  be  made  to  the  next  higher  court, 
the  presbytery,  thence  to  the  synod,  and  thence 
to  the  general  assembly.  The  method  of  trial  in 
all  such  cases  is  minutely  laid  down  in  book  ii. 
of  the  Form  ofGooernmenl.  In  the  Northern  Pres- 
byterian Church,  reference  to  the  highest  court 
•can  only  be  made  when  the  points  involved  are 
doctrinal  or  constitutional.  Discipline  is  defined 
to  be  "the  exercise  of  that  authority,  and  the 
.application  of  tliat  system  of  laws,  which  the 
Lord  .lesus  Christ  has  appointed  in  his  church." 
The  subjects  of  discipline  are  "all  baptized  per- 
sons." The  offence  must  be  jiublic,  or  such  as 
demands  the  cognizance  of  the  church  judicatory; 
but  private  exhortation  must  first  be  employed. 

Similar  in  definition  and  practice  of  discipline 
are  the  Dutch  Reformed  and  German  Reformed 
Churches.  See  The  Constitution  of  the  Reformed 
{Dutch]  Church  in  America,  Arts.  XI.-XIV.,  and 
Constitution  of  the  Reformed  [German]  Church  of 
the  United  States,  Part  iii. 

In  the  Congregational  Church,  discipline  is  a 
purely  congregational  matter ;  and  there  can  be 
no  appeal.  See  H.  M.  Dexter  :  Congregational- 
ism, Boston,  4th  ed.,  187G,  pp.  188-195. 

In  the  Methodist  Church,  "  an  accused  member 
shall  be  brought  to  trial  before  a  committee  of 
not  less  than  five,  who  shall  not  be  members  of 
the  quarterly  conference  (and,  if  the  preacher 
judge  it  necessary,  he  may  select  the  committee 
from  any  part  of  the  district),  in  the  presence  of 
the  preacher-in-charge,  who  shall  preside  in  the 
trial,  and  cause  exact  minutes  of  the  evidence 
and  proceedings  in  the  case  to  be  taken.  In  the 
selection  of  the  committee  the  parties  may  chal- 
lenge for  cause."  The  various  causes  of  such 
action  are  stated.  "The  accused  shall  have  the 
right  to  call  to  his  assistance  as  counsel  any 
member  in  good  and  regular  standing  in  the 
Methodist-Episcopal  Church."  If  the  pastor-in- 
charge  dissent  from  the  finding  of  the  committee, 
he  can  appeal  to  the  ensuing  quarterly  confer- 
ence. Expulsion  is  the  penalty  for  unworthy 
conduct  on  the  part  of  accused  members.  See 
The  Doctrines  and  Discipline  of  the  Jilethiidist-Epis- 
copal  Church,  1880  (N.Y.,  1880),  pp.  141-151. 

For  discipline  in  the  case  of  the  clergy,  see 
Degradation  ;  Deposition  ;  Polity,  Ecclesi- 
astical. 

DISCIPLINE,  Book  of,  in  the  Methodist-Epis- 
copal Church,  is  a  volume  published  every  four 
years,  after  the  meeting  of  the  General  Confer- 
ence. The  volume  for  1880  contains  six  Parts : 
I.  Origin,  Doctrine,  and  Rules ;  II.  Government 
of  the  Church ;  III.  Administration  of  Disci- 
pline ;  IV.  Educational  and  Benevolent  Institu- 
tions; V.  Temporal  Economy;  VI.  Ritual  of 
the  Church. 


DISCIPLINE,  First  and  Second  Boolr.«  of.  The 
frsl  was  composed  by  Knox,  ^VinraIn,  Rosse, 
and  Douglas  (in  15fJ0),  and  approved  by  the 
Assembly,  but  not  ratified  by  the  privy  council. 
The  second  was  approved  by  the  Assembly  of 
1578,  "inserted  in  the  registers  of  a.s.sembly 
(1581),  sworn  to  in  the  National  Covenant, 
revived  and  ratified  by  the  Assembly  (ItJ.'JS),  and 
by  many  other  acts  of  Assembly,  and  according 
to  which  the  church  government  is  established 
by  law  (1592  and  1690)."  It  is  the  Presbyterian 
standard  on  order  and  government. 

DISEASE.     See  Medicine. 

OISMES  {decimcE),  the  tenth  part,  or  tithe,  of 
the  value  of  each  spiritual  benefice,  which,  to- 
gether with  the  annats,  or  the  entire  income  of  the 
first  year  of  possession,  was  paid  yearly  to  the 
Pope  by  the  Western  Church.  The  tax  was  evi- 
dently based  upon  Num.  xviii.  10.  See  Taxes, 
Ecclesiastical. 

DISPENSATION.  As  soon  as  the  Church  be- 
came fully  organized  as  a  religious  community, 
he  who  broke  the  established  order  fell,  of  course, 
out  with  the  Church,  and  could  be  reconciled  to 
her  only  by  repentance  and  by  doing  penance. 
Brotherly  love,  however,  might  forgive  the  offence, 
and  remit  the  punishment ;  and  by  degrees,  as  the 
canon  law  developed  its  many  and  severe  pre- 
scripts entirely  in  the  spirit  of  the  Old  Testament, 
relaxation  was  felt  to  be  indispensable.  In  dif- 
ficult cases,  especially  of  marriage,  questions  were 
addressed  to  Rome,  and  Rome  answered ;  and  in 
this  way  the  bishops  of  Rome  saw  fit  to  arrogate 
to  themselves  a  right  of  dispensation.  Bishops 
and  synods  protested,  not  from  any  moral  hesi- 
tancy, but  simply  from  a  desire  to  have  for  them- 
selves a  share  of  the  piower ;  but  the  Pope  came 
out  of  the  struggle  victorious,  and  this  right  of 
dispensation  became,  in  his  hand,  a  very  rich 
source  of  influence  and  revenue.  The  bishops 
held  the  right  only  in  a  few  and  unimportant 
cases,  though  it  was  understood  that  they  could 
exercise  it  in  cases  of  danger,  when  it  was  impossi- 
ble to  address  the  Pope  himself.  See  Thomas- 
sin  :  Vetus  ac  nova  ecclesiie  disciplina.  Pars  II. 
lib.  III.  cap.  24-29  ;  Ferraris  :  BiUlotheca  ca- 
nonica  s.  r.  dispensalio  ur.,  19,20. 

DISPERSED.     See  Diaspora;  Captivity. 

DISSENTER.  The  epithet  can  be  properly 
used  only  of  those  who  dissent  from  the  doctrine 
or  order  of  an  established  church.  In  England  it 
is  synonymous  with  nonconformist :  in  Scotland 
the  name  was  given  to  adherents  of  the  secession 
church.  Dissent  in  England  once  implied  more 
or  less  persecution,  but  the  disabilities  are  be- 
ing gradually  removed  by  successive  legislation. 
See  Congregationalists  (England);  Eng- 
land, Church  of;  Nonconformity;  Puri- 
tans. 

DISTAFF'S  DAY,  ST.,  the  day  after  Twelfth 
Day,  also  called  St.  Rock's  Day. 

DISTINCTIO  RATIONIS  RATIOCINANTIS 
designates  in  the  scholastic  terminology  a  purely 
subjective  logical  distinction,  not  one  objective 
in  the  matter  itself ;  while  distinctio  rationis  ratio- 
cinatce.  designates  a  distinotion  merely  thought  of, 
but  yet  i-esting  upon  good  grounds. 

DIVINATION.     See  Magic. 

DIVORCE.  The  earliest  notion  of  the  relation 
between  a  child  and  a  parent  seems  to  have  been 


DIVORCE, 


648 


DIVORCE, 


that  of  property ;  and  hence  the  man  who  sought 
for  a  wife  bought  a  daughter  from  her  father  for 
this  purpose.  But  in  time  the  money  went,  in 
many  tribes,  w  ith  the  daughter  to  lier  husband  ; 
yet  the  feeling  still  was  that  shewas  her  hus- 
band's property.  If  she  was  unfaithful  to_ him, 
he  had  the  right  of  putting  her  to  death  :  if  she 
did  not  suit  him,  he  could  "send  her  back  to  her 
friends.  But  his  infidelity  to  her  gave  her  no 
corresponding  rights  against  her  husband.  The 
earliest  conception  of  adultery  was,  that  a  mar- 
ried woman  must  be  one  of  the  parties ;  but  a 
married  man  could  not  be  guilty  of  this  crime 
with  au  unmarried  woman.  The  penalty  for  the 
crime  was  commonly  death,  but  might  be,  by  act 
of  the  husband,  mitigated  into  sending  away  or 
divorce.  It  would  seem,  that,  when  the  crime  was 
committed,  the  trial  of  the  woman,  according  to 
the  practice  among  the  .Jews,  came,  in  time,  to  be 
put  into  the  hands  of  "righteous  men"  (Ezek. 
xxiii.  45),  in  which  passage  a  public  trial  is  evi- 
dently thought  of.  Probably  all  that  the  hus- 
band ordinarily  did  was  to  put  away  a  guilty  wife; 
but,  if  she  were  caught  in  the  act,  he  could  kill 
her  and  her  paramour. 

There  is  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  no  evidence 
that  the  woman  could  get  herself  divorced  from 
her  husband;  and  Josephus  {Antiq.  xv.  7,  10), 
when  he  speaks  of  Salome's  sending  a  bill  of 
divorce  to  t'ostabarus,  adds  that  this  was  not  in 
accordance  with  Jewish  law ;  so  that  a  woman 
separated  by  her  own  act  from  her  husband  could 
not  marry  another,  but  only  if  she  were  put  away 
by  her  first  husband.  What  meaning,  then,  are 
we  to  give  to  JIark  x.  12  V  Was  the  wife's  power 
to  put  away  a  husband  creeping  in  among  the 
Jews,  who  lived  under  Greek  or  Roman  law?  or 
did  our  Lord  give  a  rule  to  his  apostles,  as  future 
teachers  of  the  heathen  world? 

Divorce  on  the  husband's  part  was  at  first  un- 
restricted. But  in  Deut.  xxiv.  1  two  restrictions 
were  laid  upon  it:  the  one  of  them,  that  a  "bill  of 
divorce"  should  be  given  to  the  wife,  which  would 
show  that  she  had  committed  no  crime,  and  might 
marry  again ;  and  the  other,  that  the  first  husband 
could  never  tako  back  the  wife  so  put  away,  in  case 
the  second  husband  should  repudiate  her.  This 
would  greatly  pollute  the  land  (.Ter.  iii.  1).  The 
cause  or  causes  of  divorce  in  Deuteronomy,  u.s., 
are  expressed  by  the  words  ervalli  ilnbiir,  the  mean- 
ing of  which,  since  the  times  of  Ilillel  and  Sham- 
mai,  in  the  century  before  Christ,  has  been  matter 
of  dispute.  They  occur  also  in  Deut.  xxiii.  11, 
and  may  be  rendered  "  uncleanness  or  filtiiiness 
from  a  tiling"  in  a  moral  sense,  as  Shammai's 
school  imderstood  them,  or  any  thing  disgusting 
or  un|ileasaut  in  a  physical  sense,  as  was  llillel's 
opinion.  The  passage  in  Mai.  ii.  10,  "  For  the 
Lord  the  God  of  Israel  saith  that  he  iiateth  put- 
ting away,"  indicates  a  moral  and  humane  dis- 
like of  what  was  once  tolerated. 

Our  Lord  and  the  apostle  Paul  go  far  beyond 
these  restrictions  on  divorce.  Christ  (Matt.  v. 
31,  32,  xix.  3-0  ;  Mark  x.  2,  12),  without  giving 
a  code  of  rules,  sets  aside  the  practice  allowed 
in  Deut.  xxiv.  1  to  the  husband,  and  forbids  tlie 
putting-away  of  a  wife,  and  marrying  another, 
except  for  the  cause  of  her  fornication.  To  this 
he  adds  that  the  woman  thus  divorced  commits 
kdultery  by  her  marrying  another  man,  and  that 


this  new  husband  is  involved  in  the  same  guilt :  in 
other  words,  adultei-y  is  the  only  cause  for  which 
a  man  can  put  away  his  wife,  and  for  which,  as- 
Mark  adds,  a  woman  can  put  away  her  husband, 
without  violating  this  commandment.  In  Matt. 
xix.  3-9  and  JIark  u.s.  our  Lord  places  before 
his  disciples  his  views  concerning  marriage,  which 
accorded  entirely  with  this  prohibition.  The 
union  commenced  by  marriage  was  so  close  that 
they  became  one  flesh,  and  could  not  cease  to  be 
such  by  one  of  the  parties  tearing  away  his  body, 
except  by  a  violent  disruption,  from  the  other. 
This  was  the  original  idea  in  the  institution, 
which  really  opposed  polygamy  also ;  and  it  was- 
a  departure  from  the  original  law  of  our  nature 
when  Moses,  on  account  of  the  Jews'  inveterate 
attachment  to  an  evil  usage,  "  sufferer!  them  to 
put  away  their  wives."  Adultery  only  can  sepa- 
rate this  close  union  ;  and  there  can  be  no  mar- 
riage of  either  consort  to  any  one  else,  except  on. 
this  account. 

Of  the  addition  in  Mark  to  what  is  contained 
in  ^latthew  we  have  spoken  already.  The  passage 
in  Luke  xvi.  18  completes  the  teaching  of  our 
Lord  found  in  the  Gospels  on  this  subject.  It  con- 
tains no  exception  or  qualification,  as  if  all  re- 
marriage after  divorce  were  adultery.  But  the 
pa.^sage  is  found  in  company  with  others  with 
which  it  has  a  very  remote  connection.  '  It  seems 
to  have  been  a  portion  of  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount,  and  must  be  interpreted  by  the  fuller 
account  in  Matthew. 

In  no  other  place  does  our  Lord  act  as  a  legis- 
lator and  an  amender  of  the  law  of  Moses;  and 
even  here  he  gives  no  body  of  rules,  but  confines 
himself  to  a  single  command.  The  command 
itself  is  confined  to  that  case  which  was  touched 
in  Deuteronomy.  One  may  still  ask  whether  the 
guilty  party,  divorced  on  account  of  adultery,  may 
marry  again  :  the  answer  must  be  affirmative,  in 
so  far  as  the  adulterer  or  adulteress  ceases  to  be 
one  flesh  with  his  or  her  former  partner.  But,  as 
such  adultery  would  be  a  capital  crime  by  Jewish 
law,  there  was  less  need  of  saying  any  thing  fur- 
ther about  it,  and  it  is  a  wonder  that  it  can  be 
tolerated  in  any  Christian  country. 

The  apostle  Paul,  in  1  Cor.  vii.  10-10,  gives 
directions  to  the  Corinthian  Church,  which  may 
be  called  a  supplement  to  our  Lord's  commands, 
as  contained  in  the  synoptical  Gospels.  These 
directions  consist  of  two  parts,  one  of  which  is 
intended  to  meet  a  case  which  would  have  oc- 
curred wluMi  both  husband  and  wife  were  pro- 
fessed Christian  believers  (vers.  10,  11).  A  wife 
is  commanded  not  to  separate  herself  (xupi^c'Sai) 
from  her  husband;  to  which  is  added,  that,  if  she 
be  already  in  a  state  of  separation  from  him,  she 
is  to  remain  unmarried,  or  be  reconciled  to  him. 
The  husband  aLso  is  not  to  put  away  his  wife. 
Here  we  remark,  first  that  the  word  denoting  "be 
or  become  reconciled  "  implies  a  previous  dissen- 
sion which  led  the  wife  to  withdraw  from  her 
husljand's  society.  But  did  the  .apostle  have  in 
mind  a  disagreement  arising  out  of  the  husband's 
.adultery  ?  We  are  led  to  believe,  from  the  terms 
I  used,  that  the  Greek  word  X"P''Viunt  denotes  simple 
separation  unattended  with  divorce,  as  if  it  were 
a  transaction  not  formally  taking  pliico  before  a 
civil  court.  She  had  left  lier  husband,  and  was 
I  living  apart.     As  long  as  she  lives  apart,  let  her 


DIVORCE. 


649 


DIVORCE. 


contract  no  new  marriage,  or  return  to  her  hus- 
band when  their  strife  shall  have  ceased.  In  ac- 
cordance with  this  interpretation  we  understand 
the  husband's  puttinjr  away  the  wifi^  not  to  include 
the  crime  of  adultery  on  her  part :  otherwise  the 
apostle  would  come  into  collision  willi  our  Lord's 
clear  permission  of  divorce  on  account  of  adul- 
tery; and  this  permission  he  must  have  been  ac- 
quainted with,  as  is  shown  by  the  words,  "  to  the 
rest  speak  I,  not  the  Lord,"  evidently  showing, 
that  in  ver.  10  he  refers  to  the  words  of  Christ, 
with  which  he,  and  probably  the  Corinthian 
Church  also,  was  familiar. 

The  apostle's  other  precept  relates  first  to  cases 
where  either  husband  or  wife  was  still  an  unlje- 
liever,  but  might  wish  to  live  with  his  or  her 
Christian  partner.  In  this  case  the  Christian 
was  not  to  leave  the  unbeliever  (vers.  12-14).  Or 
again:  the  unbeliever  might  wish  to  separate  him- 
self or  herself  from  the  Christian.  The  apostle's 
direction  here  is,  if  the  unbeliever  depart  (X"P'- 
ftrai),  that  is,  live  separate,  let  him  depart  (x^pi-- 
ffffSu,)  as  in  vers.  10,  11.  In  such  cases  the 
Christian  wife  or  husband  is  not  in  bondage, 
that  is,  is  under  no  such  obligation,  or  in  such  a 
state  of  bondage,  as  to  feel  constrained  to  con- 
tinue the  marriage  connection.  This  feeling 
might  be  cherished  in  the  hope  of  saving  the 
unbelieving  husband  or  wife ;  but  this  was  too 
uncertain  an  event  to  demand  that  the  Christian 
should  keep  up  the  family  Ufa  when  the  heathen 
was  bent  on  separation,  and  when  God  had  called 
believers  in  peace,  i.e.,  to  be  in  the  ethical  condi- 
tion of  peace.  Thus  the  believer  is  to  be  passive, 
and  not  active,  in  the  separation,  and  is  not  to 
feel  that  the  possibility  of  saving  a  heathen  wife 
or  husband  at  any  expense  of  strife  is  a  duty. 
Here  in  ver.  15  and  in  ver  10  the  word  ;i:<jpifo^ai 
must  be  understood,  we  must  believe,  as  simple 
separation;  although  this  has  been  much  disputed. 

From  Christ's  precepts  it  follows  that  a  mar- 
riage is  dissolved  by  adultery,  so  that  the  innocent 
party  may  marry  again,  and  that  other  separa- 
tions are  not  included  in  this  permission. 

On  these  foundations  the  practice  of  divorce  in 
Christendom  has  been  placed,  after  long  strug- 
gles of  Roman  law  for  a  looser  practice,  which  we 
have  no  room  to  unfold.  The  Catholic  doctrine 
of  the  sacraments  modified  the  view  of  marriage, 
and  so  of  divorce,  by  forbidding  second  marriages 
after  divorce  for  cause  of  adultei-y;  and  divorce 
became  simply  separation  d  mensa  el  loru,  in  every 
case  where  the  parties  were  both  Christians. 
Where  one  of  them  was  a  heathen,  the  Roman 
Church  simply  withheld  a  permission  conceded  by 
Christ  to  remarry  in  that  one  case,  but  enjoined 
nolhiny  neu).  And  to  this  may  be  added,  that 
cases  of  nullity,  of  which  Christ  says  nothing, 
were  multiplied  by  enlarged  civil  and  by  spiritual 
relationships.  The  dissolution  of  such  marriage, 
however,  is  not  an  act  of  divorcing,  but  of  pro- 
nouncing a  marriage  in  form  no  marriage  in  sub- 
stance, and  therefore  void  ab  initio.  It  cannot  be 
denied  that  the  Catholic  Church,  by  its  sacramen- 
tal theory  applied  to  marriage,  takes  the  most 
sacred  of  all  natural  institutions  out  of  the  hands 
of  the  civil  power  in  great  measure.  It  can  en- 
dure what  is  called  civil  marriage,  although  loath 
to  make  any  concession  :  but  divorce  it  must  keep 
under  its  control ;  its  principle  being  that  re-mar- 


riagc,  while  a  husband  or  wife  is  living,  places 
a  person  outside  of  the  pale  of  the  Cliurcli. 

In  Protestant  countries,  when  the  new  State 
churches  were  founded,  they  were  very  consid- 
(!rably  under  the  control  of  civil  powers,  which 
asserted  their  own  rights  of  controlling  marriago 
and  divorce.  Yet  the  State  law  concerning  di- 
vorce was  not  framed,  we  believe,  without  the  con- 
currence or  the  lead  of  the  theologians.  All  the 
Prote.stant  states,  excepting  England,  legislated 
at  an  early  date  on  divorce,  starting  from  the 
assumption  that  divorce  for  adultery  was  sanc- 
tioned by  Christ,  and  for  desertion  by  the  apostle 
Paul.  England  dissolved  marriage  by  act  of 
Parliament  in  cases  where  adultery  was  proved; 
and  separations  were  under  the  control  of  eccle- 
siastical courts.  This  continued  until  1857,  when 
a  new  court  was  established,  having  jurisdiction 
in  matters  pertaining  to  marriage  and  divorce, 
and  the  old  ecclesiastical  courts  lost  this  juris- 
diction. The  law  of  divorce  was  ahso  altered. 
Divorce  absolute  may  be  granted  for  adultery  of 
the  wife,  or  for  adultery,  connected  with  certain 
other  crimes,  of  the  husband;  and  judicial  sepa- 
ration may  be  granted  to  either  party  for  adul- 
tery, cruelty,  or  causeless  desertion  for  two  years 
or  more. 

Other  Protestant  countries  in  modern  times 
have  greatly  multiplied  the  causes  for  which  di- 
vorce or  separation  may  be  obtained,  by  adding 
to  the  original  two  causes  stated  already  such 
others  as  cruelty,  imprisonment  for  crime,  drunk- 
enness, contagious  or  incurable  disease,  and  even 
insanity.  In  some  countries  incompatibility  of 
temper,  in  some,  mutual  agreement,  with  no  alle- 
gation of  crime,  are  allowed  to  be  causes  for 
divorce  absolute.  In  one  of  the  United  States 
the  judges  are  left  free  to  grant  divorce  when 
they  think  that  the  happiness  of  the  marriage 
relation  requires  it.  Separation  a  mensa  et  toro  is 
one  of  the  reliefs  generally  provided  for  parties 
petitioning  to  have  their  marriages  terminated  by 
law ;  but  a  number  of  the  States  of  the  American 
Union  grant  divorce  absolute  alone. 

In  the  Catholic  countries  of  Europe  either  no 
absolute  divoixes  are  granted,  or  both  divorce 
and  separation  are  allowed  for  their  respective 
causes,  or  the  law  is  so  made  as  to  suit  the  reli- 
gious confessions  of  the  parties  bringing  suits 
before  the  courts.  France  is  an  example  of  the 
first  plan,  which,  since  the  restoration  of  the  Bour- 
bons, has  remained  until  now,  notwithstanding  a 
number  of  attempts  in  the  chambers  to  alter  the 
law.  Belgium  follows  the  French  code  civil, 
which  prevailed  there  before  the  separation  from 
France  in  1815,  in  allowing  both  divorce  and, 
separation.  Austria  modifies  the  law  according 
as  Catholics,  Greeks,  Protestants,  and  Jews  peti- 
tion for  divorce ;  and  Switzerland  acts  on  a  some- 
what similar  principle. 

Nowhere  is  the  problem  of  divorce  so  poorly 
solved,  or  so  charged  with  danger  for  the  future,- 
as  in  the  United  States.  It  is  certainly  an  alarm- 
ing fact  that  the  ratio  of  divorce  to  marriage  is 
as  one  to  ten,  or  even  greater,  in  some  States; 
and  that  in  another  State  it  has  sunk,  within 
twenty  years,  from  the  ratio  of  one  to  fifty-one, 
down  to  the  ratio  of  one  to  twenty-one.  Hap- 
pily, these  and  similar  indications  of  a  g^reater 
ratio  than  is  elsewhere  known  are  now  exciting 


DIVORCE. 


650 


DOCTOR. 


the  attention  of  many  Christian  people,  as  is 
shown  by  the  recent  formation  of  the  New-Eng- 
land Divorce  Reform  League,  in  which  all  the 
Christian  denominations  are  united  with  a  hearty 
interest. 

The  evils  of  divorce  in  the  United  States  are 
felt  in  no  one  quarter  of  the  Union,  but  are  more 
exactly  kno^vn  in  the  Eastern  States.  If  the  laws 
grant  dissolutions  of  marriage  for  grounds  which 
Christians  cannot  find  to  be  justified  iu  the  Scrip- 
tures, it  must  injure  the  church,  and  society  suf- 
fers still  more.  Loose  laws  aggravate  the  evils 
they  are  made  to  relieve.  If  any  partners  in 
marriage  were  told  by  the  State  that  they  can  be 
separated  on  declaring,  for  instance,  their  mutual 
consent  and  desire  before  the  court,  they  would, 
of  course,  be  tempted  mentally  to  put,  "  as  long 
as  we  agree,"  into  the  place  of  "  until  death  do 
us  part."  The  ideal  of  marriage  would  then  be 
lowered.  It  is  no  longer  the  close  union  denoted 
by  "  twain  becoming  one  flesh,"  or  by  God's  join- 
ing man  and  wife  together,  so  that  man  may  not 
put  them  asunder;  but  it  is  a  contract  made  be- 
tween two  persons  for  their  own  convenience,  and 
made  with  the  less  caution  because  either  can 
put  the  other  away.  The  real  closeness  of  the 
imion  cannot  be  preserved  unless  the  parties  feel 
the  truth  of  what  Christ  says  of  it.  Then,  again, 
law,  in  a  country  like  ours,  is  liable  to  constant 
changes  for  the  worse,  if  the  feeling  of  the  sanctity 
of  the  marriage  is  not  sustained;  but  this  feeling 
cannot  be  sustained  without  some  religious  sense 
of  the  nature  and  ends  of  marriage.  Bad  laws 
tend  to  make  bad  husbands  and  w-ives,  and  hence 
bad  families.  The  laws  of  divorce  and  the 
opinion  of  society  will  act  upon  one  another. 

When  the  laws  respecting  divorce  and  the 
opinions  concerning  divorce  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment are  in  conflict,  there  is  no  question,  in  most 
■cases,  what  is  the  duty  of  Christians.  The  law 
•can  be  permissive  only ;  that  is,  it  may  leave  it 
to  individuals  to  choose  whether  they  will  make 
•use  of  the  license  it  aifords  them  or  not.  It  does 
not  oblige  them  to  bring  suits  for  dissolution  of 
marriage,  even  in  the  case  when  a  husband  or 
•wife  h;is  been  unfaithful  in  their  marriage  rela- 
tions. The  offence  may  be  condoned,  and  they 
may  live  togetlier  still.  And  again  :  law  could 
uot,  without  being  tyrannical,  roquix-e  a  church, 
•which  has  disciplined  one  of  its  members  on 
account  of  divorce  an<l  re-marriage  contrary  to 
the  rule  of  Scripture,  to  restore  him  to  his  stand- 
ing. Hut,  altliough  this  be  true,  a  church  may 
be  brought  into  great  perple.xity  when  State  law 
opens  a  gate  which  the  law  of  the  New  Testament 
shuts.  For  the  thoughtless  are  tempted  by  the 
law  to  do  what  is  held  to  be  unlawful  by  the 
Church;  while  tlu-  Church  has  no  o]ition  in  regard 
to  e-xercising  its  discijiline  ujion  offenders  within 
its  folds.  The  State's  permission  is  no  more  of  a 
bar  to  discipline  in  such  case  tlian  if  the  churcli- 
inember  had  opened  an  authorized  gambling  or 
<lrinking  house.  Jiut  if  the  law  had  agreed  in 
its  jirovisions  with  the  Church,  there  would  have 
been  no  such  trouble,  and  those  who,  in  the  case 
.supposed,  ha<l  been  led  by  the  .Slati'  into  unlawful 
marriages,  would,  in  all  juobability,  have  been 
«leten-ed  from  committing  such  an  otfc^nce. 

There  is,  however,  one  case  which  deserves  no- 
tice on  account  of  its  diliiculty.     Two  irreligious 


persons  have  connected  themselves  in  marriage, 
one  of  whom  had  put  away  a  wife  or  husband  for 
an  offence  not  recognized  by  the  law  of  Christ  as 
justifying  divorce.  They  live  for  years  together, 
and  have  a  family.  At  length  they  become  be- 
lievers in  Christ,  and  apply  to  the  church  for 
admission.  In  such  an  extreme  case  as  this,  sh.all 
the  request  be  denied?  Shall  they  be  required 
to  live  apart  afterward,  until  the  former  husband 
or  wife  of  one  of  them  shall  die  ?  AVe  leave  the 
settlement  of  this  case  to  casuists,  glad  that  it  is 
rare,  and  only  remarking  that  its  pieculiarity  con- 
sists in  the  performance  of  important  duties 
which  cannot  be  performed  when  once  the  parties 
are  separated. 

Lit.  —  Some  of  the  works  touching  divorce 
are :  Selden  :  Uxor  Ebraica,  in  his  Works,  Lon- 
don,1726;  Meyeru.  ScnoMAHS :  AtlisclierProccss, 
Halle,  1824;  Kein  :  JRom.  Pni-alrtcht;  Winer: 
Realworterhuch,  3d  ed.,  1847;  SaalschI'TZ  :  Mo- 
saisches  Redd,  2d  ed.,  Berlin,  1857;  Strippel- 
MANN :  Das  Ehescheidungsrecht,  Cassel,  1854 ; 
Walter  (R.  C):  Kirclicnrecld,  l-Sth  ed.,  Bonn, 
1861;  RiCHTER  (Protestant)-  Kirclienrcclil,  Gth 
ed.,  Leipzig,  1861  (with  a  copious  literature) ; 
Murray  IioFrM.A.NN:  Law  of  Divorce,  N.Y., 
1873;  J.  Greve  :  Die  Ehescheidung  nach  der  Lehre 
des  N.  T.,  Leipzig,  1873;  Woolsey  :  Divorce  and 
Divorce  Legislation,  N.Y.,  1869,  new  ed.,  1882. 
See  also  art.  Ehe,  by  Goschen,  in  Herzog,  1st 
ed.  vol.  iii.  (1855),  and  by  Carl  Beck,  in  2d  ed. 

vol.  iv.  (187!»).  THEODORE  D.  WOOLSEY. 

DIXON,  James,  b.  in  Leicestershire,  1788;  d. 
at  Bradford,  Yorkshire,  Dec.  28,  1871.  He  was 
president  of  the  British  Conference  (1841),  and 
delegate  of  the  Wesleyan  Conference  to  the 
General  Methodist  Conference  of  the  United 
States.  He  wrote  Methodism  in  its  Origin,  Economij, 
and  Present  Position  (printed  by  the  Methodist 
Book  Concern,  N.Y.,  1843). 

OOANE,  Ceorge  Washington,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
Protestant- Episcopal  Bishop  of  New  Jersey;  b. 
May  27,  1799,  in  Trenton,  N.J. ;  d.  at  Burlington, 
N.J.,  April  27,  1859.  He  was  graduated  from 
Union  College,  N.Y.,  1818;  admitted  to  holy 
orders,  1821;  was  consecrated  bishop,  Oct.  31, 
1832.  He  was  energetic,  indefatigable  in  labor, 
but  had  bitter  enemies  and  numerous  contro- 
versies. His  writings  in  prose  and  verse  were 
collected  by  his  son,  who  prefaced  them  with  a 
Memoir,  T/ie  Life  and  Writings  of  G.  W.  Doane, 
D.D.,  N.  Y.,  1860,  4  vols.  An  edition  of  his  »SV)H(/.9 
hg  the  Wag,  under  the  same  editorship,  appeared, 
N.  Y.,  1875.  His  best  known  hymns  are,  "  Softly 
now  the  light  of  day,"  and  "  Thou  art  the  way: 
to  the(!  alone." 

DOBRIT2HOFFER,  Martin,  b.  at  Gratz,  in 
Styria,  1717  ;  d.  in  A'icnna,  July  17,  1791 ;  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1736,  and  went  in  1749  to 
Paraguay  as  a  mission.ary  among  the  -Miipones 
and  Guaranas,  but  returned  to  Europe  in  1767, 
when  the  Jesuit  missionaries  were  expelled  from 
Spanish  America.  In  1784  he  published  his 
Ilisloria  de  Aliiiionihus,  Vienna,  3  vols.,  which 
was  translated  into  English  by  Sara  Coleridge, 
Accoxmt  of  Ike  Ahipoms,  an  Equestrian  People  of 
Pnragtiag,  London,  1822,  3  vols. 

DOCETISM.     See  Doketism. 

DOCTOR  (teacher).  Originally  tliere  ■were 
only  two  degrees  iu  graduation,  —  bachelor  and 


DOCTRINAIRES. 


651 


DOCTRINES. 


master;  aud  doctor  was  given  to  certain  masters, 
probably  as  a  merely  honorary  desig'nation.  The 
evolution  of  the  doctorate  as  a  third  university 
degree  above  that  of  master  cannot  be  distinctly 
traced.  The  law  faculty  at  Bologna  is  said  to 
have  conferred  it  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century  ; 
but  the  story  that  Irnerius  originated  the  cere- 
monial of  investiture,  and  Bulgarus  first  took  the 
degree,  is  probably  a  fiction.  The  University  of 
Paris  conferred  their  first  degrees  in  divinity 
upon  Peter  Lombard  and  Gilbert  de  la  Portree 
(1150).  In  England  the  degree  was  first  given 
under  John  (1207).  The  degree  in  law  aud 
divinity  is  given  now  in  England  and  America 
without  examination. 

The  term  Doctor  of  the  Church  is  applied  to 
four  of  the  Greek  fathers  (Athanasius,  Basil, 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  Chrysostom),  and  to 
twelve  of  the  Latin  Church  (Ambrose,  Augustine, 
Jerome,  Hilary,  Gregory  the  Great,  Chrysologus, 
Leo  I.,  Isidore  of  Seville,  Thomas  Aquinas,  Ber- 
nard, Bonaventura,  and  Alphouso  Liguori). 

The  church  officer  who  had  charge  of  the  in- 
structionof  thecatechumens  was  called  in  the  early 
church  Doctor  audienlium.  The  title  Doctor  is  used 
in  the  present  Greek  Church ;  thus  the  interpre- 
ters of  the  Gospels,  Epistles  of  Paul,  and  the 
Psalms,  are  called  Doctors  of  the  Gospels,  the  Apos- 
tle, and  the  Psalter  respectively. 

Doctor  is  also  part  of  the  epithet  describing 
the  most  prominent  quality  or  trait  of  several 
of  the  great  schoolmen  of  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries  :  thus,  Thomas  Aquinas,  D.  (i.e.. 
Doctor)  Angelicus ;  Johannes  Bonaventura,  D. 
Seraphicus ;  Johannes  Duns  Scotus,  D.  Subtilis ; 
Raimundus  LuUus,  D.  I lluminatus ;  Alanus  de 
Insulis  (de  I'Isle),  D.  Universalis ;  Durandus  d. 
S.  Pour<;aiu,  D.  Resolutissimus ;  Gregorius  de 
Rimini,  D.  Authenticus;  Johannes  Taulerus,  D. 
Iltuiiiinatus ;  Johannes  Gersonus,  D.  Christianissi- 
mus :  Alexander  Hales,  D.  Irrefragahiiis ;  Roger 
Bacon,  D.  Admirabilis ;  William  Occam,  Z).  Sin- 
gularis.  For  the  Jewish  Doctors  of  the  Law,  see 
Rauhins. 

DOCTRINAIRES  is  the  common  name  of  two 
religious  associations  which  originated,  independ- 
ently of  each  other,  in  Italy  and  France.  In 
Italy  the  association  of  the  Padri  delta  Dotlrina 
Christiana  was  founded  in  Rome  (1562)  by  Mar- 
cus de  Sadis  Cusani,  a  nobleman  from  Milan, 
for  the  purpose  of  instructing  the  people,  more 
especially  the  children,  in  the  catechism.  Under 
Pius  V.  it  spread  rapidlj'.  In  France  the  asso- 
ciation of  the  Doctrinaires,  or  Peres  de  la  Doctrine 
Chre'tienne,  was  founded  by  Caesar  de  Bus,  priest 
and  canon  of  Cavaillou.  He  gathered  a  number 
of  young  priests ;  aud  after  due  preparation  he 
sent  them  into  the  streets,  and  out  upon  the  high- 
ways, to  catechise  every  one  they  met;  while  he 
■walked  himself  from  house  to  house,  offering  to 
instruct  any  one,  young  or  old,  ignorant  or  edu- 
cated, in  the  catechism  of  the  Roman-Catholic 
Church.  The  association  prospered,  and  in  1597 
Clement  VIII.  confirmed  the  constitution.  See 
Helyot  :  Histoire  des  Ordres  Monastiques,  etc., 
Paris,  1714-19.  HKRZOG. 

DOCTRINES,  The  History  of  Christian,  did 
not  become  an  independent  branch  of  theologi- 
cal learning  until  the  latter  part  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century.     Before  that  time,  it  was  treated 


simply  as  a  chapter  of  dogmatics  or  church- 
history.  But  the  richness  of  its  materials,  and 
the  importance  of  its  study,  naturally  led  to  a 
more  elaborate  treatment.  The  first  ini|iulse 
was  given  by  the  rationalists:  Ch.  W.  Fhanz 
Walcii  :  (ledanken  v.  d.  Gtschirhte  d.  Gluuhens- 
/e/(?-c,  (iottingen,  1750;  Eunesti,  1759;  Skmlek* 
Einleituntj  zu  S.  J.  Baumyartens  Glaulenslehre, 
1759 ;  and  RiissLER :  Lelirbei/riJ)'  der  chr.  Kirche 
in  lien  S  ersten  Jahrhunderten,  Frankfurt-a-M., 
1777.  In  the  earlier  Protestant  theuUigy  the 
subject  forms  only  an  appendix,  either  to  church- 
history  or  to  dogmatics.  Sec  the  Mufidchurg 
Centuries,  Basel,  1559-74.  Chemnitz  :  lixamen 
Conciiii  Tridentini,  Frankfurt,  1015;  JoH.  Geu- 
HAKD  :  Confessio  Cathviica,  Leipzig,  1079.  Twice, 
however,  it  was  treated  independently,  —  by  Pe- 
TAvius,  a  Roman  Catholic  {Opus  de  theoloi/icis 
dogmatihus,  Paris,  1644-50,  5  vols,  fol.),  and  by 
FoRBESius  A  Corse,  a  Scotchman  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  (histitutiones  historico-theologicce  de 
doctrina  Christiana,  Amsterdam,  1045) ;  but  in 
both  cases  the  treatment  was  more  argumentative 
than  truly  historical.  The  rationalists  found 
the  method  by  wiiich  a  history  of  Christian  doc- 
trines can  be  written,  but  they  failed  to  find  the 
right  stand-point  from  which  it  ought  to  be  writ- 
ten. They  did  not  understand  that  the  whole 
sum  of  Christian  truth  has  been  given  in  the 
teachings  of  Christ  and  the  apostles;  that,  how- 
ever great  may  be  the  difference  between  the 
confession  of  the  church  of  our  day  and  that  of 
the  primitive  church,  in  precision,  elaborateness, 
etc.,  nothing  new  has  been  added;  that  the  his- 
tory of  a  dogma  is  simply  an  evolution  of  form, 
put  in  motion  by  a  craving  for  a  deeper  concep- 
tion of  the  idea,  and,  at  every  stage  of  its  move- 
ment, authorized  in  its  results  by  the  consent 
of  the  whole  church.  They  hold  the  history  of 
Christian  doctrines  as  a  contest  between  merely 
subjective  opinions  about  religious  matters,  with- 
out any  foundation  in  a  given  revelation,  and 
without  any  regulation  from  an  inherent  logic. 
The  same  stand-point  was  occupied  by  MtJN- 
scher,  the  most  erudite  of  the  historians  of 
Christian  doctrines  (Handbuch  d.  chr.  Dogmen- 
geschichte,  Marburg,  1793-1809,  4  vols.,  and 
Lehrbuch  d.  Dogmengeschichte,  1812,  2d  ed.,  1819, 
3d  ed.  by  Coelln  and  Neudecker,  Cassel,  1832-38). 
But  a  change  took  place  under  the  influence  of 
Neander  and  Schleiermacher,  and  the  results  have 
been  very  rich:  Baumgarten-Crusiu.s  :  Lehr- 
buch d.  Dogmengeschichte,  Jena,  1832,  and  Com- 
pendium d.  chr.  Dogmengeschichte,  Leipzig,  1840- 
40,  2  parts,  the  2d  part  edited  by  C.  Hase;  the 
Lehrbiicker  oi  Hagenbach,  Leipzig,  1840,  5th  ed., 
1867  [several  times  trans,  into  English,  as  by  Dr. 
U.  B.  Smith,  N.Y.,  1861-02,  2  vols.,  last  in  Clark's 
Foreign  Theological  Library,  1880-81,  3  vols.]: 
Baur,  Tiibingeii,  1847,  2d  ed.,  1858;  Marhein- 
ecke,  Berlin,  1849;  Neandeu,  edited  by  Jacobi, 
Berlin,  1857,  2  parts;  Schmid,  Kordlingen,  1859, 
3d  ed.,  1877;  [Shedd  :  A  History  of  Chrktian 
Doctrine,  N.Y.,  1863,  2  vols.];  Nitzsch:  Grand- 
riss  d.  christlichen  Dogmengescldchte,  I.,  Patris- 
tische  Periode,  Berlin,  1870;  Thomasius  :  Dog^ 
mengeschichte  der  alien  Kirche,  Erlangeu,  1874,  and 
Dogmengeschichte  d.  Mittelalters  und  d.  Reformat 
(io)iszet/,  edited  by  Plitt,  1870;  [Landerer:  Neu- 
este  Dogmengeschichte,  Heilbronu,  1881].     Comp. 


DOD. 


652 


DOEG. 


also  Th.  Kliefoth:  Einlekung  in  die  Dogmenge- 
schichte,    Parohira,  1839.  H.  SCHMID. 

DOD,  Albert  Baldwin,  a  Presbyterian  scholar 
and  divine;  b.  at  Mendham,  N.J.,  March  24, 
1805 ;  d.  at  Princeton,  Nov.  20,  1845.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  College  of  New  Jersey  in  1822, 
and  at  tlie  Princeton  Seminary,  and  was  professor 
of  mathematics  in  the  college  from  1830  to  his 
death,  teaching  in  his  latter  years  architectnre  and 
political  economy  in  addition.  He  was  widely 
read,  and  gifted  with  a  philosophical  mind  of  rare 
power.  His  contributions  to  Tlie  Princeton  Review 
are  remarkable,  especially  those  on  phrenology 
(April,  1S38)  and  on  capital  punishment  (April, 
1842).  Some  of  them  are  reprinted  in  The 
Princeton  Essai/s,  N.Y. ;  and  one,  on  Transcen- 
dentalism, was  issued  separately. 

DOD,  John,  Puritan,  called  the  Z)eca/o<//s(  from 
his  work  named  below ;  b.  at  Shotledge,  Che- 
shire, 1547 ;  d.  as  rector  of  Fawesley ,  Northampton- 
shire, August,  1645.  He  was  fellow  of  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge,  and  then  pastor  for  many 
years ;  eminent  for  Hebrew  learning.  His  wit 
was  also  famous;  and  his  .Sai/ings  were  proverbial, 
and  to  be  found  in  cottages.  He  wrote,  in  con- 
nection with  Robei't  Cleaver,  Expositions  of  the 
Ten  Commandments,  London,  1606, 18th  ed.,  1032  ; 
Of  Proverbs.  1608;   Of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  1635. 

DO'DANIM,  a  people  descended  from  Javan, 
the  son  of  Japheth,  and  therefore  neighbor  to  the 
Greek  (Gen.  x.  4;  1  Chron.  i.  7  :  in  the  last 
passage  Rodanim  in  almost  all  Hebrew  MSS.). 
The  " sons  "  of  Javan  may  be  thus  distributed,  — 
Elishah,  perhaps  Sicily ;  Turskish,  Tartessus  in 
Spain  ;  Kittim,  Cyprus  and  adjacent  islands  ;  and 
Do'laiiim.  Ithbdes.  WOLF  BAUDISSIN. 

DODDRIDGE,  Philip,  D.D.,  a  celebrated  dis- 
senting (Independent)  divine,  and  writer  of  hymns ; 
son  of  a  merchant,  and  last  of  twenty  children ; 
was  b.  in  Loudon,  June  26,  1702;  d.  at  Lisbon, 
Oct.  26,  1751.  From  infancy  he  was  of  infirm 
con.stitution.  He  enjoyed  the  instructions  of 
pious  parents,  and  early  turned  his  attention  to 
the  ministry.  lie  was  first  settled  at  Kibworth 
in  1723.  In  1729  he  became  assistant  at  Ilar- 
borough,  and  head  of  an  academy  by  the  choice 
of  a  general  meeting  of  <lissenting  ministers. 
The  same  year  he  was  called  to  Northampton  ; 
he  here  continued  his  activity  as  teacher,  and  was 
very  successful.  He  was  forced,  by  the  rapid  de- 
velopment of  consumptive  tendencies,  to  seek  for 
health  in  a  milder  climate.  He  went  to  Lisbon, 
where  he  died,  and  lies  buried  in  the  English 
graveyard. 

Dr.  Doddridge  was  a  man  of  great  jViety,  and 
practised  strict  habits  of  self-examination.  He 
•was  as  scrupulous  in  his  habits  of  study  ;  rising 
at  five  in  the  morning,  and  laying  out  |)lans  of 
study,  and  subjects  of  sermons,  months  ahead. 
He  made  it  a  rule  to  avoid  controversy,  and 
showed  .sym])atliy  with  the  Methodists,  —  a  course 
which  lUvw  u|)on  him  the  charge  of  "  trimmer 
and  double-dealer." 

Among  his  works,  the  most  important  are  Life 
of  Colonel  Gardiner,  The  Familij  Expositor,  A  Coin- 
mentarij  on  the  Nein  Testament  (which  became  a 
household  work  in  England),  and  The  Rise  ami 
Progress  of  Religion  in  the  Soul  (1745),  which  he 
wrote  at  the  suggestion  of  Dr.  Watts.  With  tlie 
PUgrim'a  Progress,  Henry's   Commentary,  and  Al- 


leine's  Alarm,  it  has  been  more  extensively  used 
as  a  stimulus  to  piety  than  any  other  work  in  the 
English  language.  As  an  author  of  hymns  he 
was  very  pi-olific.  Among  the  more  favorite  ones^ 
are,  "  Awake,  mj'  soul,  stretch  every  nerve,"  and 
"  Grace,  'tis  a  charming  sound!  " 

Lit.  —  Works  of  the  Rev.  P.  Doddridge,  D.D., 
with  a  Life  by  Rev.  Job  Orton,  10  vols.,  Leeds, 
1802;  Correspondence  and  Diary  of  Dr.  Doddridge, 
5  vols.,  London,  1829;  Andrew  Kippis:  Life  of 
Dr.  Philip  Doddridge,  in  the  Biographia  Britan- 
nica,  London,  1778-93,  5  vols.  (A-F  all  pub- 
lished); Charles  Stanford:  Philip  Doddridge, 
Loudon,  1881. 

DODWELL,  Henry,  a  learned  though  whimsi- 
cal theologian;  b.  at  Dublin,  October,  1641;  d.  at 
Shottesbrooke,  Berkshire,  June  7,  1711.  He  was- 
a  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  but  resigned 
on  taking  orders  (1666),  and  settled  in  London 
(1674)  ;  wrote  in  defence  of  the  Anglican  Church, 
and  made  such  a  reputation  that  he  was  appointed 
Camden  Professor  of  History  at  Oxford  in  1688, 
but  lost  the  position  in  1691,  on  the  accession  of 
William  HI.,  by  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  alle- 
giance, for  he  had  joined  the  party  of  James  II. 
He  defended  the  non-juring  bishops,  declaring 
those  "schismatics"  who  submitted,  and  himself 
left  the  Anglican  communion,  but  afterw-ards- 
changed  his  mind,  and  as  publicly  recognized  the 
authority  of  the  "  schismatics,"  and  shortly  be- 
fore his  death  re-entered  the  Church  of  England, 
His  works  were  numerous,  particularly  in  the 
various  departments  of  classical  literature,  and 
attest  great  industry  and  learning,  but  little 
judgment.  He  is  remembered  for  his  assertion, 
in  his  Disserlationes  in  Irenaum  (Oxford,  1689), 
that  the  New-Testament  demoniacs  were  epilep- 
tics, and  for  his  Epistolary  Discourse,  pz-oving  from 
the  Scriptures  and  the  First  Fathers  that  the  Soul  i.i 
7iaturally  Mortal,  hut  immortalized  actually  by  the 
Pleasure  of  God,  to  Punishment,  or  to  Reward,  by 
ite  Union  with  tlie  Divine  Baptismal  Spirit,  London, 
1706.  He  raised  a  violent  opposition,  but  vigor- 
ously defended  himself.  He  connected  iramor- 
talit)'  with  baptism,  and  also  advocated  priestly 
absolution.  In  private  life  he  was  exemplary,  and 
strict  to  asceticism.  Curiously  enough  one  of  his- 
sons  (Henry)  became  noted  for  scepticism,  and 
another  (William)  for  orthodoxy.  —  See  Works 
abridged,  ivith  an  Account  of  his  Life,  by  Francis- 
Brokksmv,  H.l).,  London,  1715. 

DOEDERLEIN,  Johann  Chrlstof,  b.  at  AVind- 
.sheim,  in  Franconia,  Jan.  20,  1745;  d.  at  Jena, 
Dec.  2,  1792;  studied  at  Altorf ;  was  made  pro- 
fessor in  theology  there  in  1772,  and  moved  in 
1782  to  Jena.  Ot  his  exegetical  works,  his  Jesaias 
(1775)  and  Solomon's  Wisdom  (1778)  were  much 
appreciated;  but  it  was  more  especially  in  the 
field  of  dogmatics  that  he  exercise<l  influence, 
Institutio  thvol.  C'AW.s/mHo;  (1780)  forming  a  tran- 
sition from  the  old  orthodoxy  to  the  dawning 
rationalism.  In  the  same  spirit  ho  also  edited 
the  Theoliigisrhe  liibliotlui:  from  1780. 

DO'EG,an  Edoniite  servant  of  Saul,  wlio  being 
at  Nob,  probably  on  account  of  conjectured  lep 
rosy,  saw  the  interview  between  Ahimelcch  and 
David,  and  I'eported  it  to  Saul,  whose  anger  was 
so  raised  that  he  put  the  entire  priesthood  at 
Nob  to  death,  with  the  solitary  exception  of  Abi- 
atliar  who  escaped  to  David,  and  the  settlement 


DOGMA. 


653 


DOGMATICS. 


destroyeil.  in  wliich  bloody  proceediDg  Doeggave 
the  first  blow  (1  Sam.  xxii.). 

DOGMA  (dreek  iijyfia)  iim.-ins,  first,  a  fixed  and 
final  resolution,  especially  wlien  havincf  a  public 
and  general  character, — a  decree.  In  this  sense 
tlje  Septuafjint  and  the  New  Testament  use  it  for 
all  obligatory  prescripts  with  respect  to  practical 
life,  for  the  decrees  of  civil  authorities  (Esth.  iii. 
9  ;  Dan.  ii.  13,  vi.  8;  Luke  ii.  1),  for  the  decrees 
of  the  apostles  (Acts  xvi.  4),  and  for  tlie  Mosaic 
decrees  (Col.  ii.  14;  Eph.  ii.  15).  Next,  it  de- 
notes in  tlie  language  of  the  pliilosophers,  more 
■especially  in  tliat  of  the  Stoics,  such  definitions 
■of  principles  and  ideas  as  are  considered  settled 
forever,  and  raised  above  doubt.  Thus  Plato 
applies  it  (De  Hep.,  VII.  538  Sleph.)  to  those 
axioms  of  the  philosophy  of  the  good  and  beau- 
"tiful  -which  he  wanted  children  to  learn  in  the 
school.  Finally,  it  means  such  propositions  or 
sentences,  expressive  of  ethico-religious  truths, 
as  are  believed  to  have  originated  from  a  divine 
revelation.  Thus  Josephus  (Contra  Apion.,  I.  8) 
■calls  the  contents  of  the  sacred  books  of  the 
Jews  iitov  doyiiara;  and  for  the  application  of  the 
name  to  the  Christian  revelation,  see  Ignatius  : 
Ad  Magnes.,  13;  Origines  :  De  Princ.  Fragm., 
IV.  158;  Clement  Alexandrinus:  Strom.,  VII. 
p.  763,  etc. 

DOGMATICS  (from  dogma,  see  above)  means 
the  systematic  representation  and  scientific  argu- 
mentation of  the  tenets  of  a  religious  community. 
Judaism  and  Mohammedanism  might  have  their 
dogmatics,  like  Christianity,  and  partially  have. 
Generally,  however,  the  name  is  confined  to  the 
systematic  treatment  of  the  Christian  verities  as 
they  have  been  divinely  revealed  and  historically 
developed  and  comprehended. 

A  Christian  science  (that  is,  a  philosophical  ex- 
position of  the  ideas  of  Christianity,  and  a  scien- 
tific argumentation  of  the  truth  of  these  ideas) 
arose  very  early  in  the  Church ;  but,  as  it  arose 
almost  exclusively  as  a  defence  against  the  at- 
tacks of  Pagan  or  Jewish  civilization,  it  naturally 
assumed  the  character  of  apologetics,  and  that 
character  it  retained  down  to  the  beginning  of 
the  fourth  century.  (SieQ  a.vt.  Apologetics.)  When 
■Christianity  became  the  State  religion  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  it  needed  the  apology  no  more  : 
but  the  scientific  spirit,  once  awakened  within 
its  bosom,  was  not  destined  to  go  to  sleep  again ; 
it  only  changed  object.  From  the  fourth  to  the 
ninth  century  it  was  engaged  in  a  scientific  defini- 
tion of  the  Christian  truths,  in  the  formulation 
of  the  Christian  dogmas ;  and  this  task  was  per- 
formed through  a  continuous  series  of  literary 
controvei'sies,  rising  now  and  then  into  furious 
■contests.  With  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury this  fermentation  was  about  finished ;  and 
then  followed,  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  a  period  in  which  all  the  doctrinal 
results  of  the  preceding  debates  were  most  cai-e- 
fully  gathered  and  sifted  by  the  schoolmen,  while 
at  the  same  time  the  reasoning  methods  of  the 
Greek  philosophy  were  applied  to  their  exposi- 
tion. A  new  fermentation  took  place  with  the 
Reformation,  shorter,  because  less  comprehensive, 
but  equally  sharp  and  bitter.  After  the  lapse  of 
a  century,  or  little  more,  it  ended  with  the  estab- 
.lishment  of  the  Protestant  Confessions. 

While  moving  through  these  various  stages  of 


apologetics,  polemics,  scholasticism,  and  confes- 
sional ism,  Christian  science  found  no  necessity 
of  making  any  distinction  between  the  tlicoretical 
and  the  jiractical  aspect  of  its  subject.  'I'he  whole 
Cliristian  truth,  so  far  as  it  existed  in  the  Church 
under  the  form  of  well-defined  doctrine,  was  em- 
braced in  its  contents.  Theology  treated  not 
only  of  the  nature  of  God  and  his  relation  to  the 
world,  but  also  of  the  duties  which  this  relation 
involves  for  man  ;  not  only  of  the  person  of  Christ 
and  the  end  and  aim  of  his  activity,  but  also  of 
the  hopes  which  this  aim  involves  for  man ;  not 
only  that  which  a  Christian  believes,  but  also 
that  which  he  acts  ujion.  There  are  instances 
in  early  Christian  literature,  in  which  practical 
questions  and  practical  principles  are  treated  in- 
dependently in  separate  works  ;  as,  for  instance, 
by  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Tertullian,  and  others  : 
but  it  happened  incidentally.  The  sacra  doctrina 
(Anselm),  the  loci  iheologici  (Melanchthon),  the 
Institutio  religionis  Christiariw  (Calvin),  etc.,  made 
no  distinction  between  theoretical  and  practical. 
The  schoolmen  considered  a  chapter  on  the  vir- 
tues, often  strongly  marked  with  an  influence 
from  Cicero,  as  an  indispensable  part  of  the 
science  which  they  taught.  The  distinction  was 
not  made  until  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  when  the  sac7'a  doctrina,  the  loci  theologici, 
etc.,  begin  to  branch  off  into  two  independent 
parts,  — one  practical  (ethics),  and  one  theoretical 
(dogmatics),  each  from  that  time  following  a 
course  of  its  own,  though,  of  course,  under 
steady  interaction  with  its  partner.  The  name 
dogmatics  theotogia  dogmatica  was  first  used  by 
Hildebrand  (1G92),  then  by  Niemeyer  (1702), 
Jiiger  (1715),  and  so  on.  In  English  and  Ameri- 
can theology  it  has  not  superseded  the  older 
name  of  "  Systematic  Theology." 

After  this  separation,  by  which  dogmatics  was 
established  as  an  independent  branch  of  Christian 
science,  as  its  theoretical  division,  the  questions 
which  have  exercised  the  greatest  influence  on  its 
further  development  are,  From  what  sources  can 
dogmatics  draw  its  materials?  and.  According  to 
what  norms  has  it  to  treat  them  ?  To  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Church  it  proved  comparatively  easy  to 
answer  these  questions.  She  presents  in  Scrip- 
ture and  tradition  a  double  field  from  which  her 
dogmatists  can  gather  their  materials ;  and  in 
the  decisions  of  the  living  Church,  of  the  infallible 
Pope,  she  has  established  an  absolute  norm  for 
the  truth  of  a  dogma  and  for  its  correct  interpre- 
tation. It  must  not  be  inferred,  however,  from 
the  utter  arbitrariness  of  this  norm,  that,  within 
the  Koman-Catholic  Church,  dogmatics  has  sunk 
down  to  a  mere  registration  of  the  piapal  whims: 
on  the  contrary,  Roman-Catholic  dogmatics  has 
now  and  then  admitted  fertile  impulses  from. 
other  powers,  and  now  and  then  utilized  them 
with  considerable  freedom.  (See  art.  Hermes, 
and  K.  Werner  :  Geschichte  der  kathoUschen  Theo- 
logie  seit  dem  Trienter  Konzil,  Munchen,  1807.) 
Much  greater  difficulties  the  Protestant  churches 
experienced  in  answering  the  above-mentioned 
questions  :  for  they  rejected  the  Roman-Catholic 
norm  altogether ;  and  of  the  two  Roman-Catholic 
sources  they  recognized  only  the  one.  Scripture, 
to  the  exclusion  of  the  other,  tradition.  Indeed, 
in  the  Protestant  churches.  Scripture  became  at 
once  the  only  dogmatic  source  and  the  true  dog- 


DOGMATICS. 


654 


DOGMATICS. 


matic  norm.  But  again  :  from  these  almost  revo- 
lutionary proceedings  it  must  by  no  means  be 
inferred"  that  the  old  Protestant  dogmatics  drew 
its  whole  contents,  new  and  fresh,  from  Scripture  : 
on  the  contrary,  besides  its  arliculi  puri,  which 
were  derived  directly  from  Scripture,  it  had  its 
arliculi  jiiixd,  which  were  derived  from  the  general 
religious  consciousness  ;  and  though  these  arliculi 
mijcti  were  not  to  be  adopted  as  part  and  parcel 
of  Christian  truth  until  they  were  proved  by 
Scripture,  they  became  the  channel  through  which 
a  great  mass  of  merely  traditional  materials  were 
carried  from  the  Roman-Catholic  dogmatics  into 
the  Protestant.  (See  G.iss  :  Gescliichte  der  proles- \ 
tanlischen  Dogmatik,  Berlin,  1854-67,  4  vols.) 

In  course  of  time  this  incongruity  between  the 
contents  of  the  old  Protestant  dogmatics  and  the 
dogmatic  contents  of  Scripture  became  too  palpa- 
ble to  pass  by  unnoticed.  Criticism  began  its 
work.  It  did  not  confine  itself,  however,  to 
censuring  the  above  incongruity,  but  attacked, 
under  the  form  of  rationalism,  the  very  position 
Scripture  held  as  the  norm  of  Cliristian  truth. 
It  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  inspiration  of 
Scripture;  it  denied  that  Scripture  is  itself  a 
divine  revelation ;  it  accepted  Scripture  only  as 
the  first,  the  most  authentic,  and  consequently 
the  most  authoritative,  testimony  to  the  divine 
revelation  in  Christ.  By  degrees  its  own  position 
became  perfectly  clear :  it  assumed  human  rea- 
son as  the  highest  norm  for  revealed  truths  (D. 
F.  Strauss),  —  a  self-contradiction  which  must 
lead  to  the  denial  of  all  revelation,  that  is,  out 
of  Christianity.  The  lasting  result,  however,  of 
the  rationalistic  criticism,  was  the  distinction 
between  a  purely  scriptural  dogmatics  developed 
into  an  independent  branch  of  the  theological 
system,  under  the  name  of  Biblical  Theology,  and 
the  whole  sum  of  Christian  truth  such  as  it  has 
grown  up  from  Scripture  in  Christendom  during 
a  period  of  nearly  two  thousand  years.  The 
question  then  arose,  where  to  seek  that  supple- 
mentary constituent,  which,  together  with  Scrip- 
ture, could  form  the  absolute  norm  for  this  truth  ; 
and  it  is  on  this  question  tliat  modern  dogmatics 
is  divided ;  Schleierinacher  presuming  to  have 
found  what  he  sought  in  the  "pious  self-con- 
sciousness;" J.  T.  Beck  and  Schenkel,  in  the 
"  conscience  ;  "  II.  Plilt,  in  the  "  inner  religious 
experience ;  "  II.  Marten.sen,  in  a  "  perfect  media- 
tion between  the  ideas  of  Scripture  and  the  ideas 
of  modern  civilization,"  and  so  on.    J.  KOSTLIN. 

Lit.  —  Only  the  chief  works  can  be  mentioned. 
I.  ROMAiX  CATHOLIC.  —  (The  two  great 
standard  works  —  Bki-i.aumin,  DispiitritionKs  de 
conlrocersiia  clirlslldiia:  Jidci,  Kome,  1581-93,  3 
vol.'i.  fol.,  re])rinted  at  Home,  1832-40,  4  vols. 
8vo,  and  Bossukt,  Exposilion  de  la  doclrinc  de 
I'dgliae  calholirjue  stir  les  malicres  de  co»lroi:erse, 
Paris,  1671  —  belong  to  polemics  rather  than  to 
dogmatics.)  Giovanni  Pkukonk:  I'rwkciiones 
Iheoloi/icte,  Rome,  1835  sqq.,  0  vols,  (more  than 
twenty-five  editions  liave  been  published  at  Tu- 
rin, Brussels,  Regensburg,  Innsbruck,  and  Paris); 
the  same  :  I'rwU'Ctioncs  Ihculogicm  in  Compendium 
redaclcr.,  Rome,  1845,  4  vols.,  ed.  xxxvi.  Ratisbo- 
neusis  III.,  Regen.tburg,  1881,  2  vols,  (also  in 
many  editions  and  different  languages)  ;  II. 
Ki.kk:  KathoUsche  Dni/mdlili;  Mainz,  183.5,  4th 
ed.,  1801;  F.  R.  Dikuinoku:  Lehrbuch   der  kalh. 


Dogmatik,  Mainz,  1847,  5th  ed.,  1865 ;  Th.  M.  J. 
GousSET  :  The'ologie  dogmatifjve,  ou  exposilions  des 
preuves  et  des  dogmes  de  la  religion  calholique,  3d 
ed.,  Paris,  1850.  4  vols. ;  H.  Schmid  :  Katholische 
Dogmatik,  Schaffhausen,  1852-55,  2  vols.;  Fr.\nz 
Friedhoff  :  Katholisrhe  Dogmatik,  MUnster,  1855, 
2d  ed.,  1871,  2  vols.;  M.  J.  Scheeben:  Hand- 
huch  der  kallioUsclien  Dogmatik,  Freiburg,  1873 
sqq.,  3  vols.  ;  Joseph  Sprixzl  :  Handhuch  der 
fundamental  Tlieologie,  AVien,  1870 ;  J.  KatsCH- 
TH.\LER :  Tlieologia  dogmatica  calliolica  specialis, 
Regensburg,  1876-80,  3  vols. ;  Boxomelli  :  Hum- 
ma  tntius  tJieologiie  dogmaticce,  Milano,  1878;  II. 
IIuRTER  :  Theol.  dogmat.  compendium,  Innsbruck, 
1876;  the  same:  Medulla  theoloqice  dogmatiae^ 
Innsbruck,  1870,  2d  ed..  1885;  li.  Th.  Simar  : 
Lehrbuch  der  Dogmatik,  Freiburg,  1879-80,  2  vols. ; 
MiciiELLs:  Katholische  Dogmatik,  Freiburg-i-B., 
1880;  A.  GiLLY  :  De  locis  theologicis,  Lyon,  1881. 

II.  PROTESTANT.  A.  Co.xtinental.  1. 
Lutheran.  —  Philipp  Melanchthon  :  Loci  com- 
munes rerum  theologicarum,  seu  llypolyposes  llieo- 
logicce,  AVittenberg,  December,  1521  (many  edi- 
tions in  the  author's  lifetime,  each  one  more 
enlarged ;  translations  in  German,  French,  and 
Italian ;  modern  ed.  by  E.  Prenss,  Berlin  and 
Leipzig,  1864-75,  9  vols. ;  reprint  of  original  edi- 
tion by  Professor  G.  L.  Plitt,  Eriangen,  1864) ; 
Martin  Chemnitz  :  Loci  theologici,  Frankfurt-a- 
M.,  1592  (posthumous  lectures  upon  Melanch- 
thon's  book)  ;  Matthias  Hafenreffer  :  Loci 
theologici,  TUbingen,  1600,  revised  ed.,  1603  (sev- 
eral subsequent  editions,  reprinted  Stockholm, 
1612  and  1686);  L.  Hutter:  Compendium  loco- 
rum  theologicorum,  Wittenberg,  1610  (Eng.  trans  , 
Phila.  1875) ;  Johaxn  Gerhard  :  Loci  theolo- 
gici, Jena,  1610-22,  9  vols.,  new  ed.,  Leipzig, 
186.3-76,  10  vols.;  ABRAn.\M  Carlov  :  Si/stema 
locorum  theologicorum,  AA'ittenberg,  1655-77,  12 
parts;  J.  F.  KiixiG  :  Theologica  positira,  Rostock, 
1604, 13th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1711;  J.  A.  Quenstedt  : 
Thcologia  didactico-polemica  seu  systema  theologica, 
Wittenberg,  1685-96,  2  vols.;  J.  W.  Baier: 
Compend.  theol.  positivcB,  Jena,  1686,  new  ed.  by 
Preuss,  Berlin,  1864;  D.  Hollaz  :  Examen  theol. 
acroam.,  Starg.,  1707;  J.  F.  Buddeus  :  Institu- 
liones  theol.  dogmat.,  Leipzig,  1723;  J.  D.  Miciia- 
EI.IS  :  Comjiendium  theol.  dogmat.,  Gottingen,  1760 
(German  trans.,  2d  ed.,  1784):  J.  C.  DiiiiER- 
LEIN :  Inslitutio  llicologi  chrUl. ,  NUrnberg,  1780 
(German  trans.,  1785  sqq.,  12  vols.) ;  S.  F. 
Mi^RUS :  I^pitomc  theologies  christians,  Leipzig, 
1789,  5th  ed.,  1820;  G.  C.  Storr:  Doctrince 
Christiana:  pars  thcor.  e  libris  sacris  repetita,  Stutt- 
gart, 1793  (German  trans.,  1803,  2d  ed.,  1813); 
F.  V.  Reixii.\ui):  Vorlcsunqen  i'lher  die  Dogmatik, 
Sulzbach,  1801,  5th  ed.,  1824;  AV.  M.  4^.  de 
Wette:  Lehrbuch  der  christlichcn  Do<imatik  in 
ihr.  histor.  Entir.,  Berlin,  1813-21,  2  vols.,  :id  ed., 
1831-40;  K.  H.\se:  Lchrhuch  der  ev.  Dogmatik, 
Stuttgart,  1826,  6tli  od.,1870;  the  same:  liutt(rus 
rcdicirus,  Leipzig,  1829,  12th  ed.,  1883  (an  excel- 
lent comiiondiiini  for  students,  although  now 
superseded  by  Luthardt's);  A.  D.  Cii.  Twestkn  : 
Vorlesunqcn  iibrr  iH<  Dogmatik  der  ev.  luth.  Kirche, 
Hamburg,  1820-29,  4th  ed.,  1837,  2  vols,  (very 
vahuibli',  but  unfinislu'd);  (i.  Cii.  Knapp:  I'or- 
lesungen  iiber  die  christlichcn  Glauhenslehre  tiach 
dem  Lehrbf griff'  der  ecanqelischen  Kirche,  Ilalle, 
1827,  2  vols.,  '2d  ed.,  1835,  1836  (Eng.  trans,  by 


DOGMATICS. 


655 


DOGMATICS. 


L.  Woods,  Jan.,  D.D.,  Lectures  on  Christian  The- 
ology, Andover,  1831,  18:50,  2  vols.,  N.Y.,  1808, 

1  vol., — onco  much  used  in  American  semina- 
ries) ;  K.  T.  NiTZScii :  Si/stcm  iler  christUchcn  Lehre, 
Bonn,  18'29,  fjtli  ed.,  1851  (Eng.  trans..  System,  of 
Christian  Doctrine,  Edinbuvffli,  1849);  IT.  SciiMiD: 
Die  Doynidlik  dcr  en.  luth.  Kirche,  Erlangen,  1843, 
etli  ed!,  Frankfiirt^a-M.,  1876  (Eng.  trans..  The 
Doctrinal  Theoluyi/  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  I'liila., 
1876);  II.  jMautensex:  Den  christcliije  Duyniatilc, 
Copenhagen,  1841)  ((ierman  trans.,  Kiel,  1850, 
4tli  ed.,  1858;  author's  own  revised  German 
trans.,  Berlin,  1850;  Eng.  trans..  Christian  Dor/- 
malics,  Edinburrjh,  186(jj;  (j.  Tiiomasius:  Christi 
Person  ii.  IVerl:  Darstelluncien  iler  ev.  luth.  Dog- 
matik  vom  Mittelpankt  der  Christoloqie  aus,  Erlan- 
gen, 1853-61,  3  parts,  2d  ed.,  1856-63;  F.  A. 
PlULirn  :  Die  kirchhche  Glaubenstehre,  Stuttgart, 
1854-71,  5  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1883  sqq.  (strong  Luther- 
an) ;  C.  E.  Luthardt:  Kom/ietidium  der  Dog- 
matik,  Leipzig,  1865,  6th  ed.,  1882  (a  most  useful 
work);  K.  F.  A.  Kahnis;  Die  lutherische  Dog- 
malik,  Leipzig,  1861-68,  3  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1874, 
1875,  2  vols.  ;  F.  N.  R.  Fk.\nk  :  System  der 
christlichen  Geirissheit,  Erlangen,  1870-73,  2  vols., 
2d  ed.,  1881;  Samuel  Spkecheu:  The  Ground- 
icork  of  a  System  of  Erangelical  Lutheran  Theology, 
Phila.,  1879  (American  Lutheran). 

2.  Reformed.  —  LTlkicii  Zwingli:  Christiana; 
fidei  breois  clara  expositio,  Zurich,  1536,  in  Opera, 
ed.  Schuler  and  Schulthess,  vol.  iv.  42-79;  John 
Calvin  :  Institutio  chrislianic  religionis,  Basel, 
1536,  final  form,  Geneva,  1559  (often  reprinted 
and  translated;  e.g.,  by  Thomas  Norton,  Lon- 
don, 1578;  see  Calvin)  ;  Wolfgang  Musculus: 
Loci  communes  sacrce  theologice,  Basel,  1573  (Eng. 
trans..  Commonplaces  of  Christian  Religion,  Lon- 
don, 1578);  Peteu  Mautyu:  Loci  communes, 
Basel,  1580  (Eng.  trans..  Commonplaces,  London, 
1583) ;  Petek  Mastricht  :  Theorelica-praclica 
theologia,  Amsterdam,  1682-87  {ed.  nova,  Utrecht, 
1699,  2  vols.,  again,  Amsterdam,  1724,  1  vol.)  ; 
H.  WiTSius :  De  ceconomia  fcederum  del  cum 
hominibus,  Leuward,  1687  (Eng.  trans.,  Tlie 
Economy  of  the  Covenants,  new  ed.,  London,  1837, 

2  vols.);  Fr.  Turretin  :  Instilutio  theologice  elen- 
ticce,  Geneva,  1682-88,  3  parts,  ed.  nova,  Utrecht, 
1701,  4  vols,  (reprinted  in  his  Opera,  Edinburgh, 
1847,  4  vols.);  Benedict  Pictet:  Theologia  Chris- 
tiana, Geneva,  1696,  11  vols. ;  the  same  :  Theologie 
chretienne,  Amsterdam,  1702,  new  ed.,  Geneva, 
1721,  3  vols.  (Eng.  trans.,  from  the  Latin)  ;  Chris- 
tian Theology,  Phila.,  Pres.  Board,  1845;  J.  F. 
Staffer  :  Institutiones  theologice  polemicw  universce, 
Tigurum  (Zurich),  1743,  5  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1752; 
the  same :  Grundlegung  zur  wahren  christlichen 
Religion,  Ziirich,  1746-53,  12  vols. ;  Herman 
Venema  (1697-1787) :  Institutiones  theologicm 
(Eng.  trans.,  from  the  inedited  and  unprinted 
manuscript  by  Rev.  A.  W.  Brown,  Institutes  of 
Theology,  Edinburgh,  1850,  reprinted,  Andover, 
1853) ;  Alex.  Schweizer  :  Die  Glauhenslehre 
der  ev.  reformirten  Kirche,  aus  den  Quellen  belegt, 
Zurich,  1844-47,  2  vols.  ;  the  same  :  Die  pirotestan- 
tischen  Centraldogmen  in  Hirer  Entwicklung  inner- 
Jialh  der  reformirten  Kirche,  Ziirich,  1854,  1856 ; 
J.  H.  A.  Ebrard  :  Christliche  Dogmatik,  Kiinigs- 
berg,  1851,  2  vols. ,  2d  ed.,  1862, 1863 ;  H.  Heppe  : 
Die  Dor/jnatik  der  ev.  refonnirten  Kirche,  Elber- 
feld,   1861 ;   Van  Oosterzee  :   Christelijke  Dog- 


matiek,  Utrecht,  1870-72,  2  parts,  2d  ed.,  1876 
(Eng.  trans..  Christian  Dogmatics,  London  and 
N.Y.,  1874,  2  vols.);  Julius  Mijller  :  Dog- 
■matische  Abhandlunqen,  Bremen,  1870. 

3.  Specidative.  —  IC.  Daub  :  1'heologumena,Hei- 
delberg,  1806 ;  F.  Sciileiermaciier  :  Der  christ- 
liche (jlaube  nach  den  Grundsiitzcn  der  ev.  Kirche, 
Berlin,  183.5,  2  vols.;  J.  P.  Lange:  Christliche 
Pogmafik,  Heidelberg,  1849-52,  3  vols.;  Daniel 
Sciienkel:  Die  christliche  Dogmatik  vom  Staud- 
jiunkte  des  Gewisscns  aus  dargcslcltt,  Wiesbaden, 
1858-.59,  2  vols.;  A.  Schweizer:  Die  christliche 
Glaubenslchre  nach  protestiintischen  Grundsatzen 
dargestellt,  Leipzig,  1863-72,  2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1877; 
Alhreciit  RiTscnL  :  Die  chrisdiche  Lehre  von  der 
Rechtfcrtigung  und  Verslihnung  dargestellt,  Bonn, 
1870-74 ;  Richard  Rothe  :  Do(/matik,  ed.  by 
Schenkel,  Heidelberg,  1870,  2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1878; 
Isaac  August  Dorner:  Systejn  der  christlichen 
Glaubenslchre,  Beriin,  1879-81,  2  vols.  (Eng. 
trans.,  Edinburgh,  1880-82,  4  vols.). 

4.  Rationalistic  and  Pantheistic.  —  C.  A.  Am- 
mon  :  Sumnia  theol.  christ.,  Gdttingen,  1803,  4th 
ed.,  Leipzig,  1830;  K.  G.  Bretschneider: 
Ilandbuch  der  Dogmatik  der  ev.  luth.  Kirche,  Leip- 
zig, 1814-18,  2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1828,  2  vols. ;  J.  A. 
L.  Wegscheider  :  Institutio  theol.  christ.  dogmat., 
Halle,  1815,  8tii  ed.,  1840;  Karl  Hase  :  Gnosis, 
oder  evang.  Glaubenslchre  fiir  die  Gibildeten,  Leip- 
zig, 1827-29,  3  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1869-70,  2  vols.; 
D.  F.  Strauss  :  Die  cliristliche  Glaubenslchre  in 
Hirer  geschichtlichen  Enttvicklung  und  im  Kampfe 
mit  dcr  modernen  Wissenschafi  dargestellt,  Tubin- 
gen, 1840-41,  2  vols.  ;  A.  E.  Biedermann:  Christ- 
liche Dogmatik;  Zurich,  1869,  2d  ed.,  1884-85,  2 
vols.;  R.  A.  Lii'Sius:  Lehrbuch  der  evangelisch- 
protestantischen  Dogmatik,  Braunschweig,  1876,  2d 
ed.,  1879 ;  O.  Pfleiderer  :  Grundriss  der  clirist- 
lichen  Glauliens-  unit  Sitlenslchre,  Berlin,  1880.  Cf. 
O.  F'lI'OEL  :  Die  speculative  Tlieologie  der  Gegen- 
wart  kriliscli  beleuchtet,  Kothen,  1881. 

5.  Moravian.  —  II.  Plitt  :  Zinzendorfs  The- 
ologie, Gotha,  1869  sqq.  (1  Bd.,  Die  ursjjrungiiche 
gesunde  Lehre  Zinzendmfs,  1723-42). 

B.  English  and  American.  1.  Church  of 
England. — TuoM.\s  Rogers:  The  Catholic  Doc- 
trine of  the  Church  of  England,  an  Exposition  of  the 
I'hirty-riine  Articles,  London,  1579,  new  ed.,  Cam- 
bridge, 1854;  Richard  Hooker:  Eight  Books  of 
the  Laws  of  Ecclesiastical  Polity,  London,  1594  sqq. 
(not  completed),  best  edition  by  John  Keble,  in 
Works,  Oxford,  1836,  4  vols.,  6th  ed.,  1874,  3 
vols. ;  John  Pearson  :  An  Exposition  of  the  Ajios- 
tlcs'  Creed,  London,  1659  (often  reprinted  and 
edited,  e.g.  by  Rev.  Temple  Chevallier,  D.D.,  for 
the  Syndics  of  the  Liniversity  Press,  Cambridge, 
1849,  2d  ed. ,  1877) ;  George  Bull  :  Defensio  Fidei 
Nicence,  London,  1685;  William  Beveridge  : 
Thesaurus  TheologiciL'! ;  or,  a  Complete  System  of 
Divinity.  London,  1710-11,  4  vols.,  new  ed.,  1828,  2 
vols.;  the  same  :  Exposition  <f  the  Thirty-nine  Arti- 
cles (first  complete  edition,  Oxford,  1845,  3d  ed., 
1847);  Gilbert  Burnet  :  Exposition  of  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles,  London,  1699  (numerous  editions, 
e.g.,  by  J.  R.  Page,  London,  1843) ;  Thomas 
Stackhouse  :  A  Complete  Body  of  Divinity,  Lon- 
don, 1729,  3d  ed.,  1755;  Thomas  Rid(;eley  •. 
A  Body  of  Divinity,  London,  1731-32,  2  vols.,  new 
ed.  revised  and  corrected,  Loudon,  1844,  and  N.  Y., 
1855,  2  vols. ;   George   Tomline  :  Elements  of 


DOGMATICS. 


656 


DOKETISM. 


Christian  Theology,  London,  1815,  2  vols.,  14th 
ed.,  by  Henry  Stebbins,  D.D.,  184.3,  2  vols.; 
Thomas  R.  Jones  :  An  Exposition  of  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  by  the  Reformers,  Loudon,  1849  ;  Ed- 
ward Harold  Browxe  :  An  Exposition  of  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles,  Historical  and  Doctrinal,  Lon- 
don, iS50-53,  2  vols.,  9th  ed.,  1871,  1  vol.,  Am.  ed. 
by  Bp.  'Williams  of  Connnecticut,  X.Y.,  1865;  O. 
Adolphus:  Compendium  Theologicum;  or.  Manual 
for  Students  in  Theology,  4th  ed.,  Cambridge,  1873; 
A.  P.  Forbes:  An  Explanation  of  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles,  Oxford  and  London,  lS67"(High  Church)  ; 
JoHX  Raxdolpu  :  .4  Course  of  Lectures  delivered 
to  Candidates  for  Holy  Orders,  Comprising  a  Sum- 
mary of  the  Whole  System  of  Theology,  London, 
1869-70,  3  vols.  ;  R.  W.  Jelf  :  The  Thirty-nine 
Articles  of  the  Church  of  England  explained  in  a 
Series  of  I.ectu)-es,l.ondon,  1673;  J.Miller:  The 
Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England, 
London,  vol.  1,  1878. 

2.  Calvinistic.  Congregational.  —  Jonathan 
Edwards  (1703-58)  :  Works  (several  editions, 
e.g.,  N.Y.,  1869,  4  vols.) ;  Samuel  Hopkins 
(1721-1803):  Works,  with  Memoir,  Boston,  18.54,3 
vols.;  Nathaniel  Emmoxs  (1745-1840):  Works, 
v:ith  Memoir,  Boston,  1861-63,  6  vols. ;  Timothy 
DwiGUT  (1752-1817) :  Theology  Explained  and 
Defended  in  a  Series  of  Sermons,  Middletown, 
Conn.,  1818,  5  vols.,  new  ed.,  N.Y.,  1846,  4  vols. ; 
Leon.\rd  Woods  (1774-1854) :  Writings,  Bos- 
ton, 1860,  5  vols. ;  Ralph  AVardlaw  :  Systematic 
Theology,  Edinburgh,  18.50,  3  vols.;  Nathaniel 
WiLLi.\M  T.\YL()R  (1786-1858):  Essays,  Lectures, 
etc.,  upon  Select  'Topics  in  llercaled  Theology,  N.Y., 
1859 ;  Charles  G.  Finney  :  Lectures  on  Sys- 
tematic Theology,  Oberlin,  1846,  new  ed.,  1878; 
Enoch  Pond:  Lectures  on  Christian  Theology, 
Bo.ston,  1867. 

Presbyterian. — -George  Hill:  Lectures  in  Di- 
vinity, Edinburgh,  1821,  3  vols.,  N.Y.,  1867 ;  John 
Dick:  Lectures  on  Theology, '2(1  ed.,  Edinburgh, 
1836,  4  vols.,  N.l^,  1871';  James  Richards: 
I^ectures  on  Aatural  Philosophy  and  Theology, 
N.Y.,  1846;  Thom.\s  Chalmers:  Institutes  of 
Theology,  Edinburgh,  1849 ;  A.  A.  Hodge:  Out- 
lines of  'Theology,  N.Y.,  1800,  re-written  and  en- 
larged ed.,  1879;  Richard  Beard  (Cumber- 
land Presbyterian)  :  Lectures  on  'Theology,  Nash- 
ville, Temi.,  1871,  3  vols.;  Charles  IIodge: 
Systematic  Theology,  N.Y.,  1872-73,  3  vols.;  H. 
li.  Smith  :  System  of  Christian  'Theology,  1884. 

Baptist. — John  Gill:  A  Complete  Body  of 
Doctrinal  and  Practical  Dirinity,  new  ed.,  London, 
1839,  2  vols.;  Alvah  IIovey:  Manual  of  Sys- 
tematic 'Theology  and  Christian  Ethics,  Boston,  1877 ; 
J.  M.  Pendleton  :  Christian  Doctrines,  Phila., 
1878. 

3.  Arminian  and  Methodist.  Sources  and  Dutch 
Works. — Ja.mes  Arminius:  Opera  Theologica, 
Franc,  1031  (Eng.  trans,  by  James  and  AVilliam 
NicJiols,  London,  1825-75,  3  vols.) ;  .Simon  Epis- 
copius  :  Ojiera  'Theologica,  AmsU^\\\niu,  1650-65, 
2d  ed.,  London,  1678,  2  vols. ;  Philip  Limiiorch  : 
Theologia  Christiania,  Amst.,  1()>>0  (Eiig.  trans., 
A  Complete  System  of  ])ivinity,  London,  1702,  2 
vols.).  Modern  Engli.ih  Works. — Richard  \Vai- 
80n:  Theoloqical  Institutes,  Lon<lon,  1822-28,  3 
vols.,  8th  ed.,  18.50,  4  vols.,  reprinted  in  N.Y. 
(ed.  by  Dr.  J.  McClintock,  1850),  Kasliville,  etc., 
many  editions ;  W.  B.  Pope  :  A  Compendium  of 


Christian  Theology,  London,  1875-77,  3  vols.,  re- 
vised ed.,  London  and  N.Y^.,  1879-81,  3  vols.; 
Miner  Raymond  :  Systematic  Theology,  Cincin- 
nati, 1877-79,  3  vols. 

4.  Friends.  —  Robert  Barcl.w  :  Theologiee 
Veros  Christiance  Apologia,  Amsterdam,  1676,  Eng- 
lish translation  (by  the  author).  An  Apology  for 
the  True  Christian  Divinity,  [Aberdeen?]  16t8,  8th 
ed.,  Birmingham,  Eng.,  1765,  reprinted  Phila., 

1855.  SAMUEL  M.  JACKSON. 

DOCS  among  the  Hebrews  were  not  so  highly 
esteemed  as  they  are  among  us.  They  were  not 
man's  companions  and  friends.  While  useful 
as  the  guardian  of  herds  (Job  xxx.  1 ;  Isa.  Ivi. 
10),  they  are  often  spoken  of  as  disturbers  of  the 
night  (Ps.  lix.  6,  14;  Isa.  Ivi.  11),  and  devourers 
of  dead  bodies :  hence  to  be  unburied  was  a  re- 
volting thought  and  a  curse  (1  Kings  xiv.  11, 
xvi.  4,  xxi.  19,  23,  xxii.  38;  2  Kings  "ix.  10,  36; 
Ps.  Ixviii.  23;  Jer.  xv.  3).  They  appear  in 
Bible  proverbs,  thus  :  "  Against  any  of  the  chil^ 
dren  of  Israel  shall  not  a  dog  move  his  tongue  " 
(the  exodus  would  be  safe,  Exod.  xi.  7);  "He 
that  passeth  by,  and  meddleth  with  strife  belongs 
ing  not  to  him,  is  like  one  that  taketh  a  dog  by 
the  ears"  (the  folly  of  meddling,  Prov.  xxvi. 
17)  ;  "  As  a  dog  returneth  to  his  vomit,  so  a  fool 
returneth  to  his  folly  "  (the  hopelessness  of  sin, 
Prov.  xxvi.  11,  quoted  in  2  Pet.  ii.  22).  Th* 
Hebrews  were  forbidden  to  sacrifice  dogs  (Isa. 
Ixvi.  3)  as  several  nations  of  antiquitj'  did ;  and 
the  word  was  an  epithet  of  that  which  was  un- 
clean, profane,  and  altogether  vile  (cf.  1  Sam. 
xvii.  43 ;  xxiv.  14 ;  2  Sam.  ix.  8 ;  2  Kings  viii.  13; 
Phil.  iii.  2;  Rev.  xxii.  15).  So  foreigners  were 
called  "  dogs  "  by  the  Jews  (Matt.  xv.  26),  even 
as  Christians  are  now  by  the  Mohammedans.  In 
the  Orient  to-day  the  dog  is  a  filthy,  ignoble  cur, 
howling  in  the  streets,  and  making  night  hideous 
by  his  barks  and  yelps,  whose  only  redeeming 
feature  is  his  capacity  to  fill  the  position  of 
scavenger.  RUETScni. 

DOKETISM  (docetism)  is  a  theory  according  to 
wliich  Christ  had  no  real  body :  his  appearance 
in  the  actual  world  was  only  a  magical  appari- 
tion, his  body  a  phantom,  his  birth  and  death 
visions.  The  origin  of  this  theory  seems  to  date 
very  far  back.  Ideas  of  the  kind  are  refuted  in 
1  John  iv.  2  and  2  John  vii.  ;  and  in  one  form  or 
the  other  the  theory  entered  into  nearly  all  Gnostic 
.systeins,  as,  for  instance,  in  those  of  Saturninus, 
Basilides,  Valentiuus,  Marcion,  etc.  Towards 
the  close  of  the  second  century  there  existed  a 
sect  called  Doketw,  SoKirai  (Tiieodoret,  E/k  82 ; 
Clem.  Alex.,  Strom.  7,  17;  Euseb.,  Hist.  Eccl.  6, 
12).  The  root  from  which  the  theory  sprung  was 
the  idea  of  matter  as  being  the  cause  of  evil. 
Ascribing  all  evil  to  matter,  it  seemed  necessary 
to  represent  Christ  as  entirely  disconnected  with 
the  material  world ;  and  gnostioal  subtlety  hoped 
to  do  tliis  without  making  his  work  festally  unreal. 
Undoubtedly,  however,  the  theory  was  often  con- 
nected with  a  peculiar  superficiality  of  feeling 
which  transformed  the  deepest  religious  instincts 
of  liunian  nature  into  a  merely  a;sthetieal  ])laying 
willi  iiitcDcetual  ideas;  as,  for  instance,  when  Basi- 
lides taught  that  it  was  Simon  of  Cyrene  who 
was  crneificil  under  the  disguise  of  Jesus,  while 
Jesus  stood  by,  in  the  disguise  of  Simon  of  Cy- 
rene, and  laughed  at  his  persecutors. 


DOLCINO. 


GST 


DOMINIC. 


DOLCINO  was  b.  in  the  diocese  of  Novara; 
a  son  of  a  jiriest,  and  joined  in  I'-'Ol  the  sect  of 
the  Apostolic  Brothers;  whicli  see.  After  the 
death  of  Segarelli  (1300)  he  became  the  h:ader 
of  tlie  sect,  and  made  an  armed  resistance  to  the 
troops  sent  to  arrest  him;  but  in  1307  lie  was  de- 
feated and  burnt.  Of  the  three  works  he  wrote, 
the  third  and  last  has  perished  altogether  ;  but  of 
the  two  others,  extracts  and  fragments  are  still 
extant.  The  first  was  written  in  1300,  the  second 
in  1303  •,  and  both  are  addressed  to  the  scattered 
members  of  the  sect.  He  distinguishes  four 
stages  in  the  historical  development  of  provi- 
dence. The  first  begins  with  the  patriarchs,  the 
second  with  Christ  and  his  apostles,  the  third 
with  Sylvester  and  Constantine  the  Great,  and 
the  fourth  and  last  with  Segarelli  and  himself. 
Each  stage  is  good  by  itself;  but  degeneration 
makes  reform,  and  the  development  of  a  new 
stage,  necessary.  Thus,  when  the  great  masses  of 
Pagans  adopted  Christianity  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, the  Christians  were  compelled  to  assume  the 
responsibility  of  riches  in  order  to  show  how  the 
goods  of  the  earth  shall  be  used  to  the  glory  of  God 
and  for  the  sake  of  the  poor.  But  the  attempt 
proved  a  failure ;  and  neither  the  rules  of  St. 
Benedict,  nor  the  still  severer  rules  of  St.  Francis 
and  St.  Dominic,  were  able  to  mend  matters.  The 
true  reform,  the  return  to  the  example  of  Christ, 
the  transformation  of  all  earthly  relations,  mar- 
riage, property,  etc.,  into  spiritual  relations,  comes 
with  the  fourth  stage,  ushered  in  by  Segarelli  and 
Dolcino.  In  his  first  book  (1300)  Dolcino  an- 
nounced that  in  1303  all  his  enemies  should  be 
vanquished,  and  the  whole  Christian  world  gath- 
ered into  the  sect.  In  his  second  book  (1303)  he 
was  compelled  to  announce  a  postponement  of  one 
]  year,  which  he  did  without  losing  the  confidence 
of  his  followers.  There  are,  indeed,  in  his  works 
both  true  religious  enthusiasm  and  a  sharp  sense 
of  the  corruption  of  the  Church ;  but  both  are 
blurred  by  the  whims  of  a  sensuous  and  ill- 
regulated  inagiuation. 

Lit.  —  Historia  Dulcini  and  Addkamentum,  in 
MuRATORi :  Scriptores  Rerum  Italicurum,  IX.  425 
■  sqq. ;  Mosheim:  Ketzergeschichte,  p.  193  sqq. ; 
SCHLOSSER :  Abdlard  und  Dulcin,  Gotha,  18o7 ; 
Baggiolini  :  Dolcino  e  i  Pataretii,  Novara,  1838  ; 
Krone  :  Fra  Dolcmo  und  die  Patarener,  Leipzig, 
1814.  C.   SCHMIDT. 

DOMICELLA.     See  Chapter. 

DOMINIC,  St.,  and  the  DOMINICANS.  Do- 
mingo de  Guzman,  the  founder  of  the  Dominican 
order,  was  b.  1170,  at  Calaruega,  in  the  diocese  of 
Osma,  Old  Castile,  and  d.  in  the  Monastery  of  St. 
Nicholas,  at  Bologna,  Aug.  6,  1221.  From  his 
sixth  year  he  was  educated  by  his  uncle,  who  was 
archpresbyter  at  Gumyel  de  Yean  ;  and  when  he 
was  fourteen  years  old  he  entered  the  University 
of  Palencia.  In  1194  he  was  made  a  canon,  and 
afterwards  sub-prior  of  the  chapter  of  Osma, 
where  lie  aided  the  Bishop  Diego  de  Azevedo  in 
introducing  the  rules  of  St.  Augustine.  lie  also 
labored,  and  with  great  success,  as  a  missionary 
among  the  Mohammedans  and  heretics  of  the 
neighborhood.  In  1204  he  accompanied  Diego 
on  a  diplomatical  errand  into  Southern  France, 
and  there  he  came  into  contact  with  the  Albigen- 
ses.  The  task  of  converting  these  revolters 
.against  the  faith  and   authority  of   Home   had 

43  —  1 


been  intrusted  to  the  Cistercians ;  but  they  had 
utterly  failed,  and  were  about  to  give  up  the 
work,  when,  in  an  assembly  at  Montpellier,  Diego 
and  Dominic  persuaded  them  to  go  on.  But  the 
success  was  slight:  only  a  few  were  converted. 
Diego  soon  left  for  his  diocese ;  also  the  Cister- 
cians withdrew;  and  Domhiie  with  a  few  follow- 
ers was  left  alone  in  the  field.  From  Bi.shop 
Fulco  of  Toulouse  he  received  some  support; 
but  the  foundation  of  an  asylum  for  girls  at 
Prouille,  in  the  diocese  of  Toulouse,  was  nearly 
the  only  result  of  his  activity. 

This  nunnery  of  Prouille  became  the  place  of 
i-endezvous  for  Dominic  and  his  followers  until 
the  Cellnnis  joined  the  brotherhood,  and  presented 
them  with  a  house  in  Toulouse.  The  Roman 
curia  also  showed  that  it  felt  obliged  to  Dominic: 
it  offered  him  the  bishopric  of  Beziers.  innocent 
III.  had  no  confidence  in  prayers  and  preaching 
as  weapons  against  heretics.  The  sword  and  the 
battering-ram  he  considered  more  effective  ;  and 
after  the  assassination  of  his  legate.  Cardinal 
Castelnau,  he  preached  a  crusade  against  the 
Albigenses.  Dominic  and  the  brotherhood  fol- 
lowed in  the  wake  of  the  terrible  army  as  a  kind 
of  court  of  inquiry.  All  suspicious  or  suspected 
persons  were  placed  before  this  court;  and,  hav- 
ing been  convicted  of  heresy,  they  were  passed  on 
to  tlie  stake.  After  the  end  of  the  war  Domi- 
nic determined  to  transform  the  bi'otherhood  he 
had  founded  into  a  permanent  w'eapon  of  attack 
against  heresy,  into  an  order  of  predicant  monks. 
Bishop  Fulco,  who  liked  to  see  his  diocese  becom- 
ing the  seat  of  a  new  monastic  order,  was  charmed 
at  the  idea,  and  accompanied  Dominic  to  Rome, 
where  the  fourth  council  of  the  Lateran  was  just 
assembled  (1215) ;  but  the  council  determined 
that  no  new  order  should  be  founded,  and  the 
petition  of  Dominic  was  left  unheeded.  He  did 
not  give  up  his  idea,  however;  and  finally  Inno- 
cent III.  gave  his  consent  on  the  condition  that 
the  brotherhood  should  adopt  the  rules  of  some 
older,  already  recognized  order,  and  organize  itself 
in  the  simpile  form  of  colleges  of  canons.  The 
brotherhood  chose  the  rules  of  St.  Augustine,  to 
which  were  added  some  others  from  the  statutes 
of  the  Praemonstratensians,  —  silence,  poverty, 
fasts,  complete  abstinence  from  flesh,  linen  clothes, 
etc. ;  but  the  prospects  of  success  were  very  small. 
Then  Innocent  III.  died  (July  17,  121(j)  ;  and  hia 
successor,  Honorius  III.,  held  a  much  more  favora- 
ble opinion  of  the  efficacy  of  a  predicant  order. 
Dominic  hastened  to  Rome ;  and  in  December 
(same  year)  Honorius  confirmed  the  statutes,  and 
gave  the  order,  as  its  symbol,  a  dog  with  a 
lighted  torch  in  his  mouth;  the  order  being  des- 
tined to  watch  the  Church  like  a  dog,  and  to 
illuminate  it  like  a  torch.  The  brotherhood  now 
began  to  develop  a  great  activity  for  the  pur- 
pose of  spreading  the  order.  Some  went  to 
Spain,  others  to  Paris,  where  a  monastery  was 
founded  in  the  house  of  St.  Jacob,  whence  the 
Dominicans  in  France  were  afterwards  called 
Jacobins.  Dominic  himself  founded  monas- 
teries in  Metz  and  Venice.  During  a  visit  to 
Rome  he  began  to  pireach  to  the  lower  servants 
of  the  papal  household,  who  were  allowed,  it 
seems,  to  live  on  without  any  spiritual  care  at 
all ;  and  he  was  then  appointed  Magisler  Sacri 
Palalii,  or  court-preacher  to  the  Pope,  an  office 


DOMINIC. 


658 


DOMITIAN. 


•which  still  exists,  and  still  is  held  by  a  Domini- 
can. Still  the  order  would  not  grow.  Some- 
thing was  missing  in  order  to  insure  success,  and 
it  took  time  before  Dominic  discovered  what  it 
was. 

In  1219  he  seems  to  have  been  present  at  the 
chapter-general  held  by  the  Franciscans  at  Assisi. 
There  he  saw  how  an  ostentatious  display  of 
poverty  and  destitution,  an  almost  crack-brained 
passion  for  dirt  and  rags  and  all  the  disgusts  of 
misery,  made  the  monks  accepted  by  the  mass 
of  the  people  as  brethren :  consequently,  he  im- 
mediately threw  himself  upon  the  track  pointed 
out  by  the  Franciscans.  At  the  chapter-general 
which  the  Dominicans  held  in  1220,  in  the  Mon- 
astery of  St.  Nicholas,  at  Bologna,  the  order 
renounced  the  possession  of  pi'operty  in  any  form 
or  shape,  and  declared  for  complete  poverty,  and 
the  daily  begging  of  the  means  indispensable  to 
the  sustenance  of  life.  When  the  next  chapter- 
general  was  held  in  Bologna  (1221),  sixty  monas- 
teries were  represented,  and  members  were  sent 
to  far-off  places  to  make  new  foundations.  Thus 
Dominic  lived  to  see  his  order  successful ;  and 
twelve  years  after  his  death  (1233)  he  was  him- 
self canonized  by  his  friend  Gregory  IX. 

Many  external  circumstances  were  favorable 
to  the  prosperity  and  rapid  growth  of  the  order 
after  it  first  got  started.  Mendicant  and  predi- 
cant monks  cannot  live  in  a  desert.  The  large 
city  is  their  natural  "environment;"  and  city- 
life  entered  just  at  this  time  upon  a  period  of 
brilliant  development.  Other  orders,  for  in- 
stance the  Cistercians,  saw  their  opportunity,  and 
moved  into  the  city ;  but  none  found  it  so  easy 
to  strike  root  there  as  the  Dominicans.  The 
most  miserable  hut  was  good  euougli  for  them : 
the  next  day  they  began  begging  and  preaching. 
Their  povertj-,  however,  soon  became  a  mere  simu- 
lation. In  1425  Martin  V.  recalled  the  prohibi- 
tion to  possess  real  estate  or  other  property. 
Donations  and  bequests  poured  in  upon  the  order. 
It  built  monasteries  and  churches  ;  and  art  is 
indebted  to  it  for  some  of  the  finest  specimen.^  of 
Gothic  architecture.  StiU  greater  was  the  influ- 
ence which  it  exercLsed  on  science.  In  1228  the 
teachers  of  the  University  of  Paris  left  tlie  city 
on  account  of  some  squabbles  witli  Queen  Blanca, 
and  retired  with  tlieir  pupils,  partly  to  Rheinis, 
partly  to  Angers.  A  chair  was  tlien  established 
for  a  Dominican  monk,  and  in  1230  another  was 
added.  Thus  tli(^  mendicant  orders  got  a  foot- 
hold in  the  universities  (fcjr  the  Franciscans  soon 
followed);  and  not  only  did  they  vindicate  their 
place  in  the  teeth  of  a  most  vehi'nient  opposition, 
but  they  finally  usurped  th(^  whole  space,  and 
became  the  means  by  which  the  Church  succeeded 
in  crushing  all  free  science.  Scholasticism  is 
not  simply  a  scientific  form  whicii  the  Domini- 
cans found  ready-made,  and  were  compelled  to 
adopt :  in  its  latest,  most  elaborate,  but  also 
narrowest  and  most  unnatural  phase,  it  is  a  pro- 
duction of  the  Domiriioans  themselves ;  and  dur- 
ing its  reign  the  history  of  tlieology,  [ihilosophy, 
science,  was  hardly  more  than  a  rivalry  lietween 
the  Dominicans  and  the  Franciscans.  The  con- 
troversy between  'i'liomists  and  Scotists  —  the 
controversy  concerning  the  exemption  of  Mary 
from  liereilitary  sin  —  began  and  ended  in  this 
rivalry.     The  Dominicans  were   victorious;   and 


many  great  and  good  men  they  produced,  —  Al- 
bertus  Magnus,  Thomas  Aquinas,  Meister  Eck- 
art,  Johann  Tauler,  Heinrich  Suso,  Savonarola, 
Las  Casas,  Vincent  Ferrier,  and  Vincent  of  Beau- 
vais.  They  have  given  the  Church  more  than 
eight  hundred  bishops,  a  hundred  and  fifty  arch- 
bishops, sixty  cardinals,  and  four  popes.  But 
they  gradually  degenerated.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  Reformation  they  held  supreme  sway  over 
theological  science;  but  they  were  shockingly 
ignorant,  and  by  their  activity  as  dealers  ia 
indulgences  they  actually  prostituted  the  Church. 
Still  worse :  they  lacked  the  power  of  regenera- 
tion, such  as  the  Franciscans  proved  themselvea 
possessed  of,  by  the  formation  of  reformed  con- 
gregations ;  and  the  end  of  their  long  labors 
through  six  centuries  was  a  severe  rebuke  by  the 
head  of  the  Church,  when,  on  Dec.  8,  1854,  Pius 
IX.  promulgated  the  dogma  of  the  immaculate 
conception  of  the  Virgin,  —  a  dogma  they  had 
always  opposed. 

Lit.  —  Biography  of  St.  Dominic  by  Jordanus, 
his  successor  as  general  of  the  order,  in  Acta 
Sanctorum,  Aug.  1;  Helyot  :  Ilistoire  des  Ordres 
Monastiques,  Paris,  1714-19,  8  vols.  ;  Annates 
Ordinis  Prcedicatorum,  Rome,  1746;  Hurter  : 
Geschichte  Innocenz  des  Dritlen,  IV.,  282-312; 
Lacordaire  :  Vie  de  St.  Dominique,  Paris,  1840  ; 
Caro  :  St.  Dominique  et  les  Domitdcains,  Paris, 
1853  ;  [Kleinermanns  :  Der  dritte  Orden  von  der 
Busse  des  heitigen  Dominicus.  Queltenmdssige  Dar- 
stellunq.    Dulmen.  1885.]        ALBEECHT  VOGEL. 

DOMINICAL  LETTER,  a  letter  (one  of  the 
first  seven  in  the  alphabet)  which  is  used  in  eccle- 
siastical almanacs  to  represent  Sunday.  For 
general  tables,  and  directions  liovv  to  find  the 
Dominical  Letter,  see  the  Book  of  Commoa 
Prayer. 

DOMINICA,  or  DIES  DOMINICUS,  the  Lord's 
Dav.  or  Sunday.      See  Lord's  D.\y. 

DOMINICA  In  ALBIS,  the  first  Sunday  after 
Easter. 

DOMINCALE,  a  fair  linen  cloth  used  by  wo- 
men wlien  receiving  the  Lord's  Supper;  either  a 
napkin,  upon  which  the  bread  was  laid  instead 
of  upon  their  liai'e  hand,  or  a  veil. 

DOMINICUS  LORICATUS.  See  Damiani, 
PktkI!. 

DOMINIS,  DE,  MARC  ANTHONY.      See  An- 

TIU)NV    1)1,    DdMINIS. 

DOMITIAN,  Roman  emperor  81-96;  is  com- 
monly spoken  of  as  having  originated  the  second 
great  persecution  of  the  Christians.  The  whole 
affair  amounts  to  this:  first,  under  Vespasian  and 
Titus  a  tax  was  levu>d  upon  the  .lews  for  Jupi- 
ter Capitolinus ;  and  Suetonius  tells  us  {Domil., 
12),  that,  under  Doniitiau,  tliis  tax  was  extended 
also  to  such  as  lived  after  the  manner  of  the  Jews 
without  acknowledging  themselves  to  lie  Jews,  or 
such  as  concealed  their  race  and  religion.  Second, 
during  the  reign  of  Doniitiau  the  accusation  of 
atheism  is  first  heard  of ;  and  instances  of  con- 
demnation on  account  of  tiiis  crime  are  men- 
tioniMl  without  any  special  statement,  however, 
that  the  victims  were  Christians;  only  Dio  Cas- 
sius  says  (07,  14)  tliat  all  who  were  converted  to 
Judaism  were  accused  of  atheism.  Finally,  we 
are  told  by  I'.usebius,  that,  during  the  reign  of 
Doniitiau,  many  Cliristians  suffered  martynlom. 
It   is  in  liie  liglit  of  these  facts  that  Tertulliau'a 


DOMITILLA. 


659 


DONATISTS. 


report  (Apo!of/el.,  5)  must  be  read,  of  Domitian's 
attempt  to  porsecuto  the  Christians,  and  of  his 
later  abandonment  of  the  plan.  The  investijja- 
tions  which  the  emperor  made  conccrnin.a;  the 
descendants  of  David  (Euseb.,  III.  V2  and  20)  liad 
a  merely  political  object.  As  he  was  told  that 
those  people  were  politically  dangerous,  he  sum- 
moned two  of  them  to  his  presence,  and  ques- 
tioned them  about  Christ  and  his  kingdom.  But 
when  they  an.swered  that  the  kingdom  of  Clirist 
was  not  of  this  world,  and  should  not  begin  until 
the  world  had  perished,  he  sent  them  away  with 
contemjit.  See  Fr.  Overbeck  :  Studien  ziir 
Geschickle  d.  alien  Kirche,  Schloss-Chemnitz,  1875, 
1,  93 ;  AuBE :  Histoire  des  persecutions  de  PEglife 
jusqu'a  la  Jin  des  Antonins,  Paris,  1875;  [Keim  : 
Rotn.  u.  d.  Christenthum,  Berlin,  1881].  IIERZOG. 

DOMITILLA,  according  to  Suetonius  {Domilian, 
18)  and  Dio  Cassius  (67,  14)  a  niece  of  the  Em- 
peror Domitian,  married  to  her  cousin,  the  Con- 
sul Flavius  Clemens,  and  banished  to  the  Island 
of  Pandateria  where  her  husband  was  decapitated 
on  the  charge  of  atheism  or  Judaizing ;  accord- 
ing to  the  Acts  of  Martyrdom  of  Nereus  and 
Achilleus  (May  12)  and  Eusebius,  quoting  from  a 
contemporary  Pagan  chronicler,  Brutius,  she  was 
a  niece  of  the  consul  Flavius  Clemens,  and  ban- 
ished to  the  Island  of  Pontius.  Whether  there 
were  two  Domitillas,  or  only  one,  and  how,  in  the 
latter  case,  the  two  reports  are  to  be  reconciled, 
is  still  an  ojien  question.  The  Acts  of  Martyrdom 
of  Nereus  and  Achilleus  are  undoubtedly  a  spu- 
rious fabrication ;  but  the  monuments  of  the 
catacombs,  from  the  so-called  Ccemiterium  Domi- 
tillce,  prove  that  they  have  a  historical  kernel. 
See  Mommsen:  Corpus  Inscr.,  VI.  1,  1876,  p.  172; 
AuBE:  Hist,  des  persecutions,  FaTis,lS7o;  df.  Ros- 
si :  BuHetino,  Rome,  1875 ;  Northcote  :  Roma 
Sotterranea,  London,  1877;  Lightfoot  :  Clement 
of  Rome  (Appendix),  London,  1877. 

DOMNUS.     See  Donus. 

DONALDSON,  John  William,  b.  1812;  d.  in 
London,  Feb.  10,  1861.  He  was  graduated  at 
Cambridge,  won  eminence  as  a  classical  scholar ; 
vrrote  The  New  Cralylus  (1839),  and  Varronianus 
(18-14).  His  Jashar,  or  Fragmeyits  of  Oriijinal 
Hebrew  Songs  inserted  in  the  Masoretic  Text  of  the 
Old  Testament  (1854),  which  was  written  in  Latin, 
and  attempts  to  "  reconstitute  the  lost  book  of 
Jashar  from  the  remains  of  old  songs  and  histori- 
cal records,  which,  according  to  the  author,  are 
incorporated  in  the  existing  text  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment," raised  a  great  storm.  He  showed  very 
plainly  his  latitudinarian  principles,  characteris- 
tic recklessness  of  statement,  and  lack  of  judg- 
ment. At  the  same  time  the  book  is  very  learned, 
and  contains  much  valuable  information.  Of  all 
the  criticisms  of  it,  that  by  Perowne  is  the  best. 
See  the  article  on  Jasher,  in  Smith's  Dictionary  of 
the  Bible. 

DONATI.     See  Monasticism. 

DONATION  OF  CONSTANTINE,  an  alleged 
imperial  edict  by  which  ("onstantine  the  Great  is 
said  to  have  bestowed  Rome  and  Italy  as  a  gift 
on  the  papal  see  in  324.  The  document,  which 
exists  both  in  a  Greek  and  Latin  text,  was  not 
produced,  however,  until  the  middle  of  the  eighth 
century,  in  a  letter  from  Pope  Adrian  I.  to  Chai  le- 
niange  ;  but  from  that  time  it  was  firmly  believed 
in  until   Laurentius   Valla   exposed   the   fraud. 


Dante  (Inferno,  XIX.  112-118)  alludes  to  the  fic- 
tion, believing  the  fact,  but  deploring  the  effect, 
in  the  famous  lines:  — 

"  Ah,  Constantiue!  of  how  much  ill  the  cause, 
Not  thy  conver.sioii,  but  those  rirh  domains 
That  the  first  wealthy  Pope  received  of  thee!  " 

See  MI'ncii  :  Ueber  die  erdichtete  Schenkun//  Con- 
stnntin  des  Grossen,  Freiburg,  1824 ;  Mack  :  De 
Donatione  a  C.  M.  sedi  Apost.  ohlala,  JIunich, 
1861. 

DONATISTS.  As  a  direct  result  of  the  perse- 
cution of  Diocletian,  there  arose  among  the  Chris- 
tians a  great  enthusiasm  for  sufferings,  and  even 
for  death,  for  the  sake  of  the  faith.  They  were 
demanded  to  surrender  their  sacred  books;  l)ut 
not  only  did  many  refuse  to  comply  with  this  de- 
mand, but  some  even  stepped  forward  purposely, 
and  boasted  that  they  had  the  books,  and  could 
by  no  means  be  forced  to  give  them  up.  The 
name  of  a  traditor,  that  is,  one  who  has  surren- 
dered his  Bible,  became  extremely  odious.  Men- 
surius,  Bishop  of  Carthage,  openly  opposed  the 
fanaticism  of  the  voluntary  martyrs  and  the 
extravagant  reverence  sliown  to  confessors.  He 
sent  his  archdeacon,  Csecilianus,  into  the  prisons 
where  the  confessors  sat,  and  had  the  crowds 
which  gathered  there  in  enthusiastic  devotion 
dispersed  by  force.  But  thereby  the  fanatics 
became  only  so  much  the  more  excited,  and  it 
was  to  be  expected  that  they  would  seize  upon 
the  first  opportunity  to  avenge  themselves.  In 
305  a  synod  was  convened  at  Cirta ;  but,  before 
the  synod  was  opened,  the  primate  of  Numidia, 
Bishop  Secundus  of  Tigisis,  proposed  that  an 
investigation  should  be  made,  whether  there 
were  any  traditores  among  the  assembled.  The 
result  of  the  investigation  was,  that  nearly  every 
one  of  the  bishops  present  was  proved  guilty  of 
the  crime,  in  some  form  or  other.  Suspicion  fell 
even  upon  Secundus  himself.  He  was  conse- 
quently compelled  to  drop  the  investigation; 
but  he,  nevertheless,  saw  fit  to  assume  the  at- 
titude of  a  guardian  of  the  discipline  of  the 
Church,  and,  when  he  heard  of  the  troubles  which 
had  occurred  in  Carthage,  he  sent  a  warning  to 
Mensurius  and  Csecilianus.  Mensurius  died  311, 
and,  according  to  the  common  course  of  affairs, 
the  archdeacon  succeeded  the  bishop ;  and,  as 
Csecilianus  was  known  to  hold  the  same  views  as 
Mensurius,  the  moderates  hastened  to  elect  him, 
without  awaiting  the  arrival  of  the  Numidian 
bishops,  and  without  inviting  the  primate.  Se- 
cundus of  Tigisis,  to  perform  the  consecration. 
The  Numidian  bishops  felt  much  offended  at  the 
slight  shown  to  them,  and  allied  themselves  with 
the  rigorists.  Secundus  convened  a  synod,  and 
summoned  Cajcilianus  to  defend  himself.  As 
Csecilianus  did  not  appear  before  the  synod,  he 
was  deposed  and  excommunicated,  and  Majoi'i- 
nus  was  elected  in  his  stead.  When  Majoriuus 
died  (in  313),  Douatus,  called  the  Great,  became 
his  successor. 

Thus  the  schism  originated  in  the  Church 
of  Carthage.  There  were  two  bishops  and  two 
congregations.  From  the  capital  it  spread 
through  the  whole  province.  A  majority  of 
the  country  people,  and  a  considerable  number 
of  bishops,  declared  in  favor  of  Donatus.  Out- 
side of  Africa,  however,  C:ecilianus  was  generally 
recognized   as   the   legitimate   bishop;    and   the 


DONATISTS. 


660 


DONATISTS. 


opposite  party  (the  pars  Majorini,  afterwards  the 
pars  Doiiali,  the  Donalianl,  or  Donatista)  were 
considered  as  schismatics  who  had  separated 
from  the  true  Catholic  Church.  In  an  edict  of 
513  Constantine  the  Great  promised  the  Church 
of  Africa  his  protection ;  but  the  Donatists  were 
-expressly  excluded  from  the  imperial  favor. 
They  iruniediately  addressed  themselves  to  the 
emperor,  and  begged  him  to  examine  their  com- 
plaints against  Csecilianus.  He  consented,  and 
appointed  a  committee  of  five  bishops  from  Gaul, 
with  Melchiades,  Bishop  of  Rome,  at  its  head. 
The  committee  summoned  Caecilianus,  and  ten 
African  bishops  of  each  party,  to  its  presence. 
Donatus  of  Cas»  Nigrse  was  the  spokesman  of 
the  Donatists ;  but,  in  spite  of  all  his  exertions, 
C»cilianus  was  acquitted,  and  Donatus  was  de- 
posed. The  other  Donatist  bishops  were  allowed 
to  retain  their  office  and  dignity,  on  the  condi- 
tion that  they  returned  to  the  Catholic  Church. 
But  the  condemned  would  not  submit.  They 
complained  to  the  emperor  of  the  partiality  of 
the  verdict,  and  begged  that  some  jui'ldically  edu- 
cated persons  might  be  sent  to  Africa,  to  hear  wit- 
nesses, and  gather  evidence,  and  the  case  be  laid 
before  a  synod  of  bishops.  Their  request  was 
granted,  and  imperial  commissioners  appeared 
in  Carthage.  But  the  commissioners  decided  in. 
favor  of  C'jecilianus.  The  Donatists  became  ex- 
tremely excited  on  account  of  this  verdict,  and 
in  an  unfortunate  moment  they  appealed  directly 
to  the  emperor.  Constantine  was  astonished 
and  disgusted,  that  he,  a  Pagan,  was  asked  to 
decide  upon  the  internal  affairs  of  the  Christian 
Church ;  but  he  accepted,  nevertheless,  the  ap- 
peal, summoned  Crecilianus  and  his  accusers  to 
Milan  (^1(5),  and  condemned  the  latter  as  guilty 
of  calumny.  All  further  resistance  now  became 
a  crime  against  the  imperial  majesty;  but  the 
Donati.sts,  nevertheless,  refused  to  submit.  Con- 
stantine preferred,  however,  to  ignore  the  whole 
affair ;  and,  although  no  less  than  two  hundred 
and  seventy  Donatist  bishops  were  present  at  a 
synod  held  in  330,  the  policy  adopted  by  the  em- 
peror would  probably  have  proved  the  best  way 
of  healing  the  schism. 

Constans,  however,  did  not  continue  his  father's 
policy,  and  the  severity  with  which  he  treated 
the  Donatists  immediati-ly  produced  very  strange 
effects.  Africa  suffc-rcd  at  that  time  much  from 
a  vicious  kind  of  ascetics,  —  the  so-called  Circum- 
cellirmc's.  An  affiliation  took  place  between  these 
Circnmci:Ui(ini:s  and  the  lower  elements  of  the 
Donatist  party  ;  and  the  result  was  a  complete 
uproar,  wliicli,  however,  was  speedily  suppressed 
by  Taurinus  (315).  At  this  time  Caecilianus  died, 
and  an  opportunity  presented  itself  of  healing  tlie 
BchisMi  by  recognizing  tlie  Donatist  bishop.  But 
the  Donatists  bad  made  themselves  so  despised  and 
hated,  that  a  compromise  was  impossible.  Gratus 
succeeded  Ciccilianus  as  Catholic  bishop,  and  the 
schism  continued.  Soon  a  new  uproar  broke  out. 
As  most  of  tlie  Donatists  belonged  to  the  poor 
class,  and  many  were  completely  destitute,  Con- 
stans sent  (in  318)  I'aul  and  Macarius  to  Africa 
to  try  to  reconcile  them  by  means  of  a  liberal 
support.  I$ut  Donatus  the  Great  declared  witii 
vehein<;MCie  against  this  attemjit  of  .si'duction; 
and  Donatus  of  Bagai  met  tlie  negotiators  at  the 
bead  of  a  swarm  of  armed  Circumctlliuucs.     The 


commotion,  however,  was  speedily  suppressed. 
Donatus  of  Bagai  was  decapitated,  Donatus  the 
Great  was  banished,  and  the  Donatist  churches 
were  closed.  A  complete  change  took  place  in 
the  condition  of  the  party  when  Julian  ;iscended 
the  throne.  It  was  his  policy  to  fight  the  Catho- 
lic Church  by  means  of  heretics  and  schismatics. 
The  Donatists  were  immediately  allowed  to  use 
their  churches,  and  their  banished  bishops  re- 
turned. Donatus  the  Great  had  died ;  but  Julian 
appointed  Parmenianus  his  successor,  and  estab- 
lished him  in  Carthage  by  means  of  force.  The 
Donatists  had  for  a  short  time  the  power,  and 
they  did  not  use  it  sparinglj'.  But  Valentinian  I. 
and  Gratian  issued  again  very  severe  laws  against 
them  (373  and  375). 

Meanwhile  the  inner  decay  of  the  sect  had 
begun.  One  of  its  most  jirominent  members, 
Tychonius,  distinguished  for  his  great  learning, 
and  appreciated  as  the  author  of  the  Rec/nlas  sep- 
lem  ad  investigandum  intelUgentiam  Sarrriruiit  Scrip- 
turarum,  rejected  the  Novatian  views  held  by  most 
Donatists,  and  objected  to  the  ostentatious  exclu- 
siveness  of  the  party.  Such  milder  and  more 
moderate  views  found  many  adherents :  and  Pri- 
mianus,  the  successor  of  Parmenianus,  belonged 
to  the  moderate  side  of  the  sect,  and  came  soon 
in  conflict  with  the  extremists,  at  whose  head 
stood  the  deacon  Maximianus.  The  conflict  was 
very  bitter ;  and,  when  he  ventured  to  excommuni- 
cate Maximianus,  the  extremists  convened  a 
.synod  (393),  deposed  him,  and  elected  Maximi- 
anus bishop  in  his  stead.  Thus  there  were  three 
bishops  in  Carthage;  and,  just  as  the  sect  in  this 
way  was  gliding  down  into  a  state  of  dLssolntion, 
it  encountered  its  most  decided  and  most  power- 
ful adversary,  Augustine.  After  writing  several 
books  against  the  sect,  as  it  would  seem,  without 
any  great  effect,  Augustine  himself  consented  to 
an  appeal  to  force,  referring  to  Luke  xiv.  'I'i.  A 
synod  of  Carthage  (405)  petitioned  the  Emperor 
Honorius  to  issue  penal  laws  against  the  Dona- 
tists. The  petition  was  granted  :  laymen  should 
be  fined,  clergymen  banished,  and  the  chui'ches 
closed.  But  Honorius  could  not  afl'ord  to  make 
any  more  enemies  than  those  he  already  had,  and 
in  -tO!)  he  issued  an  edict  of  toleration;  but  this 
edict  raised  such  a  storm  in  the  Catholic  Church, 
that  it  had  to  be  immediately  repealed.  A  dis- 
putation was  then  arranged  in  Carthage  (411), 
Collalio  cum  Donatistis.  Two  hundred  and  eighty- 
six  Catholic  and  two  hundi'ed  and  seventy-nine 
Donatist  bishops  were  present :  Augustine  and 
Aurelius  were  the  speakers  of  the  former  ;  Primi- 
anus  and  Patilianus,  those  of  the  latter.  For 
three  days  the  debate  lasted,  but  no  result  was 
arrived  at.  Finally  the  imperial  commissioner  de- 
clared the  Donatists  vanquished,  and  very  severe 
nueasures  were  decided  upon  against  them.  In 
414  tliey  lost  all  eivil  rights;  in  415  they  were 
forbidden  to  assemble  for  worshipping,  under 
penalty  of  death.  Nevertheless,  they  liad  not 
become  extinct,  when,  in  the  seventh  century, 
the  Saracens  occujiied  tlie  country,  aud  destroyed 
the  African  Church. 

Lit. — Optatus  Milkvitanus  :  De  Schismate 
Doiuilistarum,  edit,  by  Du  Pin,  Paris,  1700;  Au- 
(iUSTiN.:  Contra  c/iislulam  Panneniani,  iJc  bapliwio, 
Coidra  lileras  Pcliiiinti,  Contra  Cresconiiim  ;  NoKl- 
sius:   llistoria  JJuiuilislariim,   edit,    by   Ballerini^ 


DONATIVE, 


661 


DOOLITTLE. 


Verona,  1729  ;  RinnEK  :  Donalus  u.  Auynstinus,  El- 
berfeld,  1858;  [Dkutscii:  Drei  Aclcii.itiickr  z.  Gesch. 
d.  Dnnalismus,  Berlin,  1875];  Volter:  D.  Ursprimy 
d.  D.,  Freib.-ini-Br.,  1883.     ALBRECUT  VOGEL. 

DONATIVE  is  a  benefice  conferred  on  a  per- 
son by  the  founder  or  patron,  without  either 
presentation,  institution,  or  induction  by  tlie  ordi- 
nary :  rcsifjnation  therefore  is  to  the  patron. 

DONATUS  VESONTIENSIS,  the  only  son  of 
Duke  Waldelenus ;  was  educated  in  the  Monas- 
tery of  Luxenil  (Luxocium)  by  St.  Columban, 
and  was  in  624  elected  bishop  of  his  native  city, 
Besanijon  (  Vesontio).  There  he  founded  a  nun- 
nery, Jussanum,  and  wrote  for  it  a  statute-book 
in  seventy-seven  chapters,  which  on  account  of  its 
minute  prescripts  forms  an  interesting  historical 
document.  When  the  abbess  said  grace  at  the 
table,  and  a  nun  forgot  to  answer  "  Amen,"  she 
was  served  with  six  strokes  of  a  whip :  when  a 
nun  forgot  to  have  herself  blessed  before  walking 
outside  the  cloister  wall,  she  was  punished  with 
twelve  strokes,  etc.  See  Holstenius  :  Codex 
Regularum  monast,  et  canonic,  I.  p.  375. 

DONATUS  OF  CAS/E  NIGRff.      See  Dona- 

TISTS. 

DONATUS  THE  GREAT.     See  Donatists. 

DONNE,  John,  D.D.,  divine  and  poet,  son  of  a 
merchant;  b.  in  London,  1573;  d.  March  31, 
1631.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge, but  did  not  take  a  degree.  In  1592  he 
renounced  the  Roman-Catholic  faith,  and  subse- 
quently wrote  two  polemical  treatises  against  it, 
—  Pseudo-Mcirti/r  (1610),  and  Ignatius  his  Con- 
clave (1611).  He  followed  civil  pursuits,  until, 
induced  thereto  by  James  I.,  who  had  read  the 
Pseitilo-Maiii/r,  he  took  oi'ders  (in  1614),  a  step  to 
which  he  had  been  urged  seven  years  before  by 
Dr.  Morton,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Durham.  He 
was  immediately  appointed  royal  chaplain,  in 
1620  Dean  of  St.  Paul's,  and  in  1630  preached 
his  last  sermon,  which  was  afterwards  published 
under  the  title,  Death's  Duel.  lie  is  buried  in 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  Donne's  poetical  works 
■were  excessively  admired  by  his  own  generation, 
praised  by  Dryden,  and  paraphrased  by  Pope. 
His  published  sermons  are  marked  by  metaphysi- 
cal insight  and  poetical  unagery. 

Lit.  —  LXXX.  Sermons,  with  a  Life  by  Izaak 
Walton,  London,  1640  ;  Essays  in  Divinity,  Lon- 
don, 1651  ;  The  Works  of  John  Donne,  D.D.,  ed. 
by  Dean  Alford,  London,  1839,  6  vols. ;  Cole- 
ridge ;  Notes  on  Donne,  Works,  vol.  v.  pp.  73 
sqq.  (Am.  ed.). 

DONNELL,  Robert)  one  of  the  early  leaders  in 
the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church  ;  b.  in  Guil- 
ford County,  North  Carolina,  April,  1784;  d.  at 
Athens,  Ala.,  May  24,  1854.  His  parents  early 
moved  to  Tennessee.  Under  a  deep  conviction 
of  the  m-gent  need  of  more  ministers,  he  offered 
himself  in  1806  to  the  so-called  "  Council "  of  the 
Cumberland  Presbytery,  who  encouraged  him  to 
exercise  his  gifts  as  a  catechist  and  exhorter. 
He  preached  independently  of  ecclesiastical  con- 
nection, and  for  the  most  part  in  Alabama,  until 
1811,  when  he  placed  himself  under  the  care  of 
the  newly  organized  Cumberland  Presbytery. 
From  that  time  on  he  labored  incessantly,  in 
Tennessee,  Alabama,  and  Western  Pennsylvania, 
organizing  many  churches,  and  winning  the  posi- 
tion of  a  leader  in  his  denomination.    He  preached 


the  opening  sermon  at  the  First  General  Assem- 
bly of  tlie  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church. 
He  is  the  author  of  Thoughts  on  Various  Suhjicts, 
last  ed.,  NasliviUe,  1880. 

Lit.  —  LowRY :  Life  of  Rev.  Robert  Donncli, 
Nashville,  1867  ;  Beaud:  Biogr.  Sketches  of  Some 
of  tlie  Earli/  Ministers  of  the  Cumberl.  I'resh. 
Church,  2  vol's.,  Nashville,  "1867. 

DONNELLAN  LECTURE,  The,  was  founded 
by  the  provost  and  .senior  fellows  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin,  with  a  legacy  of  twelve  liuiidred 
and  forty-three  pounds,  left  by  Miss  Anne  Don- 
nellan,  dated  Feb.  22,  1794,  "  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  religion,  learning,  and  good  manners.'* 
The  lecturer  is  elected  on  the  20th  of  each  Novem- 
ber, and  delivers  six  sermons  upon  sucii  topic  as 
the  board  may  designate.  Perhaps  the  best 
known  volumes  thus  produced  are  Graves,  Lec- 
tures on  the  Pentateuch,  London,  1807,  2  vols.,  and 
Daunt,  The  Person  and  Offices  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
London,  1879. 

DONOSO-CORTES,  Juan  (Marquis  de  Valde- 
gamas),  h.  May  9,  1809,  at  Valle  de  la  Serena,  in 
Estreniadura ;  d.  in  Paris,  May  3,  1853;  studied 
law  in  Seville ;  settled  in  Madrid  in  1830,  and 
engaged  in  literature  and  politics.  In  1837  he 
entered  the  Cortes  as  a  representative  of  the  city 
of  Cadiz,  and  took  his  seat  as  a  member  of  the 
moderate-liberal  section  of  the  house.  But  the 
study  of  Bonald  and  De  Maistre,  and  his  ac- 
quaintance with  the  queen-mother,  Jlarie-Chris- 
tine,  gradually  changed  liis  views ;  and  in  1849  he 
suddenly  startled  his  party  and  his  country  with 
a  bitter  denunciation  of  all  liberal  principles,  and 
the  demand  for  a  dictature.  In  1850  he  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  Berlin,  and  afterwards  to  Paris, 
where  he  died.  In  1851  he  published  his  Essay 
on  Catholicism,  Liberalism,  and  Socialis7n,  which 
was  innnediately  translated  into  French  and  Ger- 
man, and  in  1862  also  into  English,  by  Madeleine 
Goddard,  Philadelphia.  It  is  an  eloquent  and 
brilliant  plea  for  the  ideas  of  Gregory  VII.  and 
Innocent  III.,  against  modern  philosophy  ;  and  it 
ushered  in  the  Em'opean  re-action  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  A  collected  edi- 
tion of  his  works  was  published  in  Madrid  by 
Tejado,  5  vols.,  1854-55,  and  also  at  Paris,  in 
French,  by  Louis  Veuillot,  3  vols.,  3d  ed.,  Lyon, 
1876. 

DONUS  I.,  or  DOMNUS,  pope  676-678,  is 
noticeable  only  on  account  of  his  passion  for 
adorning  the  churches  of  Rome.  —  bonus  II.  is 
sometimes  put  down  as  having  reigned  a  short 
time  in  974,  between  Benedict  VI.  and  Boniface 
VII. ;  but  his  whole  existence  depends  upon  an 
error  of  the  copyist.  See  Giesebrecht,  in  Jahr^ 
biicher  d.  deutschen  Reichs,  1840,  vol.  H.,  part  I., 
p.  141. 

DOOLITTLE,  Justus,  b.  at  Rutland,  N.Y., 
June  23,  1824;  d.  at  Clinton,  N.Y.,  June  15, 
1880.  He  was  graduated  from  Hamilton  College 
in  1846,  and  Auburn  Seminary,  1849  ;  from  1849 
to  1869  and  from  1872  to  1873  missionary  in 
China,  at  Foochow,  Tientsin,  and  Shanghai.  He 
was  the  author  of  The  Social  Life  of  the  Chinese, 
N.Y.,  1865,  2  vols,  (an  exhaoistive  treatment  for  a 
limited  district  of  China),  and  Vocabulary  and 
Handbook  of  the  Chinese  Language,  Romanized  in 
the  Mandarin  Dialect,  New  York,  1872,  1873,. 
2  vols. 


DOOLITTLE. 


06: 


DORT. 


DOOLITTLE,  Thomas,  Xoncouformist ;  b.  at, 
Kidderminster,  1630 ;  educated  at  Cambridge  ; ; 
settled  in  London  ;  ejected  for  nonconformity  in 
11)62 ;  kept  a  private  school,  and  preached  till  his 
death,  May  24,  1707.  Among  his  works, -nhich 
■were  very  popular,  were  A  Treatise  concerning  the 
Lord's  Supper,  9th  ed.,  1675;  A  Call  to  Delaying 
Sinners,  1683;  A  Complete  Body  of  Divinity,  1723, 
folio ;  Love  to  Christ  Necessary  to  Escape  the  Curse 
at  His  Coming,  reprinted  1830. 

DOORKEEPERS.     See  Ostiarii. 

DORA,  Sister  (Dorothy  Wyndlow  Pattison),  b. 
at  Hauxwell,  Yorkshire,  Jan.  16, 1832;  d.  at  Wal- 
sall, South  Staffordshire,  Tuesday,  Dec.  24,  1878. 
Her  father  was  rector  of  Ilauxwell,  and  a  man  of 
means ;  yet  she  voluntarily  left  her  position  in 
society,  and  in  1804,  after  three  years  of  village 
school-teachmg,  joined  the  Church  of  England 
"Sisterhood  of  the  Good  Samaritans."  In  186.5 
she  was  sent  to  the  Cottage  Hospital  at  "Walsall, 
then  under  the  charge  of  the  sisterhood.  She 
quickly  developed  that  marvellous  capacity  botli 
for  nui'sing  and  general  management  wliich  made 
her  so  famous.  In  Walsall  she  labored  until 
1876,  and  only  left  oil  to  die.  Her  life  there  was 
a  practical  embodiment  of  the  spirit  of  Christ. 
Her  biography  is  more  thrilling  than  a  novel,  and 
yet  the  changes  of  lier  life  were  few.  By  unwav- 
ering courage  and  unfailing  devotion  she  won  the 
respect  of  all,  and  was  recognized  as  the  friend 
of  every  patient  in  the  wards,  and  of  every  poor 
body  in  the  town.  She  was  one  of  the  noblest  of 
women.  Like  her  Master,  she  went  about  doing 
good.  The  anecdote  told  of  one  of  the  railroad 
employees  reveals  the  regard  in  which  she  was 
held.  He  was  asked  why  he  thought  her  monu- 
ment ought  take  the  form  of  a  statue ;  and  he 
said,  "  Why,  nobody  knows  better  than  I  do  that 
we  sha'n't  forget  her,  no  danger  of  that;  but  I 
want  her  to  be  there,  so  that  when  strangers 
come  to  the  place,  and  see  her  standing  up,  they 
shall  ask  us,  '  Who's  that?  '  and  then  we  shall  say, 
'  H'Vio'i-  that  V  —  '  Why,  that's  our  Sister  Dora.'  " 

In  the  exercise  of  her  profession  she  had  the 
unquestionable  advantages  of  good  birth,  liberal 
education,  excellent  health,  fine  personal  appear- 
ance, abundant  animal  spirits,  great  natural 
shrewdness  and  tact.  Walsall  is  a  manufactur- 
ing town,  and  accidents  are  constantly  occurring. 
Sister  Dora  became  a  skilful  surgeon  as  well  as 
nurse.  But  the  secret  of  her  influence  was,  after 
all,  her  religion.  She  was  not  content  to  heal  the 
body  simply :  she  aimed  to  touch  the  heart,  to 
convert  the  soul ;  and  to  many  she  was  thus,  in 
a  spiritual  as  well  as  a  physical  sense,  a  savior. 
See  Makgaret  Lonsdalk  :  Sister  Dora,  London, 
1880  (22d  ed.,  1881),  reprinted,  Boston,  1880. 

DORCAS  SOCIETY.  The  name  comes  from 
the  good  iricnd  oT  tli(!  poor  mentioned  in  Acts  ix. 
36,  and  fitly  describes  its  work,  which  is  to  pro- 
vide the  poor  with  clothing,  or  else  with  materials 
to  make  up.  Such  societies  are  common  in  con- 
nection with  churclies,  and  afford  Christian  wo- 
men useful  employment.  Dorcas  is  the  Greek 
equivalent  of  Tabitha,  an  Aramaic  form  of  the 
Hebrew  word  whicli  means  "  gazelle,"  and  was  a 
favorite  name  for  women  among  Hc^brews  and 
Greeks,  becausi'  the  gazelle  was  considered  to  be 
the  standard  of  beauty.  Dorcas  must  have  been 
comparatively  rich,  and  was  probably  of  some 


rank.  Peter  restored  her  to  life  after  she  had 
been  some  time  dead. 

DOROTHEA,  a  vh'gin  martyred  at  Cresarea, 
Cappadocia,  probably  during  the  persecution  of 
Diocletian,  and  celebrated  by  the  Roman  Church 
on  Feb.  6.  See  Act.  Sand.  Fehr.  I.,  p.  771.  Dif- 
ferent from  this  Dorothea  is  the  Prussian  Doro- 
thea, who,  after  reaching  the  forty-fourth  year  of 
her  age,  and  having  borne  nine  children,  deter- 
mined to  devote  herself  to  an  ascetic  life  (1394), 
and  took  up  her  abode  in  a  cell  near  the  cathedral 
of  ]\larienwerder,  where  she  lived  according  to  a 
rule  which  she  pretended  to  have  received  from 
the  Lord  himself.  After  her  death  (1404)  many 
miracles  took  place  at  her  grave  ;  and  the  grand- 
master of  the  Teutonic  knights  applied  to  Boni- 
face IX.  for  her  canonization.  But,  when  the 
investigation  began,  it  was  learned  that  in  a 
vision  Dorothea  had  seen  one  of  the  former 
grand-masters  in  hell,  and  had  predicted  the 
downfall  of  the  order ;  after  which  the  proceed- 
ings were  stopped.  The  people,  however,  contin- 
ued to  reverence  Dorothea  as  the  patron-saint  of 
Prussia.  See  S.  Tii.  Chr.  Liliexthal  :  Hislona 
Beatce  Dorothea,  Danzig,  1744. 

DOROTHEUS,  Bishop  of  Martianopolis  in 
Mcesia,  and  a  zealous  Xestoriau,  joined,  at  the 
Council  of  Ephesus  (431),  the  party  opposite  to 
Cyril,  and  pronounced  Cyril's  excommunication. 
Shortly  after  he  was  excommunicated  himself; 
and  when  his  congregation  refused  to  accept  his 
successor,  he  was  banished  to  Ca?sarea  in  Cap- 
padocia. He  left  some  letters  which  are  found 
in  the  Synodicon,  Nos.  78,  115,  and  137,  and  in 
Baluze  :   Concil.  N.  Coll. 

DORT,  Synod  of,  the  largest  and  [next  to  the 
Westminster  Assembly]  the  most  imposing  synod 
ever  held  within  the  bounds  of  the  Reformed 
churches,  was  convened  by  the  States-General  at 
Dort  (Dordrecht),  Nov.  13,  1618,  and  adjourned 
May  9,  1019.  The  Arminians,  or  Remonstrants, 
after  the  death  of  Arminius  (1609),  had  at  their 
head  Simon  Episcopius,  professor  at  Leyden,  and 
included  among  their  number  John  of  Barneveld 
(Advocate-General  of  Holland)  and  the  learned 
scholar  and  statesman  Hugo  Grotius.  At  the 
head  of  the  Calvinists,  or  Counter-Remonstrants, 
stood  the  stadtholder  Prince  Maurice  of  Orange. 
In  1609  Barneveld  and  (jlrotius,  against  the  wishes 
of  Mavirice,  concluded  a  twelve-years'  truce  with 
Spain.  This  brought  upon  them,  and,  by  conse- 
quence, upon  the  Remonstrants,  the  charge  of 
(lishjyalty  liy  the  adherents  of  Maurice.  The 
conviction  soon  spread  that  the  party  which  had 
endangered  the  nation  should  be  condemned  by  a 
common  act  of  all  the  states.  Tliis  led  to  the 
thought  of  an  orthodox  national  sjaiod ;  and  the 
interest  excited  by  the  general  subject  was  so 
great,  that  everywhere  large  meetings  were  held 
to  discuss  it. 

In  November,  1617,  the  States-General  passed 
an  act  convoking  a  synod  at  Dort  to  settle  reli- 
gious issues.  The  synod  was  designed  to  be  a 
national  assembly.  The  Reformed  churches  of 
other  lauds  (with  the  single  exception  of  Anlialt) 
were  requested  to  send  deh'gtitea;  but  it  was  par- 
ticularly stated  in  the  invitation  that  llicir  ]ires- 
ence  and  counsels  were  desired  in  oi-iler  (hut  a 
more  cautious  conclusion  concerning  the  contro- 
versies prevalent  in  the  Church   of  the  Nether- 


DORT. 


663 


DOUAI. 


lands  might  be  arrived  at.  Twenty-eight  dele- 
gates iu  all  came  from  Germany,  tlie  Palatinate, 
Switzerland,  and  England.  [The  four  delc^gates 
selected  by  the  National  Synod  of  France  were 
forbidden  being  present  by  the  king.  The  Eng- 
lish commi.ssioners  (chosen  by  James  I.)  were 
Carleton,  Bishop  of  Llandaff;  Davenant,  after- 
wards Bishop  of  Salisbury ;  Samuel  Ward,  pro- 
fessor at  Cambridge ;  Joseph  Hall,  afterwards 
Bishop  of  Exeter  and  A'orwich ;  and  Walter 
Balcanquall,  a  Scotchman,  and  chaplain  to  the 
king.  Among  the  Dutch  delegates  were  thirty- 
one  ministers,  five  professors,  and  twenty  elders. 
There  were  also  eighteen  commissioners  appointed 
by  the  States-General.  1  All  of  the  delegates  from 
the  Netherlands  belonged  to  the  Calvinistic  party, 
the  three  Remonstrants  regidarly  elected  from 
Utrecht  being  denied  seats. 

The  synod  convened  Nov.  10,  1018,  and,  after 
listening  to  a  sermon  in  the  Great  Church  of  Dort, 
chose  at  its  second  sitting  John  Bogerniann,  a 
pastor  at  Leeuwarden,  its  president.  The  Re- 
monstrants were  treated  from  the  first  as  an  ac- 
cused party  ;  and  at  the  fourth  sitting  Episcopius 
and  twelve  other  Remonstrants  were  summoned 
to  appear  at  the  expiration  of  fourteen  days 
before  the  synod,  and  defend  their  doctrines.  In 
the  interval  a  committee  was  appointed  to  pre- 
pare a  new  translation  of  the  Bible,  whose  labors 
subsequently  gave  birth  to  one  of  tlie  most  accu- 
rate versions  in  any  language.  The  question  of 
the  administration  of  baptism  to  the  children  of 
heathen  parents  in  India  was  also  discussed. 

At  the  twenty-second  session,  the  thirteen  Re- 
monstrants appeared  before  the  synod.  Episco- 
'  plus,  who  managed  the  defence,  spoke  with  ranch 
•eloquence,  but  gave  offence  by  his  confidence 
and  boldness  of  statement.  He  declaimed  the 
synod  to  be  a  schismatical  assembly.  His  judges 
reprimanded  him  for  his  temerity ;  and  after  he 
had  given  the  Remonstrant  coustruction  of  the 
five  articles,  or  "knotty  points,"  of  Calvinism, 
a  protracted  discussion  took  place,  which  was 
brought  to  a  close  at  the  fifty-seventh  session 
(Jan.  14, 1619),  the  Remonstrants  being  excluded 
from  the  floor.  This  done,  the  synod  occupied 
itself  with  the  preparation  of  articles  refutmg 
Remonstrant  tenets  and  the  definition  of  the  five 
articles,  until,  at  the  hundred  and  thirty-sixth 
session  (April  23,  1619),  the  "Canons  of  Dort," 
teaching  strict  views  of  predestination,  were 
passed.  The  delegates,  however,  from  England, 
Hesse,  Nassau,  and  Bremen,  had  argued  persist- 
ently in  favor  of  recognizing  a  conditional  uni- 
versalism ;  that  is,  the  divine  intention  and  sin- 
cere offer  of  salvation  to  all  men.  The  synod 
then  unanimously,  with  the  exception  of  the  dele- 
gates from  Hesse  and  England,  voted  the  sen- 
tence upon  the  Remonstrants  of  ecclesiastical 
rebels  and  offenders,  and  that  as  such  they  were 
to  be  excluded  by  the  synods  and  classes  from 
their  ecclesiastical  places.  Before  adjournment, 
the  Heidelberg  Catechism  and  the  Belgic  Con- 
fession were  indorsed.  In  the  hundred  and 
forty-fourth  session  the  synod  repaired  to  the 
Great  Church,  where  the  canons  and  the  sentence 
were  read  in  Latin  to  an  overflowing  audience. 
The  next  session,  the  hundred  and  forty-fifth 
(May  9,  1619),  was  its  last. 

The  canons  of  the  Synod  of  Dort  are  infralap- 


sarian,  and  do  not  express  the  deepest  and  ulti- 
mate conclusion  of  the  Calvinistic  system,  which 
is  proved  by  the  opposition  of  Gomarus,  profess- 
or at  Leyden,  a  supralapsarian  Calvinist.  The 
synod  ignored  the  s])irit  of  union  embodied  in 
the  Second  Helvetic  Confession,  just  as  in 
(iermauy  the  Fornmla  of  Concord  had  done 
in  effacing  the  impress  of  Welanchthon,  and  in- 
corporated the  old  predestinariaiiism  into  its 
canons.  II.  IIEPPE. 

Lit.  —  The  Acts  of  the  Synod  were  officially 
published  in  1020  at  Dort:  Acta  Syn.  nation. 
Dorlrechti  hahila: ;  and  from  the  Remonstrant 
side,  Acta  el  Scripta  synodaiia,  etc.,  llerderwyci, 
1620 ;  John  Hales  (who  was  present  at  the  ses- 
sions) :  Letters  from  the  Synod  of  Dort,  in  his 
Golden  Remains,  Lond.,  1059  trans. ;  Hist.  Cone. 
Dordraceni,  ed.  by  J.  L.  Mosheim,  Hamburg, 
1721;  Thomas  Scott:  The  Articles  of  the  Synod 
of  Dort,  with  a  History  of  the  Events,  etc.,  Lond., 
1818;  Alex.  SciiWEiZF.u:  Cen^raWo^men,  Zurich, 
vol.  ii.  (1850),  pp.  141  sqq. ;  P.  Schakf  :  Creeds 
of  Christendom,  vol.  I.  pp.  508  sqq.,  New  York, 
yd  ed.,  1881 ;  F.  Buhrmann  :  De  Dordlsche  Synode 
en  de  godsdiensttwisten  in  hct  hci/in  der  17c  ecuw, 
Amsterdam,  1881  sq.  The  best  discussions  of  the 
Five  Points  are  by  Wnrrnv  (Lond.,  1710)  on  the 
Arminian  side,  and  by  Jonathan  Dickinson 
(Phila.,  1741)  on  the  Calvinistic  side.  See  Ar- 
MiNiANisM,  Five  Articles  of. 

DOSITHEUS,  a  false  Messiali  among  the  Sa- 
maritans, and  founder  of  a  religious  sect,  on  a 
line  with  Simon  Magus  and  Menander.  Very 
little  is  known  of  him  ;  and  the  uncertainty  of 
the  reports  is  increased  by  his  being  confounded 
with  an  older  Dositheus,  the  teacher  of  Zadok, 
w'ho  foimded  the  sect  of  the  Saduceeans.  His 
appearance  was  probably  contemporary  with  that 
of  Christ,  or  perhaps  a  little  later.  In  those  days 
of  great  religious  excitement  among  the  Samari- 
tans, he  presented  liimself  as  the  prophet  prom- 
ised in  Deut.  xviii.  18 ;  which  passage,  according 
to  Samaritan  doctrine,  is  the  only  true  Messianic 
prophecy  ever  given  (Okigen  :  Contra  Celsum,  I. 
p.  44 ;  VI.  p.  282,  ed.  Spencer ;  Epiph.  ;  Hceres, 
I.  13).  The  most  prominent  feature  of  hia 
doctrines  was  the  severe  stress  he  laid  upon  the 
prescripts  of  the  law,  especially  concerning  the 
sabbath.  The  number  of  his  followers  was 
probably  never  great ;  but  the  sect  lived  on,  never- 
theless, down  into  the  sixth  century.  Theophi- 
lus,  a  Persian,  wrote  against  them  in  the  fourth 
century  (Assem.  :  Bibl.  Orioit.,  I.  42)  ;  and  in 
588  the  Samaritans  and  Dositheans  disputed  in 
Egypt  about  Deut.  xviii.  18  (Photius  :  Bibloth. 
Cod.,  230).  [Cf.  Smith  and  Wace:  Diet.  Chr. 
Bioy.,  S.V.]  G.  UHLHORN. 

DOUAI,  or  DOUAY,  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Le  Nord,  on  the  Scarpe ;  grew  gradu- 
ally during  the  middle  ages  into  a  place  of  some 
commercial  and  industrial  importance  under  the 
sway  of  the  counts  of  Flanders ;  passed  after- 
wards into  the  possession  of  the  dukes  of  Bur- 
gundy ;  fell  then  as  an  inheritance  to  the  crown 
of  Spain,  and  was  in  1667  conquered  by  France. 
In  1568  William  Allan  founded  there  a  college,  or 
"  seminaire,"  for  the  education  of  Roman-Catholie 
priests  destined  for  the  English  mission.  Though 
supported  only  by  private  subscription,  it  flour- 
ished.    In  a  short  time  it  had  a  hundred  and  fifty 


DOVE. 


664 


D'OTLY. 


scholars  and  ten  professors.  But  it  made  the 
town  the  headquarters  of  the  Roman-Catholic 
Englishmen  living  on  the  Continent,  and  tlie  hot- 
bed of  all  their  intrigues.  Campian  and  his  col- 
leagues, Sherwin  and  Criant,  came  from  Douay. 
This  gave  rise  to  great  disturbances ;  and,  after  a 
Huguenot  riot,  the  college  was  compelled  to  move 
(157S),  but  found  an  asylum  at  Kheims,  under 
the  protection  of  the  Diike  of  Guise.  In  1593, 
however,  the  college  returned  to  Douay ;  and  in 
1602  the  Old  Testament  of  the  so-called  Douay 
Bible  was  issued  there.  See  T.  F.  Knox  :  The 
First  and  Secotjd  Diaries  of  the  English  College, 
Douai,  and  an  Appendix  of  Unpublished  Documents. 
With  an  Historical  Introduction,  London,  1878.  On 
the  Douay  version,  see  English  Bible  Veusions. 

DOVE.  More  than  fifty  times  this  bu'd  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible ;  and  it  is  the  only  one  that 
could  be  offered  in  sacrifice,  and  was  usually 
selected  for  that  purpose  by  the  less  wealthy 
(Lev.  V.  7,  xii.  6 ;  Luke  ii.  24)  ;  and,  to  supply  the 
demand  for  it,  dealers  in  this  kmd  of  birds  sat 
about  the  precincts  of  the  temple  (Matt.  xxi.  12, 
etc.).  The  raising  of  doves  was  from  an  early 
day  a  pursuit  peculiar  to  the  Jews  (Isa.  Ix.  S)  ; 
although  there  were  also  many  wild  doves  in  Pal- 
estine (Ezek.  vii.  16),  which  built  their  nests  in 
clefts  of  the  rocks  (Jer.  xlviii.  28 ;  Cant.  ii.  1-i), 
or  at  least  sought  a  refuge  there  when  chased 
(Ps.  xi.  1).  The  flight  of  the  dove  was  employed 
by  the  poet  as  a  figm'e  of  swiftness  (Ps.  Iv.  6 ; 
IIos.  xi.  11;  Isa.  be.  8).  In  songs  of  love,  the 
eyes  of  the  beloved,  as  expressive  of  attachment 
and  of  innocence,  are  compared  with  those  of  the 
<love  (Cant.  i.  15,  iv.  1).  The  voice  of  the  dove 
is  represented  by  the  poets  as  a  sigh,  as  an  expres- 
sion of  sorrow  (Isa.  xxxviii.  14,  lix.  11 ;  Xali.  ii. 
7).  To  tlie  white  and  glimmering  phunage  refer- 
ence is  made  in  Ps.  Ixviii.  13.  The  dove  was  the 
harbinger  of  reconciliation  with  God  (Gen.  viii.  8, 
10  sqq.),  and  is  frequently  mentioned  as  the  em- 
blem of  purity  and  innocence  (Matt.  x.  16).  In 
Christian  art  the  dove  is  employed  as  the  emblem 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  (cf.  John  i.32).     '   B.  PICK. 

DOW,  Lorenzo,  an  eccentric  Methodist  preacher; 
b.  at  Coventry,  Conn.,  Oct.  16, 1777  ;  d.  at  George- 
town, D.C.,  i"eb.  2,  1834.  He  began  itinerating 
in  1708,  but  was  dropped  by  his  conference  shortly 
after,  and  never  joined  any  other,  although  in 
doctrine  and  practice  lie  was  a  Methodist.  He 
travelled  and  preaclicd  through  England  and  Ire- 
land, as  well  as  througli  the  United  States,  and 
introduced  canip-mcetings  into  England.  His 
eccentricity  ehowed  itselt  in  dress  and  manners ; 
but,  although  he  was  in  consequence  called  "  crazy 
Dow,"  his  fearless  earnestness  and  native  elo- 
quence won  him  listeners  and  converts.  He  was 
a  voluminous  writer.  See  Dealings  of  God,  Man, 
and  the  Devil,  as  Exemplified  in  the  Life  ef  L.  Dow, 
withhis  lKn'/injr.?,N.Y.,  1854, new ed.,  1875;  Peck: 
Earbi  Methodism,  N.Y.,  1800. 

DOWLING.  John,  h.  in  Su.ssex,  Eng.,  May  12, 
1807;  d.  in  Xew  York,  July  4,  1878.  Ho  is  best 
known  by  liis  I/istori/  of  Romanism,  N.Y.,  1845, 
of  whicli  a  revised  pilition  ap]>eared  in  1871.  He 
was  paslor  of  the  Berean  Baptist  Church  in  New 
York  city  f<jr  niany  years. 

DOXOLOGY  ((SoJoAoyia,  glorifcalio,  gloria). 
There  are  a  greater  and  a  minor  doxology.  Tlie 
former — Doxologia  major,  Gloria  in  txcehis,  Jlijm- 


nus  Angclicus  —  consisted  originally  only  of  the 
few  words  communicated  in  Luke  ii.  14,  Gloria 
in  excelsis  Deo  el  in  terra  pax  hominibus  bona  volun- 
tatis. Early,  however,  an  addition  was  made,  first 
in  the  Greek  Church,  and  then  in  the  Latin, 
probably  due  to  Hilary,  Bishop  of  Poitiers,  who 
died  366;  and  in  the  fifth  century  the  Doxologial 
major  read  thus  :  "  Glorj'  to  God  on  high,  and  on' 
earth  peace  to  men  of  [his]  good  will.  We  praise 
Thee,  we  bless  Thee,  we  worship  Thee,  we  glorify 
Thee,  we  give  thanks  to  Thee  for  Thy  great  glory. 
O  Lord  God,  heavenly  King,  God  the  Father 
Almighty ;  O  Lord,  the  only-begotten  Son,  Jesus 
Christ;  O  Lord  God,  Lamb  of  God,  Son  of  the 
Father,  that  takest  away  the  sins  of  the  world, 
have  mercy  upon  us ;  Thou  that  takest  away  the 
sins  of  the  world,  receive  our  prayer;  Thou  that 
sittest  at  the  right  hand  of  the  Father,  have  mercy 
upon  us;  For  Thou  alone  art  holy.  Thou  only, 
Jesus  Christ,  with  the  Holy  Ghost,  art  most  high 
in  the  glory  of  God  the  Father.  Amen."  [Gloria 
iti  excelsis  Deo  et  in  terra  pax  hominibus  bonce  volun- 
tatis. Laudamus  te,  benedicimus  te,  adoramus  le, 
glorifcamus  te,  gratias  agimus  tibi  propter  magnam 
gloriam  tua/n.  Domine  Deus,  rex  coelestis,  Deus 
Pater  omnipotens ;  Do'mine,  Fill  unigenite,  Jesu 
Christe  ;  Domine  Deus,  agnus  Dei,  Filius  Patris,  qui 
tollis  peccata  mundi,  miserere  nobis :  Qui  tollis  pecca- 
ta  viutidi,  suscipe  deprecationem  noStrain ;  Qui  sedes 
ad  dexteram  Patris,  miserere  7)obis  ;  Quoniam  tu  solus 
sanctus,  tu  solus  Dominus,  tu  solus  latissimus,  Jesu 
Christe,  cum  Sancto  Spii'ilu  in  gloria  Dei  Patris. 
Amen.]  Considerable  opposition  was  made  to  this 
addition,  but  suppressed  by  the  fourth  Council  of 
Toledo,  633.  Down  to  the  twelfth  century  the 
Doxologia  major  was  used  only  by  the  bishops,  and 
by  the  priests  only  at  Easter.  In  olden  times  it 
seems  to  have  been  used  principally  at  Christmas. 
In  the  Lutheran  Church  the  Gloria  in  excelsis  was 
retained  in  its  Latin  form  for  a  long  time  as  an 
essential  element  of  the  divine  service,  and  has  been 
often  thus  used,  even  in  the  nineteenth  century. 
[It  is  a  regular  part  of  the  seiTice  in  the  Epis- 
copal Church,  but  only  in  the  English  version.] 

The  Doxologia  minor  consisted  originally  of  tlio 
simple  formula,  Gloria  Patri  et  Filio  el  Spiritui 
Sancto  in  scecula  sa:culo7-u7n,  and  the  translation 
was  left  free,  whether  "  Glory  to  the  Father  and 
the  Son  and  the  Holy  Spirit,"  or  "  Glory  to  the 
Father  in  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Spirit,"  or  "  Glory 
to  tlie  Father  through  the  Son  in  the  Holy  Spirit." 
When  the  Arians,  liowever,  intentionally  confined 
themselves  to  the  two  last  formulas,  the  Church 
forbade  them  as  heretic,  and  an  addition  was 
made;  "as  it  was  in  the  beginning,  is  now  and 
ever  sliall  be,  world  without  end  "  [_sicut  erat  in 
principio  ct  nunc  et  semper  et  in  sa;cula  steculoruml. 
At  divine  sen'ice  the  Doxologia  minor  was  used  at 
the  end  of  each  hymn  :  the  priest  intonated,  and 
the  choir  responded. 

The  term  "doxology,"  or  "doxological  formula," 
is  also  applied  to  those  passages  of  glorification 
with  whicli  a  prayer  may  end,  as,  for  instance,  iu 
Romans  xvi.  27 ;  Eph.  iii.  21 ;  and  tlie  Lord's 
Prayer  sucli  as  it  is  found  in  Matt.  vi.  13,  in  tlie 
lexlus  receptus  [also  to  the  verse  or  verses  com- 
monly sung  either  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  the 
service].  M.  IIEUOLD. 

D'OYLY,  George,  the  commentator  ;  b.  in  Lon- 
don, Oct.  31,   1778;   d.   Jan.    8,  1840.     lie  was 


DRABICIUS. 


GGC 


DREAMS. 


fellow  of  Corjiiis  Clivisti  College,  Canibridgp,  and 
rector  in  various  places.  In  eonuection  with 
Kichanl  Mant,  afterwards  Bisliop  of  Down,  lie 
edited  JVdten,  Tixplanutary  and  Pracliral,  uii  ilic 
AuOwnzfd  Version  vf  the  Bible,  taken  jirincipallij 
from  the  Most  Kminent  Writers  of  the  l.'nileil 
Church  of  Kne/land  and  Ireland,  London,  Ibll, 
3  vols.  4to,  ed.  (and  improved)  by  Bishop  IIo- 
bart,  X.Y.,  1S18,  2  vols.  4to.  The  work  has  had 
a  large  sale,  chietly  among  Episcopalians. 

DRABICIUS,  Nicol,  b.  at  Stradteiss,  Moravia, 
1585;  grew  up  in  a  community  of  liolieniian 
Brethren,  and  from  IGIG  worked  as  an  evangeli- 
cal preacher,  but  fell  out  with  the  Pi-otestaut 
clergy  of  the  neighborhood,  and  moved  in  1029 
to  Lednitz  in  Hungary,  where  he  lived  in  great 
poverty,  engrossed  by  theosophical  stiulies.  From 
February,  lG-'58,  he  jiretended  to  receive  divine 
revelations,  and  projJiesied  that  the  house  of 
Austria  should  be  overthrown  in  1057,  that  Lewis 
XIV.  should  be  made  Roman  emperor  in  lOtiO, 
that  the  Papacy  should  be  abolished,  and  the 
C'liurch  reformed,  etc.  As  his  prophecies  Ijeeame 
too  disagreeable  to  the  Austrian  Government,  lie 
was  arrested  and  executed  for  crimen  Ucsee  inajes- 
tatis,  July  17,  1G71.  His  prophecies  made  some 
impression,  however,  and  were  published  by  J.  A. 
Coraenius  in  1G57,  under  the  title  Lux  in  Tenebris. 
In  1050  they  were  republished,  in  connection 
with  other  prophecies  of  the  same  kind,  binder 
the  title  Historia  Reoelationum,  etc.  There  is  a 
third  edition  from  1665,  and  with  the  original 
title.  See  Kolku  :  Disp.  de  N.  Drabitio,  Alten- 
burg,  1791.  HAGENBACn. 

DiRACHM,  DRACHMA.     See  Momey. 

DRACONITES,  Johannes  (properly  Drach,  or 
Track,  sometimes,  also,  named  after  his  native 
city),  b.  at  Karlstadt,  1494 ;  was  appointed 
teacher  in  the  jihilosophical  faculty  at  Erfurt, 
and  canon  of  the  Church  of  St.  Severin,  but 
declared  for  Luther,  and  went  in  1523  to  Witten- 
berg. In  the  same  year  he  was  chosen  minister 
at  Miltenberg,  but  was  soon  driven  away  by  the 
Romanist  clergy  of  tlie  neighborhood,  and  re- 
turned in  1524  to  Wittenberg.  After  being  min- 
ister at  Waltershausen  for  a  few  years,  he  was 
professor  of  theology  at  Marburg  from  15:34  to 
1547,  and  at  Rostock  from  1551  to  1560.  But 
there  was  something  restless  in  the  man's  chai'ac- 
ter;  and  in  1560  he  retired  to  Wittenberg,  where 
he  died,  April  18,  1566.  He  was  a  good  Hebrew 
scholar,  and  wrote  commentaries  on  fienesis,  the 
Psalms,  (Miadiah,  Daniel,  etc.  But  his  princijial 
work  is  his  Biblia  Pentapla,  which  occupied  him 
for  many  years,  but  of  whicli  only  fragments  have 
been  published. 

DRACONTIUS,  Blossius  /Emilius,  a  Latin 
poet  who  flourished  during  the  reign  of  the 
younger  Theodosius,  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century.  He  was  probably  a  native  of  Spain. 
His  great  poem  in  heroic  verse  on  the  creation, 
Hexaemeron,  was  first  published  at  Paris,  1500, 
together  with  the  Genesis  of  Claudius  Marius  Vic- 
tor, then  at  Paris,  1610,  by  Sirmond,  together  with 
the  Opuscula  of  Eugenius  of  Toledo,  and  in  a 
version  corrected  and  enlarged  by  Eugenius, 
and  finally  at  Rome,  1791,  by  Arevali,  together 
with  the  jioem  De  Deo,  of  which  the  Hexaimeron 
evidently  is  a  fragment.  This  last  edition  is  re- 
printed ill  iliujjE :  Patrolugia,  LX.     Some  minor 


poems  by  Dracoutius  were  pnblislied  at  l^eipzig, 
187o,  by  Fried,  de  Duhii. 

DRyESEKE,  Johann  Heinrich  Bernhardt,  b.  at 
Briiiiswiik,  .Jan.  18,  1774  ;  d.  at  Potsdam.  Dec. 
8,  1849.  He  was  in  Bremen  lbl4,  and  since 
1832  Bishop  (general  supinuntendent)  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  from  which  position  he  retired  in  1843. 
Possessed  of  an  extraordinary  power  of  (eloquence 
and  a  very  impressive  j)ersoiial  appearance,  he 
became  one  of  the  most  celebrated  jiuljiit  orator.s 
of  modern  Germany,  and  was  much  admired. 
But  he  lacked  that  sharp  decision  of  character 
and  that  wide  range  of  intellect  which  alone  are 
able  to  sustain  a  fami^  under  trying  circumstances. 
He  was  educated  among  rationalists,  but  he  soon 
burst  tlie  narrow  bands  of  their  doctrines.  The 
rich  sympathy  of  his  nature  connected  him  with 
all  that  was  great  and  growing  in  his  time.  In 
1814  he  jiublished  Predii/ten  i'lher  Drutschland's 
Wiederijeburl,  3  vols.,  and  in  1817  Das  Ileiliye 
auf  der  Diihne.  He  had  an  interest  both  in  poli- 
tics and  the  theatre.  Even  his  theology  went 
thro\igh  a  considerable  development.  His  Predig- 
tcn  fur  denkende  Verehrer  Jesti,  1804-12,  5  vols., 
represents  a  Pelagian  and  merely  humanitarian 
stand-point;  but  his  Vom  Peieh  Oottcs,  1830,  3 
vols.,  shows  a  much  deeper  conception  of  the 
truths  of  Christianity.  He  was  a  brilliant  meteor 
of  his  time,  —  brilliant,  more  light  tliaii  heat, — 
a  meteor  passing  away.  THOLfCK. 

DRAGON.  In  the  apocryphal  book  Bel  and 
the  Dragon,  mention  is  made  of  the  worship  of  a 
dragon  (i.e.,  a  large  serpent)  at  Babylon.  But, 
as  we  do  not  read  elsewhere  of  such  a  thing 
among  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians,  it  has 
been  rashly  conjectured  that  this  apocryjihal  book 
was  written  in  Egypt,  where  we  know  the  sjiecies 
of  idolatry  was  common,  and  that  this  worship 
was  very  anhistorically  introduced.  But  upon 
Babylonian  inscriptions  there  is  frequent  repre- 
sentation of  gigantic  serpents,  which  plainly  had 
a  religious  meaning;  and  often  upon  Assyrian 
representations  of  sacrifices,  near  the  altar  are 
two  serpents  bound  upon  staffs.  Moreover,  Dio- 
dorus  Sioulus  (II.  9)  says  that  there  was  a  ser- 
jient  in  the  right  hand  of  Hera  in  the  Temple  of 
Bel,  and  that  Rhea  stood  near  two  large  silver 
serpents.  In  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  one  reads 
of  the  "  great  sei-pent  with  seven  heads  "  (Fried. 
Delitzsch :  Assi/rische  Sludien,  Heft  I.  p.  87). 

The  reverence  of  serpents  was  common  in  other 
Shemitic  2:ieoples,  altliougli  among  the  Phoenicians 
there  is  no  certain  trace  of  it.  Indeed,  almost 
all  peoples  have  called  serpents  "  wise ;  "  and  far 
outside  of  Shemitism  one  finds  serpent-worship. 
See  Baudissin  :  Die  Si/mlotik  der  Schlange  im 
Semitismus,  in  his  Studien  zur  semitischen  lielir/ions- 
i/eschichte.  Leipzig,  Heft  I.,  1876  (pp.  25.5-292), 
and  art.  Apokryphen  des  A.  T.,  in  Ilerzog,  2d  ed., 

vol.  i.  p.  499.  WOI.F   BAUDISSIN. 

DRAM.     See  Money. 

DREAMS,  among  the  Hebrews,  as  universally 
in  antiquity,  were  thought  to  be  of  importance, 
as  lifters  of  the  veil.  At  the  same  time  the  word 
is  used  as  a  symbol  of  total  destruction,  because 
dreams  are  usually  totally  forgotten  when  one 
awakes  (Job  xx.  8;  Ps.  Ixxiii.  20:  Isa.  xxix.  7 
sq.).  We  find  in  the  Bible  descriptions  of  dreams 
from  the  two  frequent  causes,  —  conscience  and 
fear.     Thus  from  the  latter  came  the  dreams  oi 


DRELINCOURT. 


G66 


DRESS. 


Pharaoh  and  his  chief  baker  and  butler  (Gen.  xl.); 
of  the  Midiauitish  soldiers  (Judg.  vii.  13  sqq.). 
But  these  are  not  referred  to  divine  agency, 
although  the  power  of  their  interpretation  is 
(Gen.  xl.  S,  xli.  IG;  Dan.  i.  17).  Of  dreams  from 
an  awakened  conscience  we  mention  that  of 
Abimelech  (Gen.  sx.  3)  and  of  Laban  (Gen.  xxxi. 
2S).  In  general  the  dream  corresponded  to  the 
character.  Sometimes  the  imagination  was  the 
vehicle  of  revelation,  in  which  case  imagery  indi- 
cated the  divine  will.  So  Joseph  saw  the  sheaves 
bowing  to  his  sheaf  (Gen.  xxxvii.  7),  and  Nebu- 
chadrezzar the  image  (Dan.  ii.  30  sq.). 

The  prophets  also  had  dreams,  which  are  spo- 
ken of  as,  like  Urim,  a  legitimate  way  of  finding 
out  the  future  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  6).  The  false 
prophets  particularly  depended  upon  them,  and 
hence  the  test  was  given  that  only  those  prophets 
■who  encouraged  the  people  iu  the  worship  of  God 
•were  to  be  listened  to  (Deut.  xiii.  1-5:  Jer.  xxiii. 
2.5;  Zech.  x.  2).  The  prophetic  gift  was  also 
called  forth  in  the  interpretation  of  dreams :  so 
Joseph,  and  particularly  Daniel.  Joseplius  re- 
lates the  prophetic  dreams  of  Archelaus  and  his 
wife  Glaphyra,  and  how  the  first  was  interpreted 
by  Simon  the  Essene  (Aiilicj.,  XVII.  13,  3,  4). 
He  likewise  claims  to  have  himself  received  pro- 
phetic dreams  (War,  III.  8,  3).  —  [Dreams  have 
been  vehicles  of  divine  revelation,  but  as  such 
always  inferior  to  visions.  The  greater  number 
of  such  dreams  recorded  in  the  Bible  "  were 
granted  to  those  who  were  aliens  to  the  Jewish 
covenant;  and,  where  dreams  are  recorded  as 
means  of  God's  revelation  to  his  chosen  servants, 
they  are  almost  always  referred  to  the  periods  of 
their  earliest  and  most  imperfect  knowledge  of 
him."  See  Fr.vxz  Dklitzscu:  A  iii/slem  of  Bib. 
Psychol.,  Edin.,  1867,2ded.,Ger.  orig.,Leip.,  1861.] 

Also  art.  Vi.sIO.NS.       L.   DIESTEL   (Ilerzog.  cd.  I.). 

DRELINCOURT,  Charles,  b.  at  Sedan,  July 
10,  15!l.j;  d.  in  Paris,  Nov.  3,1669;  was  educated 
at  Sedan  and  Sauinur,  and  was  pastor  of  the 
Reformed  Churcli  of  Charenton,  near  Paris,  from 
1620  to  his  deatli.  He  was  a  very  prolific  writer; 
and  two  of  his  works  achieved  quite  an  extraor- 
dinary success  :  Consoldlions  de  fame  fidcli:  contrc 
les  J'r<ujeurs  de  la  mort,  whicli  was  rejirinted  in 
more  than  forty  editions  (the  last  of  1810),  and 
translated  into  .several  foreign  tongues.  In  Eng- 
lish it  appeared  under  the  title,  T/ie  C/irislitni's 
Uefence  ar/ninst  the  Fears  of  Death,  anil  to  wliich 
De  Foe  wrote  (1705)  his  famous  Introduction, 
A  True  Ilelatiiiu  of  the  Apparilinn  <f  Mrs.  Veal 
after  her  Death  to  Mrs.  Bari/rare,  in  whicli  the  dead 
lady  recommended  Drelinconrt'.s  book.  This  in- 
genious advertisement  of  the  book  i,<  said  to  have 
greatly  lielpiMl  its  sali!  (Pith  ed.  1732);  for,  if  the 
righteous  cli-ad  approved  of  it,  surely  the  living 
might  read  it  with  profit.  Drelincoiu't  wrote  also 
VUites  charitahlfs,  which  was  reprinted  several 
times,  variously  iu  5  or  3  or  2  vols.,  and  trans- 
lated into  si'vcral  biuguages. 

DRESDEN  COUNCIL.     Sec  Piiii.ii-pisr.s. 

DRESS  OF  THE  HEBREWS.     .Se  Clothing 

AM)    OK.NAMKN  rs    AMil.Nci     IIIK    IIkhkkws. 

DRESS  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIANS.   There 

never  h;is  \fi'\\  a  iiarticular  Christian  costume, 
The  early  Christians,  both  clergy  and  laity. 
dressed  like  their  I'agan  neiglilmrs,  and  .according 
to  thuir  station.     'I'h<;  Epistle  of  .James  testifies 


to  great  inequality  in  this  respect,  even  in  the 
assemblies  conducted  by  the  apostles  themselves. 
James  does  not  blame  the  rich  man  for  wearing 
the  "fine"  clothing  any  more  than  he  commends 
the  poor  man  for  his  "vile"  clothing;  but  he 
does  blame  those  who  paid  respect  to  a  man 
in  proportion  to  the  value  of  his  clothes.  The 
virtues  of  humility  and  modesty  conflict  with 
extravagance  in  dress,  and  therefore  the  latter 
has  alw.ays  been  recognized  as  unbecoming  a 
Christian.  Some  of  the  exhortations  savor,  how- 
ever, too  much  of  asceticism.  Tints  Clement 
OF  Alexandria  (close  of  second  century)  would 
have  his  hearers  not  only  eschew  ornaments, 
silks,  all  embroidered  and  dj'ed  goods,  partic- 
ularly purple,  but  have  the  men  and  women  dress 
precisely  alike  {Stromata,  ii.  10,  C.  in  Ante-Nicene 
Lihrari/,  vol.  i.  pp.  25.5-263).  More  stringent  are 
the  demands  of  Tertullian  (d.  about  245),  who 
inveighs  against  either  sex  wearing  gold,  jewels, 
or  dyed  garments,  or  having  the  hair  elaborately 
dressed,  or  in  any  way  making  a  show.  The 
Christian,  he  claims,  should  be  modest  and  hum- 
ble, and  not  only  be  so,  but  seem  so.  Then  fol- 
lows this  striking  pass.age  :  "  Such  delicacies  as 
tend  by  their  softness  and  effeminacy  to  unman 
the  manliness  of  the  fiiith  are  to  be  discarded. 
Otherwise  I  know  not  whether  the  wrist  that 
has  been  wont  to  be  surrounded  with  the  palm- 
like bracelet  will  endure  till  it  grow  into  the 
numb  hardness  of  its  own  chain.  I  know  not 
whether  the  leg  that  has  rejoiced  in  the  anklet 
will  suffer  itself  to  be  squeezed  into  the  gyve. 
I  fear  the  neck  beset  with  pearl  and  emerald 
nooses  will  give  no  room  to  the  broadsword.  .  .  . 
Go  forth  [to  meet  the  angels]  already  arrayed  in 
the  cosmetics  and  ornaments  of  prophets  and 
apostles,  dr.awing  your  whiteness  from  simplicity, 
your  ruddy  hue  from  modesty;  painting  your 
eyes  with  bashfnluess,  and  your  mouth  with 
silence ;  implanting  in  your  ears  the  words  of 
God ;  fitting  on  your  necks  the  yoke  of  Christ " 
(De  Cultii  Feminarum,  ii.  13,  T.  in  Anie-Nicene  Li- 
brary, vol.  i.  pp.  331,  332).  To  the  same  intent, 
CvpitiAN,  in  his  intere.sting  and  forcible  treatise 
On  the  Dress  of  Virybis,  earnestly  counsels  Chris- 
tian women  to  lay  aside  all  luxury  in  dress,  all 
dyed  fabrics,  and  all  ornaments:  "For  (iod 
neither  made  the  sheep  scarlet  or  purple,  nor 
taught  the  juices  of  herbs  and  shell-fish  to  dye 
and  color  wool,  nor  arranged  necklaces  with 
stones  set  in  gold,  and  with  jiearls  distributed  in 
a  woven  series  or  numerous  cluster,  wherewith 
you  would  hide  tlie  neck  which  he  made,  that 
what  God  formed  in  man  may  be  covered,  and 
that  may  be  seen  upon  it  which  tlie  devil  \iaa 
invented"  (c.  14).  lie  is  especially  .severe  ujx)ii 
the  use  of  cosmetics  and  jiaints:  "The  work  of 
(iod,  and  his  fashioning  and  formation,  ought  in 
no  manner  to  be  a<lulterated,  cither  with  the 
application  of  yellow  color,  or  with  black  dust  or 
rouge,  or  with  any  kind  of  meilicament  wliich 
can  corrupt  the  native  lineaments"  (c.  15,  Cyprian 
in  Atite-Nieene  LIhrari/,  vol.  i.  jip.  343,  344). 

Two  strange  freaks  of  the  ascetic  spirit  were 
for  women  to  cut  off  tlieir  hair,  and  to  wc:ir  men's 
(i.e.,  monks')  clothes  (in  onler  to  show  that  for 
the  saints  there  was  no  longer  male  or  female), 
as  was  done  among  the  Eustathians.  These  were 
coudemued  by  the  synod  of  Gangra  (A.D.  370), 


DRESS. 


GG7 


DRUIDISM. 


in  canon  13,  "If  any  woman,  under  pretenco  of 
asceticism,  changes  lier  apparel,  and,  instead  of 
the  usual  women's  clothes,  wears  those  of  men, 
let  her  \n;  accursed;  "  and  in  canon  17,  "If  any 
woman,  mider  pretence  of  asceticism,  cut  off  her 
hair,  wliich  (iod  has  given  her  as  reminder  of 
her  subjection,  let  lier  be  accursed"  (llefele, 
Concilkni/escliic/ilc,  i.  §  01).  The  frequency  of 
the  denunciations  of  luxury  proves  how  common 
the  failing  was.  Indeed,  the  Chui'ch  has  never 
been  able  to  curb  this  passion. 

DRESS  OF  THE  CLERGY.     See  Vkstments. 

DREW  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY.  Drew 
Theological  Seminary  is  one  of  the  fruits  of  the 
centenary  of  American  Methodism,  which  was 
duly  commemorated  in  1866.  In  this  year  Jlr. 
Daniel  Drew  proposed  to  give  two  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  dollars  for  ministerial  education. 
The  Gibbons  property,  near  Jladison,  N..J.,  was 
purchased.  The  spacious  mansion  was  found  emi- 
nently suitable  for  the  work  of  instruction  :  two 
other  buildings  for  the  use  of  stvidents,  and  four 
homes  for  professors,  were  also  provided.  The 
grounds  of  the  seminary  comprise  a  hundred 
acres  of  land,  much  of  it  well  wooded.  It  was 
the  intention  of  jMr.  Drew  to  add  to  his  original 
gift  the  sum  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
dollars  for  endowment,  but  his  fin.ancial  reverses 
defeated  liis  plans.  Through  the  efforts  of  the 
then  president,  the  Kev.  Dr.  ,1.  F.  Hurst,  a  new 
endowment  of  three  himdred  thousand  dollars 
was  subscribed,  which  is  now  in  process  of  col- 
lection. The  number  of  students  is  at  present 
upwards  of  eighty.  Tiiere  are  five  departments 
of  study ;  viz.,  New-Testament  exegesis,  Old- 
Testament  exegesis,  practical  theology,  .system- 
atic theology,  and  historical  theology.  The  first 
president  of  the  seminary  was  the  Kev.  Dr.  John 
McClintock,  who  died  in  1870.  His  immediate 
successors,  Drs.  Foster  and  Hurst,  have  been 
elected  to  the  episcopal  office.  The  present  presi- 
dent is  Rev.  Dr.  Henry  A.  Buttz,  who  is  also  pro- 
fessor of  New-Testament  exegesis.  His  associates 
in  the  faculty  are  James  Strong,  S.T.D.,  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  exegesis;  John  Miley,  D.D., 
professor  of  systematic  theology ;  George  K. 
Crooks,  D.D.,  professor  of  historical  theology; 
Samuel  F.  Upham,  D.D.,  professor  of  practical 
theology.  The  library  contains  fifteen  thousand 
volumes.  Since  the  year  1869  the  seminary  has 
sent  out  into  the  ministry  of  the  Methodist- 
Episcopal  Church  two  hundred  and  fifty-nine 
graduates.  GEORGE  K.  CROOKS. 

DREY,  Johann  Sebastian,  b.  at  Killingen,  Oct. 
16,  1777;  d.  at  Tubingen,  Feb.  19,  ISoo;  was 
ordained  priest  in  1801,  and  appointed  professor 
of  catholic  theology  at  Ellwagen  in  ISl'J,  and  in 
1817  at  Tubingen,  from  which  position  he  retired 
in  1816.  Ilis  principal  work  is  his  ClirislUche 
Apolofietik,  Alayence,  1838—17,  3  vols.  In  connec- 
tion with  Gratz  and  Hirscher  he  founded  in  1819 
the  Thcolofjisclie  Quarlahchrift,  one  of  the  ablest 
periodicals  of  the  lioman-Catholic  Cluuxh. 

ORONTHEIM  (Norwegian  Tromlhjem;  Latin 
Nirlarosia),  the  seat  of  the  first  Christian  bishop- 
ric in  Norway,  founded  in  1020.  Norw.ay  belonged 
originally  to  the  archiepiscopal  diocese  of  Ham- 
bin'g-Breinen,  after  1104  to  that  of  Lund,  but  ob- 
tained in  1152  its  own  metropolitan,  who  resided 
in  Drontheim.    The  cathedral  of  the  city,  contain- 


ing the  shrine  of  the  patron  saint  of  tlie  country, 
•St.  Olaf,  was  one  of  the  largest  and  most  mag- 
nificent church-biuldings  in  .Scandinavia  ;  but  it 
was  never  finished.  In  the  tiiiw  of  tlii^  Kcforma- 
tion  it  was  literally  plundered.  Sliortly  after,  it 
was  struck  liy  lightning,  and  partially  liurnt  down. 
Only  the  choir  is  still  staniling.  and  in  repair. 

DROSTE  ZU  VISCHERING,  Clemens  August, 
Baron  von,  b.  at  JNlunster,  Jan.  22,  1773;  d.  there 
Oct.  10,  18-15 ;  was  consecrated  priest  in  1798, 
and  in  1807  elected  vicar-general  liy  the  chapter 
of  his  native  city.  In  1813  ho  resigned  becau.se 
he  was  oppo.sed  to  Napoleon;  but  after  the  lat- 
ter's  fall  he  again  assumed  his  ofTice,  and  adminis- 
tered the  diocese  of  Miinster  until  1820,  when  he 
formally  abdicated  on  account  of  disagreement 
with  the  Prussian  Government.  He  retired  into 
private  life  until  1835,  when  he  was  appointed 
Archbishop  of  Cologne. 

Before  being  installed,  he  .subscribed  to  the  con- 
vention concluded  between  the  govermnent  and 
the  Roman-Catholic  bishops,  but  did  not  keep  it ; 
and  when  his  pi'oceedings,  governed  by  tlie  maxim 
that  the  State  is  absolutely  subordinate  to  the 
Church,  became  too  arbitrary,  the  Prussian  Gov- 
ernment had  him  arrested  (Nov.  20,  1837).  The 
aft'air  caused  great  excitement,  mostly,  though, 
of  a  literary  character.  About  two  hundred, 
pamphlets  were  issued  pro  et  contra;  but  a  result 
was  not  arrived  at.  Droste  was  not  re-installed. 
He  was  compelled  to  choose  a  co-adjutor  ;  but  the 
Roman  priests  were  allowed  to  carry  on  a  fanatic 
agitation  among  the  people. 

The  writings  of  Droste  are  few,  and  not  re- 
markable. The  most  characteristic  of  his  stand- 
point are  Ueber  tlie  Rdigionsfreiheil  der  Katholi- 
I'en,  1817,  and  Ueher  den  Frieden  unter  der  Kirche 
und  den  Skialen,  1843.  Tlie  principal  sources  for 
the  study  of  the  whole  movement  are,  KiiEix- 
wai.d:  Ada  Hislorico-ecclesiasdca,  II.  and  HI.; 
luEx.Ki's  (Gieseler)  :  Ueber  die  ciilnische  A/ir/e- 
lerjetdieit,  Leipzig,  1838;  Commonitorium  ad  archi- 
tjjiscopnin  Cotoniensem,  Lyons,  1837;  Gorres  : 
Alhanasius,  1838;  K.  Hase:  Die  beiden  Erz- 
bischi'fe,  Leipzig,  1830. 

DROZ,  Fran9ois  Xavier  Joseph,  b.  at  Besan- 
(,on,  Oct.  31,  1773;  d.  in  Paris,  Nov.  5,  18.50; 
studied  law  in  Paris ;  served  three  years  in  the 
army  of  the  Rhine;  was  appointed  teacher  in  the 
Ecvle  Cenlrale  of  his  native  city,  and  settled  in 
1803  in  Paris,  where  he  devoted  himself  exclu- 
sively to  literature.  His  Essai  sur  Pari  d'etre 
lieureux,  Paris,  1800,  is  the  production  of  an  out- 
spoken sceptic  of  tlie  epicurean  description.  His 
I'ensces  sur  le  Christianisme,  Paris,  1842,  contains 
many  deep  and  sincere  conceptions  of  Christian 
truths,  though  strongly  tainted  with  Romanism. 
Ilis  principal  works,  however,  are  De  la  phitoso- 
phie  morale,  Paris,  1823,  and  Hisloire  de  Louis 
AT/.,  P.%ris,  1838-42,  3  vols. 

DRUIDISM  is  the  general  designation  of  the 
religion  of  the  old  Celtic  race.  The  derivation 
of  the  name  is  uncertain,  —  from  the  Greek  ipH 
"  an  oak  ;  "  or  from  the  Celtic  deru,  "  an  oak,"  and 
udd,  "  lord  ;  "  or  from  the  Celtic  de,  "  god,"  and 
roui/d,  "  speaker,"  etc.  Nor  is  our  knowledge  of 
the  doctrinal  system  and  hierarchical  organiza- 
tion of  Druidism  any  more  certain,  gathered  as  it 
is  from  stray  notices  by  Latin  and  (jreek  writers, 
beginning  with  Ca;sar,  aud  from  some  few  remi- 


DRUSES. 


668 


DRUSES. 


niscences  in  old  Irish  songs.  The  Druids  per- 
formed various  functions  in  Celtic  society-  They 
were  the  teachers  and  poets,  the  prophets  and  sor- 
cerers, the  judges  and  priests,  of  the  people.  Ac- 
cording to  function  they  were  divided  into  classes, 
—  bards,  vates.  and  druids  proper,  of  wliich  the 
last  class  ranked  first.  The  dark  oak-groves  were 
their  temples ;  and  there  reigned  not  ovdy  mystical 
wisdom,  but  also  abominable  savagery.  Iluman 
sacrifices  were  oftered  up  with  peculiar  cruelty. 
Of  an  equally  mixed  character  was  their  doctrinal 
system :  it  was  based  upon  faith  in  one  supreme 
being.  But  this  monotheism  of  an  Oriental  de- 
scription was  siugularl}'  blended  with  wild  poly- 
theism and  stupid  superstition,  belief  in  Hesus, 
Tentates,  the  misteltoe,  the  snake-egg,  etc.  The 
conflict  between  Druidism  and  Christianity  seems 
to  have  been  long  and  very  severe,  but  very  little 
is  known  with  certainty  about  the  matter. 

Lit.  —  Toland:  Critical  HiMoi-y  of  the  Celtic 
Religion,  in  a  collection  of  his  essays,  London, 
1726,  2  vols. ;  Pelloi'TIER  :  Histoire  iles  Celles, 
Paris,  1740-50,  2  vols.;  Stukei.ey:  Slonehciu/e, 
London,  1740,  and  Ahuri/,  London.  174;$;  Frick  : 
Commentalio  de  Dniidis,  I'hn,  1744  ;  Davies  :  .1///- 
tlioloffi/  and  Rites  nf  the  British  Druids,  London, 
1809;  Thierry:  Histoire  des  (ro «/(//.<,  Paris.  1828  ; 
Barth  :  Ueber  die  Dniiilen  der  Kellcn.  Eriangen, 
1828;  HiGGi.vs:  Celtic  Druiils,  London,  1829; 
Reynaud:  L'Esprit  de  la  Gaule,  Paris,  1800; 
F.  Ferk  :  Ueber  Druidisinus  in  Noricum  mit  RiicL- 
sicht  ■  auf  die  Stellung  der  Gescliichlsforschung  zur 
Keltenfrage,  Graz,  1877  (50  pp.);  .Tdiin  Eliot 
lIo\v.\Ri):  The  Druids  and  their  Religion,  London, 
n.  d.  (S.  Bagster  &  Sons). 

DRUSES.  Occupying  the  western  slope  of  the 
Lebanon  and  the  whole  .\ntilebanon,  from  Bey- 
rout  in  tlie  north  to  Sur  or  TjTe  in  tlie  south, 
and  from  the  Mediterranean  in  the  west  to 
Damascus  in  the  ea.st,  there  lives  under  Turki.sh 
supremacy,  but  enjoying  a  considerable  measure 
of  political  freedom,  a  peculiar  people,  the 
Druses,  whose  religion  is  as  mysterious  and  per- 
plexing as  is  their  ethnography.  The  name 
Druse,  or  more  properly  Dnrns,  is  probably  de- 
rived from  Darasi,  the  founder,  or  one  of  the 
founders,  of  their  religion ;  but  they  themselves 
derive  it  from  an  Arab  verb  (^darisa),  to  which 
they  ascribe  v.arious  fanciful  meanings.  Refer- 
ring to  their  religion,  tliey  call  themselves  Miiirah- 
hidnn  ("Unitarians"),  and  their  creed  Tuuliid 
("  Unitarianisni  ").  'I'hey  have  also  some  .settle- 
ments east  of  Palestine,  in  the  Hauran  (tlie  Au- 
ranitis  of  (ireek  writers),  and  at  .Safed  in  I'ales- 
tine  Proper;  and  they  number  about  .seventy 
thousand  men,  not  reckoning  women  and  chil- 
dren. A  number  of  Cryplo-Dru.ses  (that  is, 
nru,ses  according  to  religion,  but  not  according 
to  descent)  a.rv,  said  to  live  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Cairo,  where  their  religion  first  originated. 
The  Druses  ]iro]>er,  tbe  mountaineers  of  the 
Li'banoM  and  .\ntilebaMon,  are  probably,  like  the 
Maronites  with  wlioni  tliey  live  in  close  contact, 
descendants  of  the  olil  .'lyrians.  The  report  that 
they  descend  from  a  French  colony  settled  in  the 
Li'banon  during  the  crusade  by  a  certain  Count 
Dreux,  is  ;i  mere  fiction. 

The  creed  of  the  Dru.ses  is  a  child  of  Moliani- 
incdanism  ;  but  in  some  of  its  fundami'ulal  and 
most  characteristic  tenets   it  completely  repudi- 


ates the  very  spirit  and  essence  of  the  mother- 
creed,  and  approaches  Christianity.  Its  origin 
must  be  .sought  for  among  the  Shiites.  the  great 
antagonists  of  the  .Sunnites,  and  more  esjtecially 
among  the  Batiniya,  or  Batenians,  one  of  the 
most  radical  sects  of  the  .Shiites.  The  Batiniya 
interpret  the  Koran  on  the  principle  that  every 
exterior  must  have  a  corresponding  interior  ; 
that,  consequently,  every  pas.sage  of  the  Koran 
must  have  behind  its  plain  grammatical  sense  a 
deeper,  occult,  allegorical  meaning.  This  princi- 
ple was  by  one  grouji  of  the  Batiniya  (the  Kara- 
mita,  or  Karamatians)  actually  u.sed  as  a  means 
to  destroy  all  faith  in  a  divine  revelation,  and 
led  finally  to  absolute  materialism  and  atheism. 
The  furtiier  step  taken  by  the  Druses,  and  which 
brought  them  not  oidy  out  of  Mohammedanism, 
but  in  eonrtict  with  it,  was  their  doctrine  of  in- 
carnation. There  is  no  god  but  God.  they  say 
with  the  Jloluinnnedans,  and  he  is  mdcnowable 
to  nuin :  .senses  cannot  gra.sp  liim,  woi'ds  not 
define  him.  But  he  has  revealed  himself  to  man, 
they  add,  by  taking  upon  himself  the  form  of 
nuvn,  by  incarnation  (an  idea  which  to  a  Moham- 
medan is  utter  abomination) ;  and  the  last  of 
these  incarnations  which  has  taken  place,  and 
ever  will  take  place,  is  that  of  Hakim  Biamrillahi 
(caliph  from  1019  to  1044),  the  sixth  of  the 
Fatimides.  In  1040  he  first  claimed  publicly,  in 
the  mosque  of  Cairo,  to  be  the  incarnated  (iod; 
and  with  that  year  begins  the  era  of  the  Dru.ses. 

Hakim,  who  on  his  accession  to  tlie  throne- 
assumed  the  surname  of  Biamrillahi  (that  is,  he 
who  judges  by  the  command  of  God),  was  a 
cruel  and  half-crazy  tyrant,  yielding  without 
restraint  to  the  freaks  of  a  diseased  mind,  an 
object  of  terror  and  scorn  to  his  own  people. 
Dviring  the  twenty-five  years  of  his  reign  he  suc- 
ceeded in  killing  about  eighteen  thousand  men. 
He  hated  the  Christians  and  the  Jews,  and 
ordered  them  to  be  marked  off,  so  as  not  to  be 
mistaken  for  Mohannnedans  :  the  Christians  with 
blue  clothes,  the  Jews  with  black;  the  Christians 
with  a  cross  three  feet  long,  and  weighing  five 
pounds;  the  Jews  with  a  heavy  wooden  club,  etc. 
About  thirty  thousand  Christian  churches  and 
monasteries  were  destroyed  in  Egypt  and  Syria 
by  his  commands.  One  little  trait  is  very  cliarac- 
teristic  of  this  man,  who  became  the  god  of  the 
Druses.  The  ladies  of  Cairo  gave  liim  offence 
by  their  extravagance  an<l  luxury.  .Suddenly  he 
ordered,  that,  under  ])enalty  of  death,  no  woman 
.should  show  her.self  in  the  streets,  or  even  look 
out  of  the  doors  and  windows.  'l"he  effect  of 
this  order  was  that  many  women  wlio  luid  none 
to  take  care  of  them  ilied  of  starvation.  Hakim 
belonged  (o  tlie  Batiniya,  and  was  very  anxious 
for  the  jpiopagation  of  their  doctrines.  But  h(^ 
had  a  fuither  ]iurpose  of  his  own.  In  1040  his 
favorite,  Isma<'l  Darasi,  a  Persian  by  birth,  sud- 
denly a]i]ieared  in  the  mosque  of  Cairo,  and 
began  to  ex]i<umd  to  the  astonished  audience  that 
Hakim  was  .Vllali  incarnated.  Peojile  were  very 
indignant.  A  riot  ensued,  an<l  lasted  for  .sevi-ral 
(lays.  Hakim  dared  not  defeiul  Darasi,  who  fied 
to  Damascus,  where  he  soon  aftei-  began  lo  preach 
his  new  doctrines  among  the  mountaineers  of 
the  Lebanon,  .\nolher  attemjil,  by  Haidara  Fer- 
i  gani.  to  get  the  divinity  of  llakini  n'cognized. 
I  failed  as  signally.     Finally,  however,  Haiusa  sue- 


DRUSILLA. 


6G0 


DU  BARTAS. 


•ceeded  in  managing  the  affair.  lie  was  also  a 
Persian  by  birlli,  ami  liv('<l  at  a  niosqne  just  out- 
side; of  Cairo.  But  lie  was  shrewd  and  cautious. 
lie  gatliered  discij^les  in  a  (jidet  way,  and  sent 
them  out  as  ud.ssionaries.  Preparations  were 
made  also  in  otlicr  ways.  Ilaliim  eeased  to  Jiray 
in  tlie  mosque,  sent  no  jjre.senls  to  the  Kaaba, 
]irevented  people  from  pilgrimizing  to  Meeea,  ete. 
Ill  spite,  however,  of  tiie  caution  of  the  leaders,  a 
new  revolt  broke  out.  Ilamsa's  hon.se  was  plun- 
dered and  torn  down,  and  lie  liiiii.self  was  saved 
only  with  great  difficulty.  The  ujiroar  was  finally 
suppressed;  but  the  fanaticism  of  tlie  orthodox 
had  been  rou-sed  to  such  a  pitch,  that  .shortly 
after  (1044)  Hakim  was  mysteriously  killed. 

Meanwhile  Darasi  had  labored  witli  great  suc- 
cess among  tlie  Dru.ses.  His  ea.'y  morals  (cha.s- 
tity  was  not  enjoined,  drunkenness  was  not  pjro- 
hibited),  and  also  his  liberality  with  money,  drew 
much  people  to  him ;  but  he  was  finally  rejected 
by  his  own  party.  A  disagreement  arose  between 
him  and  Hainsa,  and  he  was  assassinated.  Ham- 
sa  became  the  real  founder  of  tlie  new  religion, 
at  least  so  far  as  regards  its  theoretical  or  doc- 
trinal foundation.  After  his  banishment  from 
Egypt  he  developed  a  great  activity  as  a  writer. 
Later  on,  Behaeddin,  or  Moctana,  also  acquired 
great  celebrity  as  an  author.  His  books  circu- 
lated from  Calcutta  to  Constantinople.  One  of 
them  was  addressed  to  Constantine  VIII. ;  another, 
to  Michael  the  Paphlagonian.  But  the  later  his- 
tory of  the  sect  is  very  obscure.  Professing 
IMohammedanism  externally,  the  Druses  kept  for 
ii  long  time  their  sacred  books  and  their  religious 
rites  a  deep  seci-et ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century  tliat  any  thing 
certain  became  known  about  them  outside  of 
tlieir  own  people.  — For  their  wars  with  the  Jla- 
ronites,  .see  JIaroxite.s. 

Lit.  —  ApLKK  :  Druse  Catechism,  in  Museum 
Cuficum  Burjianum,  178:.' ;  and  tlie  same  work, 
edited  and  translated  by  Eichhorn,  in  Reperlori- 
vut  f.  h'M.  und  mori/cnld.  Lhteratur ;  Vkntvi!e: 
Historical  Memoir  on  the  Druses,  as  an  appendix 
to  the  Memoirs  of  Baron  de  Totle,  London,  1786 ; 
SiLVESTRE  DE  Sacy  :  Expose'  de  la  Religion  des 
Druses,  Paris,  1828  (the  princijial  work  on  the 
subject,  containing  large  extracts  from  tlie  works 
of  llamsa,  Behaeddin,  etc.) ;  Pli.  Wolfi"  :  Die 
Drusen  und  Hire  Vorlaufcr,  1842;  Churchill: 
Ten  Years'  Residence  in  Mount  Lebanon,  London, 
18.j3,  3  vols.,  and  Tlie  Druses  and  Maronites  under 
the  Turkish  Rule  from  18^0  to  1860,  London,  1802; 
E.'VRL  OK  C'.\i:n.\rvox  :  Recollections  of  the  Druses 
of  the  Zeit/noH,  Loudon,  18G0;  II.  Guys:  La  tlic- 
Of/onic  des  Druses,  Paris,  1863,  and  La  nation 
Druse,  Paris,  1804.  A.  G.  HOFFMAXN. 

DRUSILLA,  a  daughter  of  llerod  Agrippa  I., 
and  sister  to  Herod  Agrippa  II.;  was  first  mar- 
ried to  Azizus,  King  of  Emesa,  from  whom  she 
"was  divorced,  and  afterwards  to  Felix,  pirocurator 
of  Judsea.  She  was  present  at  Cfesarea,  where 
Paul  was  brought  before  Felix,  and  preached  to 
him  (Acts  xxiv.  24).  According  to  Josejjhus 
(Ant.,  XX.  7,  2),  she  perished  in  the  eruption 
of  Vesuvius  (79  A.D.),  together  with  her  son 
Agrippa. 

DRUSIUS,  Johannes  (Jan  van  der  Driesche), 
b.  at  Oudenaarde,  June  28.  1.").50;  d.  at  Franecker, 
J)'eb.  12,  1616;  was  educated  at  Ghent,  Louvain, 


and  Cambridge,  whither  his  father  went  when  ho 
was  banished,  for  religious  reasons,  from  llio  X(;th- 
erlands,  1567.  In  Camln-idgo  he  .studied  Hebrew 
under  Cevallier,  and  in  1572  lie  was  liimself  made 
professor  in  Hebrew  at  Oxford.  After  the  peace 
of  (Jhent  (1576)  he  returned  to  his  native;  coun- 
try, and  was  maile  jirofessor  of  Hebrew  at  Leyden 
in  1577,  and  at  Franeek(;r  in  1585.  It  was  his 
principle  never  to  allow  the  dogmatical  contro- 
versies of  his  time  to  liave  any  influence  on  tlic 
result  of  his  scientific  re.searclies ;  but  this  prin- 
cijilc;  was  often  misunderstood.  He  was  consid- 
ered an  nnde(;ided  and  vacillating  character,  and 
attacked  from  different  sides.  Xevertliele.ss,  by 
his  vast  learning  and  great  ability,  he  drew  many 
students  from  luigland,  Germany,  and  Denmark 
to  his  lecture-room,  and  contrilmted  much  to 
brhig  the  Dutch  universities  into  a  fiourishing  con- 
dition. His  principal  work  is  his  annotations  to 
the  Old  Testament,  incor]iorated  with  the  Critica 
Sacra.  Detailed  information  of  his  life  and  writ- 
ings is  found  in  his  Vita,  by  his  sou-in-law  Abel 
Curiander,  Franecker,  161G.  .See  Diestkl  :  Ge- 
schichle  d.  Altcn  Testaments  in  d.  christlichcn  Kirclie, 
Jena,  1860,  pp.  317-555.  E.  BERTIIEAU. 

DRUTHNIAR,  Christian,  a  learned  monk  in 
the  first  half  of  the  ninth  century;  was  b.  in 
Aquitania,  and  taught,  first  in  Corbie,  and  after- 
wards in  Stablo,  in  the  dioce.se  of  Liege.  In 
Stablo  he  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Gospel  of 
St.  Matthew,  distinguished  for  its  clearness,  and 
remarkable  on  account  of  tlie  emphasis  it  lays  upon 
the  historical  .sense  as  that  which  must  be  studied 
first,  and  never  be  lost  sight  of.  This  cominen- 
taiy  was  published  by  Secer,  Ilagenau,  1530;  and 
Secer's  text  was  incorporated  witli  the  Bihl.  Patr., 
Cologne  (Tom.  IX.),  and  the  31.  Bihl.  Patr., 
Lyons  (Tom.  XV.).  It  was  to  be  expected,  how- 
ever, the  exegetioal  principle  of  the  author  would 
lead  him  to  reject  the  doctrine  of  Paschasius 
Radbertus  concerning  the  transmutation  of  the 
elements  of  the  Lord's  Supper ;  and,  indeed,  the 
commentary  contains  passages  which  flatly  con- 
tradict the  Roman-Catholic  doctrine  of  transub- 
stantiation.  Roman-Catliolic  theologians,  there- 
fore, prefer  another  text,  by  a  Franciscan  monk, 
Sixtus  of  Siena,  in  which  the  pas.sages  in  question 
occur  in  a  wording  just  diiferent  enough  to  make 
the  contradiction  disappear.  UERZOG. 

DRYANDER.     See  Enzinas,  Francisco  de. 

DUALISM  forms  the  opposite  to  monism. 
AVhile  monism  dissolves  all  differences  and  con- 
trasts into  a  final  unity,  —  the  absolute  idea  of  the 
Hegelian  school,  the  indestructible  matter  of  the 
present  English  school,  —  according  to  dualism 
existence  itself  is  based  on  a  contrariety  which 
appears  in  pliilosophy  as  spirit  and  matter,  in 
theology  as  God  and  the  world,  in  p.sychology  as 
soul  and  hoAy,  and  in  morals  as  good  and  evil. 
The  crudest  forms  of  dualism  occur  in  certain 
Christian  heresies,  establishing  tlie  contrarieties 
as  eternal  principles;  of  monism,  in  certain  phases 
of  modern  materialism,  reducing  even  the  moral 
differences  into  illusions. 

DU  BARTAS,  Guillaume  Salluste,  b.  at  Mont- 
fort,  in  tlie  department  of  Gers,  1544 ;  served  in 
the  Huguenot  army ;  undertook  several  missions 
to  foreign  Protestant  courts,  and  received  in  the 
battle  of  Ivry,  March  14,  15!;0,  a  severe  wound,  of 
^^hich  ho  died  in  the  follov.ing  July.    His  poem  on 


DUBOSC. 


670 


DU  CANGE. 


the  creation.  La  premiere  semalne,  made  a  deep  im- 
pression, and  represents  tlie  Puritan  movement  of 

religion,  just  as  Konsard  represents  tlie  sceptical. 
In  15Si  lie  published  La  sccumle  stmaine,  an  epic 
destined  to  comprise  the  whole  period  from  the 
creation  to  the  revelation  in  Christ,  but  unfin- 
ished. There  is  a  collected  edition  of  his  works 
from  1G29.  His  WeeLs  were  translated  into  Eng- 
lish bv.I.  Svlvester,  l.ondon,  1641. 

DUBOSC,  Pierre,  b.  at  Bayenx,  Feb.  21,  1623; 
studied  theology  at  Montauban  and  Saunuir ;  be- 
came minister  of  the  Reformed  Congregation  of 
Caen  in  1615 ;  was  banished  from  France  in  1685, 
and  settled  at  Rotterdam,  where  he  died  Jan.  2, 
1692.  lie  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  pulpit- 
orators  of  his  time,  and  among  the  first  to  aban- 
don the  old  dry  doctrinal  exposition,  and  employ 
illustrations  and  rhetorical  lan"uage  to  make  the 
Christian  truths  impress  the  neart  and  the  im- 
agination. Two  collections  of  his  sermons  ap- 
peared at  Rotterdam,  1G92,  in  2  vols.,  and  1701  in 
4  vols.  His  son-in-law,  Legendre,  wrote  his  life, 
Rotterdam,  1691;  enlarged  edition,  1716. 

DUBOURC,  Anne,  b.  at  Rioni,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  I'uy  de  Dome,  1531;  burnt  at  the  stake 
in  Paris,  Dec.  23, 1559;  was  professor  of  civil  law 
in  the  University  of  Orleans,  when,  in  1557,  he 
was  appointed  consclller-tierc  to  the  Parliament  of 
Paris.  In  his  father's  house  he  became  acquainted 
with  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation ;  and,  as  he 
was  conscientious,  he  made  a  deep  study  of  the 
Scriptures,  the  fathers,  and  the  early  church- 
history,  before  he  undertook  to  decide  upon  the 
question.  He  had  not  embraced  the  Reformation, 
however,  when  he  was  called  to  Paris.  But  he 
lieard  mass  for  the  last  time,  Easter,  1558;  and 
shortly  after  lie  began  to  frequent  the  meetings 
of  the  Reformed  Congregation  in  Paris.  In  the 
Parliament  most  of  the  younger  members  inclined 
towards  the  Reformation  ;  and  of  the  older  mem- 
bers some  of  the  most  prominent,  as,  for  instance, 
the  president  Ilarlay,  Seguier,  etc.,  were  in  favor 
of  very  mild  proceedings  against  the  so-called 
heretics.  There  was,  liowever,  another  party  in 
the  Parliament, — a  party  of  fanatical  Romanists, 
—  led  by  Minard,  Le  Maistre,  and  St.  Andre ;  and  a 
conflict  was  not  slow  in  arising.  In  the  Gninilc 
Cliiimbre,  —  that  division  of  the  Parliament  in 
which  the  civil  affairs  of  the  king,  the  crown,  the 
university,  etc.,  were  treated,  —  the  Romanists  had 
llie  majority;  whik;  the  friends  of  the  Reforma- 
tion had  the  majority  in  the  Clirunlire  ile  la  Tour- 
iiellc,  —  that  division  to  which  all  criminal  matters 
belonged.  In  the  spring  of  1559  tlie  Cliamhre  ilc 
la  Tournelle  condemned  four  citizens  of  Toulou.se, 
who  were  accu.sed  of  rejecting  the  doctrine  of 
Iransub.stantiation,  to  bani.shment;  while  at  the 
same  time,  the  Granite  Chaiiihre  condemned  a 
jpoor  vine-dre.sser,  Pierre  Chenet,  to  the  stake  for 
the  same  crime.  In  order  to  reconcile  tliis  di.s- 
crepancy,  the  procurator-general,  liourdin,  con- 
voked a  Mercuriide ;  that  is,  a  plenary  a-ssembly 
of  all  the  divisions  of  the  Parliament,  thus  called 
because  it  always  convened  on  ^\'(■dnesday,  — 
Dies  Mercurii.  From  the  protracted  and  bitter 
debate,  it  was  evident  that  the  friends  of  the 
Reformation  wenr  in  the  majority;  and  the  Ro- 
manists then  addressed  themselves  directly  to  the 
king,  Ili-iiry  II.  The  king  aiii)eared  ]«'rsonally 
in  the  Parliament,  at  the  liead  of  an   imposing 


escort,  and  reproached  it  for  the  lukewannneBS 
it  showed  with  respect  to  the  Chm-ch.  Dnbourg 
spoke  immediately  after  the  king,  and  spoke  with 
great  openness  and  eloquence  ;  but  the  king 
became  so  provoked  that  he  immediately  ordered 
Dubourg  arrested.  Legally,  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment could  be  judged  only  by  tlie  Parliament 
itself.  Xevertheless,  the  king  appointed  a  com- 
mittee to  investigate  the  case  of  Dubourg,  and 
the  committee  consisted  of  the  most  enraged 
Romanists.  Dubourg  appealed  successively  ii 
the  archbishops  of  Paris,  Sens,  and  Lyons;  but 
the  appeals  were  not  accepted.  An  appeal  to  the 
Pope  was  still  possible ;  but  Dubourg  refused  to 
have  any  thing  to  do  with  "Antichrist."  The 
death  of  Henry  II.,  July  10,  1559,  only  made  the 
situation  .still  more  desperate;  as,  by  the  accession 
of  Francis  II.,  the  (Juises  came  into  power.  It 
was  evident  that  the  life  of  Dubourg  was  wanted. 
All  exertions  of  his  friends,  Coligny,  the  elector 
Friedrich  HI.,  of  the  palatinate,  etc.,  were  in 
vain.  For  a  moment  Dubourg  wavered.  The 
first  confession  he  presented  was  ambiguous,  and 
was  considered  as  a  surrender  by  the  Romanists  ; 
but  he  soon  recovered,  and  the  confession  which 
he  finally  gave  in,  and  which  has  often  been 
printed,  is  a  masterpiece  of  clearness,  precision, 
and  completeness.  Dec.  21  the  verdict  was  given, 
and  two  days  afterwards  the  execution  followed. 
See  La  vraye  histoire  conlenant  I'iiiiijue  juijcmcnl  et 
fausse  procedure  contre  Anne  Dahoury,  Anvers, 
1561,  reprinted  in  the  Mcnwircx  de  L'oudc,  Lon- 
don, 17-13.  TIL  srilOTT. 

DU  CANGE,  Charles  Dufresne,  Sleur,  b.  at 
Amiens,  Dec.  IS,  1610;  d.  in  Paris,  -Vug.  16, 
16S8 ;  studied  law  at  Orleans,  but  soon  abandoned 
the  juridical  career,  and  devoted  himself  exclu- 
sively to  the  study  of  the  history  of  the  middle 
ages,  living  first  at  Amiens,  afterwards  (from 
1668)  in  Paris.  He  was  a  scholar  of  the  very 
first  rank,  his  industry  equalling  his  accuracy; 
and  at  the  same  time  he  was  a  man  of  extraordi- 
nary loveliness  of  character,  modest  and  disinter- 
ested. By  his  labcn-  he  re.scued  the  liistory  of  the 
middle  ages  from  that  dense  obscurity  into  wliich 
the  Renascence  and  the  Reformation  had  thrown 
it.  His  principal  works  are  Olosnariuni  mcdice  et 
inJimiF  Lalinitali.i,  an<l  (rlossariuiu  media'  el  infimw 
Grm-ilatis.  The  former,  which  is  not  simply  a 
<lictionary  of  the  Latin  language  during  a  certain 
period,  but  an  encyclopa'dia  of  the  history,  geog- 
rapliy,  arclueology,  etc.,  of  that  period,  appeared 
first  in  Paris,  1678,  3  vols,  fob,  then  at  Frankfurt, 
11)81  and  1710,  Venice,  1733-36,  6  vols,  fol., 
OjK  ra  el  sludia  y[iinachorum  O.  S.  Bened. ;  wliich 
edition  was  ri'ininted  at  Basel,  1762,  with  a  sup- 
plement by  the  Benedictine  monk  Carpentier,  in 
■1  vols.,  1766,  of  which  an  extract  was  publisheil 
at  Halle,  1772-81,  6  vols.  ;  the  last  complete  edi 
tion,  by  Ilenschel.  <'nib(idying  the  labors  of  pre- 
vious editors,  Paris.  1840-50,  7  vols,  [new  ed. 
by  Leopold  Favre,  Xiort,  1883  .s(iq.  D;iyman 
and  Hessels's  Med.  Lai.  En;/.  Did.  has  been  given 
up].  The  (ireek  glossariuni  appeared  in  I'aris. 
l(iS8,  2  vols,  fol.'^  The  first  work  whicli  Dii 
Cangi^  published  was  his  Histoire  de  I'ein/nre 
de  Vnnslanliniijde  sous  les  enipereurs  Jhuniiis, 
I'aris.  lli.")7:  the  last,  not  appearing  until  alter 
his  death,  was  liis  edition  of  ('lironirfin  Pas- 
fh(di,    I'aiis,    1688.     Several   of   liis   works   still 


DUCHOBORTZI. 


671 


DUFF. 


remain  in  inaiiuscript.  See  LfcoN  Faickuk: 
Essai  siir  la  cie  et  les  ouvrages  dc  ])u  C(uiye,  Paris, 
1852.  IIEKZOG. 

DUCHOBORTZI,  a  sect  which  originated  in 
tlie  Knssian  Cluircli  aliout  174(1.  'I'lieir  doctrinal 
syst(Mn  is  variously  dcscrilied.  By  some  they  are 
said  to  adhere  i'aithl'nlly  to  the  concej)tions  ol'  the 
Cliristian  doctrines  whieli  the  Unssian  C'hurcli 
has  adopted ;  while  others  tell  ns  that  they  have 
developed  these  conceptions  into  a  fancifnl  mysti- 
cism, dissolving  the  idea  of  trinity  into  merely 
different  forms  of  action,  placing  the  fall  before 
the  creation,  etc.  In  their  jiractical  tenets  they 
resemble  the  Quakers.  Tliey  refuse  to  take 
oaths,  to  serve  in  the  army,  to  partake  of  the 
sacraments,  etc.  ;  and  they  reject  a  liturgically 
arranged  service,  a  sacerdotal  class,  etc.  The 
sect  arose  among  the  Molokans,  and  was  very 
severely  persecuted  by  Catherine  II.  Under 
Alexander  I.  they  were  tolerated,  and  a  settle- 
ment was  granted  the)u  near  the  Sea  of  Azov, 
whence  they  were  removed  in  18o7  to  the  Cau- 
casus. See  Lex/.  :  De  Duchoworzis  Commentaiio, 
IJorpat,  1829 ;  W.  Gass  :  Symbolik  d.  griechiscJien 
Kirche,  Berlin,  1872,  pp.  430  sqq. 

DUCHOWNY  CHRISTIANY.     SeeMoLOKANi. 

DUDITH,  Andreas,  h.  at  Buda,  1.533;  d.  at 
Breslau,  1089 ;  studied  at  Breslau  and  Verona. 
In  the  latter  place  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Reginald  Pole,  and  accompanied  him  to  England 
in  15.53,  when,  after  the  accession  of  Mary,  the 
cardinal  returned  home  as  the  legate  of  Julian 
in.  Over  Paris,  Budith  went  the  following  year 
back  to  Hungary,  and  was  made  provost  of  Felhe- 
viz.  Once  more  he  visited  Italy,  wliere  he  trans- 
lated Pole's  biography  from  the  Italian  into 
English  (Venice,  15(j3,  London,  1090) ;  and  after 
his  return  he  was  made  apostolical  prothonotary, 
count-palatme,  and  bishop  of  Tina.  In  15G2  he 
was  sent  to  the  Council  of  Trent  as  representative 
of  the  Hungarian  clergy ;  and  the  five  speeches 
he  made  there  contain  many  attacks  on  the 
Reformation,  though  he  advocated  the  use  of 
the  cup  in  the  Lord's  Supper  also  for  laymen. 
In  1565  the  Emperor  Maximilian  sent  him  on  a 
diplomatical  errand  to  King  Sigisnumd  of  Po- 
land, and  there  he  fell  passionately  in  love  with 
one  of  the  queen's  maids-of -honor.  He  resigned 
all  his  ofiices,  married  her,  and  settled  at  Smigla 
in  Bohemia:  afterwards  he  also  left  the  Roman 
Church,  and  embraced  Socmianisrn.  But,  though 
Paid  V.  put  him  under  the  ban,  both  Maximilian, 
and  after  him  Rudolf  II.,  continued  to  protect 
him  and  to  use  liini.  The  last  ten  years  of  his 
life  he  spent  in  Breslau.  His  works  were  edited 
by  Renter,  Offenbach,  IGIO ;  his  Five  Speeches 
appeared  at  Halle,  1743 ;  his  BiogTaphy  was  writ- 
ten by  Stief,  Breslau,  1756.  HERZOG. 

DUFF,  Alexander,  D.l).,  a  very  eminent  mission- 
ary in  India ;  was  born  at  the  farndiouse  of  Auch- 
nahyle,  in  Moulin,  Perthshire,  Scotland,  April  25, 
1806 ;  d.  in  Edinburgh,  Feb.  12, 1878.  He  studied 
at  the  University  of  St.  Andrews,  under  Dr.  Chal- 
mers and  others,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  the 
gospel  in  1829.  At  the  age  of  twenty-three  he  was 
appointed  first  missionary  to  India  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland.  On  his  way  to  Calcutta  he  was 
shipwrecked,  and  lost  all  his  books,  —  a  circum- 
Ptance  that  threw  him  the  more  earnestly  on 
the  divine  arm  for  support  and  guidance.     Hav- 


ing lieen  left  to  adopt  the  mode  of  aggre.ssive 
operations  which  he  deemed  most  expedient  in  the 
circumstances,  he  resolved  to  make  an  "'ducational 
institution  a  leading  feature  in  his  j)lan,  jjartly  in 
order  to  (rain  up  native  evangelists,  and  partly  to 
scatter  the  darkiu'ss  as.sociated  with  the  Hindoo 
religion.  There  was  a  ixjwerful  l>arty  in  Calcutta, 
the  old  Orienlali.sts,  who  thought  that  any  progres.s, 
intellectual  or  social,  to  be  made  in  India,  uuist  bo 
on  the  old  lines,  recognizing  the  traditions,  preju- 
dices, and  otlier  abs\u'dities  which  the  past  had 
consecrated.  Duff  looked  on  all  tliat  as  nonsense, 
and  felt  assured  that  the  Hindoo  nnnd  was  quite 
ready  to  be  carried  onward  on  the  lines  of  Western 
civilization  and  progress.  Practical  effect  was 
given  to  this  conviction  in  his  Calcutta  .school, 
which  was  conducted  on  two  great  jirinciples, — 
fii'st,  that  Christian  Scriptures  were  to  be  read  in 
every  class  able  to  read  them,  and  to  be  used  as 
tlie  foundation  and  pervading  salt  of  the  school; 
and,  .second,  that  through  the  English  language 
the  science  of  the  West  was  to  be  taught,  notwith- 
standing the  revolution  it  must  inevitaljly  cau.se 
in  many  Hindoo  notions,  including  some  of  the 
most  sacred  and  venerable  beliefs.  On  these  lines 
Duff  worked  from  the  very  beginning,  and  worked 
with  such  etTect  that  liis  school  was  extremely 
popular  among  the  natives ;  and  the  Orientalist 
party  were  placed  Iton:  de  comhai.  Quite  a  revo- 
lution, indeed,  was  effected.  At  the  same  time 
the  mission  did  not  want  for  striking  spiritual 
fruit.  Among  its  early  converts  were  a  number 
of  young  men  of  great  power  and  promise ;  and 
the  esteem  in  which  they  were  Ixeld  was  evinced  by 
the  fact  that  the  Church  Missionary  and  other  soci- 
eties got  some  of  them  as  their  agents,  and  they 
turned  out  to  be  very  u.sef  ul  in  their  work  in  India. 

Returning  liome  in  ill  health  in  1834,  Duff,  on 
recovering,  made  a  tour  through  Scotland,  and 
most  wonderfully  increased  the  interest  in  his 
mission.  His  speeches  in  the  General  Assembly 
were  wonderful  specimens  of  gushing  eloquence, 
and  made  a  profound  impression.  The  degree  of 
D.D.  was  conferred  on  him  by  the  Uiiiversity  of 
Aberdeen. 

After  his  furlough  lie  I'eturned  to  India,  and 
prosecuted  his  work.  The  disruption  of  the  Scot- 
tish Church  in  1843  was  in  one  way  a  gi"eat  trial; 
although  he  and  all  the  other  missionaries  of  the 
Church  to  both  Jew  and  Gentile  had  no  hesitation 
in  throwing  in  theii'  lot  with  the  Free  Church. 
As  the  property  of  the  mission  belonged  legally 
to  the  Establishment,  Duff  was  strijiped  of  every 
thing.  His  trust  in  God  remained  ;  and  he  was 
enabled  to  build  up  a  new  institution  from  the 
foundation,  and  equip  it  as  well  as  the  old  had 
been.  The  influence  of  his  work  continued  to 
increase.  Intere.sting  conversions  took  place.  Pub- 
lic storms  raged  whenever  a  conspicuous  youth 
was  baptized ;  but  they  passed  away,  and  it  be- 
came apparent  to  all  that  tlie  tree  which  Duff  had 
planted  was  spreading  forth  its  roots  as  Lebanon. 

In  1850  he  again  returned  home,  and  .sought  to 
rouse  the  Free  Church  to  new  and  more  energetic 
efforts  in  the  cause  of  missions.  He  was  called 
in  1851  to  the  chair  of  the  General  Assembly. 
He  also  visited  America,  under  the  auspices  of 
Mr.  George  II.  Stuart  of  Pliiladelphia,  and  by  his 
overwhelming  appeals  and  eloquence  made  a  deep 
impression  both  in  Canada  and  the  United  States. 


DUPRESNE. 


t),J 


DU  MOULIN. 


He  retui-netl  to  India,  and  continued  his  labors 
for  some  years ;  but,  his  Iiealth  utterly  failing, 
he  retiu'ned  jiermanently  to  Scotland  in  1SG4. 
Appointed  Convener  of  the  Foreign  Missions 
Committee,  lie  had  the  chief  management  of  the 
foreign  work  of  the  Free  Chm'ch,  and  showed  his 
catholicity  by  the  deep  interest  he  took  in  South- 
African  missions,  and  especially  b\-  the  share  he  ; 
had  in  organizing  the  Livingstonia  mission  on 
Lake  Xyassa.  In  1867  he  was  appointed  first 
professor  of  evangelistic  theology  in  the  Free 
Church. 

Dr.  Duff  took  an  active  interest  in  many  im- 
portant movements  of  the  home  church.  He  was 
an  active  promoter  of  the  proposed  union  of  the 
Free,  United  Presbv-terian,  Reformed  Presbjle- 
rian,  and  English  Presbyterian  churches,  which, 
however,  came  to  no  satisfactory  result.  He  was 
deeply  interested  in  the  Colportage  Society  of 
Scotland,  of  which,  for  a  time,  he  was  president. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  preparations  for  the 
General  Presbyterian  Comicil  at  Edinburgh,  but 
■was  xmable  to  be  present,  through  illness.  His 
strength  contmued  to  decline  thereafter,  and  on 
Feb.  12,  1878,  he  fell  asleep.  His  Life  was  writ-  j 
ten   bv    George    Smith,  LL.D.,  Edinburgh    and 

ls'.Y.,'lS80.  W.   G.   BLAIKIE. 

DUFRESNE.     See  Du  C.\xge. 

DUGUET,  Jacques  Joseph,  b.  at  Montbrison, 
on  the  L'pptT  Loire,  Dec.  !»,  1649 ;  d.  in  Paris, 
Oct.  2.3,  17o3 ;  entered  the  Congregation  of  the 
Oratory  in  l()ti7,  but  left  it  in  1686,  when  its 
members  were  compelled  to  subscribe  a  con- 
demnation of  Jansen.  Afterwards  he  lived  for 
some  time  in  Brussels  with  A.  Arnauld,  and  at 
various  places  in  France,  always  in  retirement, 
and  always  pursued  by  the  ruling  power  in  the 
Church.  He  was  a  pi-olific  writer,  and  one  of 
the  best  writers  among  the  Jansenists.  His 
Traite  de  la  prt'ere  pnbiKjue,  etc.,  Paris,  1707,  was 
often  reprinted,  and  so  were  his  Lrttres  sur  dicers 
sujets  de  morale,  etc.,  1718,  originally  in  3  vols., 
but  afterward  enlarged  to  10  vols.,  and  his  Ex- 
plication du  mi/slere  de  la  pas.iioti,  1722,  originally 
in  2  vols.,  but  afterward  enlarged  to  14  vols. 
He  also  wrote  Explicalions  of  (ienesis  (6  vols.), 
Job  (4  vols.),  and  other  parts  of  the  Bible.  A 
biography  of  liim  is  found  in  that  edition  which 
Goujet  has  given  of  his  Institution  d'un  prince, 
etc,  1739.  See  also  Andre:  L'cspril  de  M.  Du- 
guel,  etc.,  Paris,  1704. 

DU  HALDE,  b.  in  Pari.s,  Feb.  1, 1074;  d.  there 
Aug.  18,  1713;  entered  tlie  Society  of  Jesus  in 
1708;  succeeded  Father  Legol)ien  as  editor  of 
Letlres  c'dijinnles  et  curienscs  ecriles  dcs  missions 
e'lrant/'cres,  of  whicli  he  published  vols.  IX.- 
XXV'I.,  and  wi'ote  The  (Imcral  Ilistori/  of  China, 
Paris,  173.'),  1  vols.,  translated  into  Fiigli.sh  by 
Brookes,  Lomlon,  1730,  4  vols. 

DULCINISTS.     See  Doi.ciNo. 

DULIA  (vc/i'Kv).  The  Koman  Church  teaches 
that  saints  and  angels  should  receive  dnlia  (rever- 
ence), the  Virgin  hyper-dulia  (the  Iiighest  kind  of 
reverence),  and  llie  Persons  ol  the  'Irinitj'  lalrcia 
(adoration,  or  wor.sliip  proper).  Tlic  distinction 
between  these  three  kind.s  of  worsliip  is  generallv 
obscured  by  tin;  laity,  wlio  not  only  pray  as  much 
and  as  fervently  to  one  class  of  divine  helpers  as 
to  the  other,  but  wlio,  it  is  probable,  pray  quite 
as  much  to  the  images  us  to  the  persons  imaged. 


It  is,  liowever,  by  this  fine  distinction  that  th» 
Churcli  rids  herself  of  the  charge  of  idolatry. 

DU  MOULIN,  Charles,  b.  in  Paris,  1.500;  <1. 
there  Dee.  27,  l.")(iij;  studied  law  in  Orleans  ami 
Poitiers.  -V  fault  of  pronunciation  debarred  him 
from  success  as  a  pleader ;  but  in  Paris,  where  hi; 
settled  in  1539,  and  where,  in  1542,  he  joined  the 
Reformed  Congregation,  he  soon  acquired  great 
celebrity  as  a  consulting  lawyer.  Of  his  many 
writings  (fifty-two  in  number),  two  are  of  gi-eat 
interest  to  church-history.  In  1551  he  published 
liis  famous  Commenlairc  sur  VEdit  des  petites  dales, 
in  which  he  shows  that  Henry  11.  was  right, 
when,  as  a  move  in  his  contest  with  the  Pope,  lie 
forbade  the  exportation  of  gold  or  silver  froni 
France  to  Rome.  And  so  victorious  was  the  argu- 
mentation, that  the  Pope  unmediately  dropped 
the  question  so  far  as  the  king  was  concerned ; 
but  brought  the  author  to  trial  for  heresy,  and 
when  he  was  acquitted  the  priests  caused  a  riot, 
and  had  his  house  pillaged.  Du  Moulin  fled ; 
and  from  this  moment  till  his  death  he  moved 
from  one  place  to  another  (Strassburg,  Tubingen, 
Geneva,  Lyons,  etc.),  everywhere  attracting  peo- 
ple by  his  learning  and  acuteness,  but  always 
pursued  by  the  Roman  Church.  He  returned  to 
Paris  in  1504,  and  published  his  Consultation  sur 
le  fait  du  Concile  de  Trent :  but  the  Parliament 
of  Paris,  though  approving  of  his  views,  con- 
demned his  book.  He  was  imprisoned,  and  re- 
leased only  by  the  exertions  of  Jeanne  d'Alhret. 
After  his  death  the  priests  said  that  he  had  se- 
cretly returned  to  the  bosom  of  the  Roman 
Cliurch ;  but  they  have  told  the  same  story  about 
numy  others  without  proving  it. 

DU  MOULIN,  Pierre  (Molinccus),  b.  at  Buhy, 
on  the  boundary  of  Normandy,  Oct.  10,  1568 ; 
d.  at  Sedan,  ISlarch  10,  1658 ;  was  educated  in 
Paris  and  Sedan,  and  studied  at  Cambridge  (1.588- 
92)  and  Leyden,  where  he  was  made  professor, 
first  of  ancient  languages,  and  afterwards  of  phi- 
losophy. In  1599  he  was  ordained  and  appointed 
pastor  of  Charenton,  near  I'aris,  and  chaplain 
to  Catherine  of  Bourbon,  a  sister  of  Henry  IV. 
With  this  last  appointment  began  his  career  as  the 
most  vigoroiis  and  brilliant  controversialist  of  tli«! 
French  Reformed  Church.  According  to  the  fash- 
ion of  the  day,  a  disputation  was  arranged  (l(i02) 
between  Du  Moulin  and  a  Roman-Catholic  .schol- 
ar, PalmaCayet,  in  the  presence  of  Catherine,  lier 
husband  (who  was  a  Roman-Catholic),  and  others. 
Du  Moulin's  victory  was  unque.stionable  ;  and  the 
books  he  ])ublished  in  consequence  of  the  dispu- 
tation —  Eaux  de  Siloe  pour  esteindre  le  purr/aloirc 
1602,  and  Accroissement  des  eaux  de  Siloe,  La 
Rochelle,  1604 — attracted  much  attention.  Of 
still  greater  importance,  while  iirodtu-ing  a  inucli 
wider  and  deeper  impression,  were  his  controver- 
sies with  the  Jesuit  Cotton  about  the  dogmatics 
and  morals  of  the  order,  Tretite-deux  dcmiimlcs  pro- 
pose'es  park  P.  Cotton,  etc.,  La  Rochelle,  1607,  and 
Geneva,  1035  ;  with  the  Jesuit  Gontier  about 
transulistantiation,  Veritable  uarrc  de  la  conference 
enire  les  sicurs  Du  Moidin  et  Gontier,  1009,  and 
Apolof/ie  pour  la  sainte  chic  ilu  Seir/neur,  Geneva, 
1610  ;  and  with  the  Dominican  Cocffelcau,  Ana- 
tomic du  Here  du  sieur  C,  Geneva,  1625.  lint 
liis  masterpiece  as  a  controversialist  is  his  ISou- 
clier  de  la  foi/,  the  most  complete  work  of  the 
!  kind  produced  by  tlic  French  Reformed  Churcli, 


DUNCAN. 


G73 


DUNIN. 


and,  though  now  antiquated  in  form  and  tone, 
still  valuable  on  account  of  its  learning  and  keen- 
ness. The  Jesuit  Arnoux,  confessor  to  the  king, 
]ireached  against  the  Itefonned  Confession ;  and 
l)u  Jloulin  took  up  the  challenge,  and  wrote 
Di'fense  de  la  confession  de  VKglhe  rcfonm'e  de 
France  (Charenton,  l'il7),  Bouclier  dc  la  foy 
(Charenton,  1G17,  3d  ed.,  1019,  last  ed.,  1845,  Kng. 
trans.,  London,  1031),  and  Fuites  ct  c'msions  du 
sieiir  Arnoux  (Charenton,  1G19.)  It  was,  however, 
not  only  the  Roman-Catholics  who  had  to  smart 
under  his  polemical  ire,  but  also  the  various  sects 
of  his  own  denomination,  especially  the  IJemon- 
strants.  A  bitter  controversy  arose  shortly  after 
the  death  of  Henry  IV.,  consequently  in  a  very 
critical  moment,  between  him  and  Tilenus,  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  .Sedan ;  and  they  were  not 
reconciled  until  i017.  In  that  year  Du  iMoulin 
■was  engaged  by  the  connnission  of  the  National 
Synod  of  Vitrc,  to  prepare  a  formula  consenstif,  in 
•which  all  sects  or  parties  of  the  Reformed  faith 
would  agree ;  but  the  formula  consensus  turned 
out  the  Anatomie  de  rAnninianisme,  Leyden,  l(il9, 
—  a  harsh  and  scathing  criticism  of  Arminianism. 
Meanwhile  his  position  at  Charenton,  always  diffi- 
cult, became  actually  dangerous.  For  many  years 
he  had  stood  in  intimate  connection  with  James  I. 
of  England.  Already  in  1004  he  wrote  Defense 
de  la  foy  pour  Jacques  I.;  and  in  1015  James  I. 
proposed  to  him  to  make  an  attempt  at  uniting  the 
whole  Reformed  Church.  In  1019  he  wrote  a  letter 
to  James  I.  to  induce  him  to  aid  his  son-in-law, 
the  Elector  of  the  Palatinate.  The  letter  was 
intercepted,  and  the  Jesuits  hoped  to  construe  it 
as  treason.  Du  Moulin  was  compelled  to  flee,  and 
sought  refuge  in  Sedan,  wliich  belonged  to  the 
dominion  of  the  Duke  of  Bouillon.  He  was  made 
professor  of  theology,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his 
life  there,  somewhat  more  quietly,  though  never 
giving  up  what  seemed  to  be  his  nature,  —  criti- 
cism and  polemics.  To  this  period  belong  his 
Nouceaule  du.  papisme,  etc.  (Sedan,  1027),  and 
Anatomie  de  la  Messe  (Sedan,  1036,  I'd  ed.,  1038, 
last  ed.,  1851,  translated  into  German  and  English, 
and  still  studied  with  profit  on  account  of  the 
mastership  with  which  the  unnatural  and  the 
imreasonable  in  the  scholastic  argumentation  of 
transubstantiation  is  exhibited).  See  Bullet  in  de 
la  Socie'lu  de  I'Histoire  du  Pro/estantisme,  VII., 
pp.  170,  345,  532,  where  his  autobiogra]ihy  is 
given ;  Ayjiox  :  Synodes  nationaux  de  France, 
II.  p.  273,  containing  a  list  of  his  works ;  Ar- 
M.-^ND  :  Essai  sur  la  vie  de  Da  Moulin,  Strassburg, 
184G.  C.  SCHMIDT. 

DUNCAN,  John,  LL.D.,  a  Scotch  Orientalist; 
b.  at  Gilcomston,  near  Aberdeen,  1796 ;  d.  in 
Edinburgh,  Saturday,  Feb.  20,  1S70.  He  was 
graduated  from  the  University  of  Aberdeen,  1814  ; 
studied  divinity  in  Edinburgh,  and  was  licensed 
June  24,  1825.  In  1826,  under  the  influence  of 
Cesar  !Malan,  he  was  converted ;  in  1831  he  was 
settled  in  Glasgow  ;  went  in  1841  to  I'esth  as  mis- 
sionary of  the  Church  of  Scotland  to  the  Jews ; 
in  1843  he  became  professor  of  Hebrew  and 
Oriental  languages  in  New  College,  Edinburgh, 
and  served  in  that  capacity  until  his  death.  He 
was  an  extraordinary  man  :  learned  in  several 
dejiartments,  gifted  as  a  talker,  and  profound  as 
a  thinkei-,  he  impressed  all  he  met.  His  .students 
did  not  get  much  Hebrew  instruction..  <or  he  was 

^1  — I 


a  very  ))oor  teacher;  but  they  were  inspired  by 
his  spirit  so  eminently  godly.  He  lived  above  the 
world,  an<l  drew  them  up  with  liim.  His  religious 
experience  comprehended  all  grades,  from  scepti- 
cism to  faith.  His  most  brilliant  period  intel- 
lectually was  when  farthest  fi'om  God;  but  his 
most  fruitful  was  dm'ing  his  latter  years,  when 
he  showed  a  simple  piety  whicli  was  based  upon 
personal  knowledge  of  the  deep  things  of  (iod. 
Many  stcu'ies  are  told  of  his  eccentricity ;  but  the 
charm  of  his  biography  lies  in  its  revelation  of  a 
rare  personality.  See  D.wid  Buown  :  Life  of 
the  Late  John  Duncan,  LL.D.,  Eilinburgh,  1872, 
2d  revised  ed.  same  year  ;  the  same  :  John  Duncan 
in  the  Pulpit  and  at  the  (Jomniunion-Tahle,  I'^diu- 
burgh,  1874 ;  also  his  striking  sayings  in  Wii.- 
Li.^M  K.N'iGirr :  Colloquia  I'eripatcticet,  by  the  late 
John  Duncan,  LL.D.,  2d  ed.,  Ediidiurgh,  1870. 

DUNGAL,  the  author  of  the  Responsa  contra 
pcrccrsas  Cluudii  sentenlias,  ■KritU'U  in  828,  against 
Claudius  of  Turin,  and  edited  by  Masson,  Paris, 
1008,  and  in  Bill.  Patr.  Max:,  XIV.  He  was  a 
Scotchman.  But  very  little  is  known  about  his 
life.  By  some  {Hist.  Litt.  de  la  France,  IV.,  p.  493) 
he  is  identified  with  a  certain  Dungal  of  St. 
Denis,  who  wrote  .some  Latin  poems  (i\lAi'.Ti:NK 
ET  Durand:  Ampl.  Coll.,  VI.  p.  811)  and  an 
Epistola  ad  Carolum  Maijnum  de  duplici  eclipsi 
solari  (D'Achery  :  Spiciler/ium,  HI.  p.  324). 
More  jirobably  he  is  identical  with  that  Dungal 
whom  Lothar  mentions  in  one  of  his  decrees  as 
teacher  in  I'avia. 

DUNIN,  Martin  von,  b.  at  Wal,  a  village  of 
Western  Poland,  Nov.  11,  1774  ;  d.  at  Posen,  Dec. 
20,  1842 ;  was  educated  in  the  Collegium  Ger- 
manicum  in  Rome,  and  was  appointed  Archbishop 
of  Gnesen- Posen,  1831. 

In  Poland  the  validity  of  the  canon  law  re- 
mained unquestioned  up  to  1708  :  it  was  even  spe- 
cially confirmed  and  extended  by  a  bull  of  Bene- 
dict XIV.,  Aug.  8,  1748.  But  by  the  treaty  of 
Feb.  13,  1768,  between  Poland,  Ru.ssia,  England, 
Prussia,  Denmark,  and  Sweden,  the  canon  law 
was  suspended  in  various  fields  of  social  life. 
Thus  mixed  marriages  were  declared  legitimate ; 
and  it  was  determined,  that,  of  the  children,  the 
boys  should  be  educated  in  the  religion  of  the 
father,  and  the  girls  in  that  of  the  mother.  This 
rule  was  continued  in  those  parts  of  Poland 
which  were  incorporated  with  Prussia,  and  no 
trouble  arose  from  its  application  until  1836. 
Inspired,  no  doubt,  by  the  behavior  of  Droste 
zu  Vischering,  Archbishop  Dunin  suddenly  de- 
manded permission  of  the  Prussian  Government, 
either  to  go  hack  to  the  regidations  of  1748,  or  to 
ask  the  Pope  for  new  instructions.  As  neither 
was  granted,  the  archbishop  issued  a  jiastoral 
letter  (Jan.  30,  1838)  to  his  clergy,  in  which  he 
simply  forbade  the  priests  to  consecrate  a  mixed 
marriage,  or  to  admit  any  Roman-Catholic  who 
lived  in  unconsecrated  wedlock  to  the  sacraments. 
But  this  injimction  was  annidled  by  a  royal 
decree  of  June  25,  1838  ;  and  legal  proceedings, 
were  begim  against  the  ai'chbishop.  Feb.  23, 1830, 
the  siqireme  court  of  Posen  gave  the  ■I'erdict  that 
the  archbishop  had  transgressed  his  power,  and 
that  the  transgression  should  be  punished  with 
deposition,  and  incarceration  in  one  of  the  for- 
tresses for  half  a  year.  The  king  transmuted  the 
incarceration  in  a  fortress  to  simple  residence  in 


DUNKERS. 


074 


DUNSTAN. 


Berlin ;  but,  when  the  archbishop  wilfully  left  the 
capital  to  go  to  his  diocese,  he  was  arrested,  and 
confined  at  Colberg.  On  the  accession,  however, 
of  Friedrich  Wilhelm  IV.,  in  18-10,  a  compromise 
was  effected :  the  archbishop  was  re-instated  on 
the  condition  of  modifying  his  pastoral  letter  in 
harmony  with  former  practice. 

Lit.— K.  IIase:  Die  heiden  Erzhischofe,  Leipzig, 
18.39;  Rixtel:  Verlheidiyuny  d.  E.  von  Gnesen- 
Posen,  AVurzburg,  18-59  ;  PonL :  Martin  v.  Dunin, 
Marienburg,  1843.  H.  F.  JACOBSON. 

DUNKERS.     See  Tuxkers. 

DUNS  SCOTUS,  Johannes,  was  b.  in  1260 
or  1274,  according  to  Matthteus  Veglensis  and 
Dempster,  at  Duns,  in  the  southern  part  of  Scot-' 
land ;  according  to  Leland  and  others,  at  Duns- 
tane,  in  Xorthumberland ;  according  to  Wadding, 
in  Ireland  ;  d.  at  Cologne,  1308.  He  early  became 
a  Franciscan,  and  studied  theology  at  Oxford, 
under  AMlliam  de  Vuarra  (Varro).  When  the 
latter  went  to  Paris,  Duns  succeeded  to  his  chair, 
and  taught  in  Oxford  with  great  success.  He  is 
said  to  have  had  three  thousand  pupils.  It  was 
especially  his  keenness  and  subtlety  which  im- 
pressed people;  for  which  reason  he  received  the 
title  of  doctor  xuhtiH<s.  While  in  Oxford  he  wrote 
a  commentary  upon  the  Sentences  of  the  Lom- 
bard,—  Ojius  Oxoniense.  About  l-jOl  he  went  to 
Paris,  and  there  he  also  lectured  on  the  Sentences; 
which  lectures  afterwards  were  published  under 
the  title  Riqmrtatn  Pari.-:iensia.  In  1305  he  obtained 
the  degree  of  doctor.  After  the  order  of  Clement 
V.  he  held  a  grand  disputation  with  the  Domin- 
icans concerning  the  immaculate  conception  of 
Mary.  He  came  out  victorious.  Even  the  marble 
.statue  of  the  Virgin,  standing  in  the  disputation 
hall,  bowed  to  him  when  he  descended  from  the 
cathedra;  and  it  became  a  rule  in  the  university, 
that  he  who  obtained  a  degree  there  should  take 
an  oath  to  defend  the  doctrine  of  the  immaculate 
conception.  In  1308  Duns  was  sent  to  Cologne, 
by  the  general  of  his  order,  to  contend  \\ith  the 
Beghards,  who  were  numerous  in  those  regions, 
and  with  the  Dominicans,  who  refused  to  accept 
the  new  dogma.  He  was  received  with  great 
honors,  but  died  in  the  same  year  from  apoplexy. 

The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  by  Watl- 
ding,  Lyons,  1039,  in  12  vols.  fol.  The  first  four 
volumes  contain  his  miscellaneous  writings  on 
grammar,  logic,  etc. ;  vols.  V.-X.,  the  Opus  Oxo- 
niense; vol.  XL,  the  lit'jiortuta  Ptirisieitsid ;  and 
vol.  XII.,  the  Quodlihrla.  Tliese  works  give  strik- 
ing evidence  of  the  comprehensive  scholarship  of 
their  author.  Duns  was  not  only  familiar  with 
the  writers  of  his  own  time  and  tlie  early  middle 
ages,  but  he  was  also  dei-jily  convc^rsaut  with  the 
works  of  the  fathers,  and  he  had  studied  both  the 
Greek  and  the  .\rab  philosophcMs.  From  Averroes 
and  Avicenna  lie  borrowed  many  Platonic  and 
Xeoplatonic  ideas.  Porphyry  and  Aristotle  he 
specially  treated  of :  Qiiestiimes  in  (/iilni/ue  iinlrer- 
salia  Porplii/rii,  his  connnentary  on  Aristotle's 
inetai)hysics  and  />  niiinid,  (■t(^ 

The  ditfcrence  between  Duns  Scotus  and 
Thomas  .\quin;is  is  very  striking.  It  lodged 
deep  in  the  natures  of  the  two  men,  and  it  became 
a  stirring  element  in  the  after-history  of  scholas- 
ticism. In  their  idea.s  of  (jod,  'J'liomas  is  always 
inclined  to  emjihasize  necessity.  Duns,  freedom  ; 
for  Thomas  had  a  natural  bent  towards  generali- 


zation. Duns  a  vivid  sense  of  individuality.  While 
to  Thomas  the  relation  between  God  and  the  world 
is  a  relation  of  substance.  Duns  vindicates  the  free 
causality  of  God ;  and  while  the  Thomistic  con- 
ception of  the  Trinity  retains  a  shade  of  modalism, 
Duns  fully  carries  through  the  distinction  between 
the  persons  of  the  Trinity,  the  attributes  of  God. 
etc.  The  genius  of  Thomas  was  speculative:  that 
of  Duns  was  critical ;  and  his  method  is,  conse- 
quently, negative  destruction  of  error  rather  than 
jjositive  construction  of  truth.  But,  just  as  his 
natural  bent  towards  individualism  never  made 
him  a  nominalist,  so  his  natural  talent  for  criti- 
cism never  made  him  a  sceptic.  His  .scepticism 
refers  only  to  the  argumentation,  and  arguments 
he  may  destroy  until  he  has  no  other  basis  for 
truth  than  the  absolute  will  of  God  and  the  vol- 
untary submission  of  man ;  but  this  basis,  the 
truth  of  the  divine  revelation,  and  the  authority 
of  the  Established  Church,  he  never  touches. 

The  relation  between  God  and  the  world  was 
to  scliolasticism  the  great  problem,  and  in  the 
system  of  Duns  Scotus  this  problem  received  an 
original  and  bold  treatment.  Kepresenting  (iod 
as  the  absolutely  self-sufficient  and  self-controlling 
subject,  he  tries  to  give  to  the  world  a  higher 
degree  of  independence  and  substantiality  than 
it  ever  could  attain  in  a  system  of  emanation  or 
Pantheism.  But  the  solution  is  incomplete.  In 
his  innermost  being,  in  his  very  essence,  God 
remains  unknown  and  unknowable  to  niaiu  and 
con.sequently  his  will  can  never  become  the  direct 
and  natural  contents  of  the  will  of  man.  The 
will  of  God  is  an  enigma,  manifested  only  in  the 
form  of  arbitrary  conniiands :  the  will  of  man  is 
an  empty  form,  receiving  its  contents  through 
voluntary  submission  to  external  authorities, — 
the  Church. 

The  life  of  Duns  Scotus  lias  been  Mritten  by 
^1ai  Tn.Ki'S  Veolexsis,  in  Tliesaurn.i  Dihliograpli- 
iciis ;  by  Wadding,  in  his  edition  of  Duns"  works, 
vol.  I.;  by  Ferciii,  Cologne,  1022;  tiizMAX; 
Janssex,  Cologne,  1022;  Colcan,  Antwerp, 
1055.  His  .system  has  been  treated  by  Ai.her- 
<;oM :  liesolutio  doctrinm  Scotica;  Lyons,  1043; 
IIiehonvmis  he  Fortixo:  .Summa  thcologica  ex 
Sfotis  ojieribns ;  do.vxxES  DE  Rada  :  ControrersifV 
tlieolofficw  Inter  Tliomnm  et  Scotnm,  Venice,  1599 ; 
BoXAVEXTru.\  B.\K():  ./.  Buns  Scotus,  Cologne, 
1604,  3  vols.;  Bau.mcartkx-Crvsius  :  De  theo- 
lof/ia  5co/i,  Jena,  1820 ;  Karl  Werner:  Sprach- 
lo(]ik  des  J.  D.  S.,  Wien,  1877;  [M.  SciiXEin: 
Die  Kiirperlelire  des  Johannes  Duns  Scotus  tinil  i!ir 
]'er/iultniss  zum  T/ioinismus  und  Atoviismus,  Mainz, 
1879;  Karl  Werner:  Johannes  Duns  Scotus, 
Wien,  1.S81];  besides  Erdmaxx,  Sxiii'iiL,  Kitter, 
I'eherweg,  etc.,  in  their  works  on  the  history  of 
j.hiliisophv.  A.   DOUXER. 

DUNSTAN,  St.,  b.  at  Glastonbury,  924;  d. 
May  19,  9SS ;  was  educated  by  Irish  monks,  .set- 
tled in  his  native  city,  and  was  twice  introduced 
into  the  king's  hou.sehold,  but  was  both  times 
diiveii  away  l)y  the  envy  of  the  rouyli  soldier- 
courtiers.  After  taking  the  monastic  vow.  he 
lived  for  some  time  in  retirement,  studying  and 
teaching;  but  King  Edmund  niaih'  him  Abbot 
of  (ilastoiibuiy,  and  .appointed  him  treasurer  of 
the  whole  kingdom.  I'nder  the  reign  of  Edred 
(!»10-955).  Dunstan  .seems  to  have  been  the  real 
ruler  of  the  country.     Under  Edwy  he  was  com- 


DUNSTER. 


675 


DU  PLESSIS  MORNAY. 


jielled  to  flee  tlie  coiiiiti-y  (955),  and  sook  refuge 
in  Ghent,  but  only  for  a  .short  time.  When  Edgar 
succeeded  in  cstalili.sliiii;;'  liini.sclf  on  tlie  tlirone 
of  Jlercia  and  Nurtlunnliria,  Dimslan  rctnrned 
to  power,  and  was  made  Hi.shop  (jI'  \\'orc<vst<'i-  and 
London,  anil  finally  Arehbi.shop  of  ('antcrlmry. 
In  spite  of  intrigues  and  conspiracies,  he  reniaininl 
ill  power  under  Kdward  and  I'^thelred  ;  and  it  is 
a  significant  fact  that  the  really  successful  inva- 
sions of  the  Danes  began  immediately  after  his 
death.  As  a  character  he  is  variously  described. 
Some  represent  liiin  as  a  reformer  of  tlie  .Saxon 
clergy  of  his  time,  and  as  a  woi'ker  of  miracles ; 
and  the  fact  of  his  canonization  shows  the  indebt- 
edness of  the  Church  to  him.  Others  represent 
liim  as  a  statesman  ;  and,  indeed,  for  many  years 
he  ruled  England  with  great  energy  and  wisdom. 
Several  works  liave  been  ascribed  to  him,  —  a 
commentary  on  the  Benedictine  rule,  a  lier/iilaris 
Concordia,  etc.;  but  the  authorship  is  doubtful. 
For  his  life,  .see  Act.  SancL,  ]\Iay  19;  E.  W. 
KonF.RT.soN  :  DunnUin  and  hix  Polici/,  in  Historical 
Essays:  Dk.w  Hook:  Lices  of  the  Archlnshops  of 
Cunterlniri/. 

DUNSTER,  Henry,  first  president  of  Harvard 
University;  b.  in  England;  d.  at  .Scituate,  Mass., 
Feb.  27,  KiSD.  He  was  educated  at  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford ;  emigrated  to  America,  and  was 
chosen  president  of  the  recently  established  col- 
lege at  Cambridge,  Aug.  27,  1040,  but  compelled 
to  resign  Oct.  '24,  1G54,  on  account  of  his  Baptist 
views,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  days  in  retirement. 
He  assisted  in  revising  the  version  of  the  pisalms 
luade  by  Eliot,  Wilde,  and  Mather.  He  was  a 
learned,  modest,  and  pious  man.  See  Jeremiaii 
Chaplin  :  Life  of  Henri/  Dunster,  Boston,  1872. 

DUPANLOUP",  Felix  Antoine  Philippe,  b.  at 
St.  Felix,  Savoy,  Jan.  3,  1SU2;  d.  at  Laincey  in 
Loiret,  Oct.  11,  1878;  studied  in  Paris;  was 
ordained  priest  in  1825;  became  confessor  to  the 
Count  de  Chambord  in  1827.  catechist  to  the 
Orleans  princes  in  1828,  and  almoner  to  Madame 
la  Dauphine  in  1830,  but  retired  from  all  these 
I>ositions  after  the  Revolution,  and  was  appointed 
superior  of  the  diocesan  seminary  of  Paris  in 
1837,  and  Bishop  of  Orleans  in  1849.  He  belonged 
to  the  group  of  Liberal  or  Gallican  Catholics,  but 
submitted  to  the  decisions  of  the  Vatican  Council 
in  1870.  While  young,  he  kept  aloof  from  the 
circles  of  De  Maistre  and  De  Lamennais ;  when 
old,  he  opposed  the  definition  of  tlie  dogma  of 
papal  infallibility.  On  the  other  hand  he  labored 
zealously  to  awaken  the  French  people  from  its 
religious  apathy,  and  fought  bravely  against  the 
Life  of  Jesus,  l)y  Kenan,  his  former  pupil.  A 
similar  position  of  mediation  he  occupied  in  ,the 
field  of  education,  l.)etweeii  Veuillot,  who  wanted 
the  Latin  classics  driven  out  of  the  schools, 
and  the  LIniversity  of  Paris,  which  wanted  to 
forbid  the  religious  orders  in  the  schools.  One 
of  his  best  works  is  his  L' Education,  Paris,  1855- 
57,  3  vols.  His  Qiuvres  Choisies  appeared  in 
1861  in  4  vols.  See  F.  Lagrange  :  Life  of 
Dupanloup,  translated  by  Lady  Herbert,  London, 
1  sso.  2  vols. 

DUPERRON,  Jacques  Davy,  b.  .at  Bern,  1559; 
d.  in  Paris,  .Sept.  5,  1518;  descended  from  Protes- 
tant parents,  from  .St.  1^6,  in  \ormandy,  who, 
during  the  persecutions  against  the  Huguenots, 
had  sought   refuge   in   Switzerland.     Having  re- 


ceived an  office  in  tlie  liouseliold  of  Henry  HI., 
and.  finding  Ids  religion  an  embarra-ssment  in  a 
court  career,  he  embraced  Romanism,  was  or- 
dained jiricst,  and  devoted  him.self  to  religious 
liolemics  and  jiroselyti/.ing.  IIc^  was  instrumental 
in  till'  conversicjii  of  Henry  IV'.,  and  w.as  by  liim 
made  liishop  of  Evreux.  He  also  aided  the  King 
in  proi'uring  a  divorce  from  Margaret  of  ^'alois, 
and  in  101)0  he  was  made  firand-almoiwr  of 
France,  and  ^Vrchbishop  of  Sens.  In  1004  Clem- 
ent VIH.  invited  him  to  take  jiart  in  the  di'batcs 
of  the  VonijrKijatio  de  Auj-itiis  concerning  the 
Molinistic  controversy,  followed  his  advice  in 
deciding  the  question,  and  nuule  him  a  cardinal. 
His  works  appeared  in  Paris,  1020-22,  3  vols.  fol. 
First  volume  contains  his  'J'raite  sur  V Eucharistie 
against  Dii  Ple.ssis-Mornay.  See  F£ret  :  Le  Car- 
diiud  Duperron.  Paris,  1877.  HERZOG. 

DU  PIN,  Louis  Ellies,  b.  in  Paris,  June  17, 
10.'i7  ;  d.  there  .June  0,  171!)  ;  was  made  a  doctor 
of  the  Sorboiine  in  1084,  and  professor  at  the  Col- 
h'ge  de  France ;  but  on  account  of  his  opposition 
to  the  bull  f'jiii/enitus,  imd  having  as  a  .lansenist 
signed  the  cas  de  conscience,  he  was  banished  to 
Chatelleroult,  and,  though  he  afterwards  was  al- 
lowed to  return  to  Paris,  he  was  never  restored  to 
his  professorship.  He  partook  with  much  zeal  in 
the  negotiations  for  a  union  between  the  Greek 
and  Roman  churches,  which  w-ere  started  on  occa- 
sion of  the  vi.sit  of  Peter  the  Great  in  Paris,  1717, 
and  he  corresponded  with  Archbishop  Wake  of 
Canterbury  concerning  a  union  of  the  churches 
of  England  and  France ;  which  correspondence  is 
given  in  the  third  appendix  to  Maclaine's  transla- 
tion of  Mosheim's  Church  History.  His  principal 
work  is  his  celebrated  liiljliothhjue  unirersellc  des 
autenrs  ecclcxia.itiijue.'i,  which  provoked  Bossuet 
and  the  clergy  in  general  by  its  liberality,  and  at 
one  time  was  stopped  by  an  act  of  Parliament, 
but  again  allowed  to  appear  under  the  title  of 
Nourelle  1iU>.,  etc.  The  work  appeared  in  I'aris, 
1080-1704,  in  58  vols.  8vo,  and  at  Am.sterdani, 
in  19  vols.  4to :  there  is  an  English  translation 
of  it  in  17  vols,  fob,  London,  1093-1707.  A  com- 
plete list  of  Du  Pin's  numerous  writings  is  found 
in  NiCERON :  Memoires,  II.  pp.  25-48.  Notices 
of  his  life  are  given  by  himself  in  the  last  volume 
of  his  great  work. 

DU  PLESSIS-MORNAY,  properly  PHILIPPE 
DE  MORNAY,  Seigneur  du  Plessis-Marly,  b.  at 
Buhy,  Normandy,  Nov.  5,  1549 ;  d.  at  La  Foret- 
sur-.Sevre,  Nov.  11,  1023;  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent leaders  of  the  French  Protestants  during 
one  of  the  most  critical  periods  of  their  history. 
Carefully  educated,  he  was  about  to  join  the  Prot- 
estant army  under  Conde,  in  15G7,  when  a  fall 
with  his  horse  threw  him  on  the  sick-bed.  In 
1508  he  started  on  a  great  tour  through  Europe, 
visited  Italy,  Austria,  Bohemia,  Germany,  the 
Netherlands,  and  returned  to  Paris  in  June,  1572. 
A  pamphlet  he  wrote  concerning  the  .Spanish 
dominion  in  the  Netherlands  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Prince  of  Orange ;  another,  concern- 
ing the  expediency  for  France  to  support  the 
Netherlands  introduced  him  to  Coligny.  Only 
with  great  difticnlty  he  escaped  the  massacre  of 
Aug.  24,  1572.  He  fled  to  England,  and  entered 
upon  an  unsteady  career  of  many  yeai"s,  spent 
partly  on  the  battle-field,  partly  at  the  writing- 
desk,   partly    in   diplomatioal   negotiations.      la 


DU  PLESSIS-MORNAY. 


676 


DURAND. 


1575  lie  married ;  and  it  is  cliaracteristic  of  the 
earnest  piety  of  his  -nife,  that  she  desired  her 
husband  to  give  her  as  a  wedding-present  a  reli- 
gious treatise  ;  and  accordingly  he  wrote  for  her 
his  Difcours  tie  la  vie  el  de  la  morl,  Lausanne, 
157(),  Paris,  1580;  translated  into  English,  Lon- 
don, 1576 :  Latin.  Francfort,  1585.  Among  his 
writings  from  this  time  are  Traitc  de  I't'glise  (Lon- 
don, 157S;  translated  into  English,  1579;  German, 
1589;  Italian,  1591;  Latin,  1594),  and  Trciilc  tie 
la  a-rilc  de  la  rellyion  chn'tienne  (Paris,  15S2; 
Leyden,  1583  ;  Lyons,  1597,  etc).  Jleanwliile 
he  had  made  the  acquaintance  of  Henry  of  Na- 
varre, and  the  acquaintance  soon  grew  into  friend- 
ship. He  became  Henry's  most  intinuite  and  most 
trusted  adviser ;  and  he  fought  for  him  and  the 
cause  he  represented  in  the  battles,  in  the  cabinets 
of  the  Protestant  princes,  and  in  the  literature : 
Remonstrance  u  la  France ;  Dectarallon  du  rnij  de 
Navarre  ;  Declaration  et  protestation  da  roy  de 
Navarre,  etc.  After  the  assassination  of  the  Duke 
of  Guise,  and  the  revolt  of  the  League,  lie  suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  about  a  reconciliation  between 
Henry  IIL  and  Henry  of  Xavarre,  and  his  re- 
ward was  the  governorship  of  Saumur,  where  at 
last  (1589)  he  was  able  to  prepare  a  home  for  hini- 
.self  and  his  family.  He  made  Saumur  a  strong 
fortress,  and  he  made  it  also  the  seat  of  a  flour- 
ishing Protestant  academy.  When  Henry  IV. 
changed  his  faith  in  order  to  secure  the  crown  of 
France,  the  friendship  between  him  and  Du 
Plessis-JIornay  of  course  cooled  off :  but  the  lat- 
ter continued  to  labor  with  unabated  energy  for 
the  Protestant  cau.se,  and  contributed  much  both 
to  the  internal  organization  of  the  party  and 
to  the  just  enforcement  of  the  edicts  concerning 
their  social  position.  In  1598  he  published  De 
rinstitution,  usage  et  doctrine  du  saitit  sacrament  de 
I'lCuchiristie :  and  the  book  made  a  great  sensation. 
It  bc'canie,  iieverthele.s,s,  instrumental  to  a  deep 
humiliation  for  its  author.  Du  Plessis-Mornay 
had  always  had  a  weakness  for  religious  disputa- 
tion, and  was  more  than  willing  to  accept  the 
proposition  for  a  great  debate  with  Duperron  at 
Fontainebleau,  in  the  i)re.sence  of  tlu^  king  and 
the  court,  Kidd.  It  becanu'  evident,  however,  that 
the  disiuitation  was  simply  a  trap  into  which  Du 
Plessis-Mornay  had  been  allured,  and  also  that 
the  king  was  privy  to  the  affair,  for  tlu;  selection 
of  the  judges  by  the  king  was  unfair;  and  Du 
Plessi.s-.Mornay  was  handed  flu;  list  of  the  sup- 
jiosed  errors  which  he  was  to  correct  not  sooner 
than  late  in  the  night  preceding  the  debate,  .so 
that  he  was  compelled  to  work  all  night,  and  was 
therefore  jaded  when  the  debate  began ;  yet  he 
acquitte<l  himself  very  creditably.  A  number  of 
works  of  edification  and  the  famous  Le  mijslcre 
d'inifjuiti',  an  attack  on  the  Papacv,  belong  to  (he 
last  [lart  of  his  life.  In  KiJl,  wlien  the  religious 
war  broke  out  afresh,  lie  retired  to  his  castle, 
La  Foret^-iur-Sfevre. 

Lit.  —  The  chief  source  for  a  description  of  liis 
life  is  Mtmoires  et  mrrcs/jondancs  de  Du  I'lrssls- 
Mornatf,  Paris,  18Jt  s(iq.,  who.se  lirst  volume 
contains  (he  Mi'moires  ilc  Madame  de  Mornni/ ; 
David  J>ictji:i:s :  Ifistoire  de  la  vie  de  T/i.  d.  .1/., 
Leyden,  1017.  [The  following  English  transla- 
tions of  Moruay's  works  have  appeared:  A  Nota- 
ble Tnalise  of  the  Church,  London,  1570,  ;!d  ed., 
ICOG;    A    Works   concerning   the    Truncsse  of  tlte 


Christian  lieliyit/n  (translation  began  by  Sir  Philip 
Sidney),  4th  ed.,  1017 ;  A  Christian  ami  Goilhj 
View  of  Life  and  Death,  1590  (another  tran.slation 
by  the  Countess  of  Pembroke,  1000);  Fmcrc  Books 
of  the  Institution,  Use,  and  Doctrine  of  the  Holy 
Sacrament  of  the  Eucharist,  1000.]  POLENZ. 

DUPREAU,  Gabriel,  French  theologian  and 
philologist:  b.  ;it  ^larcoussis  (He  de  France), 
1511 ;  d.  at  Pcronne,  April  19,  15f^8.  His  Latin 
name  was  Prateoliis.  He  was  for  many  years  a 
professor  in  the  College  of  France  in  Paris.  His 
principal  work  was  De  Vitiis,  sectis,  dogmalibus 
onniijini  harcficnnnn.  Paris,  1509. 

DURAND  OF  ST.  POURCAIN  (Durandus  de 
Sancto  Porciano),  the  mo.st  prominent  representa- 
tive of  scholasticism  in  the  fourteenth  century ; 
was  b.  towards  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century 
in  the  village  of  St.  Poiir(,-ain,  in  the  present  de- 
jiartment  of  Puy  de  Dome,  and  entered  very  early 
the  Dominican  order  at  Clermont.  After  study- 
ing in  the  ^lonasterv  of  St.  Jacques,  in  Paris, 
where  (June  26,  1303)  he  signed  the  apfieal  of 
Philip  the  Fair  to  a  general  council,  he  taught 
in  the  L'niversity  of  Paris  as  licenliatus  et  doctor, 
and  was  by  Clement  V.  called  to  Avignon  as 
Lector  Curice  et  Magister  .S.  Palatii.  John  XXII. 
made  liim  Bi.shop  of  Puy-eii-Velay,  1318,  and  in 
1326  Bishop  of  Meaux,  where  he  died  Sept.  10, 
1334. 

Of  his  works  a  number  still  remain  in  manu- 
script in  the  National  Library  in  Paris  :  the  most 
important,  however,  have  been  printed.  I.  Com- 
menturius  in  Lil/ros  Sententiarum  Lomhardi,  which 
Gerson  recommended  to  his  pupils  as  the  best 
work  on  the  subject;  printed  in  Paris,  1508; 
Lyons,  1533  ;  Venice,  1571,  etc.  II.  Stattda 
Sipwdi  Aniciensis,  over  which  synod  he  himself 
presided  (1320),  edited  by  Gissey,  Lyons,  1020. 

III.  De  Orlgine  Jurisdictionvm,  etc.,  an  argument 
in  the  controversy  between  the  French  prelates 
and  Philip  the  Fair  concerning  the  amenability 
of  the  clergy  to  the  civil  courts,  iirinteil,  together 
with  other  tracts  to  the  same  jmrpose,  Paris,  1.500. 

IV.  Tractatus  de  statu  animarum,  etc.,  a  polemical 
tract  against  the  view  of  Pope  John  XXIL,  that 
(he  departed  souls  are  not  able  to  see  God  per 
cssenliam,  nor  to  feel  perfectly  happy  until  they 
have  re-assumed  their  bodies. 

His  surname  Doctor  resoluti.isimus  he  received 
from  the  resoluteness  ^vitll  which  he  adopted  and 
followed  the  principle  that  there  is  no  huniaii 
authority  above  (he  human  rea,son  ;  th.at  a  man 
who  bends  his  reason  before  any  human  authority 
degrades  himself  into  a  beast,  etc.  The  first 
consequence  of  this  principle  was  an  open  split 
between  faith  and  knowledge,  between  theology 
and  philo.sophy.  The  .\nselniian  ])roposition, 
credo  ut  iiiteltigam  ("I  believe,  that  I  nuiy  know"), 
and  its  complement,  f/uaro  Intrllii/ere  ut  criihim 
("  I  .seek  to  know,  that  I  may  believe  "),  he  reject- 
ed, though  they  form  (he  very  foundation  of 
scholasticism.  Theology  and  ]>hiloso]>hy  have, 
he  said,  nothing  to  ilo  with  each  other.  'J'lie 
question  then  arose.  When  it  h;is  only  fjiitli  for 
its  contents,  is  theology  then  a  science'.'  And  he 
boldly  answered.  No,  thereby  oiienly  breaking  oft' 
from  the  Thomistic  school,  which  delined  theology 
as  the  science  of  God.  He  made  the  object  (or 
subject,  as  he  called  it)  of  theology  (o  be  man, 
and   declared   the   Scriptures  i^erc  fur  practical 


DURAND. 


677 


DURY. 


liel]i  in  attaining  heaven  by  good  works.  Thus 
lie  completely  inverted  theology :  man  was  the 
centre  around  which  theology  turned. 

In  regard  to  the  sacraments,  he  denied  that 
they  had  any  inherent  efficacy :  they  are  merely  i 
divinely  ordained  conditions  of  grace.  Hence  the 
benefit  came  not  from  the  sacrament  as  such,  but 
directly  from  (jod.  Nor  do  the  sacraments  confer 
any  spiritual  quality  upon  the  recijuent ;  but  he 
<leclared,  that,  just  as  the  stamp  of  the  mint  sets  a 
certain  value  upon  a  coin,  so  the  sacraments  set 
the  divine  seal  upon  an  existing  relation  between 
God  and  man.  He  divided  tlie  sacraments  into 
two  classes :  those  strictly  such,  and  those  such 
only  in  a  wider  sense.  Among  the  latter  he  puts 
marriage.  He  disputed  the  current  scholastic 
teaching  resjiecting  trtinstihslannation,  which  lie 
declared  to  be  un.scriptural  and  unintelligible, 
and  preferred  to  say  •traiisj'ormalion,  since  the 
material  of  the  bread  changed  its  form,  and  took 
on  that  of  the  Body  of  Clirist.  By  these  views 
he  prepared  the  way  for  the  reformers  of  the  six- 
tee:ith  century.  See  reviews  of  his  ideas  in  the 
liistories  of  philosophy  by  Stockl,  I'ebkrwko, 
Haure.vu,  Pkantl,  and  J.  Lauxoy  :  S>/llalms 
ratidiiuiii,  etc.  (a  defence  of  Duraiid),  in  Opera, 
vol.  I.  ]iars  1,  Geneva,  16:5(i.         wagenmann. 

DURAND,  Guillaume,  suruamed  Speculator ;  b. 
at  Puimoisson,  in  Pnjveuce,  about  1230;  d.  in 
Home,  129G;  taught  canon  law  at  Modena;  was 
by  Gregory  X.  sent  as  legate  to  the  Council  of 
Lyons  (1274),  and  wrote  Rationale  ilirinorum 
officiormii,  Mayence,  1453,  of  which  the  first  part. 
The  Si/mhotixin  of  Churches  and  Church  Ornaments, 
has  been  translated  into  English  by  J.  M.  Jveale 
and  B.  Webb,  Leeds,  1843  ;  Speculum  Juris,  Rome, 
1474  (whence  his  surname);  besides  several  other 
juridical  works. 

DURBIN,  John  Price,  D.D,,  b.  in  Bourbon 
County,  Kentucky,  1800;  d.  Oct.  17,  1876.  From 
1834  to  1845  he  was  president  of  Dickinson  Col- 
lege. He  was  a  most  eloquent  preacher,  and  an 
efficient  secretary  of  the  Missionary  Society  in 
the  Methodist-Episcopal  Church  from  1850  to 
1872.  He  wrote  Obsercatiuns  in  Europe,  N.Y., 
1844,  2  vols.,  and  Oliseroations  in  E(/i/pt,  Palestine, 
S;/ria,  and  Asia  Minor,  N.Y.,  1845,  2  vols. 

DURY,  John  (Durie,  Durye,  Duraeus),  is  gener- 
ally supposed  to  have  been  born  in  Scotland, 
altliough  Whitlock,  in  his  Memorials,  represents 
that  he  was  of  German  birth.  Possibly  he  was 
born  of  Scotch  parents  settled  in  Germany.  At 
all  events,  he  is  first  known  as  minister  of  the 
English  company  of  merchants  at  Elbing  in 
Prussia,  whence  in  1628  he  addressed  a  letter  to 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden,  "for  tlie 
obtaining  of  aid  and  assistance  in  this  seasonable 
time,  to  seek  for  and  re-establish  an  ecclesiastical 
peace  among  the  evangelical  churches."  This 
was  the  beginning  of  his  life-work  as  the  great 
peacemaker  of  his  century.  He  received  encour- 
agement from  the  pastors  of  Danzig,  and  went  to 
England  with  favorable  letters  from  them  in 
1630,  and  succeeded  in  enlisting  Sir  Thomas 
Kowe,  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  the 
Bishop  of  London,  in  his  cau.se.  In  1631  he  re- 
turned to  the  Continent,  and  received  letters  of 
commendation  from  the  king  of  Sweden,  and 
prosecuted  his  work  among  divines  in  Hesse, 
Hanau,  and  the  Palatinate,  and  especially  before 


the  meeting  of  the  Protestant  States  at  Heilbronn 
and  Frankfort,  and  corrosjionded  with  the  chief 
universities  of  (lermany  and  Holland.  In  1633 
he  again  went  to  Kngland,  and  conferred  with 
Archbishop  Laud,  and  received  declarations  from 
Bishops  !^l()l■toIl,  Hall,  and  Davenant,  which  he 
published  in  1634,  in  connection  with  a  treati.se, 
Sententia-  de  P(U'is  rationilius  inter  Krani/elicos  (also 
apart  in  1638,  and  in  English  in  1641).  He 
returned  to  the  Continent  to  the  meeting  of  the 
Protestant  States  at  Frankfort,  which  ]ias.sed  a 
resolution  that  they  "ilid  judge  his  work  mo.st 
laudable,  most  acceptable  to  (iod,  and  most  neces- 
sary and  useful  to  the  Church."  Once  more  re- 
turning to  England,  he  received  encouragement 
from  King  Charles  I.,  and  went  with  commen- 
dations to  the  Continent,  visiting  the  States  of 
Holland,  the  various  classes,  synods,  and  universi- 
ties, passing  then  into  Germany,  and  through  Swe- 
den and  Denmark,  everywhere  winning  friends 
to  his  cause  (from  1635  to  1640).  Among  these, 
Calixtus  of  Helmstadt  was  most  energetic.  In 
1639  he  presented  to  Sir  Thomas  Kowe  a  Sum- 
mar;/  Discourse  concerning  the  work  of  Peace 
Ecclesiastical  (published  1641).  He  passed  over 
into  Phigland  in  1641,  and  jire.sented  a  petition  to 
the  House  of  Commons,  urging  "  that  the  blessed 
and  long-sought4'or  union  of  Protestant  churclies 
may  be  recommended  unto  the  publick  prayers 
of  the  church,"  and  "  that  his  majesty  with  your 
honour's  advice  and  counsell,  might  be  moved  to 
call  a  general  synod  of  Protestants  in  due  time, 
for  tlie  better  settling  of  weighty  matters  in  the 
church  which  now  troidile  not  only  the  con- 
sciences of  most  men,  but  disturb  the  tranquillity 
of  publick  states,  and  divide  the  churches  one 
from  another,  to  the  great  hindrance  of  Chris- 
tianity and  the  dishonour  of  Religion."  He  also 
issued  a  Memorial  concerning  Peace  Ecclesiastical, 
in  1641,  addres.sed  "To  the  King  of  England  and 
the  Pastors  and  elders  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland 
meeting  at  St.  Andrews."  .Soon  after,  he  ac- 
cepted the  position  of  chaplain  to  the  princess 
royal  of  England  at  the  Hague,  and  then  became 
pastor  of  the  English  Church  at  Rotterdam.  The 
commencement  of  the  civil  wars  in  England  dis- 
turbed all  his  plans.  But  he  did  not  weary  in 
his  efforts.  He  became  a  member  of  tlie  A\'est- 
minster  Assembly  of  Divines,  and  was  diligent 
in  his  labors  for  peace.  He  took  part  in  the  dis- 
cussion with  the  Independents,  publishing  in 
1644  Aji  Epistolary  Discourse,  discussing  how 
far  and  vitli  what  limitations  Independents 
should  be  tolerated.  In  1647  he  issued  A  model 
of  Church  Gorernment.  In  1649,  by  the  recom- 
mendation of  Parliament,  lie  became  the  Libra- 
rian of  St.  .Tames,  under  the  supervision  of  \\'hit- 
lock,  and  issued  in  1650  The  Reformed  Lihrari/ 
Keeper,  and  other  kindred  publications.  He  pro- 
tested and  labored  against  the  execution  of  the 
king,  and  with  the  Presbyterians,  although  with 
an  irenic  spirit.  He  thus  brought  on  himself 
the  ridicule  of  Prynne,  who  calls  him  "the  time- 
serving Proteus,  and  ambidexter  divine."  In 
reply  he  published  in  1650  a  tract,  in  which  he 
vindicates  himself  as  "the  unchanged,  constant, 
and  single-hearted  peacemaker."  Under  the  Com- 
monwealth he  persevered  in  his  irenic  efforts, 
assembling  the  Presbyterian  and  Congregational 
ministers  of  Loudon   on  several  occasions,  "to 


DUTOIT. 


678 


DWIGHT. 


compare  their  own  differences,  and  join  with  nie 
in  the  design  of  my  negotiations  towards  the 
churches."  A  declaration  was  penned,  and  sulv 
scribed  by  the  heads  of  the  universities  and  tlie 
ministers"  of  London,  both  Congregational  and 
Presbyterian,  authorizing  him  to  advocate  that 
business  among  the  churches  in  their  name ;  and, 
securing  the  support  of  Cromwell,  he  journeyed 
to  the  Swiss  churches  for  the  pwpose.  He  issued 
in  1654  An  earnest  plea  fw  gospel  Comviunion, 
and  also  A  summarie  Platform  of  the  heads  of  a 
body  of'  Practicall  Divinity. 

He  renewed  his  efforts  at  the  Restoration 
through  Lord  Chancellor  Hide  and  the  Earl  of 
Manchester,  but  in  vain,  and  left  England  to 
spend  the  rest  of  his  life  on  the  Continent.  In 
166'2  he  issued  in  Amsterdam  his  Irenicormn 
Traclatuum  Frodromus,  and  continued  to  work  in 
a  more  quiet  way  until  an  advanced  age.  In 
1674  he  issued  at  Frankfort  Maniere  d'expliijuer 
r Apocalypse  par  elle  meme,  etc.,  and  seems  to  have 
died  soon  after  at  Hesse,  where  he  enjoyed  the 
protection  and  support  of  the  Princess  Sopliia. 
For  furtlier  information  we  refer  to  A  hrief  Rela- 
tion of  that  which  hath  been  lately  attempted  to  pro- 
cure Eccl.  Peace  among  Protestants,  by  Samuel 
Ilartlib,  Lond.,  1641 ;  A  declaration  of  John  Durie, 
Lond.,  1660;  Reid's  Alemoirs  of  Westtninster  Di- 
vines, Paisley,  1811 ;  and  Clialmer's  Biographical 
Dicliiinury.    '  C.  A.  BRIGGS. 

DUTCH.     See  Holland;  Reformed  Chui!C1i. 

DUTIES,  Conflict  of,  is  a  misnomer,  strictly 
speaking  ;  for  duty  is  always  the  one  thing  to  bo 
done  :  lience  there  cannot  be  several  duties  which 
clasli.  But  the  phrase  as  used  leally  means  that 
one  is  in  doubt  what  to  do,  or  that  tlie  conflict 
is  between  duty  and  inclination :  as  soon  as  duty 
is  obeyed,  the  conflict  ceases.  The  supposed  col-  i 
lision  of  duties  occupied  large  space  in  books  of 
casuistry ;  but  the  plirase  .should  vani.sli,  as  the 
thing  it  expresses  is  iniaginarv. 

DUTOIT,  or  DUTOlf-MEMBRINI,  Jean  Phi- 
lippe, b.  at  Moudon,  in  the  canton  of  Vaud,  I'L'l ; 
d.  at  l.ausiume,  Jan.  "Jl,  1703;  has  interest  botli 
as  a  local  revivalist  of  considerable  power,  and  as 
a  representative  of  mysticism  within  tlie  pale  of 
the  French  Reformed  Clnnch.  He  studied  the- 
olog\'  at  Lausanne,  and  became  (in  1750)  ac- 
quainted witli  the  works  of  Madame  Guyon, 
which  made  a  great  imjiression  njion  him.  To 
him  Madame  rhiyon  is  a  dicrub,  a  seraph,  etc.  ; 
and  licr  works  are  sacred  liooks,  divine  writings, 
inspired  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  divine  logos. 
Nevertheless,  the  practical  tendencies  of  his  Prot- 
estant and  biblical  stand-point  preserved  him 
from  the  extreujes  of  (juieti.sni.  Though  he 
never  oceiipieil  any  official  position  in  the  church, 
he  was  a,  frefiuent  and  very  succes.sful  preacher. 
He  actually  drove  Voltaire  out  of  Lausanne. 
After  1750  lie  ceased  to  )>reacli,  on  account  of  ill 
health  ;  and  a  circle  of  friends  then  began  to 
form  around  him,  and  spread  his  infhuMice  among 
the  nias.ses,  not  without  some  cliicaneries  from 
tlir'  friends  of  Voltaire,  but  without  any  .serious 
imi>ediment.  His  two  principal  works  are  Phi- 
losophic ilivinc  (17!)3,  ;!  vols.)  and  Philosophic 
chre'liiiinc  (1800-19,  4  vols).  He  also  jiuhlished  a 
new  edition  of  the  Letters  of  Miidawc  (Juyon,  aug- 
mented with  (he  Corrrspondnnce  secrete  ilc  M. 
dt   Ftnelon   avcc  I'auleur,   London.   1767.   5   vols. 


See  Jules  Chavanxes  :  Jean  Philippe  Dutoit. 
Lausanne,  1865.  ItERZOG. 

DUTY.     See  Kthrs. 

DUVEIL,  Charles  Maria,  b.  at  Metz,  Lorraine; 
d.  in  London  about  1700.  He  was  born  a  Jew. 
and  educated  in  that  faith :  but  study  led  him 
successively  to  enter  the  Roman-Catholic,  the 
Episcopal,  and  the  Baptist  churches.  His  woiks 
embrace  a  Literal  Exposition  of  the  Canticles  (Lon- 
don, 1079,  in  Latin),  and  (in  English)  Literal 
Exposition  of  the  Minor  Prophets  (London,  1680). 
A  Literal  Exjilanation  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
(London,  16f^5,  new  ed..  London,  1851). 

DUVERCIER,  DE  HAURANNE,  Jean,  generally 
known  under  the  name  of  St.  Cyran,  was  b.  at 
Bayonne,  1581,  and  d.  in  Paris  Oct.  11,  1643. 
While  he  studied  at  Louvain,  lie  Viecame  ac- 
quainted with  Jansen  ;  and  jierl'ectly  agreeing  in 
their  contempt  of  schola^tici.sni,  and  enthusiasm 
for  the  fathers,  especially  Augustine,  they  spent 
several  years  together  at  Bayonne  (1611-10),  and 
afterwards  maintained  an  intimate  correspondence 
through  life.  In  1620  Duvergier  was  made  abboti 
of  the  Monastery  of  St.  Cyran.  at  Brenne,  in 
Poitou ;  but  the  severity  of  his  reforms,  and  his 
violence  in  introducing  them,  caused  such  an 
opposition  that  he  left  his  abbey,  and  settled  in 
Paris.  Having  been  ajipointed  court-preacher 
and  confessor  to  Henrietta  of  France  (married  to 
Charles  1.  of  England),  he  undertook  to  re-organize 
the  Roman-Catholic  Church  in  England  after  the 
model  of  the  Gallican  Chnrcli,  and  wrote  a  work 
upon  the  subject  (Petrii  Aunlii  Theologi  opera), 
which  ■nas  accepted  by  the  general  convocation 
of  the  French  clergy,  luit  which  brought  him  into 
strife  with  the  .lesuits.  In  103.")  he  was  made 
confessor  and  director  of  the  Abbey  of  Port  Royal; 
and  tlie  reforms  he  succeeded  in  introducing  tliere 
form  the  great  work  of  his  life.  But  the  jealousy 
and  hatred  of  the  Jesuits,  once  aroused,  continued 
to  pursue  him;  and  in  1638,  .a  few  days  after  the 
death  of  .lanseii,  he  was  arrested  by  order  of 
Richelieu,  and  kept  imprisoned  at  A'incennes 
until  the  death  of  the  cardinal,  Feb.  0,  1643. 
One  of  his  principal  works  is  his  Sommc  des  failles, 
written  in  10"J5  against  the  .Jesuit  (iarasse.  See 
Saintk-15]-.ivk.  :  Ilislolre  de  Port-Royal,  Paris, 
184(Mi(l. 

DWIGHT,  Timothy,  an  eminent  American 
teacher,  preacher,  and  theologian  ;  b.  at  North- 
ampton, .Mass.,  j\Iay  14,  17.')"-';  d.  at  \ew  Ilaven, 
.Ian.  11,  1817.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of 
.Jonathan  Edwards.  Dwight  was  graduated  at 
Vale  College  in  170!),  where  lie  was  a  tutor  from 
1771  to  1777.  For  more  than  a  year  he  was 
a  chaplain  in  the  army  of  the  Revolution.  From 
1783  to  I7fl5  he  was  at  the  head  of  an  academy 
in  (ireenfield.  Conn.  From  1795  to  his  death  he 
was  president  of  Yale  College,  where  he  acquired 
a  very  high  reputation  as  an  instructor  and  al.so 
as  a  preacher.  His  sermons  in  the  college  chajiel 
constituted  a  .^iy.stem  of  divinity,  and  were  i>ul>- 
lislied,  with  a  jn'ef-atory  memoir,  in  1818,  under 
the  title  of  Theology  Ex/ilained  and  Difcndcd. 
This  work  attained  to  great  i>opularity,  not  only 
in  this  country,  but  al.so  in  Great  Britain.  It 
taught  a  moderate  Calvinism,  with  an  avoidance 
of  extreme  statements,  but  in  general  consonance 
with  the  Fdwardean  or  Xew -England  theology. 
Its  freedom  from  metapliysical  refinements,  and 


DWIGHT. 


679 


DWIGHT. 


the  warmth  of  Christian  fet'liiifr  pervading  it,  con- 
tribwted  to  its  wiilo  diffusion.  President  Dwiglit, 
in  tlie  earlier  part  of  his  life,  published  two  ex- 
tended poems,  —  77ie  Conquest  of  Canaan  (178.')) 
and  Greenfield  Hill  (1701).  These  are  not  read 
at  the  present  day;  but  liis  hymn,  "I  love  thy 
kingdom.  Lord,"  is  used  wherever  the  English 
language  is  spoken.  Other  writings  of  Dr.  Dwight 
are  Travels  in  New  England  (1S22,  4  vols.),  Ser- 
mons on.  Miscellaneous  Suhjecls  (1828,  2  vols.), 
besides  minor  publications.  The  fame  of  Dr. 
Dwight  in  his  own  time  was  due  in  no  small 
degree  to  his  conversational  powers,  his  impres- 
sive eloquence  as  a  preacher,  and  his  uncommon 
influence  as  an  instructor  of  youth.  (.Sprague's 
Annals  of  the  American  Pulpit,  Sprague's  Life 
of  Dwight,  and  Memoir  prefixed  to  his  System  of 
Theology.)  Q.  P.  FISUEB. 


DWIGHT,  Sereno  Edwards,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, li.  at  drceiifield,  Conn.,  May  18,  178(1;  <\.  at 
riuladel])!iia,  Nov.  30,  1850.  lie  was  graduated 
at  Yale  College,  1803;  tutor  there  1S0(J-10,  and 
a  lawyer  lSlO-1.").  In  1810  he  entered  the  min- 
istry; 1817-26  was  pastor  of  the  Park-street 
church,  Boston,  resigned  on  account  of  health; 
1828-31  taught  in  New  Haven;  1833-3.'5  was 
president  of  Hamilton  College,  Xew  York.  "He 
was  an  able  preaclier,  a  good  writer,  and  a  capti- 
vating teacher."  His  most  cekdirated  work  was 
T)ie  llehreiv  Wife  (an  essay  on  the  lawfulness  of 
marriage  with  a  deceased  wife's  sister),  183<J. 
He  also  wrote  a  life  of  his  great-grandfatlier, 
Jonathan  Edwards,  prefaced  to  his  edition  of 
Edwards's  works  in  10  vols.,  N.\'.,  1830.  See 
Memoir  by  his  brother,  Rev.  Dr.  W.  T.  Dwight, 
in  a  volume  of  Select  Discourses,  1851. 


THE    DIDACHE. 

The  new  articles  in  the  supplementary  volume  xvii.  of  the  rovioed  edition  of  Hcrzog,  which  appeared  November,  1886,  havo 
been  anticipated  partly  in  the  third  volume  of  this  Encyclopedia,  partly  in  the  Dklimiari/  of  Contemporary  Divinet  (Abbott, 
Dorner,  Lange,  etc.),  except  the  following  article  of  Dr.  Hariiack,  on  the  newly  discovered  htdachr.,  which  hafl  also  appeared 
as  a  separate  pamphlet  under  the  title :  Die  ApoKtellehre  uud  die  Jiidisr/ien  beiden  Wege,  Leipzig,  1886.  It  ought  to  be  In- 
serted ou  p.  Go",  but  for  convenience'  salie  is  placed  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 


DIDACHE,  or  The  Teaching  of  the  Apostles, 

a  document  discovered  by  Bryennios,  in  the  Jeru- 
salem Convent  at  Constantinople,  in  the  year  1873, 
but  not  published  until  the  close  of  1883.  It 
then  appeared  with  his  prolegomena  and  notes, 
and  at  once  awakened  extraordinary  and  well- 
grounded  interest  in  all  parts  of  Christendom,  so 
that  in  two  years  the  number  of  works  upon  it, 
including  editions,  translations,  essays,  and  long- 
er and  shorter  articles,  constituted  a  special  liter- 
ature of  about  two  hundred  numbers.  It  is 
indeed  of  the  greatest  importance  for  the  earliest 
church  history. 

1.  Contents  and  Arranrjement.  — It  is  in  two,  or 
perhaps  rather  three,  parts,  of  which  the  first  con- 
tains the  laws  of  Christian  morality,  and  brief 
instrtictions  in  the  specific  eccle.siastical  acts 
which  gave  Christian  character  to  the  Church 
(chaps.  1-10)  ;  the  second,  directions  for  churchly 
intercourse  and  life  (chaps.  11-15);  while  the 
closing  chapter  (chap.  16)  is  an  exhortation  to 
be  ready  for  the  coming  of  the  Lord.  The  first 
part,  again,  contains,  in  close  connection  (1)  in 
chaps.  l-(i,  under  the  form  of  a  description  of 
the  "  Two  Ways,"  the  way  of  life  and  the  way  of 
death,  the  laws  of  Christian  morality ;  while  (2) 
in  chap.  7,  Baptism  ;  (3)  in  chap.  8,  fasting  and 
daily  prayer;  and  (4)  in  chaps.  9,  10,  the  eucha- 
ristic  prayers,  are  treated.  In  regard  to  specific 
points :  Baptism  should  be  preceded  by  fasting ; 
the  Lord's  Prayer  should  be  said  three  times  every 
day ;  the  Lord's  Supper  .should  be  partaken  of 
only  by  the  baptized;  and  the  "  Prophets"  were  at 
liberty  to  use,  instead  of  the  Eucharistic  prayers 
given,  such  thanksgivings  as  they  would.  The 
second  part  lays  down  rules  for  the  treatment  of 
the  teachers  of  the  Divine  Word  and  the  peripa- 
tetic brethren,  and  gives  distinguishing  tests  of 

•  their  character,  and  also  the  ordinances  each  con- 
gregation should  observe. 

2.  Title,  Address,  and  Purport.  —  Originally  the 
title  was,  "  The  Teaching  of  the  Lord,  through 
the  Twelve  Apostles,  to  the  Nations ;  "  but  this 
was  shortened  to  "  The  Teaching  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles,"  and  the  Twelve  were  considered  the 
authors.  (See  the  facsimile  of  the  heading  and  the 
first  line,  in  Schaff's  edition,  p.  -1.)  By  "the  na- 
tions "  are  meant  the  Christians  who  have  come 
from  heathenism,  just  as  the  epistle  "to  the  He- 
brews "  is  addressed  to  the  Christians  who  have 
come  from  Judaism .  The  document,  consequently, 
is  not  addressed  to  catechumens,  —  for  it  is  cer- 
tainly not  at  all  adapted  to  lead  persons  to  Chris- 
tianity,—  but  to  those  already  Christian,  who 
might  learn  from  it  how  they  should  conduct 
their  lives  upon  gospel  principles,  and  what  they 
were  to  impress  on  the  newly  won  brethren. 

6376 


3.  Transmission  in  the  Manuscript,  and  Integrity. — 
The  present  text  has  comparatively  few  errors, 
yet  the  appearance  of  the  document  in  later  re- 
censions has  raised  suspicions  whether  it  is  so 
free  from  interpolations  as  it  seems  to  be. 

4.  Language  and  Vocabulary.  —  Its  idiom  is  Hel- 
lenistic, more  exactly  the  idiom  of  the  .Septuagint 
in  the  poetical  books,  and  that  of  the  Old-Testa- 
ment Apocrypha.  There  are  numerous  Hebraisms, 
but  the  Greek  is  better  than  that  of  Hennas.  The 
style  is  simple,  popular,  and  concise.  The  docu- 
ment contains  2,190  words  (about  10,700  letters), 
552  different  words.  Of  these,  504  are  foimd  also 
in  the  New  Testament;  38  of  the  remaining  48,  in 
the  Septuagint,  Barnabas,  or  other  older  Greek 
writers. 

5.  Sources.  —  There  is  no  known  primitive 
Christian  writing  which,  so  original  in  disposition 
and  form,  is  so  dependent  upon  older  writings. 
But  the  author  avows  his  dependence,  for  he  seeks 
merely  to  set  forth  the  teaching  of  the  Lord 
through  the  twelve  apostles,  and  finds  no  room 
for  his  own  ideas.  There  are  eight  expre.ss  quota- 
tions :  two  (14:  3;  16  :  7)  from  the  Old  Testament, 
five  (8:2;  9:5;  11:3;  15:  3,  4)  from  the  Gospel, 
and  one  (1:6)  from  some  Sacred  Scripture  to  us 
unknown.  The  Old  Testament  is,  moreover,  fre- 
quently drawn  upon  in  the  first  five  chapters,  not 
only  the  Decalogue  but  the  Old-Testament  Wisdom 
literature  (Proverbs,  Sirach,  Tobit,  etc.).  The 
Old  Testament  alone  is  "  Sacred  Scripture :  "  of  a 
New-Testament  Canon  there  is  no  trace.  Yet  the 
author  does  not  merely  in  the  five  cited  places 
draw  from  the  written  Gospel :  he  weaves  into  his 
writing  throughout  references  and  longerorshorter 
citations,  twenty-three  in  all,  from  what  he  calls 
"the  Gospel,"  and  which  he  presupposes  his  readers 
know.  Seventeen  of  the  twenty-three  citations  are 
from  Matthew;  but  it  must  not  be  therefrom  con- 
cluded that  "  the  Gospel "  is  simply  Matthew,  for 
other  citations  are  plainly  combinations  of  the 
text  of  Matthew  and  Luke,  —  text-combinations 
strikingly  like  the  text  of  Tatian's  Diatessaron. 
In  the  citations  there  is  no  trace  of  John's  Gospel ; 
but  the  Eucharistic  service  is  conceived  on  the 
lines  of  John  6th,  without,  however,  directly  bor- 
rowing any  thing  from  that  chapter  or  the  17th. 
The  Pauline  Epistles  are  not  cited,  or  anywhere 
plainly  u.sed  ;  yet  traces  of  their  acquaintance  are 
possible.  More  important  are  certain  resem- 
blances to  Jude  and  2  Peter.  There  is  no  trace 
of  any  acquaintance  with  the  Pastoral  Epistles. 
The  much-disputed  question,  as  to  the  relation 
of  the  "  Teaching  "  to  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  and 
the  Shepherd  of  Hermas,  is  to  be  thus  answered : 
It  is  in  the  highest  degree  probable  that  Barnabas 
is  prior  to  the  "Teaching,"  for  these  reasons: 


THE   DIDACHfi. 


.chaps.  1:1,  2;  2:2-7;  3:7-6:2,  of  the  "Teach- 
ing" agree  substantially,  if  not  verbally,  with 
Barnabas  lS-20;  but  the  order  of  the  phrases  is 
different,  and  while  that  in  Barnabas  is  confused 
tliat  in  the  "  Teaching  "  is  clear.  In  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  "  Two  Ways,"  the  "  Teaching  "  offers 
further  (1)  in  chap.  1 :2-5,  a  series  of  evangelical 
sayings ;  (2)  in  1 : 6,  a  fragment  from  an  un- 
known older  writing ;  (3)  in  3  : 1-G,  a  section  imi- 
tated from  the  Old-Testament  Wisdom  literature  ; 
(4)  in  2  :  2,  3,  5,  6  ;  3  :  8  ;  4  :  2,  8,  14,  a  series  of 
larger  or  smaller  additions  to  the  sections  com- 
mon to  it  and  Barnabas.  Barnabas,  on  the  other 
hand,  offers  in  the  chapters  in  question  only  a 
couple  of  phrases  (chap.  19:2,  3,  8),  an  unintel- 
ligible sentence  (chap.  19:4),  and  some  words, 
more  than  that  given  in  the  "  Teaching."  Now, 
when,  of  two  writers,  A  brings  material  called  say 
Hi,  but  C  brings  m  -f-  n,  it  cannot  be  decided  apriori, 
who  is  the  surety  for  the  other,  since  omissions 
are  as  possible  as  additions ;  but  when  C  expressly 
calls  his  writing  a  compilation,  and  further  states 
that  it  has  been  borrowed,  then  it  is  impossible 
to  consider  the  writing  of  A  as  an  extract  from  C. 
Further,  chap.  16  of  the  "  Teaching  "  is  in  verses 
1  and  3-8,  confessedly  a  mere  compilation  of 
evangelical  passages  and  Zech.  14:5,  together 
with  a  tradition  of  the  Antichrist.  But  verse  2 
does  not  come  thence,  but  has  in  Barnabas  4  :  10,  9, 
an  almost  verbally  exact  parallel.  Now,  were  Bar- 
nabas later,  he  surely  would  have  appropriated  the 
only  verse  in  this  passage  of  the  "Teaching"  which 
is  peculiar.  Is  it  credible  that  he  would  not? 
Hence  it  is  alone  probable,  that,  since  all  the  other 
verses  of  chap.  16  are  borrowed,  this  verse  (16:2) 
is  also  borrowed.  Further  (and  this  appears  to 
me  to  be  stUl  more  decisive  of  the  priority  of  Bar- 
nabas), the  author  of  Barnabas  is  of  the  con- 
viction that  the  last  times  have  already  come 
(chap.  4:3,  9) :  the  author  of  the  "  Teaching," 
on  the  other  hand,  is  not  of  this  opinion.  For 
the  foregoing  reasons,  the  judgment  must  be,  that 
the  "  Teaching  "  as  it  now  is  given  in  the  Con- 
stantinopolitaii  MS.  is  secondary  to  Barnabas, 
and  is  either  dependent  upon  it,  or  from  materials 
already  used  by  Barnabas ;  and  the  possibility  is 
excluded  that  Barnabas  copied  from  the  "  Teach- 
ing "  as  we  have  it  in  tlie  Constantinopolitan  MS. 
The  relation  between  the  "  Teaching "  and  Her- 
mas  is  more  uncertain.  There  are  only  two  par- 
allels, Teacli.  1:5,  cf.  Maud.  ii.  4-6,  and  the  very 
doubtful  one  Teach.  5,  cf.  Mand.  viii.  3-5.  That 
the  "  Teaching  "  had  Hernias  as  source,  may  not 
be  safely  affirmed,  in  view  of  the  variations  in 
these  passages  in  different  recensions;  but  the 
opposite  is  certainly  excluded.  Lately,  American, 
Englisli,  and  French  scholars  have  Wrought  for- 
ward numerous  parallels  to  cliaps.  1-5  from  Pliilo, 
Pseudo-Phokylides,  the  Sibylline  books,  and  of 
especial  value  from  the  Talmud  and  Midrash. 
If,  from  these  chapters,  chap.  1  : 3-6  be  omitted, 
tlien  the  remainder  has  alrao.st  nothing  specifically 
Christian  about  it,  and  the  little  it  lias  can  be 
shown  by  the  n.se  of  other  original  doeuments  to 
lie  additions.  Therefore  it  is  an  extremely  prolia- 
lile  conjecture,  that  the  "Two  Ways  "  is  a  Jewisli 
production,  intended  for  proselyti^s,  derived  from 
tlie  Decalogue  and  an  amplification  of  its  com- 
mands, whicli  along  with  tlic  Old  Testami'nt  has 
come  over  into  the  Christian  Church. 


6.  Author's  Standpoint.  —  This  much-discussed 
point  is  commonly  decided  by  saying  that  it  was 
Jewish  Christian,  in  the  sense  that  its  author  be- 
longs to  a  circle  detached  from  the  Gentile  Chris- 
tians, and  attached  in  some  way  to  the  Jews  as  a 
nation.  But  the  idea  is  false  and  misleading. 
The  facts  are  these :  (1)  The  author  maintains  com- 
plete silence  upon  circumcision  and  all  the  other 
Jewish  rites ;  (2)  he  calls  the  Jews,  in  the  two 
places  where  he  mentions  them,  "  hypocrites,"  and 
warns  against  fasting  on  the  same  day  with  them  ; 
(3)  not  a  word  is  said  of  observing  the  Mosaic 
law,  nor  is  preference  shown  to  any  nation  in 
Christendom;  (4)  in  the  long  eschatological  sec- 
tion (chap.  16),  taken  from  Matthew,  the  passages 
referring  to  Jerusalem,  the  Jewish  people,  and  the 
temple  are  wanting,  nor  is  there  any  mention  of 
a  glorious  kingdom  in  Palestine,  although  the 
author  presupposes  a  visible  kingdom  of  Christ,  as 
his  belief  in  a  double  resurrection  proves;  (5) 
Matthew  and  Luke,  or  a  recension  of  them,  and 
not  the  Gospel  to  tlie  Hebrews,  are  used,  perhaps 
also  the  Pauline  Epistles ;  (6)  Jesus  is  not  called 
the  Son,  but  the  God,  of  David ;  (7)  the  "  Teach- 
ing" passed  over  into  the  use  of  the  Catholic 
Church. 

The  arguments  of  Schaff  for  the  Jewish-Chris- 
tian but  not  anti- Pauline  character  of  the  "Teach- 
ing," with  our  answers  to  them,  are  these :  (1) 
Only  the  Twelve,  but  not  the  Apostle  Paul,  are 
named.  —  But  in  this  respect  the  author's  usage  is 
similar  to  that  of  many  undoubtedly  Gentile  Chris- 
tian writers,  before  the  close  of  the  New-Testa- 
ment Canon.  (2)  Tlie  style  and  phraseology  are 
Hebraistic.  —  But  that  is  not  remarkable  in  view 
of  the  Jewish  origin  of  Christianity,  and  the  use  of 
the  Old  Testament.  (3)  The  author  calls  the 
prophets  "high  priests."  —  But  this  was  the  rule 
among  the  Gentile  Christians.  (4)  He  demands 
the  first  fruits  for  the  prophets.  —  So  did  Paul,  the 
Gentile  Christian  Church  of  the  earliest  times, 
and  especially  after  Justin's  day.  (5)  He  warns 
against  fasting  with  the  Jews  on  Monday  and 
Thursday,  enjoins  fasts  on  Wednesday  and  Fri- 
day, and  names  Friday  TapaoKnti,  and  uses  Jewish 
divisions  of  times.  —  But  even  if  tlie  author  had 
set  the  fasts  upon  the  Jewish  fast-days,  this  would 
have  been  no  sign  of  Jewish  Christendom,  any 
more  than  the  practice  of  the  Quartodecimanians 
was :  the  consideration  of  the  week  in  a  religious 
sense  explains  the  use  of  the  Jewish  names  for 
the  days,  and  he  is  entirely  silent  respecting  the 
sabbatli.  (6)  The  injunction  thrice  daily  to  re- 
peat the  Lord's  Prayer  is  plainly  adapted  from 
Jewisli  custom.  —  But  besides  what  has  been  said 
under  (5),  it  should  be  remarked,  that  we  do  not 
know  exactly  what  hours  for  prayer  were  in  the 
author's  mind,  and  that,  even  if  he  had  enjoined 
the  Jewish  hours,  that  would  not  have  been  specifi- 
cally .Jewish  Christian.  (7)  The  author  conceives 
of  Christianity  substantially  as  the  highest  moral- 
ity: he  is  a  moralist  in  (lie  better  sense  of  the 
word,  like  James  and  .Matthew;  to  (he  former, 
indeed,  he  is  spiritually  allied,  and  almost  entirely 
ignores  the  atoning  dc^atli  of  Christ  and  the  mys- 
teries of  the  faith.  —  To  answer  this  argument 
would  t;ike  too  much  space;  cf.  Harnack's  Dog- 
7m'>i(/e.schichle,  1  :  61  sij(i.,  101)  sqi].,  21 5  scjcp  (8)  The 
author  does  not  attack  the  Jowisli  religion.  —  But 
Ihen  he  attacks  nobody.      (9)  He  not  only  lays 


THE  DIDACIIfi. 


stress  upon  the  (Jewish  Christian)  prohibition  of 
meat  offered  to  idols,  but  acts  fortii  the  oliservance 
of  the  Jewisli  laws  respectiiifir  food  as  the  suniuiit 
of  Christian  perfection,  althouEfh  not  then  indis- 
pensable. —  To  forbid  meat  offered  to  idols  was 
universal  in  Christian  churches  in  the  empire, 
after  the  first  centui'y  :  cf.  Keim,  Aus  dem  Urchris- 
Iptilhuin,  pp.  88  sqq. ;  and,  as  for  the  second  point, 
no  one  ever  made  such  a  claim,  for  by  "  food,"  in 
chap  G  :  3,  is  most  certainly  meant,  not  the  Jewish 
but  the  ascetic  regulations,  as  Schiirer,  the  high- 
est authority  upon  Jewish  ordinances,  maintains. 
The  standpoint  of  the  author  of  the  "  Teaching  " 
is  that  of  ordinary  Gentile  Christianity. 

7.  Time  and  Place  of  Composition.  —  Internal 
evidence  cannot  decide  the  time,  because  the 
"  Teaching  "  is  avowedly  a  compilation,  and  some 
of  its  sources  are  very  old.  External  evidence 
proves  that  it  nmst  be  before  105  A.D.,  for 
Clemens  Alexandrinus  quotes  it  as  "  Scripture." 
A  number  of  negative  facts  taken  tor/ether  show 
that  it  is  earlier  than  ICO  A.D.,  for  it  shows  no 
traces  of  the  following :  (1)  a  New-Testament 
Canon,  or  of  the  authority  of  the  Pauline  Epistles ; 

(2)  a  regula  fidei  a,\\A  regular  dogmatic  instruction  ; 

(3)  a  monarclucal  episcopate :  there  are  only  bishops 
and  deacons,  and  the  first  rijte  in  tlie  congregation 
is  given  not  to  them,  but  to  the  prophets  and 
teachers;  (4)  an  ordered  church  service,  like  that 
to  which  Justin  testifies ;  (5)  a  regular  adminis- 
trator of  baptism,  while  it  gives  the  congregation 
authority  to  depose  bishops  and  deacons,  etc. ; 

(6)  symbolical  ceremonies  accompanying  baptism ; 

(7)  a  yearly  Easter  festival ;  (8)  prohibition  of 
blood  and  things  strangled  ;  (9)  tithe  ordinances ; 
(10)  excommunication  ;  (11)  Alontanism,  and  (12) 
the  characterization  of  heretics;  (13)  any  refer- 
ence to  the  church  as  in  the  midst  of  a  heathen 
and  hostile  world.  Other  marks  seem  to  fit  it 
better  in  the  time  between  A.D.  SO  and  120  than 
between  A.D.  120-160;  e.g.,  its  treatment  of 
apostles,  prophets,  and  teachers.  But  we  must 
guard  against  giving  definite  dates  to  documents 
of  primitive  Christianity,  for  we  do  not  at  all 
know  the  steps  of  the  development  of  the  old 
Christianity  in  the  empire  to  Catholic  Chris- 
tianity in  regard  to  most  of  the  provinces,  and  in 
regard  to  none  fully  ;  while  we  liave  good  grounds 
for  believing,  that  in  many  provinces  primitive 
customs  long  maintained  their  sway,  and  were 
done  away  at  last  by  a  stroke. 

Having  set  the  limits  for  the  "  Teaching  "  be- 
tween A.D.  70  and  165,  we  ask.  Is  there  any  thing 
to  prove  that  it  must  have  been  written  after  some 
Christian  generations  had  passed?  With  the 
greatest  probability  in  our  favor  we  say,  Yes,  these 
facts  ;  (1)  Apostles  and  prophets  no  longer  occupy 
their  primitive  position,  hence  the  strongest  con- 
servative measures  are  enjoined ;  (2)  the  respect 
for  the  prophets  is  declining,  hence  the  exorbi- 
tant demands  on  the  church  and  the  violent 
threats;  (3)  the  mistrust  of  the  "old  prophets," 
who  belong  to  a  past  generation,  —  these  are  not 
the  Old-Testament  but  older  Christian  prophets ; 

(4)  the  present  text  shows  in  the  "  Two  Ways  " 
of  chap.  1  certain  lowerings  of  evangelical  de- 
mauds,  and  in  the  appendix  to  the  same,  in  chap, 
ti,  a  contra.st  between  a  higher  and  a  lower  Chris- 
tian morality  ;  (5)  the  injunction  of  the  first  fruits, 
fixed  prayers,  and  of  fasts,  which  in  Gentile  Chris- 


tian lands  is  the  indication  of  a  later  time,  and 
the  beginning  of  a  development  which  afterwards 
assumed  larger  dimensions;  (6)  the  remark  of  the 
autlior  that  bi.shops  and  deacons  "  minister  to  you 
the  ministry  of  the  prophets  and  teachers :  there- 
fore despise  them  not,  for  they  are  those  that  are 
the  honored  among  you  with  tiie  prophets  and 
teachers"  (chap.  15 : 1, 2),  cannot  apply  to  the  prim- 
itive state  of  things ;  (7)  the  regulation  of  fasting 
before  baptism,  and  permission  to  pour;  (8)  the 
escluitological  closing  section  has  not  (he  glow 
which  the  prayers  copied  have,  and  lacks  the 
description  of  the  glorious  kingdom  of  Christ 
upon  the  earth.  These  observations  aie  strength- 
ened by  noticing  the  author's  u.se  of  our  Matthew 
and  perhaps  our  Luke,  and  in  a  comparatively 
late  form  too ;  and  the  relation  of  the  "  Teaching  " 
to  Barnabas,  which  cannot,  liowever,  be  more 
exactly  dated  than  between  A.D.  96-125.  All 
these  considerations  show  that  the  writing  cannot 
be  set  earlier  than  A.D.  120  with  certainty,  or  ear- 
lier than  A.D.  100  with  any  probability,  but  that 
the  probable  limits  are  A.D.  120  and  165,  and  in 
this  space  the  earlier  dates  are  in  most  cases  freer 
from  difficulty  than  the  later. 

The  place  of  composition  was  probably  Egypt, 
as  its  external  history,  the  source,  and  various  in- 
dications (e.g.,  the  omission  of  (iaaAtia  in  the 
doxology  to  the  Lord's  Prayer,  which  is  also  lack- 
ing in  the  Sahidic  version  of  Matthew,  — also,  it  is 
true,  in  Gregory  of  Nyssa),  —  seem  to  prove.  'I'he 
arguments  for  Syria,  derived  from  mention  of  the 
bread  "upon  the  hills"  (chap.  9:4),  and  from 
the  adoption  of  the  "  Teaching  "  into  the  "  Apo.s- 
tolical  Constitutions,"  are  not  decisive;  for  the 
mention  occurs  in  a  prayer  most  probably  copied 
by  the  author,  and  the  Syrian  forger  had  the 
library  of  Eusebius  at  his  command. 

8.  Histoi'i/  in  the  Cliiuc/i.  Jtecensions.  —  The  first 
part,  called  "The  Two  Ways,"  wasof  Jewi.sh  ori- 
gin, and  was  a  catechism  for  the  n.se  of  proselytes; 
but  passed  over  into  the  Christian  Church,  and  was 
used  as  an  address  at  baptism.  The  author  of 
the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  incorporated  this  writing 
into  his.  Another  unknown  Christian  described 
this  Jewish  instruction-book  as  the  "  Teaching  of 
the  Apostles,"  and  added  chaps.  7-)  6.  This  edi- 
tion is  now  lost.  The  present  one,  the  Didaclic 
of  the  Constantinopolitan  MS.,  has  inserted,  in 
order  to  give  evangelical  coloring  to  the  Jewish 
original,  chap.  1:3-2:1.  The  following  table 
brings  out  the  genesis  of  the  "  Teaching:  "  — 

THE  JEWISH  "TWO   WAYS." 

(IN   VARIOfS    FORMS.)  ,( 

I      ■' 


Barnabas. 


The  first  rcce  iiBtoa  of  the 
''  Teaching  of    the  Apostles." 


The  Latin 
Tersiou. 


The  Apostolical 
CaDona. 


The  Be  cond 

recen  sioH 

of    the 

"  Teac  hini: 

of     • 

Apos  t 


the 

ties." 


The  Apostolical 

ConstitutiOQS, 

CVII. 


The  Witnesses.  —  Before  Clemens  Alexandrinus 
no  use  of  the  "Teaching"  can  be  proved.  Ou 
the  other  hand,  Clemens  employs   it  in  several 


THE   DIDACHfi. 


places,  and  in  one  (Strom.  1 :  100)  actually  calls 
it  [holy]  "Scripture."  Evidences  of  its  use  have 
been  found  in  Origen,  who  also  called  it  "Holy 
Scripture."  This  accounts  for  Eusebius'  enumer- 
ation of  it  among  the  avn^sydixcva-mda.  It  is  also 
reproduced  in  part  in  the  Syntagma  doctrina  and 
iu  the  Fides  Niccena,  attributed  to  Athanasius. 
It  was  probably  worked  up  in  the  "Apostolical 
Canons,"  and  surely  in  the  "  Apostolical  Consti- 
tutions," and  in  "the  false  Ignatian  Epistles. 
Athanasius  in  his  thirty-ninth  Jubilee  Epistle  — 
written  in  A.D.  387 — mentions  it,  as  does  Ni- 
cephorus  in  his  "Stichometry."  In  the  Occi- 
dental Church  there  is  no  mention  before  Cyprian. 
It  is,  however,  cited  in  the  pseudo  -  Cyprian 
writing,  "  De  aleatoribus "  of  the  third  century, 
in  the  "  Exhortatio  S.  Bonifacii  Episcopi  de 
Abrenuntiatione  in  Baptismate  ;  "  in  Lactantius, 
and  in  Rufinus'  translation  of  Eusebius'  Church 
History. 

9.  Importance.  —  From  chap.  7  to  the  end  it  is 
a  source  of  the  first  rank  for  the  points  it  covers, 
—  Baptism,  Fasts,  Prayers,  the  Eucharist,  Apos- 
tles, Prophets,  Teachers,  Sunday,  the  Episcopate 
and  Diaconate.  But  its  greatest  importauce  lies 
in  the  fact  that  it  enables  us  so  much  better  to 
understand  the  organization  of  the  earliest  Chris- 
tian churches,  where  the  interest  of  early  Chris- 
tianity lay,  and  how  it  became  the  heir  of  Judaism 
in  literary  respects. 


10.  Literature.  —  Aii5o;tv  '■""  <'<ji5eKq  anoBToWuv  ix 
Toil  iepoaoXvfUTiKoi  ;ffipoj'pd^ou  vvv  itpurov  ludiiojiivri 
.  ,  .  VTtb  ^iXoBiov  Bpvtvviov  /xcrpOTToXlTov  NtKO- 
fitlSciac.  'Ev  KuvaravTivovno^ei.  1883.  [This  was 
the  first  edition,  and  it  is  provided  with  prole- 
gomena and  notes,  etc.]  Harnack:  Die  Lehre 
der  zifolf  Apostel  nebst  Untersuchungen  zur  altesten 
Geschichte  der  Kirchenverfassung  und  des  Kirchen- 
rechts,  Leipzig,  1884;  Hitchcock  and  Brown: 
Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles  (translation  and 
brief  notes).  New  York  1884,  new  edition,  revised 
and  oreatly  enlarged,  1885 ;  Sabatier  :  La  Di- 
dache,  Paris,  1885  (the  most  thorough  French  edi- 
tion) ;  ScHAFF  :  The  Oldest  Church  Manual,  called 
the  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  New  York, 
1885  (contains  the  complete  literature  on  the  sub- 
ject diligently  collected  and  briefly  criticised,  mak- 
ing it  a  very  thankworthy  and  exceedingly  careful 
work),  2d  ed.  of  this  most  important  and  com- 
prehensive work  upon  the  subject  in  the  English 
language,  1886;  C.  Taylor:  The  Teaching  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles,  tvith  illustrations  from  the  Talmud, 
Cambridge,  1886 ;  articles  byMcGiFFERT(.i4n(/o!'er 
i?eyie;«,  April,  1886);  WARFiELD(Bi6.  5acra,  Janu- 
ary, 1886,  on  "  The  Two  Ways,"  a  very  thorough 
piece  of  work;  Andover  Review,  July,  1886.  [See 
also  Warfield  in  the  "Journal  of  the  Society  of 
Biblical  Lit.  and  Exegesis,"  June,  1886,  Notes  on 
the  Didache.  For  further  literature,  see  Schaff, 
2ded.,pp.  140-158,297-306.]  ADOLF  HARNACK. 


university  of  California 
cr.i.THFRN  REGI0t4AL  LIBRARY  FACILII  T 
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